text string | id string | dump string | url string | file_path string | language string | language_score float64 | token_count int64 | score float64 | int_score int64 | embedding list | count int64 | Content string | Tokens int64 | Top_Lang string | Top_Conf float64 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Set in the Prussian occupied part of France, this story highlights the virtues of culture, language, and nationalism. It reiterates the fact that unless people learn and preserve their own culture and language, they cannot stop it from being erased and dominated by other cultures and languages.
Franz – A Lazy Boy
The story is centered on a young energetic boy named Franz. Like other kids his age, Franz loves to play and have fun outside with his friends and is often lazy in completing his school tasks.
One such morning, Franz is scampering to his school with a feeling of dread in his heart. He knows that he did not memorize his homework and fears a scolding from his French teacher Mr. Hamel in the classroom.
On his journey, he observes Prussian soldiers doing their regular morning drills and exercises which has a huge impact on the French locals who stay intimidated by this display of military strength and muscle. He soon comes across a crowd that is surrounding the village’s notice board.
Massive Gathering at School
He is surprised by such a massive gathering but decides to refrain from peeking at the notice board in order to reach his school in time. He eventually opens the school gate only to find it in eerie silence.
Normally, the schoolyard is bustling with noise and action but all seems dormant and quiet that morning. He enters the class and expects to be punished by Mr. Hamel for being late.
Much to his astonishment, the teacher is very understanding and only nods him to take his seat. However, this is not the only surprise that is in store for Franz. He observes the village elders are also gathered inside the classroom and the whole atmosphere is of sadness and trepidation.
He stares at his teacher who is dressed immaculately as if it was a special day and his confusion intensifies. To end the suspense, Mr. Hamel finally drops the hammer and declares that he will not be taking any more French language lessons from that day onwards.
An End to French Lessons
The teacher explains that the colonial authorities have decided to put an end to French lessons in school in order to clamp down on French people and culture. Suddenly, Franz realizes the subject of interest near the village notice board.
It also dawns on him the error of his ways and the neglect he has always shown towards his studies especially his mother tongue. However, his thoughts are interrupted when Mr. Hamel orders him to show the class his homework.
Regretting his failure to complete his task, he fears the worst but his teacher does not punish him. Instead, Mr. Hamel uses the time to emphasize a very important lesson.
His Suggestions to People
He informs the people that it is their ignorance and neglect of their own language and culture that has led to their suppression by a foreign army, culture, and people. He asks them to take pride in their own language and help preserve it.
He encourages them to protect their identity and take pride in doing so. Franz is also repentant about his lack of care in his studies. He remembers all the moments he wasted on frivolous activities etc.
Mr. Hamel asks them to write their final assignment in French and they also do it with renewed passion and zeal. When the military drills end, they all realize that it was the end of the class for the day and end of their French learning for good, at least at the school.
Mr. Hamel announces the majesty of his culture and language with a triumphantly written ‘long live France’ in his native language. | <urn:uuid:7533e9ca-e735-4afb-8316-ed98ac813e86> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://englishsummary.com/the-last-lesson-summary-alphonse-daudet/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00002.warc.gz | en | 0.98878 | 734 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
0.06297773122787476,
0.6289228796958923,
0.03142840787768364,
-0.27958258986473083,
-0.12604041397571564,
0.021285314112901688,
0.26167619228363037,
0.2988250255584717,
0.04961805045604706,
-0.5611132979393005,
-0.131870836019516,
-0.032921649515628815,
0.14050689339637756,
0.8359514474868... | 2 | Set in the Prussian occupied part of France, this story highlights the virtues of culture, language, and nationalism. It reiterates the fact that unless people learn and preserve their own culture and language, they cannot stop it from being erased and dominated by other cultures and languages.
Franz – A Lazy Boy
The story is centered on a young energetic boy named Franz. Like other kids his age, Franz loves to play and have fun outside with his friends and is often lazy in completing his school tasks.
One such morning, Franz is scampering to his school with a feeling of dread in his heart. He knows that he did not memorize his homework and fears a scolding from his French teacher Mr. Hamel in the classroom.
On his journey, he observes Prussian soldiers doing their regular morning drills and exercises which has a huge impact on the French locals who stay intimidated by this display of military strength and muscle. He soon comes across a crowd that is surrounding the village’s notice board.
Massive Gathering at School
He is surprised by such a massive gathering but decides to refrain from peeking at the notice board in order to reach his school in time. He eventually opens the school gate only to find it in eerie silence.
Normally, the schoolyard is bustling with noise and action but all seems dormant and quiet that morning. He enters the class and expects to be punished by Mr. Hamel for being late.
Much to his astonishment, the teacher is very understanding and only nods him to take his seat. However, this is not the only surprise that is in store for Franz. He observes the village elders are also gathered inside the classroom and the whole atmosphere is of sadness and trepidation.
He stares at his teacher who is dressed immaculately as if it was a special day and his confusion intensifies. To end the suspense, Mr. Hamel finally drops the hammer and declares that he will not be taking any more French language lessons from that day onwards.
An End to French Lessons
The teacher explains that the colonial authorities have decided to put an end to French lessons in school in order to clamp down on French people and culture. Suddenly, Franz realizes the subject of interest near the village notice board.
It also dawns on him the error of his ways and the neglect he has always shown towards his studies especially his mother tongue. However, his thoughts are interrupted when Mr. Hamel orders him to show the class his homework.
Regretting his failure to complete his task, he fears the worst but his teacher does not punish him. Instead, Mr. Hamel uses the time to emphasize a very important lesson.
His Suggestions to People
He informs the people that it is their ignorance and neglect of their own language and culture that has led to their suppression by a foreign army, culture, and people. He asks them to take pride in their own language and help preserve it.
He encourages them to protect their identity and take pride in doing so. Franz is also repentant about his lack of care in his studies. He remembers all the moments he wasted on frivolous activities etc.
Mr. Hamel asks them to write their final assignment in French and they also do it with renewed passion and zeal. When the military drills end, they all realize that it was the end of the class for the day and end of their French learning for good, at least at the school.
Mr. Hamel announces the majesty of his culture and language with a triumphantly written ‘long live France’ in his native language. | 714 | ENGLISH | 1 |
While soldiers fought battles on the ground across No Man’s Land during WWI, others fought from the sea and sky. During WWI the British Royal Navy had superiority and had a significant role to play in defending the UK which is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea and the Irish Sea.
The seas were treacherous, and it was much harder to hide compared to on the land. Around 49,573 naval personnel lost their lives yet only around 14,000 are remembered. One in three of them were underage and the seas were their first experience of being away from home.
Jack Cornwell from Essex was one of those underage boys. He was just 16-years-old when he lost his life during the Battle of Jutland, the largest naval battle of the war. In the events that saw him awarded the VC, his ship the HMS Chester came under heavy attack. German shells tore through the ship leading to sheer panic on board as many lay dead.
But Jack, despite being injured and in pain himself, stuck to his post with a devotion to his duties. German ships continued to fire, landing 17 direct hits on HMS Chester in total. The ship somehow survived but was put out of battle for the remainder of the war. Sadly, Jack did not survive.
George Nicholson Bradford
George was one of the four Bradford brothers known as the “Fighting Bradfords”. The siblings all left their family to fight in WWI. In 1909, George’s actions had already foreshadowed what was to come when he rescued an unconscious boy from a ship.
He was 31 when he volunteered to command a group on an operation to remove German defenders. This was so that concrete-filled warships could be positioned in the harbour as a defence against German U-boats. In order to do this the men had to mount the harbour wall.
Things did not go to plan. The crew experienced heavy fire as their ship, Iris II came alongside a German ship. Large waves were crashing against the harbour making it difficult for them to secure their anchors. George took a chance and lept from an on-board crane, successfully mounting the wall. This enabled him to secure an anchor which allowed his men to follow him. Tragically, from the moment he left the ship he was a clear target and was shot. His actions were reported and he was recognised and awarded the Victoria Cross after his death.
Only the eldest of the four brothers ever returned home from the war.
Geoffrey Saxton White
Somewhat different from the others on this list, Geoffrey Saxton White fought below the waves. He was the commander of British submarine E14. Life on the submarines was not for anyone opposed to tight spaces. Crews remained within the submarine walls for hours at a time.
An explosion had occurred on the E14 vessel after firing at a German ship. This caused the submarine to begin leaking and the air supply quickly ran out.
Geoffrey took the risk of traveling back to the surface. As E14 continued to be fired at, he fought hard to return it to the shore to give his fellow crew a chance of survival. Unwilling to give up the fight, he remained on the deck of E14 before losing his life.
Like those above, his actions were reported by those who survived and he was posthumously granted the VC for his actions.
Overall, men from land, sky, and sea all fought a tough battle. Many who sacrificed themselves to rescue others didn’t get to see the end of the war or its outcome. They gave their lives fighting for what they believed in. On our tours, we remember the men from both sides of the war as we retrace their footsteps, their stories, and their lives. We will remember them. | <urn:uuid:22741503-357d-4118-9f42-1c7ce817c8d7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mercattoursinternational.com/blog-post/3-royal-navy-victoria-cross-recipients | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00152.warc.gz | en | 0.990891 | 779 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
-0.2407016009092331,
0.42245811223983765,
0.17490172386169434,
-0.39767444133758545,
-0.052637599408626556,
-0.1513110250234604,
0.06402316689491272,
0.07450564205646515,
0.010368362069129944,
-0.2952982187271118,
-0.006732387933880091,
-0.40306174755096436,
0.39369940757751465,
0.54017800... | 13 | While soldiers fought battles on the ground across No Man’s Land during WWI, others fought from the sea and sky. During WWI the British Royal Navy had superiority and had a significant role to play in defending the UK which is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea and the Irish Sea.
The seas were treacherous, and it was much harder to hide compared to on the land. Around 49,573 naval personnel lost their lives yet only around 14,000 are remembered. One in three of them were underage and the seas were their first experience of being away from home.
Jack Cornwell from Essex was one of those underage boys. He was just 16-years-old when he lost his life during the Battle of Jutland, the largest naval battle of the war. In the events that saw him awarded the VC, his ship the HMS Chester came under heavy attack. German shells tore through the ship leading to sheer panic on board as many lay dead.
But Jack, despite being injured and in pain himself, stuck to his post with a devotion to his duties. German ships continued to fire, landing 17 direct hits on HMS Chester in total. The ship somehow survived but was put out of battle for the remainder of the war. Sadly, Jack did not survive.
George Nicholson Bradford
George was one of the four Bradford brothers known as the “Fighting Bradfords”. The siblings all left their family to fight in WWI. In 1909, George’s actions had already foreshadowed what was to come when he rescued an unconscious boy from a ship.
He was 31 when he volunteered to command a group on an operation to remove German defenders. This was so that concrete-filled warships could be positioned in the harbour as a defence against German U-boats. In order to do this the men had to mount the harbour wall.
Things did not go to plan. The crew experienced heavy fire as their ship, Iris II came alongside a German ship. Large waves were crashing against the harbour making it difficult for them to secure their anchors. George took a chance and lept from an on-board crane, successfully mounting the wall. This enabled him to secure an anchor which allowed his men to follow him. Tragically, from the moment he left the ship he was a clear target and was shot. His actions were reported and he was recognised and awarded the Victoria Cross after his death.
Only the eldest of the four brothers ever returned home from the war.
Geoffrey Saxton White
Somewhat different from the others on this list, Geoffrey Saxton White fought below the waves. He was the commander of British submarine E14. Life on the submarines was not for anyone opposed to tight spaces. Crews remained within the submarine walls for hours at a time.
An explosion had occurred on the E14 vessel after firing at a German ship. This caused the submarine to begin leaking and the air supply quickly ran out.
Geoffrey took the risk of traveling back to the surface. As E14 continued to be fired at, he fought hard to return it to the shore to give his fellow crew a chance of survival. Unwilling to give up the fight, he remained on the deck of E14 before losing his life.
Like those above, his actions were reported by those who survived and he was posthumously granted the VC for his actions.
Overall, men from land, sky, and sea all fought a tough battle. Many who sacrificed themselves to rescue others didn’t get to see the end of the war or its outcome. They gave their lives fighting for what they believed in. On our tours, we remember the men from both sides of the war as we retrace their footsteps, their stories, and their lives. We will remember them. | 779 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Found 5,999 Learning Lab Collections
The purpose of this project is to gain an understanding of the state of life during the 20s and 30s, seeing the dramatic crash in the economy due to the depression.
What was life like for Americans during the 1920s? How did life change in the 1930s? Did all Americans share the same experiences throughout these two decades?
In the two decades between the end of WWI and the start of WWII life in America changed dramatically. Use the artifacts in this collection to create an exhibit that can help to answer these questions.
What is most important to know about America in the 1920s and 1930s ?
What is the most significant change that took place after the 1929 Stock Market crash?
The artifacts listed under this collection are all an important part of what made the 1920s unique and "radical" compared to the years prior.
The change in woman was a fundamental part of the 1920s as it helped lead the path to how woman act, dress, and are perceived today. This began the path to woman truly becoming and feeling equal to men.
Although they may have first began in the 1890s(the history of film is not clearly defined), the introduction of Motion Pictures/Films/Movies as a popular pastime may have helped shape the USA, through political figures use of four-minutemen, before the film began, to help sway or persuade the citizens to a certain side. Before the popularization of sound films there were primarily silent films, the first know sound film took place in Paris in 1900, but it took a few decades passed before sound films were made practical in a commercial sense.
The 1920s are often referred to as the Jazz Age, as this was a period of time in which jazz music and dance styles rapidly gained nationwide popularity in the USA. Jazz music can be seen as a mix of African-American and European-American music. Jazz is characterized by swing and blue notes, call and response vocals, polyrhythms and improvisation; it has roots or ties in West African cultural, musical expression, and traditions, as well as European military band music.
Sports played a big parts in the 1920s, as many American looked to Athletes as role models and drew inspiration from many of them. Many also viewed sports as a fun pastime, if you watch it or play it. In the 1920s, in America, Baseball was seen as the "national pastime.
These are just a few things that help give the 1920s its flamboyant personality.
The purpose of this project is to show the most important details throughout the time of 1920's. My collection provides insight controversial idea's such as Scopes Trial, to movement towards equality both for woman and African Americans. Lastly the collectoin is also inclusive of important technological advances such as cars, revolutionary ideas such as "Buy Now, Pay Later", cultural movements, and even prominent figures during that time. | <urn:uuid:4666cd42-6557-4549-9f90-b756ce4ceaf1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://learninglab.si.edu/search?page=245&s=title_desc&item_type=collections | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00262.warc.gz | en | 0.981339 | 604 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
-0.13004791736602783,
0.18630874156951904,
0.22865593433380127,
-0.2578977048397064,
-0.0423390194773674,
0.3446374237537384,
-0.1073131188750267,
0.08530385792255402,
-0.028605462983250618,
-0.20635484158992767,
0.5751086473464966,
0.36579465866088867,
0.11561121046543121,
0.1907854676246... | 1 | Found 5,999 Learning Lab Collections
The purpose of this project is to gain an understanding of the state of life during the 20s and 30s, seeing the dramatic crash in the economy due to the depression.
What was life like for Americans during the 1920s? How did life change in the 1930s? Did all Americans share the same experiences throughout these two decades?
In the two decades between the end of WWI and the start of WWII life in America changed dramatically. Use the artifacts in this collection to create an exhibit that can help to answer these questions.
What is most important to know about America in the 1920s and 1930s ?
What is the most significant change that took place after the 1929 Stock Market crash?
The artifacts listed under this collection are all an important part of what made the 1920s unique and "radical" compared to the years prior.
The change in woman was a fundamental part of the 1920s as it helped lead the path to how woman act, dress, and are perceived today. This began the path to woman truly becoming and feeling equal to men.
Although they may have first began in the 1890s(the history of film is not clearly defined), the introduction of Motion Pictures/Films/Movies as a popular pastime may have helped shape the USA, through political figures use of four-minutemen, before the film began, to help sway or persuade the citizens to a certain side. Before the popularization of sound films there were primarily silent films, the first know sound film took place in Paris in 1900, but it took a few decades passed before sound films were made practical in a commercial sense.
The 1920s are often referred to as the Jazz Age, as this was a period of time in which jazz music and dance styles rapidly gained nationwide popularity in the USA. Jazz music can be seen as a mix of African-American and European-American music. Jazz is characterized by swing and blue notes, call and response vocals, polyrhythms and improvisation; it has roots or ties in West African cultural, musical expression, and traditions, as well as European military band music.
Sports played a big parts in the 1920s, as many American looked to Athletes as role models and drew inspiration from many of them. Many also viewed sports as a fun pastime, if you watch it or play it. In the 1920s, in America, Baseball was seen as the "national pastime.
These are just a few things that help give the 1920s its flamboyant personality.
The purpose of this project is to show the most important details throughout the time of 1920's. My collection provides insight controversial idea's such as Scopes Trial, to movement towards equality both for woman and African Americans. Lastly the collectoin is also inclusive of important technological advances such as cars, revolutionary ideas such as "Buy Now, Pay Later", cultural movements, and even prominent figures during that time. | 651 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Sage Veda Vyasa decided to compose the Mahabharata. He thought he would dictate the epic and someone could write it down. But who would write down the great epic? After a careful search, Veda Vyasa selected Ganesha, Lord of Wisdom.
“Only you are capable of writing down the epic as I recite it, My Lord,” said Vyasa.
Ganesha readily agreed to Vyasa’s request. “But I have a condition,” he said. “You have to dictate the epic to me non-stop. The moment you stop, I’ll also stop and go away.”
Veda Vyasa agreed to the condition and the long dictation began. It was the longest dictation ever known. Ten million verses were recited by Vyasa which Ganesha wrote down. That’s why there is no comma to show a pause in the Mahabharata Veda Vyasa dictated. Vyasa did not stop after completing a sentence either. But Ganesha knew when the sentence ended, and marked it quickly with a stop to move on to the next sentence.
Sage Veda Vyasa was an old man. Continuous dictation tired him. Sometimes, he desperately needed a break. At such times, he would use a difficult bunch of words. Even Ganesha found them difficult. As Ganesha scratched his head, the old sage would take a deep breath and quickly gulp some water to regain strength. He would be ready with the next line by the time Ganesha figured out the meaning and wrote down the words.
That is why they say, we come across difficult passages occasionally in the Mahabharata, which is otherwise simple. These passages are known as Vyasa’s breaks. | <urn:uuid:09476d8a-8d34-49a8-b527-ffba14c8e3fb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://kathakids.com/mythology/who-wrote-the-mahabharat/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00162.warc.gz | en | 0.981022 | 386 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
-0.4024970829486847,
-0.062035828828811646,
0.04908839985728264,
-0.18742899596691132,
-0.29539045691490173,
0.01444088201969862,
0.21102912724018097,
-0.04938001558184624,
0.11280602961778641,
-0.32738497853279114,
0.10839136689901352,
0.04593205824494362,
0.26695147156715393,
0.294986814... | 14 | Sage Veda Vyasa decided to compose the Mahabharata. He thought he would dictate the epic and someone could write it down. But who would write down the great epic? After a careful search, Veda Vyasa selected Ganesha, Lord of Wisdom.
“Only you are capable of writing down the epic as I recite it, My Lord,” said Vyasa.
Ganesha readily agreed to Vyasa’s request. “But I have a condition,” he said. “You have to dictate the epic to me non-stop. The moment you stop, I’ll also stop and go away.”
Veda Vyasa agreed to the condition and the long dictation began. It was the longest dictation ever known. Ten million verses were recited by Vyasa which Ganesha wrote down. That’s why there is no comma to show a pause in the Mahabharata Veda Vyasa dictated. Vyasa did not stop after completing a sentence either. But Ganesha knew when the sentence ended, and marked it quickly with a stop to move on to the next sentence.
Sage Veda Vyasa was an old man. Continuous dictation tired him. Sometimes, he desperately needed a break. At such times, he would use a difficult bunch of words. Even Ganesha found them difficult. As Ganesha scratched his head, the old sage would take a deep breath and quickly gulp some water to regain strength. He would be ready with the next line by the time Ganesha figured out the meaning and wrote down the words.
That is why they say, we come across difficult passages occasionally in the Mahabharata, which is otherwise simple. These passages are known as Vyasa’s breaks. | 353 | ENGLISH | 1 |
St. Gregory the Great
St. Gregory the Great
Born: c. 540 Died: March 12, 604
GREGORY was a Roman of noble birth, and while still young was governor of Rome. On his father’s death he gave his great wealth to the poor, turned his house on the Cœlian Hill into a monastery, which now bears his name, and for some years lived as a perfect monk. The Pope drew him from his seclusion to make him one of the seven deacons of Rome; and he did great service to the Church for many years as what we now call Nuncio to the Imperial court at Constantinople. While still a monk the saint was struck with some boys who were exposed for sale in Rome, and heard with sorrow that they were pagans. “And of what race are they?” he asked. “They are Angles.” “Worthy indeed to be Angels of God,” said he. “And of what province?” “Of Deira,” was the reply. “Truly must we rescue them from the wrath of God. And what is the name of their king?” “He is called Ella.” “It is well,” said Gregory; “Alleluia must be sung in their land to God.” He at once got leave from the Pope, and had set out to convert the English when the murmurs of the people led the Pope to recall him. Still the Angles were not forgotten, and one of the Saint’s first cares as Pope was to send from his own monastery St. Augustine and other monks to England. On the death of Pope Pelagius II., Gregory was compelled to take the government of the Church, and for fourteen years his pontificate was a perfect model of ecclesiastical rule. He healed schisms; revived discipline; saved Italy by converting the wild Arian Lombards who were laying it waste; aided in the conversion of the Spanish and French Goths, who were also Arians; and kindled anew in Britain the light of the Faith, which the English had put out in blood. He set in order the Church’s prayers and chant, guided and consoled her pastors with innumerable letters, and preached incessantly, most effectually by his own example. He died A. D. 604, worn out by austerities and toils; and the Church reckons him one of her four great doctors, and reveres him as St. Gregory the Great.
Reflection.—The champions of faith prove the truth of their teaching no less by the holiness of their lives than by the force of their arguments. Never forget that to con Pert others you must first see to your own soul.
Source: Lives of the Saints, by Alban Butler, Benziger Bros. ed. | <urn:uuid:bc2e67cf-fc7d-4c91-8e4d-f101902d2d3a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://catholicnctv.com/saints/march-12-st-gregory-the-great/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00493.warc.gz | en | 0.990853 | 601 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
-0.039095260202884674,
-0.10149085521697998,
0.1689227819442749,
-0.013171907514333725,
-0.1254083216190338,
-0.3775959312915802,
0.16923046112060547,
0.10310918837785721,
-0.1771341860294342,
0.1880219578742981,
-0.3798016905784607,
-0.06994891166687012,
0.41935163736343384,
0.39483970403... | 1 | St. Gregory the Great
St. Gregory the Great
Born: c. 540 Died: March 12, 604
GREGORY was a Roman of noble birth, and while still young was governor of Rome. On his father’s death he gave his great wealth to the poor, turned his house on the Cœlian Hill into a monastery, which now bears his name, and for some years lived as a perfect monk. The Pope drew him from his seclusion to make him one of the seven deacons of Rome; and he did great service to the Church for many years as what we now call Nuncio to the Imperial court at Constantinople. While still a monk the saint was struck with some boys who were exposed for sale in Rome, and heard with sorrow that they were pagans. “And of what race are they?” he asked. “They are Angles.” “Worthy indeed to be Angels of God,” said he. “And of what province?” “Of Deira,” was the reply. “Truly must we rescue them from the wrath of God. And what is the name of their king?” “He is called Ella.” “It is well,” said Gregory; “Alleluia must be sung in their land to God.” He at once got leave from the Pope, and had set out to convert the English when the murmurs of the people led the Pope to recall him. Still the Angles were not forgotten, and one of the Saint’s first cares as Pope was to send from his own monastery St. Augustine and other monks to England. On the death of Pope Pelagius II., Gregory was compelled to take the government of the Church, and for fourteen years his pontificate was a perfect model of ecclesiastical rule. He healed schisms; revived discipline; saved Italy by converting the wild Arian Lombards who were laying it waste; aided in the conversion of the Spanish and French Goths, who were also Arians; and kindled anew in Britain the light of the Faith, which the English had put out in blood. He set in order the Church’s prayers and chant, guided and consoled her pastors with innumerable letters, and preached incessantly, most effectually by his own example. He died A. D. 604, worn out by austerities and toils; and the Church reckons him one of her four great doctors, and reveres him as St. Gregory the Great.
Reflection.—The champions of faith prove the truth of their teaching no less by the holiness of their lives than by the force of their arguments. Never forget that to con Pert others you must first see to your own soul.
Source: Lives of the Saints, by Alban Butler, Benziger Bros. ed. | 574 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Throughout the short story, The Yellow Wallpaper by Charlotte Perkins Gilman, we see a woman handicapped by depression and mental illness. We see how the narrator and John interact as husband and wife and as doctor and patient. From the surface, it seems as if John is a kind-hearted man wanting what is best for his wife, and willing to do whatever it takes to make her better again. But as the reader looks closer and the story progresses, John becomes more of a handicap to his wife than the illness itself. Gilman uses John's detriment to Charlotte as a way to describe the gender roles, professional and medial, in the nineteenth century. She uses this parallelism as a way to break the patriarchal society's oppression on women and the idea of women's only role being in the household.
John is a controlling man, believing he knows everything that is good for his wife. The narrator talks about how she "has a schedule prescription for each hour in the day; he takes all care from me," this shows that John controls her every minute. He sets a time for her rest, her exercise, when she will eat, when she can read; he plans it all out for her (Gilman 4). This complete control parallels to the male population's idea that women of the time could not make wise simple decisions for themselves. Gilman takes John's schedule for Charlotte and uses it to represent men's desire for control over women as a way to help them with their mental fragility. Men of the time made the false assumption that women were unable to handle simple daily tasks. John believed his precise agenda for his wife would remove any unneeded stress on her by planning all her moves for her. This strict timeline shows her slow removal of choice over her life enforced by her husband's doing. We see the long term effects when she begins to speak of her inability to think clearly for herself anymore. This action by John had good intentions, but was essentially degrading to Charlotte's freedom and well being, much like the other women of the time.
Her husband treats her like she is incompetent, almost like a child. When the narrator got tired, "dear John gathered [her] up in his arms, and just carried [her] upstairs and laid [her] on the bed," showing how he believes she can't do anything for herself (Gilman 6). Like when a child falls asleep on the couch, and the parent takes it to their room, so John does the same thing for his wife. Many times, John restricted his wife on the physical movements she could complete. As her doctor, he insisted she not strain herself with unneeded tasks. She was no longer allowed to preform her passion of writing, take walks in the garden, or be with her newborn son for too long. Activities that gave her joy were no longer acceptable to John's standards. This all knowing attitude of male roles over women show to be ways of restriction on the female capacity in a society dominated by men.
Specifically looking at John's removal of Charlotte's writing, we see the... | <urn:uuid:60b6d8a4-dccc-4f52-b5c0-2d819cef226b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/is-john-a-good-spouse | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00461.warc.gz | en | 0.983301 | 625 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
-0.24635601043701172,
0.6533148884773254,
0.24022948741912842,
0.49530139565467834,
-0.336275577545166,
0.44149070978164673,
0.2986101806163788,
0.20053669810295105,
0.26065880060195923,
-0.05099048465490341,
-0.04051157832145691,
0.31868118047714233,
0.2415170669555664,
0.2163166701793670... | 1 | Throughout the short story, The Yellow Wallpaper by Charlotte Perkins Gilman, we see a woman handicapped by depression and mental illness. We see how the narrator and John interact as husband and wife and as doctor and patient. From the surface, it seems as if John is a kind-hearted man wanting what is best for his wife, and willing to do whatever it takes to make her better again. But as the reader looks closer and the story progresses, John becomes more of a handicap to his wife than the illness itself. Gilman uses John's detriment to Charlotte as a way to describe the gender roles, professional and medial, in the nineteenth century. She uses this parallelism as a way to break the patriarchal society's oppression on women and the idea of women's only role being in the household.
John is a controlling man, believing he knows everything that is good for his wife. The narrator talks about how she "has a schedule prescription for each hour in the day; he takes all care from me," this shows that John controls her every minute. He sets a time for her rest, her exercise, when she will eat, when she can read; he plans it all out for her (Gilman 4). This complete control parallels to the male population's idea that women of the time could not make wise simple decisions for themselves. Gilman takes John's schedule for Charlotte and uses it to represent men's desire for control over women as a way to help them with their mental fragility. Men of the time made the false assumption that women were unable to handle simple daily tasks. John believed his precise agenda for his wife would remove any unneeded stress on her by planning all her moves for her. This strict timeline shows her slow removal of choice over her life enforced by her husband's doing. We see the long term effects when she begins to speak of her inability to think clearly for herself anymore. This action by John had good intentions, but was essentially degrading to Charlotte's freedom and well being, much like the other women of the time.
Her husband treats her like she is incompetent, almost like a child. When the narrator got tired, "dear John gathered [her] up in his arms, and just carried [her] upstairs and laid [her] on the bed," showing how he believes she can't do anything for herself (Gilman 6). Like when a child falls asleep on the couch, and the parent takes it to their room, so John does the same thing for his wife. Many times, John restricted his wife on the physical movements she could complete. As her doctor, he insisted she not strain herself with unneeded tasks. She was no longer allowed to preform her passion of writing, take walks in the garden, or be with her newborn son for too long. Activities that gave her joy were no longer acceptable to John's standards. This all knowing attitude of male roles over women show to be ways of restriction on the female capacity in a society dominated by men.
Specifically looking at John's removal of Charlotte's writing, we see the... | 624 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Cotton in Kenya was a huge source of revenue before its slow death two decades ago. Companies were established as early as 1958 such as Thika Cloth Mills so as to produce textiles. Cotton was exported and clothes made from the same sold locally. However, as decades passed by what is left of cotton is the pale shadows of its existent. As early as the 1980s, cotton production had ceased without a chance of redemption. Most farmers lost interest in the crop due to a number of reasons. Pests such as bollworm made it hard to grow cotton.
Bollworm caterpillar is a crop pest present in almost all African countries. The worm causes a toll on agricultural crops in the farms. Its ability to become resistant to the pesticides used is what has led to a loss in most of the agricultural areas. Cotton has not been left out. It is as a result of bollworm infestation that the crop yield reduced as farmers spent a lot in managing it yet the output was low making a majority incur losses.
Market channels were insufficient to support the surplus supply of cotton. A lot of farmers, therefore, incurred losses as their cotton was bought at throwaway prices. This made some farmers venture into more reliable crops such as maize farming for the sake of their livelihoods.
A majority also depended on rainfall to foresee the growth of their cotton. Cotton does well in tropical and sub-tropical areas. Too much morning rain can render the plant sterile. Lack of water can also lead to stunted growth of the crop. Due to climatic changes over the decades, the crop’s yield drastically reduced.
The local market also played part in ‘killing’ the cotton industry as imported textiles continued to flood the country. This contributed to the loss of market and in the long run loss of faith in home-made cotton. Organic cotton was also considered expensive as compared to the imported textiles.
Lack of enough cotton supply finally leads to a majority of deaths of textile industries. Sustainability was hit in various ways.
Loss of jobs for a majority of employees served as a major setback in their livelihoods. Thika Cloth Mills, for example, saw some of its employees laid off. This is because cotton which served as a raw material had drastically reduced and the workload reduced. Manufacturing and textile industries which would have served as a great source of revenue for the country were closed.
Second-hand clothes were welcomed and have taken a toll on the revival of textile industries since then. “Mitumba” created a perception in peoples’ minds that they were affordable, unique and cheap. Therefore, no efforts we placed for a long duration of time to breathe life to the cotton and textile industries.
There is some light at the end of the tunnel, however. An initiative meant to revive the cotton industry was launched in 2017. It noted that the crop was not performing well as before due to factors such as poor quality seeds that are prone to attacks by pests and diseases.
In 2018 as Kenya marked its Mashujaa day the government announced its support to embracing Bacillus Thuringensis (Bt) cotton in order to revive the industry. Bt technology will see cotton get genetically enhanced with genes from Bt bacteria to protect the crop from caterpillar pests and diseases especially the African bollworm.
Bt will see the plant protect itself by producing a protein which tends to cause harm to pests such as the African bollworm. Researchers say that the plant’s characteristic is not affected and that Bt technology is only meant to enhance self-protection mechanisms. Cost of production will reduce as the use of pesticides goes down as well. In addition to that environmental pollution caused by pesticides will reduce human and animal exposure to the pesticides reduced.
Some African countries such as Sudan have already embraced the technology. Areas covered by Bt cotton have increased from 20 acres to more than 120 acres.
The big question
However, one question remains. Is Bt cotton the answer to the revival of cotton industries? Performance trials are currently underway in some parts of Kenya. A lot of effective measures are currently used to gear up positive results. Huge amounts of water, for example, are being drawn to irrigate the cotton fields. One then wonders, given the effects of change in climate will cotton revival yield fruits in the dry areas?
The aim to incorporate Bt cotton also stands in the way of sustainable solutions to ecological agriculture. It may seem like the deal of a century giving economic benefits such as job creation and an increase in revenues. But in terms of sustainability, the government should exhaust all negativities which seem few in the short term but are fatal in the long term. | <urn:uuid:e6691c4c-54ad-437d-92e2-4fdd6566ab36> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://africasustainabilitymatters.com/genetic-cotton-are-we-there-yet/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00419.warc.gz | en | 0.981334 | 965 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
-0.17233172059059143,
0.1361454427242279,
-0.18204504251480103,
0.4334636330604553,
0.752761960029602,
0.1734323501586914,
0.018856853246688843,
0.34305375814437866,
-0.3791040778160095,
0.41191112995147705,
0.2863754630088806,
-0.43593260645866394,
0.4371320605278015,
0.10746748000383377,... | 3 | Cotton in Kenya was a huge source of revenue before its slow death two decades ago. Companies were established as early as 1958 such as Thika Cloth Mills so as to produce textiles. Cotton was exported and clothes made from the same sold locally. However, as decades passed by what is left of cotton is the pale shadows of its existent. As early as the 1980s, cotton production had ceased without a chance of redemption. Most farmers lost interest in the crop due to a number of reasons. Pests such as bollworm made it hard to grow cotton.
Bollworm caterpillar is a crop pest present in almost all African countries. The worm causes a toll on agricultural crops in the farms. Its ability to become resistant to the pesticides used is what has led to a loss in most of the agricultural areas. Cotton has not been left out. It is as a result of bollworm infestation that the crop yield reduced as farmers spent a lot in managing it yet the output was low making a majority incur losses.
Market channels were insufficient to support the surplus supply of cotton. A lot of farmers, therefore, incurred losses as their cotton was bought at throwaway prices. This made some farmers venture into more reliable crops such as maize farming for the sake of their livelihoods.
A majority also depended on rainfall to foresee the growth of their cotton. Cotton does well in tropical and sub-tropical areas. Too much morning rain can render the plant sterile. Lack of water can also lead to stunted growth of the crop. Due to climatic changes over the decades, the crop’s yield drastically reduced.
The local market also played part in ‘killing’ the cotton industry as imported textiles continued to flood the country. This contributed to the loss of market and in the long run loss of faith in home-made cotton. Organic cotton was also considered expensive as compared to the imported textiles.
Lack of enough cotton supply finally leads to a majority of deaths of textile industries. Sustainability was hit in various ways.
Loss of jobs for a majority of employees served as a major setback in their livelihoods. Thika Cloth Mills, for example, saw some of its employees laid off. This is because cotton which served as a raw material had drastically reduced and the workload reduced. Manufacturing and textile industries which would have served as a great source of revenue for the country were closed.
Second-hand clothes were welcomed and have taken a toll on the revival of textile industries since then. “Mitumba” created a perception in peoples’ minds that they were affordable, unique and cheap. Therefore, no efforts we placed for a long duration of time to breathe life to the cotton and textile industries.
There is some light at the end of the tunnel, however. An initiative meant to revive the cotton industry was launched in 2017. It noted that the crop was not performing well as before due to factors such as poor quality seeds that are prone to attacks by pests and diseases.
In 2018 as Kenya marked its Mashujaa day the government announced its support to embracing Bacillus Thuringensis (Bt) cotton in order to revive the industry. Bt technology will see cotton get genetically enhanced with genes from Bt bacteria to protect the crop from caterpillar pests and diseases especially the African bollworm.
Bt will see the plant protect itself by producing a protein which tends to cause harm to pests such as the African bollworm. Researchers say that the plant’s characteristic is not affected and that Bt technology is only meant to enhance self-protection mechanisms. Cost of production will reduce as the use of pesticides goes down as well. In addition to that environmental pollution caused by pesticides will reduce human and animal exposure to the pesticides reduced.
Some African countries such as Sudan have already embraced the technology. Areas covered by Bt cotton have increased from 20 acres to more than 120 acres.
The big question
However, one question remains. Is Bt cotton the answer to the revival of cotton industries? Performance trials are currently underway in some parts of Kenya. A lot of effective measures are currently used to gear up positive results. Huge amounts of water, for example, are being drawn to irrigate the cotton fields. One then wonders, given the effects of change in climate will cotton revival yield fruits in the dry areas?
The aim to incorporate Bt cotton also stands in the way of sustainable solutions to ecological agriculture. It may seem like the deal of a century giving economic benefits such as job creation and an increase in revenues. But in terms of sustainability, the government should exhaust all negativities which seem few in the short term but are fatal in the long term. | 952 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Alexander the Great was one of the most successful rulers in Greek history. Learn more about this much-revered historical figure.
Alexander was a truly remarkable leader with a rare combination of bravery, intellect, imagination and compassion. Here is a brief timeline that traces his life.
356 B.C: Birth and Childhood
Alexander was born in Pella, the capital of ancient Macedonia. His father was King Philip II, who himself was known to be one of the best military commanders of the time. He studied for three years under Aristotle. He was also given the finest education in warfare and politics. It is believed that during the early ages, he considered Achilles as his role model. Records from famous historians say that Aristotle had personally annotated a copy of Homer’s Iliad for Alexander, which he kept with him throughout all his journeys. At the age of 16, he was made Regent of Macedonia while Philip II was fighting the Persians. During this period, he successfully handled an uprising in Thrace, demonstrating the administrative capabilities that later made him one of the greatest rulers ever seen. Alexander’s greatest emotional attachment was to his companion and childhood friend, Hephaestion. True to his admiration for Achilles, Alexander considered his friendship with Hephaestion like Achilles’ friendship with Patroclus. Hephaestion, as his personal bodyguard, later became the commander of Companion cavalry in Alexander’s army. When Alexander was 10, he tamed a horse that refused to be mounted by anyone else. King Philip II, impressed by his son’s bravery and capability, bought the horse as a gift for the young prince. He named the horse Bucephalus and made him his trusted steed during his campaigns.
338 BC: Battle of Chaeronea
At the age of eighteen, Alexander fought alongside his father at the battle of Chaeronea in which Philip II defeated the Athenians and Thebans. He capably controlled the left flank of the Macedonian army.
336 BC: Death of King Philip II
Alexander the great was twenty when his father was assassinated by one of his bodyguards. Legend has it that the assassination was planned by Olympia, Alexander’s mother and Philip’s wife, in an attempt to make Alexander the king.
334 BC: Battle of the Granicus River
The battle was fought between Alexander and Darius III of Persia. The battle of Granicus was the first of three major victories over the Persian Army, the third of which culminated in Darius’ assassination and the end of the Persian Empire.
333 BC: Battle of Issus against Darius
In the battle of Issus, around 30,000 Greeks faced 100,000 Persians across the river Pinarus, near the town of Issus. In this battle, Parmenion led the Greek left while Alexander led the right, which held the Macedonian cavalry. This battle once again proved Alexander’s tactical brilliance.
332 BC: The Siege of Tyre
The city of Tyre was renowned to be almost impregnable owing to its location, with mammoth surrounding walls, a fortified harbor and water all around. The citizens of Tyre fought desperately till the end and after a seven-month siege, Alexander the Great conquered Tyre.
331 BC: Foundation of Alexandria
Alexander founded over 20 cities by the name of Alexandria. Most of them were east of the Persian empire, but the first was founded in Egypt. The various Alexandrias were situated on important trade routes, or crucial defensive locations. Several years after his death, many Alexandrias were flourishing, housing Greek as well as native population. Several, including the first, Egyptian Alexandria, Iskandariya in Iraq, Kandahar (shortened from Iskandahar) in Afghanistan are still major cities.
331 BC: Battle of Gaugamela
The battle of Gaugamela, fought between Alexander and Darius III, was also a remarkable one. Gaugamela was located in northern Iraq, near present-day Arbil. On the open plains, Darius deployed the full force of his 100,000 soldiers. With an army of just 47,000, he attacked the center of the Persian formation. Relying on cavalry to protect his flanks, Alexander attacked Darius’ position and won the battle of Gaugamela.
Before the battle, Darius offered Alexander half of his empire in return for his promise that he would no longer attack the Persian empire. Parmenion, one of Alexander’s generals, thought it best to accept this generous offer, and told his commander that if he, Parmenion, were Alexander, he would take up Darius’ offer. Alexander dismissed the offer without deliberation and retorted that he would, indeed, take up Darius’ offer if he was Parmenion.
327 BC: Marriage to Roxana
Alexander married Roxana, who was the daughter of a Bactrian named Oxyartes of Balkh in Bactria. Roxana was 16 at the time of the marriage, and accompanied him on his Indian campaign.
326 BC: Battle of the Hydaspes River
Alexander crossed the Indus river and fought an epic battle against the local ruler, Porus, who ruled the region of Punjab. This battle is known as the Battle of Hydaspes. It is believed that after the battle, Alexander was greatly impressed by Porus and therefore made an alliance with him, letting him continue his reign over the northwest regions of India (Then called Bharat). Alexander lost his horse, Bucephalus, in this battle and hence named one of the two new cities that he founded as Bucephala, in honor of his beloved horse. Alexander did not cross the Hyphasis river (modern-day Beas), since his soldiers were fatigued and homesick. Thus, the Hyphasis marks the eastern extent of his campaigns.
324 BC: Troops Mutiny at Opis
On his way back to Macedon, Alexander executed several non-compliant military generals and satraps to set an example. At Susa, he took Stateira II, the daughter of King Darius, as another wife. Alexander also paid off the debts of his soldiers, and announced that he would send the aged and disabled veterans back to Macedonia. However, this move was misinterpreted by his troops, who mutinied in the town of Opis, refusing to be sent back. Alexander also came under criticism for his adoption of Persian customs and introduction of Persian officers and soldiers into Macedonian units.
323 B.C: Death
On 10 June 323 BC, Alexander the Great died in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon, one month short of turning 33. The reason for his death is still unknown and varying theories have been proposed for the same. The popular ones include poisoning by the sons of Antipater, a Macedonian general, a sickness following his excessive alcohol consumption or a relapse of the malaria he had contracted in 336 BC. It is believed that when Alexander was on his deathbed, his marshals asked him to whom he bequeathed his kingdom, to which he replied “Toi kratistoi”, which means ‘To the strongest’. However, according to Plutarch, his historian, the king was speechless by this point and couldn’t have spoken the words. Alexander died without an heir; his son was born after his death. Hence, his half-brother, Philip Arrhidaeus inherited the empire.
It is never possible to fathom the entire life of a historical figure within limited times and resources. There exists extensive historical documentation by notable historians that would shed more light on the life of the legendary commander and allow in-depth exploration, should anyone want to dig deeper into the Great’s life. | <urn:uuid:175d199f-7027-49b8-bfec-1476412950f9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historyplex.com/alexander-great-timeline | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00161.warc.gz | en | 0.98586 | 1,618 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
-0.041266828775405884,
0.5683858394622803,
0.4429664611816406,
-0.12988236546516418,
-0.7338851690292358,
-0.753852128982544,
0.29839593172073364,
0.6893349885940552,
-0.18487422168254852,
-0.08530234545469284,
-0.20450037717819214,
-0.43634799122810364,
0.05486343055963516,
0.186619013547... | 7 | Alexander the Great was one of the most successful rulers in Greek history. Learn more about this much-revered historical figure.
Alexander was a truly remarkable leader with a rare combination of bravery, intellect, imagination and compassion. Here is a brief timeline that traces his life.
356 B.C: Birth and Childhood
Alexander was born in Pella, the capital of ancient Macedonia. His father was King Philip II, who himself was known to be one of the best military commanders of the time. He studied for three years under Aristotle. He was also given the finest education in warfare and politics. It is believed that during the early ages, he considered Achilles as his role model. Records from famous historians say that Aristotle had personally annotated a copy of Homer’s Iliad for Alexander, which he kept with him throughout all his journeys. At the age of 16, he was made Regent of Macedonia while Philip II was fighting the Persians. During this period, he successfully handled an uprising in Thrace, demonstrating the administrative capabilities that later made him one of the greatest rulers ever seen. Alexander’s greatest emotional attachment was to his companion and childhood friend, Hephaestion. True to his admiration for Achilles, Alexander considered his friendship with Hephaestion like Achilles’ friendship with Patroclus. Hephaestion, as his personal bodyguard, later became the commander of Companion cavalry in Alexander’s army. When Alexander was 10, he tamed a horse that refused to be mounted by anyone else. King Philip II, impressed by his son’s bravery and capability, bought the horse as a gift for the young prince. He named the horse Bucephalus and made him his trusted steed during his campaigns.
338 BC: Battle of Chaeronea
At the age of eighteen, Alexander fought alongside his father at the battle of Chaeronea in which Philip II defeated the Athenians and Thebans. He capably controlled the left flank of the Macedonian army.
336 BC: Death of King Philip II
Alexander the great was twenty when his father was assassinated by one of his bodyguards. Legend has it that the assassination was planned by Olympia, Alexander’s mother and Philip’s wife, in an attempt to make Alexander the king.
334 BC: Battle of the Granicus River
The battle was fought between Alexander and Darius III of Persia. The battle of Granicus was the first of three major victories over the Persian Army, the third of which culminated in Darius’ assassination and the end of the Persian Empire.
333 BC: Battle of Issus against Darius
In the battle of Issus, around 30,000 Greeks faced 100,000 Persians across the river Pinarus, near the town of Issus. In this battle, Parmenion led the Greek left while Alexander led the right, which held the Macedonian cavalry. This battle once again proved Alexander’s tactical brilliance.
332 BC: The Siege of Tyre
The city of Tyre was renowned to be almost impregnable owing to its location, with mammoth surrounding walls, a fortified harbor and water all around. The citizens of Tyre fought desperately till the end and after a seven-month siege, Alexander the Great conquered Tyre.
331 BC: Foundation of Alexandria
Alexander founded over 20 cities by the name of Alexandria. Most of them were east of the Persian empire, but the first was founded in Egypt. The various Alexandrias were situated on important trade routes, or crucial defensive locations. Several years after his death, many Alexandrias were flourishing, housing Greek as well as native population. Several, including the first, Egyptian Alexandria, Iskandariya in Iraq, Kandahar (shortened from Iskandahar) in Afghanistan are still major cities.
331 BC: Battle of Gaugamela
The battle of Gaugamela, fought between Alexander and Darius III, was also a remarkable one. Gaugamela was located in northern Iraq, near present-day Arbil. On the open plains, Darius deployed the full force of his 100,000 soldiers. With an army of just 47,000, he attacked the center of the Persian formation. Relying on cavalry to protect his flanks, Alexander attacked Darius’ position and won the battle of Gaugamela.
Before the battle, Darius offered Alexander half of his empire in return for his promise that he would no longer attack the Persian empire. Parmenion, one of Alexander’s generals, thought it best to accept this generous offer, and told his commander that if he, Parmenion, were Alexander, he would take up Darius’ offer. Alexander dismissed the offer without deliberation and retorted that he would, indeed, take up Darius’ offer if he was Parmenion.
327 BC: Marriage to Roxana
Alexander married Roxana, who was the daughter of a Bactrian named Oxyartes of Balkh in Bactria. Roxana was 16 at the time of the marriage, and accompanied him on his Indian campaign.
326 BC: Battle of the Hydaspes River
Alexander crossed the Indus river and fought an epic battle against the local ruler, Porus, who ruled the region of Punjab. This battle is known as the Battle of Hydaspes. It is believed that after the battle, Alexander was greatly impressed by Porus and therefore made an alliance with him, letting him continue his reign over the northwest regions of India (Then called Bharat). Alexander lost his horse, Bucephalus, in this battle and hence named one of the two new cities that he founded as Bucephala, in honor of his beloved horse. Alexander did not cross the Hyphasis river (modern-day Beas), since his soldiers were fatigued and homesick. Thus, the Hyphasis marks the eastern extent of his campaigns.
324 BC: Troops Mutiny at Opis
On his way back to Macedon, Alexander executed several non-compliant military generals and satraps to set an example. At Susa, he took Stateira II, the daughter of King Darius, as another wife. Alexander also paid off the debts of his soldiers, and announced that he would send the aged and disabled veterans back to Macedonia. However, this move was misinterpreted by his troops, who mutinied in the town of Opis, refusing to be sent back. Alexander also came under criticism for his adoption of Persian customs and introduction of Persian officers and soldiers into Macedonian units.
323 B.C: Death
On 10 June 323 BC, Alexander the Great died in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon, one month short of turning 33. The reason for his death is still unknown and varying theories have been proposed for the same. The popular ones include poisoning by the sons of Antipater, a Macedonian general, a sickness following his excessive alcohol consumption or a relapse of the malaria he had contracted in 336 BC. It is believed that when Alexander was on his deathbed, his marshals asked him to whom he bequeathed his kingdom, to which he replied “Toi kratistoi”, which means ‘To the strongest’. However, according to Plutarch, his historian, the king was speechless by this point and couldn’t have spoken the words. Alexander died without an heir; his son was born after his death. Hence, his half-brother, Philip Arrhidaeus inherited the empire.
It is never possible to fathom the entire life of a historical figure within limited times and resources. There exists extensive historical documentation by notable historians that would shed more light on the life of the legendary commander and allow in-depth exploration, should anyone want to dig deeper into the Great’s life. | 1,642 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Modern democracy is organized as a representative democracy in which those representing the people are elected to office. Political parties play a crucial role in this. They select the candidates, form or oppose governments, and organize the work of the representatives in parliament. This model of democracy is however being criticized. Parties are hardly trusted and voters have become volatile. How, then, do elected representatives of the people see and fulfil their role? To study this a survey was organized among the members of statewide and sub-state parliaments in fifteen countries. Members of seventy-three parliamentary assemblies were asked how they perceive their representative role, what they do to keep in touch with voters, how they behave and vote in parliament and how they will try to get re-elected. One of the ways in which candidates and elected members of parliament might react to the changing conditions in which they have to represent the people is by stressing more personal characteristics as opposed to the party label and party ideology. Representation might then become more a matter of personal choice.
The results of the survey presented in this book do however confirm quite strongly that representation is very much shaped by the political institutions in which it is performed. Representation differs between countries, between different electoral systems, between statewide and regional parliaments, and depends strongly on the party to which a member of parliament belongs. Representation depends not as much on who the representatives are, as on where they are. | <urn:uuid:7993a97f-ce96-4d2c-9ae7-1e58145be8a1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://shop.relod.ru/catalog-products/representing_the_people/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00240.warc.gz | en | 0.987571 | 286 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
-0.3764391541481018,
0.11526279151439667,
0.3710136115550995,
-0.36421748995780945,
-0.17037451267242432,
0.3915322422981262,
0.40912893414497375,
0.04077455773949623,
0.02122422680258751,
0.017090389505028725,
0.03405792638659477,
0.0185957383364439,
0.1078401729464531,
0.0583061203360557... | 2 | Modern democracy is organized as a representative democracy in which those representing the people are elected to office. Political parties play a crucial role in this. They select the candidates, form or oppose governments, and organize the work of the representatives in parliament. This model of democracy is however being criticized. Parties are hardly trusted and voters have become volatile. How, then, do elected representatives of the people see and fulfil their role? To study this a survey was organized among the members of statewide and sub-state parliaments in fifteen countries. Members of seventy-three parliamentary assemblies were asked how they perceive their representative role, what they do to keep in touch with voters, how they behave and vote in parliament and how they will try to get re-elected. One of the ways in which candidates and elected members of parliament might react to the changing conditions in which they have to represent the people is by stressing more personal characteristics as opposed to the party label and party ideology. Representation might then become more a matter of personal choice.
The results of the survey presented in this book do however confirm quite strongly that representation is very much shaped by the political institutions in which it is performed. Representation differs between countries, between different electoral systems, between statewide and regional parliaments, and depends strongly on the party to which a member of parliament belongs. Representation depends not as much on who the representatives are, as on where they are. | 279 | ENGLISH | 1 |
For our project, our goal was to bring attention to cultural appropriation, which is a societal issue that is seldom addressed. We wanted to help others understand how much they can negatively impact and oppress certain racial groups by ignoring the historical context of and borrowing another’s culture. In order to achieve this goal, we interviewed a sample of UMBC students and asked them 5-6 questions regarding the topic of cultural appropriation. Our interview questions were meant to gauge our interviewees’ feelings and knowledge about the individual effects of cultural appropriation, specifically the appropriation of Black culture. We managed to gather a diverse sample of people with varying amounts of knowledge on the topic in order to successfully create a 7-8 minute video on the prevalence and significance of Black cultural appropriation. Continue reading
Our feminist issue was that of sweatshops in the 1890s. A sweatshop is a working environment that poses 3 major characteristics: long hours, low pay and unsafe or unhealthy working conditions. Many may also have policies that strip workers of their freedom, bathroom breaks and even conversations with fellow workers. We decided to work on this topic because it is one that is not often highlighted. Previously, discourse about women in labor has been brought up however, the poor working conditions that the women faced are often left out. We wanted to bring attention to these conditions and the hardships that many women endured just to make a living.
With regards to the search for information on our topic, we found this step to be difficult when it came down to finding information on this issue in the United States. Sweatshops are not seen as a problem in the U.S. and, although sweatshops can be a main source of income in some countries around the world, it has not been a pressing issue in the U.S.. Because of the time period that we chose to focus on, it was also difficult to find enough information and pictures from that era.
For this topic, what we found to be most important was the significance that the sweatshops held in the 1890s as well as the criticism that the sweatshops received. Sweatshops often served as a critical source of income for many poor women and their families, and an opportunity for women to get involved in the labor force. Despite this, sweatshops were denounced because of the poor working conditions involved. The women that were working in these sweatshops worked long hours from sunrise to sundown, seven days a week, all year round with low wages. Mothers spent more of their time at the factory than at home with their family.
We believe that this issue is important and worth researching because the mistreatment of women in these sweatshops and their poor working conditions incited a stream of activism. The treatment of employees and the conditions of the sweatshop ultimately led to boycotts of the employees, which created bad publicity for many companies and forced the owners to move their business/factories out of the United States. Additionally, men helped to resolve some of the issues with sweatshops once they witnessed the conditions of sweatshops for themselves. As a result of the boycotts, bad publicity, and male intervention, work hours were shortened to eight hour days with allotted days off. | <urn:uuid:6c8cce32-5ff5-4a94-a100-dbbaf6bf5bce> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://umbcactivism.wordpress.com/author/laurennrobinson/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00052.warc.gz | en | 0.983371 | 642 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
0.1768205165863037,
0.5806676149368286,
0.33092227578163147,
0.025816315785050392,
0.25661128759384155,
0.25331246852874756,
-0.044761981815099716,
-0.08858160674571991,
-0.24081413447856903,
-0.24304798245429993,
0.29712483286857605,
0.012283331714570522,
-0.055896081030368805,
0.04048068... | 2 | For our project, our goal was to bring attention to cultural appropriation, which is a societal issue that is seldom addressed. We wanted to help others understand how much they can negatively impact and oppress certain racial groups by ignoring the historical context of and borrowing another’s culture. In order to achieve this goal, we interviewed a sample of UMBC students and asked them 5-6 questions regarding the topic of cultural appropriation. Our interview questions were meant to gauge our interviewees’ feelings and knowledge about the individual effects of cultural appropriation, specifically the appropriation of Black culture. We managed to gather a diverse sample of people with varying amounts of knowledge on the topic in order to successfully create a 7-8 minute video on the prevalence and significance of Black cultural appropriation. Continue reading
Our feminist issue was that of sweatshops in the 1890s. A sweatshop is a working environment that poses 3 major characteristics: long hours, low pay and unsafe or unhealthy working conditions. Many may also have policies that strip workers of their freedom, bathroom breaks and even conversations with fellow workers. We decided to work on this topic because it is one that is not often highlighted. Previously, discourse about women in labor has been brought up however, the poor working conditions that the women faced are often left out. We wanted to bring attention to these conditions and the hardships that many women endured just to make a living.
With regards to the search for information on our topic, we found this step to be difficult when it came down to finding information on this issue in the United States. Sweatshops are not seen as a problem in the U.S. and, although sweatshops can be a main source of income in some countries around the world, it has not been a pressing issue in the U.S.. Because of the time period that we chose to focus on, it was also difficult to find enough information and pictures from that era.
For this topic, what we found to be most important was the significance that the sweatshops held in the 1890s as well as the criticism that the sweatshops received. Sweatshops often served as a critical source of income for many poor women and their families, and an opportunity for women to get involved in the labor force. Despite this, sweatshops were denounced because of the poor working conditions involved. The women that were working in these sweatshops worked long hours from sunrise to sundown, seven days a week, all year round with low wages. Mothers spent more of their time at the factory than at home with their family.
We believe that this issue is important and worth researching because the mistreatment of women in these sweatshops and their poor working conditions incited a stream of activism. The treatment of employees and the conditions of the sweatshop ultimately led to boycotts of the employees, which created bad publicity for many companies and forced the owners to move their business/factories out of the United States. Additionally, men helped to resolve some of the issues with sweatshops once they witnessed the conditions of sweatshops for themselves. As a result of the boycotts, bad publicity, and male intervention, work hours were shortened to eight hour days with allotted days off. | 642 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What were the various problems with the Articles of Confederation?The Articles of Confederation was the first system of government in the new country of America.
What were the various problems with the Articles of Confederation?
The Articles of Confederation was the first system of government in the new country of America. After the countless amount of issues born out of being owned by Great Britain, the expectations of the new system were as such: that power would be given through the people, that power would be expressed through a representative of the people, and that the representative was one of the needs and interests of the people. And while that sounds ideal, great almost, it doesn’t work out. The Articles as described in class, were pretty much bad/not good. Where the people were looking for the framework for an actual government, they seemed more like a firm league of friendship. The Articles, founded in 1778 lasted 10 years. Under this system there was no president or judiciary, any decision required a 9 out of 13 votes, so if it came down to 2/3rds there would be no decision made. The Articles allowed the declaration of war, conduct of foreign affairs, treaty creation, but could not tax. But hey two cool positives are that it won them the war and we also gained Ohio! And it was a tremendous disaster by the fact that it did not collect taxes, which was probably because the big debt from the war they had previously won.
No tax means no power, and inadvertently no money either. This became a bigger problem because the newfound America had borrowed money and weapons from the French, and since they were in debt they couldn’t pay the French back. The inability to tax left the founders hands tied; they couldn’t tax so they were unable to address their debt issue. And as the debt intensified, there was a rebellion in Massachusetts kicking off known as “Shays Rebellion.”
PLACE THIS ORDER OR A SIMILAR ORDER WITH NURSING HOMEWORK HELP TODAY AND GET AN AMAZING DISCOUNT | <urn:uuid:8563f3ba-7fa8-4963-b268-a7bb77ed7653> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.nursinghomeworkhelp.com/what-were-the-various-problems-with-the-articles-of-confederationthe-articles-of-confederation-was-the-first-system-of-government-in-the-new-country-of-america/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00320.warc.gz | en | 0.989166 | 421 | 3.625 | 4 | [
-0.25386643409729004,
0.27119770646095276,
0.16385509073734283,
0.46696558594703674,
-0.2133072018623352,
0.1518944948911667,
0.053021449595689774,
0.3362448811531067,
-0.016919298097491264,
0.2304404079914093,
0.3064712584018707,
0.3867819309234619,
0.07887030392885208,
0.4704523384571075... | 2 | What were the various problems with the Articles of Confederation?The Articles of Confederation was the first system of government in the new country of America.
What were the various problems with the Articles of Confederation?
The Articles of Confederation was the first system of government in the new country of America. After the countless amount of issues born out of being owned by Great Britain, the expectations of the new system were as such: that power would be given through the people, that power would be expressed through a representative of the people, and that the representative was one of the needs and interests of the people. And while that sounds ideal, great almost, it doesn’t work out. The Articles as described in class, were pretty much bad/not good. Where the people were looking for the framework for an actual government, they seemed more like a firm league of friendship. The Articles, founded in 1778 lasted 10 years. Under this system there was no president or judiciary, any decision required a 9 out of 13 votes, so if it came down to 2/3rds there would be no decision made. The Articles allowed the declaration of war, conduct of foreign affairs, treaty creation, but could not tax. But hey two cool positives are that it won them the war and we also gained Ohio! And it was a tremendous disaster by the fact that it did not collect taxes, which was probably because the big debt from the war they had previously won.
No tax means no power, and inadvertently no money either. This became a bigger problem because the newfound America had borrowed money and weapons from the French, and since they were in debt they couldn’t pay the French back. The inability to tax left the founders hands tied; they couldn’t tax so they were unable to address their debt issue. And as the debt intensified, there was a rebellion in Massachusetts kicking off known as “Shays Rebellion.”
PLACE THIS ORDER OR A SIMILAR ORDER WITH NURSING HOMEWORK HELP TODAY AND GET AN AMAZING DISCOUNT | 415 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Odyssey – Two Men, One Journey
Throughout Greek and Roman mythology and its epics, the physical and symbolic element of metamorphosis reoccurs to express certain themes or to convey some type of meaning or message. For example, in the story of Callisto, the young and untamed virgin in the woods, under the care of Diana, is tricked by Zeus, who transforms himself and impregnates her. As a punishment for getting pregnant out of wedlock, Diana banishes Callisto, who gives birth to her son, Arcas and consequently, turns into a bear.
Although Callisto maintains her motherly, human instinct, Arcas does not recognize his own mother and tries to kill her. In an effort to save the mother of his child, Zeus intervenes and sends both mother and son into the heavens, turning them into neighboring constellations. Like in Homer’s Odyssey, the theme of metamorphosis and close parent-and-child relationship is not a far-fetched concept for Greek myth.
In Book II of The Odyssey, Athena expresses to Telemachus, Odysseus’ son that, “You know, few sons turn out to be like their fathers; /Most turn out worse, a few better. No, you don’t have it in you to be a fool or a coward, /And you’ve got something of Odysseus’ brains (349). Literally, as Athena states, Telemachus does have something of his father’s brains, but not all. He is not as brave as his father, but like him, he never forgets the idea of homecoming, loyalty, and determination. In many ways, Telemachus is a lesser version of Odysseus. For instance, both experience physical, mental and emotional journeys that serve to develop their firm personalities.
Unlike his father, though Telemachus does not have the heroic qualities of Odysseus and thinks of himself as a boy, rather than a man. In the end, however, both Telemachus and Odysseus face extremely taxing challenges, and need each other to survive. In the first four books of the epic, Homer focuses much attention on Odysseus’ son, Telemachus. Only an infant when his father leaves for the Trojan War, Telemachus was raised in a home without a father and a mother who would be dispirited mother, if not for Athena entering her dreams at night to give her hope that her husband would return.
As a result of his father’s absence throughout his childhood and young adulthood, Telemachus had little, if not any, experience when he left home to search for the truth about his father. Similar to Odysseus, the journey to Pylos and Sparta was challenging for immature Telemachus. Being the lesser and more naA ve version of his heroic father, Telemachus’ journey was not supposed to entail killing the Cyclops, fighting off sexual desire or even Poseidon, god of the sea. No, the purpose of Telemachus’ journey was to represent the fact that Odysseus’ lion-heartedness could not be replicated, even by his own son.
However, Telemachus was on his way there, he just was not quite there yet; and probably never would be. Homer includes a subtle metaphor for this in Books XXI and XXII, when Telemachus has difficulty stringing the bow to kill the suitors in his home during their banquet. For the first time, both father and son are working together, not separately, to return things to the way they were before Odysseus left for war. When Odysseus is handed the bow, he says to Telemachus, Well Telemachus, the guest in your hall/ Has not disgraced you.
I did not miss my target,/ Nor did I take all day in stringing the bow ¦/ He spoke and lowered his brows. Telemachus,/ The true son of godlike Odysseus, slung on/ His sharp sword, seized his spear, and gleaming in bronze/ Took his place by his father’s side; ¦ (Homer’s Odyssey, Norton, p. 587). Telemachus’ attempt at stringing the bow but failing, and resorting to relying on his father complete the task with ease is symbolic of his attempt to imitate his unmatched father. For the duration of Homer’s Odyssey, Telemachus transforms from a boy into a man in the search for the truth about his father.
Starting from an inexperienced boy whom the suitors did not take seriously, with the help of faith from Athena and his father, Telemachus makes the change from boyhood to manhood. In Book XXI, Telemachus exclaims to his stunned mother, Penelope, “Go to your rooms,/ Mother, and take care of your work,/ Spinning and weaving, and have the maids do theirs. / This bow is men’s business, and my business/ Especially, since I am the master of this house, (Homer’s Odyssey, Norton, p. 585).
This is the first time that Telemachus verbally viewed himself as a man who is capable of driving out the suitors and understands that it is his duty to expel the men who want to take his mother as their bride and his home as their own. However, Telemachus is unable to do so by himself; he still needs the help of his father. In contrast, Odysseus experiences his metamorphosis on a more physical, rather than a mental, level in order to assume his heroic status. Disguised as a beggar, Odysseus is not readily succumbing to the exploitation that he receives from the men who are ransacking his own home.
Instead, the calculating Odysseus swallows his pride until he knows that he has secured loyal allies to help him defeat the suitors. Unlike Telemachus, he did not need to journey from boyhood to manhood, but needed to use his metamorphosis as a tool to outsmart his enemies. Although both father and son experienced two very different physical journeys, they both overcame struggles throughout Homer’s Odyssey. In Odysseus’ case, the hero desired homecoming or nostos and did everything he could in order to return home to his family and estate in Ithaca.
He had to endure losing the majority of his men after winning the war in Troy, being taken as a “hostage by a nymph for seven years, and seeing his own crew being eaten alive and dismembered by a one-eyed giant. Odysseus’ struggle and will to survive can be summed up by the Friedrich Nietzsche quote, “To live is to suffer, to survive is to find some meaning in the suffering. Odysseus’s determination to return home was so strong, that no obstacle, physical nor emotional, could get in the way of his ultimate goal.
If he died, then everything that he endured and the lost lives of his crew-members would be in vain. In contrast, Telemachus had to grow up knowing that the men who pillaged his home with the absence of his father wanted to seduce, and eventually marry his mother. Certainly, this is not something that a son wants to think about, especially when he can do nothing about it as he states in Book II, “And all those with power on rocky Ithaca/ Are courting my mother and ruining our house. / She refuses to make a marriage she hates/ But can’t stop it either, (Homer’s Odyssey, Norton, p. 38). Besides this disturbing thought, Telemachus struggles with the idea that his father is dead and feels completely helpless until Athena intervenes and gives him hope that his father is still alive.
The young man realizes that it is up to him to find out the truth about his father by visiting Pylos and King Menalaus and Queen Helen of Sparta, so that he can figure out how to deal with the suitors. Both father and son have strong feelings of determination to return things back to their original state, even if it means putting their life at risk to do so.
In the end, the journey of Telemachus is a smaller-scale model of that of his father, Odysseus. If it weren’t for the story of Telemachus, Homer’s Odyssey would just be another heroic epic, but instead, it serves as something more than that. It achieves the title of not only a heroic epic, but also a love story, a tragedy, and uses the most humanistic trait to pull at heartstrings as Homer touches heavily on the undying will to survive. Despite the fact that the odds seem to be against both Telemachus and Odysseus, the gods remain on their side and guide them through their struggles to achieve their ultimate goal, unity. | <urn:uuid:87ed8d5c-e68e-4472-abf3-9de7aa764b0f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://freebooksummary.com/the-odyssey-two-men-one-journey-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00517.warc.gz | en | 0.980245 | 1,897 | 3.375 | 3 | [
-0.027596814557909966,
0.230083629488945,
0.14517773687839508,
-0.03358808159828186,
-1.0084125995635986,
-0.5095909833908081,
0.01232062466442585,
0.6083022952079773,
-0.004422077909111977,
-0.36345866322517395,
-0.21506668627262115,
-0.27281880378723145,
-0.22095566987991333,
0.341561079... | 2 | The Odyssey – Two Men, One Journey
Throughout Greek and Roman mythology and its epics, the physical and symbolic element of metamorphosis reoccurs to express certain themes or to convey some type of meaning or message. For example, in the story of Callisto, the young and untamed virgin in the woods, under the care of Diana, is tricked by Zeus, who transforms himself and impregnates her. As a punishment for getting pregnant out of wedlock, Diana banishes Callisto, who gives birth to her son, Arcas and consequently, turns into a bear.
Although Callisto maintains her motherly, human instinct, Arcas does not recognize his own mother and tries to kill her. In an effort to save the mother of his child, Zeus intervenes and sends both mother and son into the heavens, turning them into neighboring constellations. Like in Homer’s Odyssey, the theme of metamorphosis and close parent-and-child relationship is not a far-fetched concept for Greek myth.
In Book II of The Odyssey, Athena expresses to Telemachus, Odysseus’ son that, “You know, few sons turn out to be like their fathers; /Most turn out worse, a few better. No, you don’t have it in you to be a fool or a coward, /And you’ve got something of Odysseus’ brains (349). Literally, as Athena states, Telemachus does have something of his father’s brains, but not all. He is not as brave as his father, but like him, he never forgets the idea of homecoming, loyalty, and determination. In many ways, Telemachus is a lesser version of Odysseus. For instance, both experience physical, mental and emotional journeys that serve to develop their firm personalities.
Unlike his father, though Telemachus does not have the heroic qualities of Odysseus and thinks of himself as a boy, rather than a man. In the end, however, both Telemachus and Odysseus face extremely taxing challenges, and need each other to survive. In the first four books of the epic, Homer focuses much attention on Odysseus’ son, Telemachus. Only an infant when his father leaves for the Trojan War, Telemachus was raised in a home without a father and a mother who would be dispirited mother, if not for Athena entering her dreams at night to give her hope that her husband would return.
As a result of his father’s absence throughout his childhood and young adulthood, Telemachus had little, if not any, experience when he left home to search for the truth about his father. Similar to Odysseus, the journey to Pylos and Sparta was challenging for immature Telemachus. Being the lesser and more naA ve version of his heroic father, Telemachus’ journey was not supposed to entail killing the Cyclops, fighting off sexual desire or even Poseidon, god of the sea. No, the purpose of Telemachus’ journey was to represent the fact that Odysseus’ lion-heartedness could not be replicated, even by his own son.
However, Telemachus was on his way there, he just was not quite there yet; and probably never would be. Homer includes a subtle metaphor for this in Books XXI and XXII, when Telemachus has difficulty stringing the bow to kill the suitors in his home during their banquet. For the first time, both father and son are working together, not separately, to return things to the way they were before Odysseus left for war. When Odysseus is handed the bow, he says to Telemachus, Well Telemachus, the guest in your hall/ Has not disgraced you.
I did not miss my target,/ Nor did I take all day in stringing the bow ¦/ He spoke and lowered his brows. Telemachus,/ The true son of godlike Odysseus, slung on/ His sharp sword, seized his spear, and gleaming in bronze/ Took his place by his father’s side; ¦ (Homer’s Odyssey, Norton, p. 587). Telemachus’ attempt at stringing the bow but failing, and resorting to relying on his father complete the task with ease is symbolic of his attempt to imitate his unmatched father. For the duration of Homer’s Odyssey, Telemachus transforms from a boy into a man in the search for the truth about his father.
Starting from an inexperienced boy whom the suitors did not take seriously, with the help of faith from Athena and his father, Telemachus makes the change from boyhood to manhood. In Book XXI, Telemachus exclaims to his stunned mother, Penelope, “Go to your rooms,/ Mother, and take care of your work,/ Spinning and weaving, and have the maids do theirs. / This bow is men’s business, and my business/ Especially, since I am the master of this house, (Homer’s Odyssey, Norton, p. 585).
This is the first time that Telemachus verbally viewed himself as a man who is capable of driving out the suitors and understands that it is his duty to expel the men who want to take his mother as their bride and his home as their own. However, Telemachus is unable to do so by himself; he still needs the help of his father. In contrast, Odysseus experiences his metamorphosis on a more physical, rather than a mental, level in order to assume his heroic status. Disguised as a beggar, Odysseus is not readily succumbing to the exploitation that he receives from the men who are ransacking his own home.
Instead, the calculating Odysseus swallows his pride until he knows that he has secured loyal allies to help him defeat the suitors. Unlike Telemachus, he did not need to journey from boyhood to manhood, but needed to use his metamorphosis as a tool to outsmart his enemies. Although both father and son experienced two very different physical journeys, they both overcame struggles throughout Homer’s Odyssey. In Odysseus’ case, the hero desired homecoming or nostos and did everything he could in order to return home to his family and estate in Ithaca.
He had to endure losing the majority of his men after winning the war in Troy, being taken as a “hostage by a nymph for seven years, and seeing his own crew being eaten alive and dismembered by a one-eyed giant. Odysseus’ struggle and will to survive can be summed up by the Friedrich Nietzsche quote, “To live is to suffer, to survive is to find some meaning in the suffering. Odysseus’s determination to return home was so strong, that no obstacle, physical nor emotional, could get in the way of his ultimate goal.
If he died, then everything that he endured and the lost lives of his crew-members would be in vain. In contrast, Telemachus had to grow up knowing that the men who pillaged his home with the absence of his father wanted to seduce, and eventually marry his mother. Certainly, this is not something that a son wants to think about, especially when he can do nothing about it as he states in Book II, “And all those with power on rocky Ithaca/ Are courting my mother and ruining our house. / She refuses to make a marriage she hates/ But can’t stop it either, (Homer’s Odyssey, Norton, p. 38). Besides this disturbing thought, Telemachus struggles with the idea that his father is dead and feels completely helpless until Athena intervenes and gives him hope that his father is still alive.
The young man realizes that it is up to him to find out the truth about his father by visiting Pylos and King Menalaus and Queen Helen of Sparta, so that he can figure out how to deal with the suitors. Both father and son have strong feelings of determination to return things back to their original state, even if it means putting their life at risk to do so.
In the end, the journey of Telemachus is a smaller-scale model of that of his father, Odysseus. If it weren’t for the story of Telemachus, Homer’s Odyssey would just be another heroic epic, but instead, it serves as something more than that. It achieves the title of not only a heroic epic, but also a love story, a tragedy, and uses the most humanistic trait to pull at heartstrings as Homer touches heavily on the undying will to survive. Despite the fact that the odds seem to be against both Telemachus and Odysseus, the gods remain on their side and guide them through their struggles to achieve their ultimate goal, unity. | 1,861 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On January 15, 1929 a baby boy who was destined to do great things came screaming into the world. His name was Michael, after his father, a Baptist minister who served as the senior pastor at Ebenezer Baptist Church in Atlanta.
A few years later in 1934, Michael’s father traveled to Germany to attend a Baptist World Alliance meeting. This was about a year after Adolph Hitler had come to power as chancellor, and Germany was becoming an uncomfortable place to be, losing itself to hatred and discrimination with the rise of the Nazi party.
The state of affairs in that nation and in the world weighed heavily on the reverend’s mind as he toured sites important in the story of Martin Luther, another man of God who found himself in an environment in which those in power were guilty of oppressing the less powerful for personal gain. According to legend, in 1517 Luther declared the need for change, and his willingness to defend his argument, in the form of a list of ninety-five theses nailed to the door of the Wittenberg Castle church.
In response to the swell of hatred in 1934, the Baptist World Alliance issued a statement of its own. It wasn’t a list of ninety-five theological arguments and questions nailed to a church door that would touch off a reformation movement. It was a strongly worded condemnation of “racial animosity, and every form of unfair discrimination toward the Jews, toward colored people, or toward subject races in any part of the world.”
Both the conference and the opportunity to walk in the footsteps of a 16th century German priest who prompted significant change in a world that was desperate for it, the Reverend Michael King, Sr. returned to the United States profoundly affected by all he’d seen.
So affected, in fact, that as he pondered the experience he came to a fairly unusual decision. He chose to legally change his name to Martin Luther King. His young son and namesake became Martin Luther, too, and on July 23 of 1957, the young man, then twenty-eight years old, made the official change to his birth certificate.
Today this son is remembered for his great leadership in bringing about change to a world in desperate need of it, for casting a vision in which all people condemn unfair discrimination and oppression. It was a challenging mantle to carry, one that cost him his life, but painted an enduring and powerful legacy.
Martin Luther King, Jr. is arguably better remembered in many circles today than is the priest whose name his father once decided to take as his own. But in learning and revisiting the activist’s story as we take time this weekend to honor the anniversary of his birth, I’m struck by the power of a name and the greatness it may inspire. | <urn:uuid:af735562-8c87-4ca2-a69b-613c8f29c62a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://sarah-angleton.com/category/history-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00381.warc.gz | en | 0.98308 | 571 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
-0.15762805938720703,
0.5784955024719238,
-0.07415825873613358,
-0.05358496308326721,
-0.40409055352211,
0.23156994581222534,
-0.05811748653650284,
0.21865959465503693,
0.010496636852622032,
0.24799348413944244,
-0.01679280400276184,
0.24306444823741913,
0.2671721875667572,
-0.125826805830... | 17 | On January 15, 1929 a baby boy who was destined to do great things came screaming into the world. His name was Michael, after his father, a Baptist minister who served as the senior pastor at Ebenezer Baptist Church in Atlanta.
A few years later in 1934, Michael’s father traveled to Germany to attend a Baptist World Alliance meeting. This was about a year after Adolph Hitler had come to power as chancellor, and Germany was becoming an uncomfortable place to be, losing itself to hatred and discrimination with the rise of the Nazi party.
The state of affairs in that nation and in the world weighed heavily on the reverend’s mind as he toured sites important in the story of Martin Luther, another man of God who found himself in an environment in which those in power were guilty of oppressing the less powerful for personal gain. According to legend, in 1517 Luther declared the need for change, and his willingness to defend his argument, in the form of a list of ninety-five theses nailed to the door of the Wittenberg Castle church.
In response to the swell of hatred in 1934, the Baptist World Alliance issued a statement of its own. It wasn’t a list of ninety-five theological arguments and questions nailed to a church door that would touch off a reformation movement. It was a strongly worded condemnation of “racial animosity, and every form of unfair discrimination toward the Jews, toward colored people, or toward subject races in any part of the world.”
Both the conference and the opportunity to walk in the footsteps of a 16th century German priest who prompted significant change in a world that was desperate for it, the Reverend Michael King, Sr. returned to the United States profoundly affected by all he’d seen.
So affected, in fact, that as he pondered the experience he came to a fairly unusual decision. He chose to legally change his name to Martin Luther King. His young son and namesake became Martin Luther, too, and on July 23 of 1957, the young man, then twenty-eight years old, made the official change to his birth certificate.
Today this son is remembered for his great leadership in bringing about change to a world in desperate need of it, for casting a vision in which all people condemn unfair discrimination and oppression. It was a challenging mantle to carry, one that cost him his life, but painted an enduring and powerful legacy.
Martin Luther King, Jr. is arguably better remembered in many circles today than is the priest whose name his father once decided to take as his own. But in learning and revisiting the activist’s story as we take time this weekend to honor the anniversary of his birth, I’m struck by the power of a name and the greatness it may inspire. | 574 | ENGLISH | 1 |
THE States-General which met in May, 1789, had in June adopted the name National Assembly. This body is also known as the Constituent Assembly, as its chief work was the making of a constitution. It had begun work upon the constitution while still in Versailles, and the first fruit of its labors was the Declaration of the Rights of Man, a statement of the rights which belong to men because they are human beings, which are not the gift of any government. The declaration was drawn up in imitation of American usage. Lafayette, a hero of the American Revolution, as now a prominent figure in the French, brought forward a draft of a declaration just before the storming of the Bastille. He urged two chief reasons for its adoption: first, it would present the people with a clear conception of the elements of liberty which, once understanding, they would insist upon possessing; and, secondly, it would be an invaluable guide for the Assembly in its work of elaborating the constitution. All propositions could be tested by comparison with its carefully defined principles. It would be a guarantee against mistakes or errors by the Assembly itself. Another orator paid a tribute to America, explaining why “ the noble idea of this declaration, conceived in another hemisphere” ought to be transplanted to France. Opponents of such a statement declared it useless and harmful because bound to distract the members from important labors, as tending to waste time on doubtful generalizations, as leading to hair-splitting and endless debate, when the Assembly’s attention
ought to be focussed on the pressing problems of legislation and administration. The Assembly took the side of Lafayette and, after intermittent discussion, composed the notable document in August, 1789. As a result of the events of October 5, described above, the King accepted it. The declaration, which has been called “the most remarkable fact in the history of the growth of democratic and republican ideas” in France, as “the gospel of modern times,” was not the work of any single mind, nor of any committee or group of leaders. Its collaborators were very numerous. The political discussions of the eighteenth century furnished many of the ideas and even some of the phrases. English and American example counted for much. The necessities of the national situation were factors of importance.
The National Assembly has often been severely criticised for devoting time, in a period of crisis, to a declaration which the critics in the same breath pronounce a tissue of abstractions, of doubtful philosophical theories, topics for everlasting discussion. “A tourney of metaphysical speculations” is what one writer calls it. But a study of the situation shows that the idea of a declaration and the idea of a constitution were indissolubly connected. The one was essential to the other in a country which had no historic principles of freedom. French liberty could not from the nature of the case, like English liberty, slowly broaden down from precedent to precedent. It must begin abruptly and with a distinct formulation. After the enunciation of the prin- ciples would naturally come their conversion into fact.
The Declaration of the Rights of Man laid down the principles of modern governments. The men who drew up that document believed these principles to be universally true and everywhere applicable. They did not establish rights — they merely declared them. Frenchmen well knew that they were composing a purely dogmatic text. But that such a text was extremely useful they believed. And the reason why they believed this was that they had a profound faith in the power of truth, of reason. This was, as Michelet pointed out long ago, the essential originality of the Constituent Assembly, this “singular faith in the power of ideas,” this firm belief that “once formed and formulated in law the truth was invincible.” These political dogmas seemed to the members of the Assembly so true that they thought they had only to proclaim them to insure their efficiency in the actual conduct of governments. These men believed that they were inaugurating a new phase in the history of humanity, that, by solemnly formulating the creed of the future, they were rendering an inestimable service, not to France alone but to the world. Though America had set an example, it was felt that France could “perfect” it for the other hemisphere and that the new declaration might perhaps have the advantage over the other of making “a loftier appeal to reason and of clothing her in a purer language.”
The seventeen articles of this creed asserted that men are free and equal, that the people are sovereign, that law is an expression of the popular will, and that in the making of it the people may participate, either directly, or indirectly through their representatives, and that all officials possess only that authority which has been definitely given them by law. All those liberties of the person, of free speech, free assembly, justice administered by one’s peers, which had been worked out in England and America were asserted. These principles were the opposite of those of the Old Regime. If incorporated in laws and institutions they meant the permanent abolition of that system.
As a matter of fact the expectation that the Declaration would constitute a new evangel for the world has not proved so great an exaggeration as the optimism of its authors and the pessimism of its critics would prompt one to think. When men wish anywhere to recall the rights of man it is this French document that they have in mind. The Declaration long ago passed beyond the frontiers of France. It has been studied, copied, or denounced nearly everywhere. It has been an indisputable factor in the political and social evolution of modern Europe. During the past century, whenever a nation has aspired to liberty, it has sought its principles in the Declaration. “It has found there,” says a recent writer, “five or six formulas as trenchant as mathematical propositions, true as the truth itself, intoxicating as a vision of the absolute.”
The Declaration was, of course, only an ideal, a goal toward which society should aim, not a fulfilment. It was a list of principles, not the realization of those principles. It was a declaration of rights, not a guarantee of rights. The problem of how to guarantee what was so succinctly declared has filled more than a century of French history, and is still incompletely solved. We shall now see how far the Assembly which drafted this Declaration was willing or able to go in applying its principles in the constitution, of which it was the preamble.
The constitution was only slowly elaborated. Some of its more fundamental articles were adopted in 1789. But numerous laws were passed in 1790 and 1791, which were really parts of the constitution. Thus it grew piece by piece. Finally all this legislation was revised, retouched, and codified into a single document, which was accepted by the King in 1791. Though sometimes called the Constitution of 1789, it is more generally and more correctly known as the Constitution of 1791. It was the first written constitution France had ever had. Framed under very different conditions from those under which the constitution of the United States had been framed only a short time before, it resembled the work of the Philadelphia Convention in that it was conspicuously the product of the spirit of compromise. With the exception of the vigorous assertions of the Declaration of the Rights of Man, the document was marked by as great a moderation as was consistent with the thoroughgoing changes that were demanded by the overwhelming public opinion, as represented in the cahiers. It is permeated through and through with two principles, the sovereignty of the people, all governmental powers issuing from their consent and will, and the separation of the powers sharply from each other, of the executive, the legislative, and the judicial branches, a division greatly emphasized by Montesquieu as the sole method of insuring liberty.
The form of government was to be monarchical. This was in conformity with the wishes of the people as expressed in the cahiers, and with the feelings of the Constituent Assembly. But whereas formerly the king was an absolute, henceforth he was to be a limited, a constitutional ruler. Indicative of the pro- found difference between these two conceptions, his former title, King of France and of Navarre, now gave way to that of King of the French. Whereas formerly he had taken what he chose out of the national treasury for his per- sonal use, now he was to receive a salary or civil list of the definite amount — and no more — of 25,000,000 francs. He was to appoint the ministers or heads of the cabinet departments, but he was forbidden to select members of the legislature for such positions. The English system of parliamentary government was deliberately avoided because it was believed to be vicious in that ministers could bribe or influence the members of Parliament to do their will, which might not at all be the will of the people. Ministers were not even to be permitted to come before the legislature to defend or explain their policies.
A departure from the principle of the separation of powers, in general so closely followed, was shown in the granting of the veto power to the king. The king, who had hitherto made the laws, was now deprived of the lawmaking power, but he could prevent the immediate enforcement of an act passed by the legislature. There was much discussion over this subject in the Assembly. Some were opposed to any kind of a veto; others wanted one that should be absolute and final. The Assembly compromised and granted the king a suspensive veto, that is, he might prevent the application of a law voted by two successive legislatures, that is, for a possible period of four years. If the third legislature should indicate its approval of the law in question, then it was to be put into operation whether the king assented or not.
The king was to retain the conduct of foreign affairs in his own hands. He was to appoint and receive ambassadors; was to be the head of the navy and army and was to appoint to higher offices. The Assembly at first thought of leaving him the right to make peace and war, then, fearing that he might drag the nation into a war for personal or dynastic and not national purposes, it decided that he might propose peace or war, but that the legislature should decide upon it.
The legislative power was given by the Constitution of 1791 to a single assembly of 745 members, to be elected for a term of two years. Several of the deputies desired a legislature of two chambers, and cited the example of England and America. But the second chamber in England was the House of Lords, and the French, who had abolished the nobility, had no desire to establish an hereditary chamber. Moreover the English system was based on the principle of inequality. The French were founding their new system upon the principle of equality. Even among the nobles themselves there was opposition to a second chamber — the provincial nobility fearing that only the court nobles would be members of it. On the other hand, the Senate of the United States was a concession to the states-rights feeling, a feeling which the French wished to destroy by abolishing the provinces and the local provincial patriotism, by thoroughly unifying France. Thus the plan of dividing the legislature into two chambers was deliberately rejected, for what seemed good and sufficient reasons.
How was this legislature to be chosen? Here we find a decided departure from the spirit and the letter of the Declaration, which had asserted that all men are equal in rights. Did not this mean universal suffrage? Such at least was not the opinion of the Constituent Assembly, which now made a distinction between citizens, declaring some active, some passive. To be considered an active citizen one must be at least twenty-five years of age and must pay annually in direct taxes the equivalent of three days’ wages. This excluded the poor from this class, and the number was large. It has been estimated that there were somewhat over 4,000,000 active citizens and about 3,000,000 passive.
The active citizens alone had the right to vote. But even they did not vote directly for the members of the legislature. They chose electors at the ratio of one for every 100 active citizens. These electors must meet a much higher property qualification, the equivalent of from 150 to 200 days’ wages in direct taxes. As a matter of fact this resulted in rendering eligible as electors only about 43,000 individuals. These electors chose the members of the legislature, the deputies. They also chose the judges under the new system. Thus the Constituent Assembly, so zealous in abolishing old privileges, was, in defiance of its own principles, establishing new ones. Political rights in the new state were made the monopoly of those who possessed a certain amount of property. There was no property qualification required for deputies. Any active citizen was eligible, but as the deputies were elected by the propertied men, they would in all probability choose only propertied men — the electors would choose from their own class.
The judicial power was completely revolutionized. Hitherto judges had bought their positions, which carried with them titles and privileges and which they might pass on to their sons. Henceforth all judges, of whatever rank in the hierarchy, were to be elected by the electors described above. Their terms were to range from two to four years. The jury, something hitherto absolutely unknown to modern France, was now introduced for criminal cases. Hitherto the judge had decided all cases.
For purposes of administration and local government a new system was established. The old thirty-two provinces were abolished and France was divided into eighty-three departments ofnearly uniform size. The departments were divided into arrondissements, these into cantons,and these into municipalities or communes. These are terms which have ever since been in vogue.
France, from being a highly centralized state, became one highly decentralized. Whereas formerly the central government was represented in each province by its own agents or office-holders, the intendants and their subordinates, in the departments of the future the central government was to have no representatives. The electors were to choose the local departmental officials. It would be the business of these officials to carry out the decrees of the central government — but what if they should disobey? The central government would have no control over them, as it would not appoint them and could neither remove nor discipline them.
The Constitution of 1791 represented an improvement in French government; yet it did not work well and did not last long. As a first experiment in the art of self-government it had its value, but it revealed inexperience and poor judgment in several points which prepared trouble for the future. TIF executive and the legislature were so sharply separated that communication between them was difficult and suspicion was consequently easily fostered. The king might not select his ministers from the legislature, he might not, in case of a difference of opinion with the legislature, dissolve the latter,as the English king could do, thus allowing the voters to decide between them. The king’s veto was not a weapon strong enough to protect him from the attacks of the Assembly, yet it was enough to irritate the Assembly, if used. The distinction between active and passive citizens was in plain and flagrant defiance of the Declaration of the Rights of Man, and inevitably created a discontented class. The administrative decentralization was so complete that the efficiency of the national government was gone. France was split up into eighty-three fragments, and the co- ordination of all these units, their direction toward great national ends in response to the will of the nation as a whole, was rendered extremely difficult, and in certain crises impossible. The work of reform carried out by the Constituent Assembly was on an enormous scale, immensely more extensive than that of our Federal Convention. We search history in vain for any companion piece. It is unique. Its destructive work proved durable and most important. Much of its constructive work, however, proved very fragile. Mirabeau expressed his opinion in saying that “The disorganization of the kingdom could not be better worked out.”
There were other dangerous features of the situation which inspired alarm and seemed to keep open and to embitter the relations of various classes and to foster opportunities for the discontented and the ambitious. The legislation concerning the church proved highly divisive in its effects. It began with the confiscation of its property; it was continued in the attempt profoundly to alter its organization.
The States-General had been summoned to provide for the finances of the country. As the problem grew daily more pressing, as various attempts to meet it proved futile, as bankruptcy was imminent, the Assembly finally decided to sell for the state the vast properties of the church. The argument was that the church was not the owner but was merely the administrator, enjoying only the use of the vast wealth which had been bestowed upon it by the faithful, but bestowed for public, national purposes, namely, the maintenance of houses of worship, schools, hospitals ; and that if the state would otherwise provide for the carrying out of the intentions of these numerous benefactors, it might apply the property, which was the property of the nation, not of the church as a corporation, to whatever uses it might see fit. Acting on this theory a decree was passed by the Assembly declaring these lands national. They constituted perhaps a fourth or a fifth of the territory of France and represented immense wealth, amply sufficient, it was believed, to set the public finances right.
But such property could only be used if converted into money and that would be a slow process, running through years. The expedient was devised of issuing paper money, as the government needed it, against this property as security. This paper money bore the name of assignats. Persons receiving such assignats could not demand gold for them, as in the case of our paper money, but could use them in buying these lands. There was value therefore behind these paper emissions. The danger in the use of paper money, however, always is the inclination, so easy to yield to, to issue far more paper than the value of the property behind it. This proved a temptation that the revolutionary assemblies did not have strength of mind or will to resist. At first the assignats were issued in limited quantities as the state needed the money, and the public willingly accepted them.
But later larger and larger emissions were made, far out of proportion to the value of the national domains. This meant the rapid depreciation of the paper. People would not accept it at its face value, as they had at first been willing to do. The value of the church property was estimated in 1789 as 4,000,000,000 francs. Between 1789 and 1796 over 45,000,000,000 of assignats were issued. In 1789 an assignat of 100 francs was accepted for 100 francs in coin. But by 1791 it had sunk from par to 82, and by 1796 to less than a franc. This was neither an honest nor an effective solution of the perplexing financial problem.
It was evasion, it was in its essence repudiation. The Constituent Assembly did nothing toward solving the problem that had occasioned its meeting. It left the national finances in a worse welter than it had found them in.
Another piece of legislation concerning the church, much more serious in its effects upon the cause of reform, was the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. By act of the Assembly the number of dioceses was reduced from 134 to 83, one for each department. The bishops and priests were henceforth to be elected by the same persons who elected the departmental officials. Once elected, the bishops were to announce the fact to the Pope, who was not to have the right to approve or disapprove but merely to confirm. He was then to recognize them. If he refused, the ordinary courts could be invoked. The clergy were to receive salaries from the state, were, in other words, to become state officials. The income of most of the bishops would be greatly reduced, that of the parish priests considerably increased.
This law was not acceptable to sincere Catholics as it altered by act of politicians an organization that had hitherto been controlled absolutely from within. Bishops and priests were to be elected like other officials — that is, Protestants, Jews, free-thinkers might participate in choosing the religious functionaries of the Catholic Church. Judges, who might be infidels, might yet play a decisive part. The Pope was practically ignored. His nominal headship was not questioned. His real power was largely destroyed. He would be informed of what was happening; his approval would not be necessary.
The Assembly voted that all clergymen must take an oath to support this Civil Constitution of the Clergy. Only four of the 134 bishops consented to do so. Perhaps a third of the parish priests consented. Those who consented were called the juring, those who refused, the non-juring or refractory clergy. In due time elections were held as provided by the law and those elected were called the constitutional clergy. France witnessed the spectacle of two bodies of priests, one non-juring, chosen in the old way, the other elected by the voters indirectly. The scandal was great and the danger appalling, for religious discord was introduced into every city and hamlet. Faith supported the one body, the state supported the other — and the state em- barked upon a long, gloomy, and unsuccessful struggle to impose its will in a sphere where it did not belong.
Most fatal were the consequences. One was that it made the position of Louis XVI, a sincere Catholic, far more difficult and exposed him to the charge of being an enemy of the Revolution, if he hesitated in his support of measures which he could not and did not approve. Another was that it provoked in various sections, notably in Vendee, the most passionate civil war France had ever known. Multitudes of the lower clergy, who had favored and greatly helped the Revolution so far, now turned against it for conscience’ sake. We cannot trace in detail this lamentable chapter of history. Suffice it to say that the Constituent Assembly made no greater or more pernicious mistake. The church had, as , the issue proved, immense spiritual influence over the peasants, the vast bulk of the population. Henceforth there was a divided allegiance — allegiance to the state, allegiance to the church. Men had to make an agonizing choice. The small counter-revolutionary party of the nobles, hitherto a staff of officers without an army, was now reinforced by thousands and millions of recruits, prepared to face any sacrifices. And worldly intriguers could draw on this fund of piety for purposes that were anything but pious. The heat generated by politics is sufficient. There was no need of increasing the temperature by adding the heat of religious controversy. French Revolution or eternal damnation, such was the hard choice placed before the devout.
“I would rather be King of Metz than remain King of France in such a position,” said Louis XVI, as he signed the decree requiring an oath to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, “but this will end soon.” The meaning of which remark was that the King was now through with his scruples, that he was resolved to call the monarchs of Europe to his aid, that he was determined to escape from this coil of untoward events that was binding him tighter and tighter, threatening soon to strangle him completely. The idea of a royal flight was not new. Marie Antoinette had thought of it long before. Mirabeau had counseled it under certain conditions which, however, were no longer possible. The nobles who had fled from France, some of them after the fall of the Bastille, more of them after the war upon the chateaux, hung upon the fringes of the kingdom, in Belgium, in Piedmont, and particularly in the petty German states that lined the fabled banks of the Rhine, eager to have the King come to them, eager to embroil Europe with France, that thus they might return to Paris with the armies that would surely be easily victorious, and set back the clock to where it stood in 1789, incidentally celebrating that happy occurrence by miscellaneous punishment of all the notable revolutionists, so that henceforth imaginative spirits would hesitate before again laying impious hands upon the Lord’s anointed, upon kings by divine right, upon nobles reposing upon rights no less sacred, upon the holy clergy. The Count of Artois, the proud and empty-headed brother of the King, one of the first to emigrate, had said: “ Weshall return within three months.” As a matter of fact he was to return only after twenty-three years, a considerable miscalculation, pardonable no doubt in that extraordinary age in which every one miscalculated.
Louis XVI, wounded in his conscience, now planned to escape from Paris, to go to the eastern part of France, where there were French troops on which he thought he could rely. Then, surrounded by faithful adherents, he could reassume the kingly role and come back to Paris, master of the situation.
Disguised as a valet the King, accompanied by the Queen, disguised as a Russian lady, escaped from the Tuileries in the night of June 20, 1791, in a clumsy coach. All the next day they rolled over the white highways of Champagne under a terrible sun, reaching at about midnight the little village of Varennes, not far from the frontier. There they were recognized and arrested. The National Assembly sent three commissioners to bring them back. The return was for these two descendants of long lines of kings a veritable ascent of Calvary. Outrages, insults, jokes, ignominies of every kind were hurled at them by the crowds that thronged about them in the villages through which they passed — a journey without rest, uninterrupted, under the annihilating heat, the suffocating dust of June. Reaching Paris they were no longer overwhelmed with insults, but were received in glacial silence by enormous throngs who stood with hats on, as the royal coach passed by. The King was impassive, but “ our poor Queen,” so wrote a friend, “ bowed her head almost to her knees.” Rows of national guards stood, arms grounded, as at funerals. At seven o’clock that night they were in the Tuileries once more. Marie Antoinette had in these few days of horror grown twenty years older. Her hair had turned quite white, “like the hair of a woman of seventy.”
The consequences of this woeful misadventure were extremely grave. Louis XVI had shown his real feelings. The fidelity of his people to him was not entirely destroyed but was irremediably shaken. They no longer believed in the sincerity of his utterances, his oaths to support the constitution. The Queen was visited with contumely, being regarded as the arch-conspirator. The throne was undermined. A republican party appeared. Before this no one had considered a republic possible in so large a country as France. Republics were for small states like those of ancient Greece or medieval Italy. Even the most violent revolutionists, Robespierre, Danton, Marat, were, up to this time, monarchists. Now, however, France had a little object-lesson. During the absence of the King, the government of the Assembly continued to work normally. In the period following, during which Louis XVI was suspended from the exercise of his powers, government went on without damage to the state. A king was evidently not indispensable. It has been correctly stated that the flight to Varennes created the republican party in France, a party that has had an eventful history since then, and has finally, after many vicissitudes, established its regime.
But this republican party was very small. The very idea of a republic frightened the Constituent Assembly, even after the revelation of the faithlessness of the King. Consequently, in a revulsion of feeling, the Assembly, after a little, restored Louis XVI to his position, finished the constitution, accepted his oath to support it, and on September 30, 1791, this memorable body declared its mission fulfilled and its career at an end.
The National Assembly before adjournment committed a final and unnecessary mistake. In a mood of fatal disinterestedness it voted that none of its members should be eligible to the next legislature or to the ministry. Thus the experience of the past two years was thrown away and the new constitution was intrusted to hands entirely different from those that had fashioned it. | <urn:uuid:d2b69fd0-3b03-4abd-875f-6e31d48d007d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://erenow.net/modern/the-french-revolution-and-napoleon/5.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00459.warc.gz | en | 0.984357 | 5,914 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
-0.18947181105613708,
0.15257108211517334,
0.24577169120311737,
-0.492903470993042,
-0.33166101574897766,
0.520093560218811,
0.4106704890727997,
0.11978083848953247,
-0.19314387440681458,
-0.05388922244310379,
-0.14279112219810486,
0.30858010053634644,
0.37131091952323914,
0.29730987548828... | 4 | THE States-General which met in May, 1789, had in June adopted the name National Assembly. This body is also known as the Constituent Assembly, as its chief work was the making of a constitution. It had begun work upon the constitution while still in Versailles, and the first fruit of its labors was the Declaration of the Rights of Man, a statement of the rights which belong to men because they are human beings, which are not the gift of any government. The declaration was drawn up in imitation of American usage. Lafayette, a hero of the American Revolution, as now a prominent figure in the French, brought forward a draft of a declaration just before the storming of the Bastille. He urged two chief reasons for its adoption: first, it would present the people with a clear conception of the elements of liberty which, once understanding, they would insist upon possessing; and, secondly, it would be an invaluable guide for the Assembly in its work of elaborating the constitution. All propositions could be tested by comparison with its carefully defined principles. It would be a guarantee against mistakes or errors by the Assembly itself. Another orator paid a tribute to America, explaining why “ the noble idea of this declaration, conceived in another hemisphere” ought to be transplanted to France. Opponents of such a statement declared it useless and harmful because bound to distract the members from important labors, as tending to waste time on doubtful generalizations, as leading to hair-splitting and endless debate, when the Assembly’s attention
ought to be focussed on the pressing problems of legislation and administration. The Assembly took the side of Lafayette and, after intermittent discussion, composed the notable document in August, 1789. As a result of the events of October 5, described above, the King accepted it. The declaration, which has been called “the most remarkable fact in the history of the growth of democratic and republican ideas” in France, as “the gospel of modern times,” was not the work of any single mind, nor of any committee or group of leaders. Its collaborators were very numerous. The political discussions of the eighteenth century furnished many of the ideas and even some of the phrases. English and American example counted for much. The necessities of the national situation were factors of importance.
The National Assembly has often been severely criticised for devoting time, in a period of crisis, to a declaration which the critics in the same breath pronounce a tissue of abstractions, of doubtful philosophical theories, topics for everlasting discussion. “A tourney of metaphysical speculations” is what one writer calls it. But a study of the situation shows that the idea of a declaration and the idea of a constitution were indissolubly connected. The one was essential to the other in a country which had no historic principles of freedom. French liberty could not from the nature of the case, like English liberty, slowly broaden down from precedent to precedent. It must begin abruptly and with a distinct formulation. After the enunciation of the prin- ciples would naturally come their conversion into fact.
The Declaration of the Rights of Man laid down the principles of modern governments. The men who drew up that document believed these principles to be universally true and everywhere applicable. They did not establish rights — they merely declared them. Frenchmen well knew that they were composing a purely dogmatic text. But that such a text was extremely useful they believed. And the reason why they believed this was that they had a profound faith in the power of truth, of reason. This was, as Michelet pointed out long ago, the essential originality of the Constituent Assembly, this “singular faith in the power of ideas,” this firm belief that “once formed and formulated in law the truth was invincible.” These political dogmas seemed to the members of the Assembly so true that they thought they had only to proclaim them to insure their efficiency in the actual conduct of governments. These men believed that they were inaugurating a new phase in the history of humanity, that, by solemnly formulating the creed of the future, they were rendering an inestimable service, not to France alone but to the world. Though America had set an example, it was felt that France could “perfect” it for the other hemisphere and that the new declaration might perhaps have the advantage over the other of making “a loftier appeal to reason and of clothing her in a purer language.”
The seventeen articles of this creed asserted that men are free and equal, that the people are sovereign, that law is an expression of the popular will, and that in the making of it the people may participate, either directly, or indirectly through their representatives, and that all officials possess only that authority which has been definitely given them by law. All those liberties of the person, of free speech, free assembly, justice administered by one’s peers, which had been worked out in England and America were asserted. These principles were the opposite of those of the Old Regime. If incorporated in laws and institutions they meant the permanent abolition of that system.
As a matter of fact the expectation that the Declaration would constitute a new evangel for the world has not proved so great an exaggeration as the optimism of its authors and the pessimism of its critics would prompt one to think. When men wish anywhere to recall the rights of man it is this French document that they have in mind. The Declaration long ago passed beyond the frontiers of France. It has been studied, copied, or denounced nearly everywhere. It has been an indisputable factor in the political and social evolution of modern Europe. During the past century, whenever a nation has aspired to liberty, it has sought its principles in the Declaration. “It has found there,” says a recent writer, “five or six formulas as trenchant as mathematical propositions, true as the truth itself, intoxicating as a vision of the absolute.”
The Declaration was, of course, only an ideal, a goal toward which society should aim, not a fulfilment. It was a list of principles, not the realization of those principles. It was a declaration of rights, not a guarantee of rights. The problem of how to guarantee what was so succinctly declared has filled more than a century of French history, and is still incompletely solved. We shall now see how far the Assembly which drafted this Declaration was willing or able to go in applying its principles in the constitution, of which it was the preamble.
The constitution was only slowly elaborated. Some of its more fundamental articles were adopted in 1789. But numerous laws were passed in 1790 and 1791, which were really parts of the constitution. Thus it grew piece by piece. Finally all this legislation was revised, retouched, and codified into a single document, which was accepted by the King in 1791. Though sometimes called the Constitution of 1789, it is more generally and more correctly known as the Constitution of 1791. It was the first written constitution France had ever had. Framed under very different conditions from those under which the constitution of the United States had been framed only a short time before, it resembled the work of the Philadelphia Convention in that it was conspicuously the product of the spirit of compromise. With the exception of the vigorous assertions of the Declaration of the Rights of Man, the document was marked by as great a moderation as was consistent with the thoroughgoing changes that were demanded by the overwhelming public opinion, as represented in the cahiers. It is permeated through and through with two principles, the sovereignty of the people, all governmental powers issuing from their consent and will, and the separation of the powers sharply from each other, of the executive, the legislative, and the judicial branches, a division greatly emphasized by Montesquieu as the sole method of insuring liberty.
The form of government was to be monarchical. This was in conformity with the wishes of the people as expressed in the cahiers, and with the feelings of the Constituent Assembly. But whereas formerly the king was an absolute, henceforth he was to be a limited, a constitutional ruler. Indicative of the pro- found difference between these two conceptions, his former title, King of France and of Navarre, now gave way to that of King of the French. Whereas formerly he had taken what he chose out of the national treasury for his per- sonal use, now he was to receive a salary or civil list of the definite amount — and no more — of 25,000,000 francs. He was to appoint the ministers or heads of the cabinet departments, but he was forbidden to select members of the legislature for such positions. The English system of parliamentary government was deliberately avoided because it was believed to be vicious in that ministers could bribe or influence the members of Parliament to do their will, which might not at all be the will of the people. Ministers were not even to be permitted to come before the legislature to defend or explain their policies.
A departure from the principle of the separation of powers, in general so closely followed, was shown in the granting of the veto power to the king. The king, who had hitherto made the laws, was now deprived of the lawmaking power, but he could prevent the immediate enforcement of an act passed by the legislature. There was much discussion over this subject in the Assembly. Some were opposed to any kind of a veto; others wanted one that should be absolute and final. The Assembly compromised and granted the king a suspensive veto, that is, he might prevent the application of a law voted by two successive legislatures, that is, for a possible period of four years. If the third legislature should indicate its approval of the law in question, then it was to be put into operation whether the king assented or not.
The king was to retain the conduct of foreign affairs in his own hands. He was to appoint and receive ambassadors; was to be the head of the navy and army and was to appoint to higher offices. The Assembly at first thought of leaving him the right to make peace and war, then, fearing that he might drag the nation into a war for personal or dynastic and not national purposes, it decided that he might propose peace or war, but that the legislature should decide upon it.
The legislative power was given by the Constitution of 1791 to a single assembly of 745 members, to be elected for a term of two years. Several of the deputies desired a legislature of two chambers, and cited the example of England and America. But the second chamber in England was the House of Lords, and the French, who had abolished the nobility, had no desire to establish an hereditary chamber. Moreover the English system was based on the principle of inequality. The French were founding their new system upon the principle of equality. Even among the nobles themselves there was opposition to a second chamber — the provincial nobility fearing that only the court nobles would be members of it. On the other hand, the Senate of the United States was a concession to the states-rights feeling, a feeling which the French wished to destroy by abolishing the provinces and the local provincial patriotism, by thoroughly unifying France. Thus the plan of dividing the legislature into two chambers was deliberately rejected, for what seemed good and sufficient reasons.
How was this legislature to be chosen? Here we find a decided departure from the spirit and the letter of the Declaration, which had asserted that all men are equal in rights. Did not this mean universal suffrage? Such at least was not the opinion of the Constituent Assembly, which now made a distinction between citizens, declaring some active, some passive. To be considered an active citizen one must be at least twenty-five years of age and must pay annually in direct taxes the equivalent of three days’ wages. This excluded the poor from this class, and the number was large. It has been estimated that there were somewhat over 4,000,000 active citizens and about 3,000,000 passive.
The active citizens alone had the right to vote. But even they did not vote directly for the members of the legislature. They chose electors at the ratio of one for every 100 active citizens. These electors must meet a much higher property qualification, the equivalent of from 150 to 200 days’ wages in direct taxes. As a matter of fact this resulted in rendering eligible as electors only about 43,000 individuals. These electors chose the members of the legislature, the deputies. They also chose the judges under the new system. Thus the Constituent Assembly, so zealous in abolishing old privileges, was, in defiance of its own principles, establishing new ones. Political rights in the new state were made the monopoly of those who possessed a certain amount of property. There was no property qualification required for deputies. Any active citizen was eligible, but as the deputies were elected by the propertied men, they would in all probability choose only propertied men — the electors would choose from their own class.
The judicial power was completely revolutionized. Hitherto judges had bought their positions, which carried with them titles and privileges and which they might pass on to their sons. Henceforth all judges, of whatever rank in the hierarchy, were to be elected by the electors described above. Their terms were to range from two to four years. The jury, something hitherto absolutely unknown to modern France, was now introduced for criminal cases. Hitherto the judge had decided all cases.
For purposes of administration and local government a new system was established. The old thirty-two provinces were abolished and France was divided into eighty-three departments ofnearly uniform size. The departments were divided into arrondissements, these into cantons,and these into municipalities or communes. These are terms which have ever since been in vogue.
France, from being a highly centralized state, became one highly decentralized. Whereas formerly the central government was represented in each province by its own agents or office-holders, the intendants and their subordinates, in the departments of the future the central government was to have no representatives. The electors were to choose the local departmental officials. It would be the business of these officials to carry out the decrees of the central government — but what if they should disobey? The central government would have no control over them, as it would not appoint them and could neither remove nor discipline them.
The Constitution of 1791 represented an improvement in French government; yet it did not work well and did not last long. As a first experiment in the art of self-government it had its value, but it revealed inexperience and poor judgment in several points which prepared trouble for the future. TIF executive and the legislature were so sharply separated that communication between them was difficult and suspicion was consequently easily fostered. The king might not select his ministers from the legislature, he might not, in case of a difference of opinion with the legislature, dissolve the latter,as the English king could do, thus allowing the voters to decide between them. The king’s veto was not a weapon strong enough to protect him from the attacks of the Assembly, yet it was enough to irritate the Assembly, if used. The distinction between active and passive citizens was in plain and flagrant defiance of the Declaration of the Rights of Man, and inevitably created a discontented class. The administrative decentralization was so complete that the efficiency of the national government was gone. France was split up into eighty-three fragments, and the co- ordination of all these units, their direction toward great national ends in response to the will of the nation as a whole, was rendered extremely difficult, and in certain crises impossible. The work of reform carried out by the Constituent Assembly was on an enormous scale, immensely more extensive than that of our Federal Convention. We search history in vain for any companion piece. It is unique. Its destructive work proved durable and most important. Much of its constructive work, however, proved very fragile. Mirabeau expressed his opinion in saying that “The disorganization of the kingdom could not be better worked out.”
There were other dangerous features of the situation which inspired alarm and seemed to keep open and to embitter the relations of various classes and to foster opportunities for the discontented and the ambitious. The legislation concerning the church proved highly divisive in its effects. It began with the confiscation of its property; it was continued in the attempt profoundly to alter its organization.
The States-General had been summoned to provide for the finances of the country. As the problem grew daily more pressing, as various attempts to meet it proved futile, as bankruptcy was imminent, the Assembly finally decided to sell for the state the vast properties of the church. The argument was that the church was not the owner but was merely the administrator, enjoying only the use of the vast wealth which had been bestowed upon it by the faithful, but bestowed for public, national purposes, namely, the maintenance of houses of worship, schools, hospitals ; and that if the state would otherwise provide for the carrying out of the intentions of these numerous benefactors, it might apply the property, which was the property of the nation, not of the church as a corporation, to whatever uses it might see fit. Acting on this theory a decree was passed by the Assembly declaring these lands national. They constituted perhaps a fourth or a fifth of the territory of France and represented immense wealth, amply sufficient, it was believed, to set the public finances right.
But such property could only be used if converted into money and that would be a slow process, running through years. The expedient was devised of issuing paper money, as the government needed it, against this property as security. This paper money bore the name of assignats. Persons receiving such assignats could not demand gold for them, as in the case of our paper money, but could use them in buying these lands. There was value therefore behind these paper emissions. The danger in the use of paper money, however, always is the inclination, so easy to yield to, to issue far more paper than the value of the property behind it. This proved a temptation that the revolutionary assemblies did not have strength of mind or will to resist. At first the assignats were issued in limited quantities as the state needed the money, and the public willingly accepted them.
But later larger and larger emissions were made, far out of proportion to the value of the national domains. This meant the rapid depreciation of the paper. People would not accept it at its face value, as they had at first been willing to do. The value of the church property was estimated in 1789 as 4,000,000,000 francs. Between 1789 and 1796 over 45,000,000,000 of assignats were issued. In 1789 an assignat of 100 francs was accepted for 100 francs in coin. But by 1791 it had sunk from par to 82, and by 1796 to less than a franc. This was neither an honest nor an effective solution of the perplexing financial problem.
It was evasion, it was in its essence repudiation. The Constituent Assembly did nothing toward solving the problem that had occasioned its meeting. It left the national finances in a worse welter than it had found them in.
Another piece of legislation concerning the church, much more serious in its effects upon the cause of reform, was the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. By act of the Assembly the number of dioceses was reduced from 134 to 83, one for each department. The bishops and priests were henceforth to be elected by the same persons who elected the departmental officials. Once elected, the bishops were to announce the fact to the Pope, who was not to have the right to approve or disapprove but merely to confirm. He was then to recognize them. If he refused, the ordinary courts could be invoked. The clergy were to receive salaries from the state, were, in other words, to become state officials. The income of most of the bishops would be greatly reduced, that of the parish priests considerably increased.
This law was not acceptable to sincere Catholics as it altered by act of politicians an organization that had hitherto been controlled absolutely from within. Bishops and priests were to be elected like other officials — that is, Protestants, Jews, free-thinkers might participate in choosing the religious functionaries of the Catholic Church. Judges, who might be infidels, might yet play a decisive part. The Pope was practically ignored. His nominal headship was not questioned. His real power was largely destroyed. He would be informed of what was happening; his approval would not be necessary.
The Assembly voted that all clergymen must take an oath to support this Civil Constitution of the Clergy. Only four of the 134 bishops consented to do so. Perhaps a third of the parish priests consented. Those who consented were called the juring, those who refused, the non-juring or refractory clergy. In due time elections were held as provided by the law and those elected were called the constitutional clergy. France witnessed the spectacle of two bodies of priests, one non-juring, chosen in the old way, the other elected by the voters indirectly. The scandal was great and the danger appalling, for religious discord was introduced into every city and hamlet. Faith supported the one body, the state supported the other — and the state em- barked upon a long, gloomy, and unsuccessful struggle to impose its will in a sphere where it did not belong.
Most fatal were the consequences. One was that it made the position of Louis XVI, a sincere Catholic, far more difficult and exposed him to the charge of being an enemy of the Revolution, if he hesitated in his support of measures which he could not and did not approve. Another was that it provoked in various sections, notably in Vendee, the most passionate civil war France had ever known. Multitudes of the lower clergy, who had favored and greatly helped the Revolution so far, now turned against it for conscience’ sake. We cannot trace in detail this lamentable chapter of history. Suffice it to say that the Constituent Assembly made no greater or more pernicious mistake. The church had, as , the issue proved, immense spiritual influence over the peasants, the vast bulk of the population. Henceforth there was a divided allegiance — allegiance to the state, allegiance to the church. Men had to make an agonizing choice. The small counter-revolutionary party of the nobles, hitherto a staff of officers without an army, was now reinforced by thousands and millions of recruits, prepared to face any sacrifices. And worldly intriguers could draw on this fund of piety for purposes that were anything but pious. The heat generated by politics is sufficient. There was no need of increasing the temperature by adding the heat of religious controversy. French Revolution or eternal damnation, such was the hard choice placed before the devout.
“I would rather be King of Metz than remain King of France in such a position,” said Louis XVI, as he signed the decree requiring an oath to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, “but this will end soon.” The meaning of which remark was that the King was now through with his scruples, that he was resolved to call the monarchs of Europe to his aid, that he was determined to escape from this coil of untoward events that was binding him tighter and tighter, threatening soon to strangle him completely. The idea of a royal flight was not new. Marie Antoinette had thought of it long before. Mirabeau had counseled it under certain conditions which, however, were no longer possible. The nobles who had fled from France, some of them after the fall of the Bastille, more of them after the war upon the chateaux, hung upon the fringes of the kingdom, in Belgium, in Piedmont, and particularly in the petty German states that lined the fabled banks of the Rhine, eager to have the King come to them, eager to embroil Europe with France, that thus they might return to Paris with the armies that would surely be easily victorious, and set back the clock to where it stood in 1789, incidentally celebrating that happy occurrence by miscellaneous punishment of all the notable revolutionists, so that henceforth imaginative spirits would hesitate before again laying impious hands upon the Lord’s anointed, upon kings by divine right, upon nobles reposing upon rights no less sacred, upon the holy clergy. The Count of Artois, the proud and empty-headed brother of the King, one of the first to emigrate, had said: “ Weshall return within three months.” As a matter of fact he was to return only after twenty-three years, a considerable miscalculation, pardonable no doubt in that extraordinary age in which every one miscalculated.
Louis XVI, wounded in his conscience, now planned to escape from Paris, to go to the eastern part of France, where there were French troops on which he thought he could rely. Then, surrounded by faithful adherents, he could reassume the kingly role and come back to Paris, master of the situation.
Disguised as a valet the King, accompanied by the Queen, disguised as a Russian lady, escaped from the Tuileries in the night of June 20, 1791, in a clumsy coach. All the next day they rolled over the white highways of Champagne under a terrible sun, reaching at about midnight the little village of Varennes, not far from the frontier. There they were recognized and arrested. The National Assembly sent three commissioners to bring them back. The return was for these two descendants of long lines of kings a veritable ascent of Calvary. Outrages, insults, jokes, ignominies of every kind were hurled at them by the crowds that thronged about them in the villages through which they passed — a journey without rest, uninterrupted, under the annihilating heat, the suffocating dust of June. Reaching Paris they were no longer overwhelmed with insults, but were received in glacial silence by enormous throngs who stood with hats on, as the royal coach passed by. The King was impassive, but “ our poor Queen,” so wrote a friend, “ bowed her head almost to her knees.” Rows of national guards stood, arms grounded, as at funerals. At seven o’clock that night they were in the Tuileries once more. Marie Antoinette had in these few days of horror grown twenty years older. Her hair had turned quite white, “like the hair of a woman of seventy.”
The consequences of this woeful misadventure were extremely grave. Louis XVI had shown his real feelings. The fidelity of his people to him was not entirely destroyed but was irremediably shaken. They no longer believed in the sincerity of his utterances, his oaths to support the constitution. The Queen was visited with contumely, being regarded as the arch-conspirator. The throne was undermined. A republican party appeared. Before this no one had considered a republic possible in so large a country as France. Republics were for small states like those of ancient Greece or medieval Italy. Even the most violent revolutionists, Robespierre, Danton, Marat, were, up to this time, monarchists. Now, however, France had a little object-lesson. During the absence of the King, the government of the Assembly continued to work normally. In the period following, during which Louis XVI was suspended from the exercise of his powers, government went on without damage to the state. A king was evidently not indispensable. It has been correctly stated that the flight to Varennes created the republican party in France, a party that has had an eventful history since then, and has finally, after many vicissitudes, established its regime.
But this republican party was very small. The very idea of a republic frightened the Constituent Assembly, even after the revelation of the faithlessness of the King. Consequently, in a revulsion of feeling, the Assembly, after a little, restored Louis XVI to his position, finished the constitution, accepted his oath to support it, and on September 30, 1791, this memorable body declared its mission fulfilled and its career at an end.
The National Assembly before adjournment committed a final and unnecessary mistake. In a mood of fatal disinterestedness it voted that none of its members should be eligible to the next legislature or to the ministry. Thus the experience of the past two years was thrown away and the new constitution was intrusted to hands entirely different from those that had fashioned it. | 5,962 | ENGLISH | 1 |
We don't actually get the speaker's identity, but we do know that this poem is one of the few autobiographical poems Wheatley published. It was described as the land where darkness is removed and the ignorance is eradicated. At the age of twelve she was reading the Greek and Latin classics, and passages from the Bible. He would grow up to be well read and well learned he was producing scientific journals for his friends at age nine , despite never finishing high school Joshi para 1- 4. Illustrate instances of each theme and write a short description below each cell. By reading the actual words, thoughts, and feelings of these enslaved Africans, modern writers receive information from the perspective of the victimized. Feminism, politics, and religion are three aspects evident in their personal lives an d literature.
Phillis Wheatley was abducted from her home in Africa at the age of 7 in 1753 and taken by ship to America, where she ended up as the property of one John Wheatley, of Boston. Wheatley became a face for the abolitionist movement long before it began in earnest. In lines five through six , the speaker says that some people scorn the African races, saying that their dark skin is a mark of inferiority or perhaps even evil - the 'diabolic die' refers to a taint by the devil. She was born in 1753, in West Africa and brought to New England, enslaved, in 1761, where she was sold to John Wheatley of Boston. It's probably the most common meter for all poetry in English.
It was believed, in the beginning, that the African Americans were happy to be enslaved, that it was their natural place. Equiano has a firsthand account on the effects of slavery and the necessity of freedom. In the 1536, a young pastor named John Calvin was recruited to start a new church in Geneva following a break from the Roman Catholic Church. On Being Brought From Africa to America is an unusual poem because it was written by a black woman who was a slave back in the days when black people could be bought and sold at will by white owners. Some people say iambic pentameter feels like a heartbeat, which may account for its popularity. So, you know, it's old. Few refer directly -- and certainly not this directly -- to her personal story or status.
This is why I believe that we should die at the top of our game. Douglass was the more proactive abolitionist as his work was to demolish slavery while detailing his life experience as a slave and expressing is deep emotions and theory on slavery. Remember, 'Christians', 'Negros', black as 'Cain', May be refin'd, and join th' angelic train. It is on this morning that a precocious child, Howard Phillips Lovecraft, is born. I enjoyed Phillips style of writing because through his writing, he really came off as an intelligent person who is very familiar with the legal system. Jefferson, a slave-owner himself, wanted to keep the dominance due to the fact he benefitted from them economically, and socially.
Was Phillis Wheatley's restraint simply a matter of imitating the style of poets popular in that time? Both were actually at the hands of human beings. Yes in Senegambia there was academia, culture and literacy. The book quickly became the first literary success by an American author in Europe and turned Crevecover into a celebrated figure. Wheatley was considered a feminist icon because she was the first published African American female poet. Wheatley died, Phillis was left to support herself as a seamstress and poet. The poem becomes another strong admonition against British imperialist dreams of a reclaiming of the former colonies. Calvin was inspired by Martin Luther another French theologian whose temperament was fun than that of Calvin's.
Those who brought her to America should be enslaved themselves. She is caught in a pose of contemplation -- perhaps listening for her muses -- but this also shows that she can think -- an accomplishment which some of her contemporaries would find scandalous to contemplate. For her now, the events in the ships are lesser important because she had gotton redemption and light. Phillis was the first African American to have a book published. Olaudah Equiano and Phillis Wheatley are two of these people. In this sense, her poems also fit into American Poetry.
He wanted to find a white man with a black sound. Delehanty explains that a place is not only something physical but also a conglomeration of ideas adopted by people who lived there or have been there. But, Africa for her is a pagan land, a dark place without God and ignorance is prevalent everywhere. Actual human beings were treated like animals. Her family was not very wealthy and her dad did not believe in education beyond high school for girls. He drew his evidence from the plantation records and letters of slave owners; contemporary travel accounts; court records and legal documents; newspaper articles; and in some instances, the recordings of slaves themselves, rather than what he viewed as more biased sources such as abolitionist writings. Writing in 1918, Phillips hoped to provide an account of slavery based upon historical evidence and modern methods of research, rather than ideological motivations.
Her poems mirror her religious and classical New England upbringing. Americans had begun to shift their view from Britain as a mother country to Britain as an oppressor. The Patriots appeared to want help from the African Americans as much as the British. In order for music to be a hit, it had to be a hit within the white community. She was educated and became deeply rooted in her faith: Christianity. Question 12 options: God is not involved in the daily lives of human beings. | <urn:uuid:713c9579-f40c-4e75-a253-92dadf2d18b8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://georgiajudges.org/on-being-brought-from-africa-to-america-theme.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00469.warc.gz | en | 0.985312 | 1,159 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
-0.1021781861782074,
0.38157033920288086,
0.14942240715026855,
0.29398924112319946,
0.0516573041677475,
0.20471376180648804,
0.14116817712783813,
0.02347787842154503,
0.13987277448177338,
-0.1382940411567688,
0.04009410738945007,
0.19230467081069946,
-0.05778970569372177,
-0.04413402080535... | 1 | We don't actually get the speaker's identity, but we do know that this poem is one of the few autobiographical poems Wheatley published. It was described as the land where darkness is removed and the ignorance is eradicated. At the age of twelve she was reading the Greek and Latin classics, and passages from the Bible. He would grow up to be well read and well learned he was producing scientific journals for his friends at age nine , despite never finishing high school Joshi para 1- 4. Illustrate instances of each theme and write a short description below each cell. By reading the actual words, thoughts, and feelings of these enslaved Africans, modern writers receive information from the perspective of the victimized. Feminism, politics, and religion are three aspects evident in their personal lives an d literature.
Phillis Wheatley was abducted from her home in Africa at the age of 7 in 1753 and taken by ship to America, where she ended up as the property of one John Wheatley, of Boston. Wheatley became a face for the abolitionist movement long before it began in earnest. In lines five through six , the speaker says that some people scorn the African races, saying that their dark skin is a mark of inferiority or perhaps even evil - the 'diabolic die' refers to a taint by the devil. She was born in 1753, in West Africa and brought to New England, enslaved, in 1761, where she was sold to John Wheatley of Boston. It's probably the most common meter for all poetry in English.
It was believed, in the beginning, that the African Americans were happy to be enslaved, that it was their natural place. Equiano has a firsthand account on the effects of slavery and the necessity of freedom. In the 1536, a young pastor named John Calvin was recruited to start a new church in Geneva following a break from the Roman Catholic Church. On Being Brought From Africa to America is an unusual poem because it was written by a black woman who was a slave back in the days when black people could be bought and sold at will by white owners. Some people say iambic pentameter feels like a heartbeat, which may account for its popularity. So, you know, it's old. Few refer directly -- and certainly not this directly -- to her personal story or status.
This is why I believe that we should die at the top of our game. Douglass was the more proactive abolitionist as his work was to demolish slavery while detailing his life experience as a slave and expressing is deep emotions and theory on slavery. Remember, 'Christians', 'Negros', black as 'Cain', May be refin'd, and join th' angelic train. It is on this morning that a precocious child, Howard Phillips Lovecraft, is born. I enjoyed Phillips style of writing because through his writing, he really came off as an intelligent person who is very familiar with the legal system. Jefferson, a slave-owner himself, wanted to keep the dominance due to the fact he benefitted from them economically, and socially.
Was Phillis Wheatley's restraint simply a matter of imitating the style of poets popular in that time? Both were actually at the hands of human beings. Yes in Senegambia there was academia, culture and literacy. The book quickly became the first literary success by an American author in Europe and turned Crevecover into a celebrated figure. Wheatley was considered a feminist icon because she was the first published African American female poet. Wheatley died, Phillis was left to support herself as a seamstress and poet. The poem becomes another strong admonition against British imperialist dreams of a reclaiming of the former colonies. Calvin was inspired by Martin Luther another French theologian whose temperament was fun than that of Calvin's.
Those who brought her to America should be enslaved themselves. She is caught in a pose of contemplation -- perhaps listening for her muses -- but this also shows that she can think -- an accomplishment which some of her contemporaries would find scandalous to contemplate. For her now, the events in the ships are lesser important because she had gotton redemption and light. Phillis was the first African American to have a book published. Olaudah Equiano and Phillis Wheatley are two of these people. In this sense, her poems also fit into American Poetry.
He wanted to find a white man with a black sound. Delehanty explains that a place is not only something physical but also a conglomeration of ideas adopted by people who lived there or have been there. But, Africa for her is a pagan land, a dark place without God and ignorance is prevalent everywhere. Actual human beings were treated like animals. Her family was not very wealthy and her dad did not believe in education beyond high school for girls. He drew his evidence from the plantation records and letters of slave owners; contemporary travel accounts; court records and legal documents; newspaper articles; and in some instances, the recordings of slaves themselves, rather than what he viewed as more biased sources such as abolitionist writings. Writing in 1918, Phillips hoped to provide an account of slavery based upon historical evidence and modern methods of research, rather than ideological motivations.
Her poems mirror her religious and classical New England upbringing. Americans had begun to shift their view from Britain as a mother country to Britain as an oppressor. The Patriots appeared to want help from the African Americans as much as the British. In order for music to be a hit, it had to be a hit within the white community. She was educated and became deeply rooted in her faith: Christianity. Question 12 options: God is not involved in the daily lives of human beings. | 1,179 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Little is known of Eorpwald's life or of his short reign, as little documentary evidence about the East Anglian kingdom has survived. The primary source for Eorpwald is the Ecclesiastical History of the English People, written by Bede in the 8th century. Soon after becoming king, Eorpwald received Christian teaching and was baptised in 627 or 632. Soon after his conversion he was killed by Ricberht, a pagan noble, who may have succeeded him and ruled for three years. The motive for Eorpwald's assassination was probably political as well as religious. He was the first early English king to suffer death as a consequence of his Christian faith and was subsequently venerated by the Church as a saint and martyr.
In 1939, a magnificent ship-burial was discovered under a large mound at Sutton Hoo, in Suffolk. Although Rædwald is usually considered to have been buried with the ship (or commemorated by it), another possibility is Eorpwald. Alternatively, he might also have had his own ship-burial nearby.
By the beginning of the 7th century, southern England was almost entirely under the control of the Anglo-Saxons. These peoples, who are known to have included Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians, began to arrive in Britain in the 5th century. By 600, a number of kingdoms had begun to form in the conquered territories, including the Kingdom of the East Angles, an Anglo-Saxon kingdom which today includes the English counties of Norfolk and Suffolk. Almost no documentary sources exist about the history of the kingdom before the reign of Rædwald, who reigned until about 624. Sources of information include the names of a few of the early Wuffing kings, mentioned in a short passage in Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People, written in the 730s.
In 616, Rædwald defeated and killed Æthelfrith of Northumbria in the Battle of the River Idle and then installed Edwin as the new Deiran king. Whilst Edwin had been an exile at Rædwald's court, he had had a dream where he was told that if he converted to Christianity, he would become greater than any that had ruled before him. Steven Plunkett relates that, according to the version of events as told in the Whitby Life of St Gregory, it was Paulinus who visited Edwin and obtained his promise to convert to Christianity in return for regal power. After Edwin emerged as the ruler of Deira, with its centre at York, he became accepted as king of the northern Northumbrian province of Bernicia. Following his victory over the Northumbrians, Rædwald was not only king of the East Angles, but also the most powerful king amongst the rulers of the various English kingdoms, occupying the role which was later described by the term Bretwalda. He is thought by many to have been buried in the sumptuous ship burial at Sutton Hoo.
Eorpwald was the son of Rædwald by a wife whose name is not recorded. He had at least one brother, Rægenhere, and another sibling, Sigeberht, may also have been his brother. Rædwald used the letters R and E when naming two of his own sons, (as did his own father when he and his younger brother Eni were named), which suggests that Eorpwald was the younger sibling and would only have become Rædwald's heir after his elder brother Rægenhere was slain in battle in 616. It is unclear whether, as Bede understood, Sigebert and Eorpwald were brothers, or whether they shared the same mother but not the same father, as was stated by the 12th century chronicler William of Malmesbury. According to the historian Barbara Yorke, Sigebert may have been a member of a different line of Wuffings who as his rival was forced into exile, in order to ensure that Eorpwald became king.
Eorpwald was still a pagan when he became king of the East Angles, following the death of Rædwald in around 624. D. P. Kirby maintains that Sigeberht fled from East Anglia to Gaul during the internal strife that followed Eorpwald's accession and that the new king's paganism created tension between Christian and pagan factions within the kingdom, which resulted in a reduction in his influence. In 627, Edwin undertook the conversion of the peoples of Northumbria, Lindsey and East Anglia and at his prompting Eorpwald was, according to Bede, "persuaded to accept the Christian faith and sacraments". It can be calculated that this event occurred in 627, taking in account the years that Felix of Burgundy was known to have held the East Anglian bishopric. In contrast, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle recorded that Eorpwald's baptism took place during 632: "Her wæs Eorpwald gefullod", ("Here Eorpwald was baptized").
It is not known whether Eorpwald was baptised in East Anglia, Northumbria or Kent, but it is very likely that Edwin, now the senior ruler, was present as his sponsor. Higham suggests that because of the lack of proper facilities in East Anglia, it is likely that he was baptised by Paulinus at Edwin's centre of authority in Northumbria. The manner of Eorpwald's conversion indicated that he was a subordinate king and that Edwin was his overlord.
Following his baptism, Edwin's Northumbrian priests were in a position to be able to suppress pagan practices in Eorpwald's kingdom and convert the East Anglians. The conversion had the general political benefit of bringing the entire eastern seaboard from Northumbria to Kent, with the exception of Essex, under the dominion of Edwin and his Christian allies.
The conversion of Eorpwald's kingdom did not result in the establishment of any ecclesiastical infrastructure, such as the establishment of a see within the kingdom. Bede reported that soon after his conversion, Eorpwald was slain (occisus) by a heathen (uiro gentili) named Ricberht and that after he was killed, the kingdom reverted to heathen rule (in errore uersata est) for three years.
Eorpwald was the first English king to be killed because of his Christian faith. The circumstances are not recorded, so that it is not known whether Ricberht was representative of an internal East Anglian opposition to Christian rule, or if he was an emissary from abroad wishing to diminish Edwin of Northumbria's influence over the East Angles. The return of East Anglia to pagan rule does not necessarily mean that there was an overt struggle between the worship of the Anglo-Saxon gods and the worship of Christ, but could express a reaction away from Christianity amongst the East Angles, prompted by Edwin's rise to power and his subsequent dominance over their king. The ancestry of Ricberht is unknown and it is unclear as to whether he ever ruled after he killed Eorpwald, but in 630 or 631, three years after Eorpwald's assassination, Sigeberht returned from exile in Gaul and became king of the East Angles.
At Sutton Hoo (near Woodbridge, in Suffolk) is the site of two 6th-7th century Anglo-Saxon cemeteries, where it is believed that members of the Eorpwald's dynasty were entombed under large earth mounds. Several East Anglian kings, including Eorpwald, have been suggested as possible candidates for the occupant of the burial site under Mound 1, discovered in 1939. Martin Carver has speculated that historians could use regal lists and other sources of information to identify the occupants, whilst acknowledging that no material evidence exists to support the theory that Eorpwald or other members of his family are buried there. He has used Eorpwald's relationship as the son of Rædwald to place him in either Mound 1 or 2.
According to Fleming's Complete History of the British Martyrs, published in 1904, King Eorpwald was venerated as a saint and a martyr by the English Church. His feast day is not known. | <urn:uuid:4d134a83-a1f1-43e1-bb34-1acc5d3d20f0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alchetron.com/Eorpwald-of-East-Anglia | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00333.warc.gz | en | 0.988132 | 1,723 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
-0.023804938420653343,
0.006292199250310659,
0.7408217191696167,
-0.10741649568080902,
0.14113843441009521,
-0.07999138534069061,
-0.22286352515220642,
-0.3100755214691162,
-0.23745670914649963,
-0.03570866212248802,
-0.31648439168930054,
-0.3608558177947998,
-0.14755819737911224,
-0.07158... | 1 | Little is known of Eorpwald's life or of his short reign, as little documentary evidence about the East Anglian kingdom has survived. The primary source for Eorpwald is the Ecclesiastical History of the English People, written by Bede in the 8th century. Soon after becoming king, Eorpwald received Christian teaching and was baptised in 627 or 632. Soon after his conversion he was killed by Ricberht, a pagan noble, who may have succeeded him and ruled for three years. The motive for Eorpwald's assassination was probably political as well as religious. He was the first early English king to suffer death as a consequence of his Christian faith and was subsequently venerated by the Church as a saint and martyr.
In 1939, a magnificent ship-burial was discovered under a large mound at Sutton Hoo, in Suffolk. Although Rædwald is usually considered to have been buried with the ship (or commemorated by it), another possibility is Eorpwald. Alternatively, he might also have had his own ship-burial nearby.
By the beginning of the 7th century, southern England was almost entirely under the control of the Anglo-Saxons. These peoples, who are known to have included Angles, Saxons, Jutes and Frisians, began to arrive in Britain in the 5th century. By 600, a number of kingdoms had begun to form in the conquered territories, including the Kingdom of the East Angles, an Anglo-Saxon kingdom which today includes the English counties of Norfolk and Suffolk. Almost no documentary sources exist about the history of the kingdom before the reign of Rædwald, who reigned until about 624. Sources of information include the names of a few of the early Wuffing kings, mentioned in a short passage in Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English People, written in the 730s.
In 616, Rædwald defeated and killed Æthelfrith of Northumbria in the Battle of the River Idle and then installed Edwin as the new Deiran king. Whilst Edwin had been an exile at Rædwald's court, he had had a dream where he was told that if he converted to Christianity, he would become greater than any that had ruled before him. Steven Plunkett relates that, according to the version of events as told in the Whitby Life of St Gregory, it was Paulinus who visited Edwin and obtained his promise to convert to Christianity in return for regal power. After Edwin emerged as the ruler of Deira, with its centre at York, he became accepted as king of the northern Northumbrian province of Bernicia. Following his victory over the Northumbrians, Rædwald was not only king of the East Angles, but also the most powerful king amongst the rulers of the various English kingdoms, occupying the role which was later described by the term Bretwalda. He is thought by many to have been buried in the sumptuous ship burial at Sutton Hoo.
Eorpwald was the son of Rædwald by a wife whose name is not recorded. He had at least one brother, Rægenhere, and another sibling, Sigeberht, may also have been his brother. Rædwald used the letters R and E when naming two of his own sons, (as did his own father when he and his younger brother Eni were named), which suggests that Eorpwald was the younger sibling and would only have become Rædwald's heir after his elder brother Rægenhere was slain in battle in 616. It is unclear whether, as Bede understood, Sigebert and Eorpwald were brothers, or whether they shared the same mother but not the same father, as was stated by the 12th century chronicler William of Malmesbury. According to the historian Barbara Yorke, Sigebert may have been a member of a different line of Wuffings who as his rival was forced into exile, in order to ensure that Eorpwald became king.
Eorpwald was still a pagan when he became king of the East Angles, following the death of Rædwald in around 624. D. P. Kirby maintains that Sigeberht fled from East Anglia to Gaul during the internal strife that followed Eorpwald's accession and that the new king's paganism created tension between Christian and pagan factions within the kingdom, which resulted in a reduction in his influence. In 627, Edwin undertook the conversion of the peoples of Northumbria, Lindsey and East Anglia and at his prompting Eorpwald was, according to Bede, "persuaded to accept the Christian faith and sacraments". It can be calculated that this event occurred in 627, taking in account the years that Felix of Burgundy was known to have held the East Anglian bishopric. In contrast, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle recorded that Eorpwald's baptism took place during 632: "Her wæs Eorpwald gefullod", ("Here Eorpwald was baptized").
It is not known whether Eorpwald was baptised in East Anglia, Northumbria or Kent, but it is very likely that Edwin, now the senior ruler, was present as his sponsor. Higham suggests that because of the lack of proper facilities in East Anglia, it is likely that he was baptised by Paulinus at Edwin's centre of authority in Northumbria. The manner of Eorpwald's conversion indicated that he was a subordinate king and that Edwin was his overlord.
Following his baptism, Edwin's Northumbrian priests were in a position to be able to suppress pagan practices in Eorpwald's kingdom and convert the East Anglians. The conversion had the general political benefit of bringing the entire eastern seaboard from Northumbria to Kent, with the exception of Essex, under the dominion of Edwin and his Christian allies.
The conversion of Eorpwald's kingdom did not result in the establishment of any ecclesiastical infrastructure, such as the establishment of a see within the kingdom. Bede reported that soon after his conversion, Eorpwald was slain (occisus) by a heathen (uiro gentili) named Ricberht and that after he was killed, the kingdom reverted to heathen rule (in errore uersata est) for three years.
Eorpwald was the first English king to be killed because of his Christian faith. The circumstances are not recorded, so that it is not known whether Ricberht was representative of an internal East Anglian opposition to Christian rule, or if he was an emissary from abroad wishing to diminish Edwin of Northumbria's influence over the East Angles. The return of East Anglia to pagan rule does not necessarily mean that there was an overt struggle between the worship of the Anglo-Saxon gods and the worship of Christ, but could express a reaction away from Christianity amongst the East Angles, prompted by Edwin's rise to power and his subsequent dominance over their king. The ancestry of Ricberht is unknown and it is unclear as to whether he ever ruled after he killed Eorpwald, but in 630 or 631, three years after Eorpwald's assassination, Sigeberht returned from exile in Gaul and became king of the East Angles.
At Sutton Hoo (near Woodbridge, in Suffolk) is the site of two 6th-7th century Anglo-Saxon cemeteries, where it is believed that members of the Eorpwald's dynasty were entombed under large earth mounds. Several East Anglian kings, including Eorpwald, have been suggested as possible candidates for the occupant of the burial site under Mound 1, discovered in 1939. Martin Carver has speculated that historians could use regal lists and other sources of information to identify the occupants, whilst acknowledging that no material evidence exists to support the theory that Eorpwald or other members of his family are buried there. He has used Eorpwald's relationship as the son of Rædwald to place him in either Mound 1 or 2.
According to Fleming's Complete History of the British Martyrs, published in 1904, King Eorpwald was venerated as a saint and a martyr by the English Church. His feast day is not known. | 1,762 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Brave and the Fearless
Jane Eyre, by Charlotte Bronte, published in 1847, is a gothic novel about a very brave and fearless young woman named Jane. Jane is an orphan who had to go through many difficulties throughout her life. However, Jane was able to overcome these difficulties and succeed in life. She was independent and courageous throughout her journey. What makes Jane more incredible is that she was able to accomplish all this in the Victorian Era.
Women of the Victorian Era were treated with respect. However, their lives did differ from the men greatly. They did not have basic rights, like to own property or sue people. Most men viewed women as weak and having no ability to run a business. If a women attempted any sports or tried to find a job, they were frowned upon. The upper and middle class women spent most of their with their children at home. They also spend time sewing, throwing parties, and dressing nicely for their husband. The lower-class families did similar things as the upper and middle class women. However, if they were
extremely poor, they would need to work. This was the same situation with the children in the family. Sometimes kids would have to work as young as six years old to make sure everyone had food on the table. This shows how harsh the Victorian Era was and how your social class has a very big impact in your future.
In the beginning of the novel, Jane lives with her aunt and cousins, the Reeds, at Gateshead Hall. Her aunt, Mrs. Reed, dislikes Jane because of her family’s status. She seemed to have a low opinion on Jane’s mother, because she married below her social standing. From the very beginning of the novel, Bronte shows us what kind of character Jane has. Her cousin John, who is older and stronger than her, bullies and beats Jane. Jane then punches him back. She is held responsible for her actions and sent to the “red room” by her aunt. The red room is where her uncle died and Jane thinks she sees her uncle’s ghost.
When Jane wakes up, she is being treated by Mr. Lloyd, a kind man who acts as the family’s doctor. The next day, she gets invited to breakfast. However, there was a guest there. His name was Mr. Brockelhurst. Jane is introduced by Mrs. Reed and she tells Mr. Brockelhurst that Jane is a liar. Mr. Brockelhurst then promises Jane that he will inform everyone in the school that she is a liar and a bad girl. Soon afterwards, Jane is sent to attend the Lowood School.
Soon afterwards, Jane arrives at Lowood and she is introduced to her classmates and teachers. She immediately becomes friends with a girl named Helen Burns, a student that their teacher Miss Scratchier seemed really cruel toward. Through Helen, Jane learns that the Lowood School is a charity provided for orphan girls and that Mr. Brocklehurst is one of the supervisors of the school. Jane soon finds out the conditions in the school are very bad. The students there are meant to live... | <urn:uuid:b2ccf2c5-7a18-4234-ab63-077188067ff8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/jane-eyre-research-paper-i-got-a-94-on-english-ii-research-paper | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00142.warc.gz | en | 0.990059 | 649 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
0.04685881733894348,
0.3255815804004669,
-0.007609125226736069,
0.8409942984580994,
0.18070293962955475,
-0.14507126808166504,
0.007802056614309549,
0.07602456212043762,
0.40478864312171936,
-0.6596547961235046,
0.08985349535942078,
-0.1949061155319214,
0.14022062718868256,
-0.046458750963... | 1 | The Brave and the Fearless
Jane Eyre, by Charlotte Bronte, published in 1847, is a gothic novel about a very brave and fearless young woman named Jane. Jane is an orphan who had to go through many difficulties throughout her life. However, Jane was able to overcome these difficulties and succeed in life. She was independent and courageous throughout her journey. What makes Jane more incredible is that she was able to accomplish all this in the Victorian Era.
Women of the Victorian Era were treated with respect. However, their lives did differ from the men greatly. They did not have basic rights, like to own property or sue people. Most men viewed women as weak and having no ability to run a business. If a women attempted any sports or tried to find a job, they were frowned upon. The upper and middle class women spent most of their with their children at home. They also spend time sewing, throwing parties, and dressing nicely for their husband. The lower-class families did similar things as the upper and middle class women. However, if they were
extremely poor, they would need to work. This was the same situation with the children in the family. Sometimes kids would have to work as young as six years old to make sure everyone had food on the table. This shows how harsh the Victorian Era was and how your social class has a very big impact in your future.
In the beginning of the novel, Jane lives with her aunt and cousins, the Reeds, at Gateshead Hall. Her aunt, Mrs. Reed, dislikes Jane because of her family’s status. She seemed to have a low opinion on Jane’s mother, because she married below her social standing. From the very beginning of the novel, Bronte shows us what kind of character Jane has. Her cousin John, who is older and stronger than her, bullies and beats Jane. Jane then punches him back. She is held responsible for her actions and sent to the “red room” by her aunt. The red room is where her uncle died and Jane thinks she sees her uncle’s ghost.
When Jane wakes up, she is being treated by Mr. Lloyd, a kind man who acts as the family’s doctor. The next day, she gets invited to breakfast. However, there was a guest there. His name was Mr. Brockelhurst. Jane is introduced by Mrs. Reed and she tells Mr. Brockelhurst that Jane is a liar. Mr. Brockelhurst then promises Jane that he will inform everyone in the school that she is a liar and a bad girl. Soon afterwards, Jane is sent to attend the Lowood School.
Soon afterwards, Jane arrives at Lowood and she is introduced to her classmates and teachers. She immediately becomes friends with a girl named Helen Burns, a student that their teacher Miss Scratchier seemed really cruel toward. Through Helen, Jane learns that the Lowood School is a charity provided for orphan girls and that Mr. Brocklehurst is one of the supervisors of the school. Jane soon finds out the conditions in the school are very bad. The students there are meant to live... | 633 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In its time the Roman Empire was the greatest the world has ever seen. From 27C.E. to 476C.E. the Roman Empire has grown and prospered, this historic empire was the greatest the world had ever seen. At its height, around 117C.E, the Roman Empire had covered vast land “from northern Africa to The Scottish border, from Spain to Syria”. But eventually this became too much to handle and by the year 500, the western have of the empire had fallen. There are many reasons to why this side of the Roman Empire had morosely collapsed: political instability, economic problems, and weakening frontiers. But its memory is still with us everywhere we go we can see subtle influences of the Romans: art, architecture, engineering, writing, philosophy, law, citizenship, and even language. After all “All roads lead to Rome”. What caused the fall of the omnipotent city of Rome and its empire? Some may say it was only one reason but the truth is there was never just one. In fact, historians point to many different predicaments that lead to Rome’s “passing” the number one problem, political instability. Rome never knew how to handle transfer of political power once a king passed. As a result when an emperor had died anxious adversaries were ready with their own individual armies, and they fought for that crown. Even after this period of random violence the Romans still didn’t learn. There was never a good system to choose the next emperor or transfer the power. Sometimes the Praetorian Guard (the private army belonging to the emperor) got to choose the next ruler but they only chose a ruler that would benefit and reward them thus that new ruler normally made bad decisions. Other than political problems the Romans suffered many economical disturbances and it all started with the notorious Roman army. In order to keep Rome protected and the army “happy” the citizens had to pay heavy taxes, this problem drove many people into poverty. As a result many people were unemployed but there weren’t enough jobs for everyone. Famous emperors like Nero and Caligula made matters even worse by wasting lavish amount of money on festivals and parties. These money deficiencies lead to a great rise in the numbers of crimes in the empire, which made the cities and streets a dangerous place. The problem that really drove Rome under was the weakening frontiers because the huge size of the empire made it hard to defend. Due to this problem it sometimes took a while for the emperor to communicate with the army generals so when one army went to help one another the king was unaware of it until probably a few weeks later. And enemy tribes had time to sneak in before the king could do anything about it, that how the western empire had fallen. Before anyone was notified Germanic tribes were invading and in 410C.E. one of these tribes had taken over Rome itself, then 66 years later the last emperor of Rome was thrown from his throne and the western half of Rome had begun to dissolve. The Roman Empire fell more than 1,500 years ago, but it left a lasting mark on western civilization. We can still see Rome’s influences today in our art, architecture, engineering, writing, philosophy, law, citizenship, and even our own language, these are the legacies of the Roman empire. Roman art took the aspects of other cultures, mixed them with theirs and made them their own. This was how Roman art worked. They gained ideas from others but they were mainly influenced by the art of the Greeks, the mix of Roman and Greek art is called “Greco-Roman” art, this form of art greatly influenced western art. The Romans imitated these cultures but they added their own talents. The Romans greatly appreciated art and wealthy families usually had homes filled with statues, murals mosaics and frescos. The Romans also had a knack for style they would turn a bottle of wine into the shape of a grape cluster. They also developed the arts of cameo, gem-cutting, and metalworking. They wore these cameos as jewelry or to decorate vases. Many of these art forms still exist today along with other influences of Roman art. The Romans were very skilled and clever builders. Like their art they imitated other people but added their own talents and improved them, creating ideas that later architects would copy. For example, the widely copied triumphal arch, a huge monument built to commemorate great victories or achievements. The Romans weren’t just inventors they learned how to use the arch, vault, and dome in the end these 3 factors would come together to form huge structures. In fact the Pantheon located in Rome is famous for its giant dome. The most notorious Roman structure is the stadium they created called the Colosseum. This open structure seated thousands of people and the tunnels made it easy for the spectators to reach their seats, modern football stadiums still use this feature. The Romans greatly affected engineering as well as architecture. They were the greatest builders of roads, bridges, and aqueducts in the entire ancient world. More than 50,000 miles of road connected the Roman Empire! They built their roads with stone, sand and gravel this set the bar for road building at the time. They also excelled in their aqueducts by creating a whole system of them that brought water about 60 miles away to the home of the rich, as well as public baths, and fountains. This doesn’t that big of an effect on us today but language does. The most important legacy of the Romans that still affects us today was the Roman language Latin. Latin was the main language of the Roman Empire, but particularly in the east languages such as Greek and Aramaic were still in use. Even though the decline of the Western Roman Empire had all ready happened, the Latin language continued to flourish in the very different social and economic environment of the Middle Ages, not in the least because it became the official language of the Roman Catholic Church. The vocabulary of Germanic languages like German or English contains a large percentage of Latin words. In the case of English, the proportion of words with a Latin origin is estimated to be over 50% of the words. Today we still use Roman numerals but mainly for decoration unlike the laws, citizenship and philosophy of Rome. One philosophy in Rome was Stoicism is a school of philosophy founded in Athens by the Greeks in the early 3rd century BC. The Stoics believed that a godly intelligence ruled over nature. Due to this they were concerned with having a good character and having certain virtues. Roman stoics were famous for bearing pain bravely and quietly, even today we still call some people stoic. Roman law covered marriages, inheritances, contracts and many other things in the daily life of ancient Romans. Ancient Roman laws have influenced the modern legal codes in many European countries like France and Italy. The Romans laws believed that everyone had rights so someone who was poor got treat the same way a rich person did as far as the law goes. But they did not follow that ideas and in most cases this did not happen. Despite this the Roman influence still lives on like citizenship. The Romans gave us the idea that anyone could become a citizen. This idea is both a privilege and a responsibility that has been greatly influenced by our Roman ancestors. But even if you become a citizen your must follow every law of the U.S.A. as if it was your home country.
The Romans have many lasting achievements that affect us today in the modern world. These effects help us live easier and fairer lives and make us different from the humans of earlier times. One of these achievements is The Network of Concrete Roads. Roman roads were an important part of the development of the Roman Empire because there were many Roman roads, “more than 400,000 km of roads, including over 80,500 km of paved roads”. The Romans became the best at constructing roads because they had tricks up their sleeves. To make the roads the Romans used stones, broken stones mixed with cement and sand, cement mixed with broken tiles, curving stones, and on the top they used tightly packed paving stones. The Roman road networks were important in trying to maintaining empire and for its expansion of trade which both lead to its demise. This achievement affects us today because we still use roads to gets places and also some Roman roads are still in use they are just repaved. The most important achievement of all is the…Latin Language. Latin was the main language of the Roman Empire and you can see the influence of it in many modern languages like Italian, Spanish, and French. Even though the collapse of the Western Roman Empire had all ready happened, the Latin language continued to flourish in the environment of the Middle Ages; in fact it became the official language of the Roman Catholic Church. The vocabulary of Germanic languages like German or English contains a large percentage of Latin words. In the case of English, the proportion of words with a Latin origin is estimated to be over 50%. This achievement affects us today because these are some of the most spoken languages. The achievement that affected Romans the greatest was...The Development of The Aqueduct. The Romans constructed aqueducts to bring a constant flow of water from distant sources into cities and towns, supplying public baths, fountains and private household. Some aqueducts also served water for mining, processing, manufacturing, and agriculture. Aqueducts moved water along a slight downward slope within the confines of stone, brick or concrete. Most aqueducts were buried beneath the ground. The water from the aqueducts was carried on bridgework, or it fed into high-pressure lead, ceramic or stone pipes located across the empire. This affects us today because some of these aqueducts are still in use. These achievements affected Rome greatly and now they affect modern society too.
The Roman Empire was a strong and fierce empire in its time. At its height, around 117C.E, the Roman Empire had covered vast land “from northern Africa to The Scottish border, from Spain to Syria”. The Empire of Rome was the greatest empire to ever rule such a vast area and it had fallen. Their many faults in politics, economics, leadership and control contributed to their fall. The Roman Empire fell more than 1,500 years ago, but it left a lasting mark on western civilization. From Rome’s art to its language to its diversity they have all found a way to effect modern day societies. So the question remains where would we be without the Roman Empire, to which we now say solemnly.....farewell | <urn:uuid:c941ba7b-5ee4-43e2-aa25-ac7fa89148b8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.studymode.com/essays/The-Glory-Of-Rome-43878232.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00006.warc.gz | en | 0.980329 | 2,179 | 3.875 | 4 | [
-0.25025442242622375,
0.4151110351085663,
0.7373263239860535,
0.07424952834844589,
-0.21882812678813934,
-0.08376719057559967,
-0.12148858606815338,
0.4925141930580139,
0.08367007970809937,
-0.18627558648586273,
0.25064027309417725,
-0.14229010045528412,
-0.0047171576879918575,
0.509794712... | 1 | In its time the Roman Empire was the greatest the world has ever seen. From 27C.E. to 476C.E. the Roman Empire has grown and prospered, this historic empire was the greatest the world had ever seen. At its height, around 117C.E, the Roman Empire had covered vast land “from northern Africa to The Scottish border, from Spain to Syria”. But eventually this became too much to handle and by the year 500, the western have of the empire had fallen. There are many reasons to why this side of the Roman Empire had morosely collapsed: political instability, economic problems, and weakening frontiers. But its memory is still with us everywhere we go we can see subtle influences of the Romans: art, architecture, engineering, writing, philosophy, law, citizenship, and even language. After all “All roads lead to Rome”. What caused the fall of the omnipotent city of Rome and its empire? Some may say it was only one reason but the truth is there was never just one. In fact, historians point to many different predicaments that lead to Rome’s “passing” the number one problem, political instability. Rome never knew how to handle transfer of political power once a king passed. As a result when an emperor had died anxious adversaries were ready with their own individual armies, and they fought for that crown. Even after this period of random violence the Romans still didn’t learn. There was never a good system to choose the next emperor or transfer the power. Sometimes the Praetorian Guard (the private army belonging to the emperor) got to choose the next ruler but they only chose a ruler that would benefit and reward them thus that new ruler normally made bad decisions. Other than political problems the Romans suffered many economical disturbances and it all started with the notorious Roman army. In order to keep Rome protected and the army “happy” the citizens had to pay heavy taxes, this problem drove many people into poverty. As a result many people were unemployed but there weren’t enough jobs for everyone. Famous emperors like Nero and Caligula made matters even worse by wasting lavish amount of money on festivals and parties. These money deficiencies lead to a great rise in the numbers of crimes in the empire, which made the cities and streets a dangerous place. The problem that really drove Rome under was the weakening frontiers because the huge size of the empire made it hard to defend. Due to this problem it sometimes took a while for the emperor to communicate with the army generals so when one army went to help one another the king was unaware of it until probably a few weeks later. And enemy tribes had time to sneak in before the king could do anything about it, that how the western empire had fallen. Before anyone was notified Germanic tribes were invading and in 410C.E. one of these tribes had taken over Rome itself, then 66 years later the last emperor of Rome was thrown from his throne and the western half of Rome had begun to dissolve. The Roman Empire fell more than 1,500 years ago, but it left a lasting mark on western civilization. We can still see Rome’s influences today in our art, architecture, engineering, writing, philosophy, law, citizenship, and even our own language, these are the legacies of the Roman empire. Roman art took the aspects of other cultures, mixed them with theirs and made them their own. This was how Roman art worked. They gained ideas from others but they were mainly influenced by the art of the Greeks, the mix of Roman and Greek art is called “Greco-Roman” art, this form of art greatly influenced western art. The Romans imitated these cultures but they added their own talents. The Romans greatly appreciated art and wealthy families usually had homes filled with statues, murals mosaics and frescos. The Romans also had a knack for style they would turn a bottle of wine into the shape of a grape cluster. They also developed the arts of cameo, gem-cutting, and metalworking. They wore these cameos as jewelry or to decorate vases. Many of these art forms still exist today along with other influences of Roman art. The Romans were very skilled and clever builders. Like their art they imitated other people but added their own talents and improved them, creating ideas that later architects would copy. For example, the widely copied triumphal arch, a huge monument built to commemorate great victories or achievements. The Romans weren’t just inventors they learned how to use the arch, vault, and dome in the end these 3 factors would come together to form huge structures. In fact the Pantheon located in Rome is famous for its giant dome. The most notorious Roman structure is the stadium they created called the Colosseum. This open structure seated thousands of people and the tunnels made it easy for the spectators to reach their seats, modern football stadiums still use this feature. The Romans greatly affected engineering as well as architecture. They were the greatest builders of roads, bridges, and aqueducts in the entire ancient world. More than 50,000 miles of road connected the Roman Empire! They built their roads with stone, sand and gravel this set the bar for road building at the time. They also excelled in their aqueducts by creating a whole system of them that brought water about 60 miles away to the home of the rich, as well as public baths, and fountains. This doesn’t that big of an effect on us today but language does. The most important legacy of the Romans that still affects us today was the Roman language Latin. Latin was the main language of the Roman Empire, but particularly in the east languages such as Greek and Aramaic were still in use. Even though the decline of the Western Roman Empire had all ready happened, the Latin language continued to flourish in the very different social and economic environment of the Middle Ages, not in the least because it became the official language of the Roman Catholic Church. The vocabulary of Germanic languages like German or English contains a large percentage of Latin words. In the case of English, the proportion of words with a Latin origin is estimated to be over 50% of the words. Today we still use Roman numerals but mainly for decoration unlike the laws, citizenship and philosophy of Rome. One philosophy in Rome was Stoicism is a school of philosophy founded in Athens by the Greeks in the early 3rd century BC. The Stoics believed that a godly intelligence ruled over nature. Due to this they were concerned with having a good character and having certain virtues. Roman stoics were famous for bearing pain bravely and quietly, even today we still call some people stoic. Roman law covered marriages, inheritances, contracts and many other things in the daily life of ancient Romans. Ancient Roman laws have influenced the modern legal codes in many European countries like France and Italy. The Romans laws believed that everyone had rights so someone who was poor got treat the same way a rich person did as far as the law goes. But they did not follow that ideas and in most cases this did not happen. Despite this the Roman influence still lives on like citizenship. The Romans gave us the idea that anyone could become a citizen. This idea is both a privilege and a responsibility that has been greatly influenced by our Roman ancestors. But even if you become a citizen your must follow every law of the U.S.A. as if it was your home country.
The Romans have many lasting achievements that affect us today in the modern world. These effects help us live easier and fairer lives and make us different from the humans of earlier times. One of these achievements is The Network of Concrete Roads. Roman roads were an important part of the development of the Roman Empire because there were many Roman roads, “more than 400,000 km of roads, including over 80,500 km of paved roads”. The Romans became the best at constructing roads because they had tricks up their sleeves. To make the roads the Romans used stones, broken stones mixed with cement and sand, cement mixed with broken tiles, curving stones, and on the top they used tightly packed paving stones. The Roman road networks were important in trying to maintaining empire and for its expansion of trade which both lead to its demise. This achievement affects us today because we still use roads to gets places and also some Roman roads are still in use they are just repaved. The most important achievement of all is the…Latin Language. Latin was the main language of the Roman Empire and you can see the influence of it in many modern languages like Italian, Spanish, and French. Even though the collapse of the Western Roman Empire had all ready happened, the Latin language continued to flourish in the environment of the Middle Ages; in fact it became the official language of the Roman Catholic Church. The vocabulary of Germanic languages like German or English contains a large percentage of Latin words. In the case of English, the proportion of words with a Latin origin is estimated to be over 50%. This achievement affects us today because these are some of the most spoken languages. The achievement that affected Romans the greatest was...The Development of The Aqueduct. The Romans constructed aqueducts to bring a constant flow of water from distant sources into cities and towns, supplying public baths, fountains and private household. Some aqueducts also served water for mining, processing, manufacturing, and agriculture. Aqueducts moved water along a slight downward slope within the confines of stone, brick or concrete. Most aqueducts were buried beneath the ground. The water from the aqueducts was carried on bridgework, or it fed into high-pressure lead, ceramic or stone pipes located across the empire. This affects us today because some of these aqueducts are still in use. These achievements affected Rome greatly and now they affect modern society too.
The Roman Empire was a strong and fierce empire in its time. At its height, around 117C.E, the Roman Empire had covered vast land “from northern Africa to The Scottish border, from Spain to Syria”. The Empire of Rome was the greatest empire to ever rule such a vast area and it had fallen. Their many faults in politics, economics, leadership and control contributed to their fall. The Roman Empire fell more than 1,500 years ago, but it left a lasting mark on western civilization. From Rome’s art to its language to its diversity they have all found a way to effect modern day societies. So the question remains where would we be without the Roman Empire, to which we now say solemnly.....farewell | 2,171 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Most people know the basic story of the first Thanksgiving: the Pilgrims arrived at Plymouth rock, the Native Americans helped them grow food, and they all gathered together in a feast of thanksgiving.
But what most tellings of the story leave out is the crucial role played by Squanto, the English-speaking Catholic Native American hero.
Wait, what? Why was there an English-speaking Catholic Native American near Plymouth when the Pilgrims landed? Here’s the amazing story.
In the early 17th century, Squanto’s tribe came in contact with some of the earliest English colonist in the Americas. He was captured and taught English so he could serve as an interpreter. But in 1614, as he was being transported by John Smith (of Pocahontas fame), one of Smith’s lieutenants, Thomas Hunt, kidnapped him.
Hunt took Squanto to Spain to sell him as a slave. But some Franciscan friars saw what was happening and saved Squanto. The Franciscans taught Squanto the Catholic faith and he was apparently baptized.
A free man, Squanto wanted to return home, so he went to London to try to get a place aboard a ship going back to the Massachusetts colony. In the mean time, he worked as a shipbuilder and greatly improved his English.
In 1619, Squanto was finally able to return home on a ship led by John Smith. Tragically, upon arrival he discovered that most of his tribe had died of a plague the year before.
It was almost as though God had prepared him perfectly for what happened next: just a year later in 1620, the Pilgrims arrived. They were English Calvinists who were seeking to build a new religious community apart from the Church of England. Little did they know that they would end up being saved by a Catholic!
The Pilgrims had little food and were unprepared for survival in the Americas. Squanto, who spoke great English and had a lot of experience with English culture, reached out to help, teaching them how to grow food in the new landscape. It must have seemed like a miracle to the Pilgrims!
He befriended the Pilgrims and became an important part of their community. At one point, Squanto was kidnapped by another tribe and a team of Pilgrims saved him.
Unfortunately, less than two years after the landing of the Pilgrims, Squanto became sick and died suddenly. Governor William Bradford, one of the pilgrims’ leaders, wrote this about him:
“Here [Monomoyick Bay] Squanto fell ill of Indian fever, bleeding much at the nose, which the Indians take as a symptom of death, and within a few days he died. He begged the Governor to pray for him, that he might go to the Englishman’s God in heaven, and bequeathed several of his things to his English friends, as remembrances. His death was a great loss.” | <urn:uuid:4c5e7819-2560-4c65-8475-68ad6f064118> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://churchpop.com/2016/11/21/the-miraculous-forgotten-catholic-hero-of-the-first-thanksgiving/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00291.warc.gz | en | 0.990452 | 622 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
0.3718646168708801,
0.20055261254310608,
0.3789382576942444,
-0.2522706985473633,
-0.2051343023777008,
-0.32628965377807617,
0.08004600554704666,
0.3222155272960663,
-0.037581078708171844,
0.1279125213623047,
-0.3305179476737976,
-0.07820995897054672,
-0.23920850455760956,
0.38314020633697... | 4 | Most people know the basic story of the first Thanksgiving: the Pilgrims arrived at Plymouth rock, the Native Americans helped them grow food, and they all gathered together in a feast of thanksgiving.
But what most tellings of the story leave out is the crucial role played by Squanto, the English-speaking Catholic Native American hero.
Wait, what? Why was there an English-speaking Catholic Native American near Plymouth when the Pilgrims landed? Here’s the amazing story.
In the early 17th century, Squanto’s tribe came in contact with some of the earliest English colonist in the Americas. He was captured and taught English so he could serve as an interpreter. But in 1614, as he was being transported by John Smith (of Pocahontas fame), one of Smith’s lieutenants, Thomas Hunt, kidnapped him.
Hunt took Squanto to Spain to sell him as a slave. But some Franciscan friars saw what was happening and saved Squanto. The Franciscans taught Squanto the Catholic faith and he was apparently baptized.
A free man, Squanto wanted to return home, so he went to London to try to get a place aboard a ship going back to the Massachusetts colony. In the mean time, he worked as a shipbuilder and greatly improved his English.
In 1619, Squanto was finally able to return home on a ship led by John Smith. Tragically, upon arrival he discovered that most of his tribe had died of a plague the year before.
It was almost as though God had prepared him perfectly for what happened next: just a year later in 1620, the Pilgrims arrived. They were English Calvinists who were seeking to build a new religious community apart from the Church of England. Little did they know that they would end up being saved by a Catholic!
The Pilgrims had little food and were unprepared for survival in the Americas. Squanto, who spoke great English and had a lot of experience with English culture, reached out to help, teaching them how to grow food in the new landscape. It must have seemed like a miracle to the Pilgrims!
He befriended the Pilgrims and became an important part of their community. At one point, Squanto was kidnapped by another tribe and a team of Pilgrims saved him.
Unfortunately, less than two years after the landing of the Pilgrims, Squanto became sick and died suddenly. Governor William Bradford, one of the pilgrims’ leaders, wrote this about him:
“Here [Monomoyick Bay] Squanto fell ill of Indian fever, bleeding much at the nose, which the Indians take as a symptom of death, and within a few days he died. He begged the Governor to pray for him, that he might go to the Englishman’s God in heaven, and bequeathed several of his things to his English friends, as remembrances. His death was a great loss.” | 613 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In France, employees of the National Institute of Preventive Archaeological Research (INRAP) during excavations in Brittany discovered a large necropolis of the Gallo-Roman period, in which dozens of urns with the remains of cremated people were stored.
The discovery is reported on the INRAP website. Archaeologists examined the site allocated for the construction of a residential building on the western slope of Mount Fruga. In this place was the so-called Gallo-Roman agglomeration Camper / Lokmaria, founded in the first decades of the 1st century AD.
Partially, the necropolis was found at the end of the XIX century. However, his study began only now. According to archaeologists, a necropolis can occupy an area of one to two hectares. Apparently, he acted in the I-II centuries of our era.
About 140 burials with urns were discovered in the necropolis. Some were “single”, that is, they contained one urn, and in other burials, two urns were found. Perhaps these were family burial chambers.
It was possible to date the burial in the objects found in them – vases, cups, miniature ceramics, copper products and coins. In addition, nails were found in the ground.
Scientists suggest that the necropolis could be reused at a later time, when the dead were buried already without cremation, but in wooden coffins. Traces of wood also indicate this.
Organic traces of the remains were not preserved, which scientists explain the increased acidity of the local soil. The latest pits, probable burials, are dated to the XIV-XV centuries of our era.
Now archaeologists are trying to recreate the appearance of the necropolis. In their opinion, it could consist of three parts of a regular quadrangular shape. Probably, on its southern border, not far from the proposed road, there were two large stone monuments of circular and square shapes.
Perhaps these were small buildings that could serve as mausoleums. | <urn:uuid:cdaa3530-f072-4d74-8cf3-3e97ed664754> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://earth-chronicles.com/science/in-france-found-a-huge-roman-crematorium.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00470.warc.gz | en | 0.98567 | 430 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
-0.4108976423740387,
0.5583743453025818,
0.42266079783439636,
0.13965782523155212,
-0.09089063107967377,
-0.08361265808343887,
-0.23969033360481262,
0.21128253638744354,
0.11658252030611038,
-0.19358332455158234,
0.020954398438334465,
-0.6558183431625366,
-0.15646179020404816,
0.7310631871... | 3 | In France, employees of the National Institute of Preventive Archaeological Research (INRAP) during excavations in Brittany discovered a large necropolis of the Gallo-Roman period, in which dozens of urns with the remains of cremated people were stored.
The discovery is reported on the INRAP website. Archaeologists examined the site allocated for the construction of a residential building on the western slope of Mount Fruga. In this place was the so-called Gallo-Roman agglomeration Camper / Lokmaria, founded in the first decades of the 1st century AD.
Partially, the necropolis was found at the end of the XIX century. However, his study began only now. According to archaeologists, a necropolis can occupy an area of one to two hectares. Apparently, he acted in the I-II centuries of our era.
About 140 burials with urns were discovered in the necropolis. Some were “single”, that is, they contained one urn, and in other burials, two urns were found. Perhaps these were family burial chambers.
It was possible to date the burial in the objects found in them – vases, cups, miniature ceramics, copper products and coins. In addition, nails were found in the ground.
Scientists suggest that the necropolis could be reused at a later time, when the dead were buried already without cremation, but in wooden coffins. Traces of wood also indicate this.
Organic traces of the remains were not preserved, which scientists explain the increased acidity of the local soil. The latest pits, probable burials, are dated to the XIV-XV centuries of our era.
Now archaeologists are trying to recreate the appearance of the necropolis. In their opinion, it could consist of three parts of a regular quadrangular shape. Probably, on its southern border, not far from the proposed road, there were two large stone monuments of circular and square shapes.
Perhaps these were small buildings that could serve as mausoleums. | 411 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Macbeth took the throne after killing his cousin, King Duncan I, in battle in 1040. In 1046, Siward, earl of Northumbria, unsuccessfully attempted to dethrone Macbeth in favor of Malcolm. In 1054, Macbeth was apparently forced by Siward to yield part of southern Scotland to Malcolm. Three years later, Macbeth was killed in battle by Malcolm, with assistance from the English.
Considered to be one of the last Gaelic kings, the real Macbeth MacFindlaech was not the murderous, terrible character of William Shakespeare's The Tragedy of Macbeth. Macbeth was born in Alba in central Scotland around 1005—the same year that his grandfather became king. His father, Findlaech MacRuaridh, was mormaer (an earl) of Moray, a province in northern Scotland. His mother, Doada, was the second daughter of Malcolm II. Historians describe the young Macbeth as tall, fair haired and handsome, with a ruddy complexion.
Earl of Moray
At the age of 7, Macbeth was sent to a Christian monastery to be educated by monks—a requirement for all important chieftains' sons. At age 15, Macbeth's cousins, Malcolm and Gillecomgain, killed his father, possibly for being too close to Malcolm II, king of Scotland. After his tutelage, Macbeth reappeared around 1032 when his cousin, Gillecomgain, was killed by order of Malcolm II for his killing of Findlaech. Macbeth was then elected mormaer of Moray, and soon married Gillecomgain's widow, Gruoch, and adopted her son, Lulach. The marriage strengthened his claim to the throne.
On November 24, 1034, Malcolm II died of natural causes. One month later, his son, Duncan MacCrinan, was elected king. For six uneasy years, Duncan ruled Scotland with a thirst for power countermanded by his incompetence on the battlefield. In 1038, Ealdred, earl of Northumbria, attacked southern Scotland, but the effort was repelled and Duncan's chiefs encouraged him to lead a counterattack. Duncan also wanted to invade the Orkneys Islands to the north. Over the objections of all of his advisers, he chose to do both.
King of Scotland
In 1040, Duncan opened up two fronts. The attack on the Orkneys was led by his nephew, Moddan, and Duncan led a force toward Northumbria. Both armies were soon routed and reformed only to be pursued by Thorfinn, mormaer of Orkney. Macbeth joined Thorfinn and, together, they were victorious, killing Moddan. On August 14, 1040, Macbeth defeated Duncan's army, killing him in the process. Later that month, Macbeth led his forces to Scone, the Scottish capital, and, at age 35, he was crowned king of Scotland.
For 17 years, life was peaceful and prosperous as Macbeth ruled with an even hand and encouraged the spread of Christianity. He enacted several good laws, among them one that enforced Celtic tradition requiring officers of the court to defend women and orphans anywhere in the kingdom. Another allowed daughters the same rights of inheritance as sons. The only domestic disruption was in 1045, a rebellion by Duncan I's supporters that was soon suppressed. In 1046, Siward, earl of Northumbria, unsuccessfully attempted to dethrone Macbeth.
In 1050, Macbeth and his wife traveled to Rome for a papal jubilee, giving alms to the poor and donating to the Church. However, upon his return, Macbeth faced political turmoil brewing outside his realm. In 1052, Normans living in England fled the chaotic situation into Scotland. Celtic custom held that all travelers were welcome in Macbeth's court. However, this act of kindness didn't set too well with English lords. Around the same time, Duncan's 21-year-old son, Malcolm MacDuncan, was lobbying English lords that he was best-suited to serve as king of Scotland.
Military Defeat and Death
In time, Malcolm's efforts led to action. In 1054, Siward, earl of Northumbria, accompanied by Malcolm, led an army north into Scotland. Meeting little resistance from the southern provinces, they continued north. On July 27, 1054, Macbeth's forces met the invaders in Dunsinnan, close to the capital in Scone. By the end of the battle, 3,000 of Macbeth's forces had fallen. The invaders only lost 1,500, but the outcome was indecisive. Macbeth retrenched his army near Scone and Malcolm moved south to control Cumbria, the southernmost province of Scotland.
Over the next three years, Macbeth and his army were under constant assault by Malcolm, but he was able to stave him off. In 1057, Macbeth lost the support of two key allies, Pope Leo IX and the bishop of St. Andrew, Maelduin MacGille-Ordain, both of whom could have put pressure on England to not support Malcolm. Macbeth also lost his chief general, Thorfinn, ruler of the Orkneys, who had recently died.
On August 15, 1057, Macbeth was killed at the Battle of Lumphanan in Aberdeenshire by Malcolm's men as he tried to return to Moray. His body was buried in the holy isle of Iona, where many other Scottish kings were buried. A few days after his death, his stepson, Lulach, was elected high king. Lulach ruled for seven months before being killed by Malcolm's agents. Finally, on April 25, 1058, Malcolm MacDuncan became high king of Scotland.
We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us! | <urn:uuid:8c4b685d-080c-4951-b8bc-928c8c098a40> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.biography.com/royalty/macbeth | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00243.warc.gz | en | 0.985233 | 1,263 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
-0.23934966325759888,
0.20821693539619446,
0.291375070810318,
-0.0444248765707016,
-0.12784570455551147,
-0.4617253243923187,
0.46338027715682983,
0.29906052350997925,
-0.13394923508167267,
-0.19579903781414032,
0.1349160075187683,
-0.5442996621131897,
-0.15901100635528564,
0.0600062161684... | 10 | Macbeth took the throne after killing his cousin, King Duncan I, in battle in 1040. In 1046, Siward, earl of Northumbria, unsuccessfully attempted to dethrone Macbeth in favor of Malcolm. In 1054, Macbeth was apparently forced by Siward to yield part of southern Scotland to Malcolm. Three years later, Macbeth was killed in battle by Malcolm, with assistance from the English.
Considered to be one of the last Gaelic kings, the real Macbeth MacFindlaech was not the murderous, terrible character of William Shakespeare's The Tragedy of Macbeth. Macbeth was born in Alba in central Scotland around 1005—the same year that his grandfather became king. His father, Findlaech MacRuaridh, was mormaer (an earl) of Moray, a province in northern Scotland. His mother, Doada, was the second daughter of Malcolm II. Historians describe the young Macbeth as tall, fair haired and handsome, with a ruddy complexion.
Earl of Moray
At the age of 7, Macbeth was sent to a Christian monastery to be educated by monks—a requirement for all important chieftains' sons. At age 15, Macbeth's cousins, Malcolm and Gillecomgain, killed his father, possibly for being too close to Malcolm II, king of Scotland. After his tutelage, Macbeth reappeared around 1032 when his cousin, Gillecomgain, was killed by order of Malcolm II for his killing of Findlaech. Macbeth was then elected mormaer of Moray, and soon married Gillecomgain's widow, Gruoch, and adopted her son, Lulach. The marriage strengthened his claim to the throne.
On November 24, 1034, Malcolm II died of natural causes. One month later, his son, Duncan MacCrinan, was elected king. For six uneasy years, Duncan ruled Scotland with a thirst for power countermanded by his incompetence on the battlefield. In 1038, Ealdred, earl of Northumbria, attacked southern Scotland, but the effort was repelled and Duncan's chiefs encouraged him to lead a counterattack. Duncan also wanted to invade the Orkneys Islands to the north. Over the objections of all of his advisers, he chose to do both.
King of Scotland
In 1040, Duncan opened up two fronts. The attack on the Orkneys was led by his nephew, Moddan, and Duncan led a force toward Northumbria. Both armies were soon routed and reformed only to be pursued by Thorfinn, mormaer of Orkney. Macbeth joined Thorfinn and, together, they were victorious, killing Moddan. On August 14, 1040, Macbeth defeated Duncan's army, killing him in the process. Later that month, Macbeth led his forces to Scone, the Scottish capital, and, at age 35, he was crowned king of Scotland.
For 17 years, life was peaceful and prosperous as Macbeth ruled with an even hand and encouraged the spread of Christianity. He enacted several good laws, among them one that enforced Celtic tradition requiring officers of the court to defend women and orphans anywhere in the kingdom. Another allowed daughters the same rights of inheritance as sons. The only domestic disruption was in 1045, a rebellion by Duncan I's supporters that was soon suppressed. In 1046, Siward, earl of Northumbria, unsuccessfully attempted to dethrone Macbeth.
In 1050, Macbeth and his wife traveled to Rome for a papal jubilee, giving alms to the poor and donating to the Church. However, upon his return, Macbeth faced political turmoil brewing outside his realm. In 1052, Normans living in England fled the chaotic situation into Scotland. Celtic custom held that all travelers were welcome in Macbeth's court. However, this act of kindness didn't set too well with English lords. Around the same time, Duncan's 21-year-old son, Malcolm MacDuncan, was lobbying English lords that he was best-suited to serve as king of Scotland.
Military Defeat and Death
In time, Malcolm's efforts led to action. In 1054, Siward, earl of Northumbria, accompanied by Malcolm, led an army north into Scotland. Meeting little resistance from the southern provinces, they continued north. On July 27, 1054, Macbeth's forces met the invaders in Dunsinnan, close to the capital in Scone. By the end of the battle, 3,000 of Macbeth's forces had fallen. The invaders only lost 1,500, but the outcome was indecisive. Macbeth retrenched his army near Scone and Malcolm moved south to control Cumbria, the southernmost province of Scotland.
Over the next three years, Macbeth and his army were under constant assault by Malcolm, but he was able to stave him off. In 1057, Macbeth lost the support of two key allies, Pope Leo IX and the bishop of St. Andrew, Maelduin MacGille-Ordain, both of whom could have put pressure on England to not support Malcolm. Macbeth also lost his chief general, Thorfinn, ruler of the Orkneys, who had recently died.
On August 15, 1057, Macbeth was killed at the Battle of Lumphanan in Aberdeenshire by Malcolm's men as he tried to return to Moray. His body was buried in the holy isle of Iona, where many other Scottish kings were buried. A few days after his death, his stepson, Lulach, was elected high king. Lulach ruled for seven months before being killed by Malcolm's agents. Finally, on April 25, 1058, Malcolm MacDuncan became high king of Scotland.
We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us! | 1,305 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The story begins and ends with Gandalf visiting Bilbo in his home at Bag End.
His parents had moved there from England so that his father, Arthur, could work for the bank of Africa. Tolkien lost both parents early in life—his father died in Africa in after the rest of the family had returned to England, and his mother, Mabel, died in near Birmingham, England.
At Oxford, Tolkien pursued a degree in English language and literature. He developed a particular passion for philology, the study of languages.
While studying Old English, Anglo-Saxon, and Welsh poetry, he continued experimenting with a language of his own, which he had started to do in his youth.
This language would form the groundwork for his imagined world known as Middle-Earth. ByTolkien had received his degree and married his childhood sweetheart, Edith Bratt.
He eventually took a teaching position at Oxford. Byhe had had his fourth child with Edith. During these years, he also began his great mythology of Middle-Earth, a compendium of stories called The Silmarillion.
Out of these stories grew The Hobbithis first published work.
Tolkien acknowledged that his hero, Bilbo Baggins, was patterned on the rural Englishmen of his own time. By the time Tolkien began to work on the sequel to The Hobbit, he had developed a friendship with another well-known Oxford professor and writer, C. Lewis, author of The Chronicles of Narnia.
Their friendship lasted for many years. From toTolkien continued to teach at Oxford and wrote The Lord of the Rings trilogy, which served as a follow-up to The Hobbit. The trilogy brought Tolkien fame in England and America, but he was never a public figure. He continued work on The Silmarillion and other tales and led a quiet life.
Despite his public acclaim, he was most comfortable with middle-class surroundings and peace in which to write and think. Tolkien died on September 2, The Silmarillion was edited and published posthumously by his son Christopher in A short J. R. R. Tolkien biography describes J.
R. R. Tolkien's life, times, and work. Also explains the historical and literary context that influenced The Hobbit. In J.R.R. Tolkien's novel, The Hobbit, it shows a young hobbit who discovers the ups and downs to an adventure. From goblins, to elves, to spiders, to many other creatures. From goblins, to elves, to spiders, to many other creatures.
The Hobbit by J. R. R. Tolkien (Book Analysis): Detailed Summary, Analysis and Reading Guide The Hobbit was the first novel published by J.
R. R. Tolkien, who is widely considered to be the founder of modern fantasy. Find out everything you need to know about The Hobbit in a fraction of the time!Author: Bright Summaries. “A thrill Beowulf was Tolkien’s attheheels.comhing he did led up to or away from it.” —New Yorker J.R.R.
Tolkien completed his translation of Beowulf in he returned to it later to make hasty corrections, but seems never to have considered its attheheels.com edition includes an illuminating written commentary on the poem by the translator .
The Lord of the Rings is an epic high fantasy novel written by J. R. R. Tolkien, which was later fitted as a trilogy. The story began as a sequel to Tolkien's earlier fantasy book The Hobbit and soon developed into a much larger story.
It was written in stages between and , with. This webpage is for Dr. Wheeler's literature students, and it offers introductory survey information concerning the literature of classical China, classical Rome, classical Greece, the Bible as Literature, medieval literature, Renaissance literature, and genre studies. | <urn:uuid:7fa2a8ee-b8d2-4d2b-8710-b16833b65745> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://jawimanosazedaze.attheheels.com/an-analysis-of-the-hobbit-a-novel-by-j-r-r-tolkien-54311rn.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00394.warc.gz | en | 0.986889 | 797 | 3.625 | 4 | [
-0.0392766147851944,
0.4527968764305115,
0.3889872431755066,
-0.18681874871253967,
-0.5464301109313965,
-0.020416729152202606,
0.16776889562606812,
0.139443039894104,
-0.1277967393398285,
-0.316876083612442,
-0.19121365249156952,
-0.10650001466274261,
0.26056578755378723,
0.463898301124572... | 1 | The story begins and ends with Gandalf visiting Bilbo in his home at Bag End.
His parents had moved there from England so that his father, Arthur, could work for the bank of Africa. Tolkien lost both parents early in life—his father died in Africa in after the rest of the family had returned to England, and his mother, Mabel, died in near Birmingham, England.
At Oxford, Tolkien pursued a degree in English language and literature. He developed a particular passion for philology, the study of languages.
While studying Old English, Anglo-Saxon, and Welsh poetry, he continued experimenting with a language of his own, which he had started to do in his youth.
This language would form the groundwork for his imagined world known as Middle-Earth. ByTolkien had received his degree and married his childhood sweetheart, Edith Bratt.
He eventually took a teaching position at Oxford. Byhe had had his fourth child with Edith. During these years, he also began his great mythology of Middle-Earth, a compendium of stories called The Silmarillion.
Out of these stories grew The Hobbithis first published work.
Tolkien acknowledged that his hero, Bilbo Baggins, was patterned on the rural Englishmen of his own time. By the time Tolkien began to work on the sequel to The Hobbit, he had developed a friendship with another well-known Oxford professor and writer, C. Lewis, author of The Chronicles of Narnia.
Their friendship lasted for many years. From toTolkien continued to teach at Oxford and wrote The Lord of the Rings trilogy, which served as a follow-up to The Hobbit. The trilogy brought Tolkien fame in England and America, but he was never a public figure. He continued work on The Silmarillion and other tales and led a quiet life.
Despite his public acclaim, he was most comfortable with middle-class surroundings and peace in which to write and think. Tolkien died on September 2, The Silmarillion was edited and published posthumously by his son Christopher in A short J. R. R. Tolkien biography describes J.
R. R. Tolkien's life, times, and work. Also explains the historical and literary context that influenced The Hobbit. In J.R.R. Tolkien's novel, The Hobbit, it shows a young hobbit who discovers the ups and downs to an adventure. From goblins, to elves, to spiders, to many other creatures. From goblins, to elves, to spiders, to many other creatures.
The Hobbit by J. R. R. Tolkien (Book Analysis): Detailed Summary, Analysis and Reading Guide The Hobbit was the first novel published by J.
R. R. Tolkien, who is widely considered to be the founder of modern fantasy. Find out everything you need to know about The Hobbit in a fraction of the time!Author: Bright Summaries. “A thrill Beowulf was Tolkien’s attheheels.comhing he did led up to or away from it.” —New Yorker J.R.R.
Tolkien completed his translation of Beowulf in he returned to it later to make hasty corrections, but seems never to have considered its attheheels.com edition includes an illuminating written commentary on the poem by the translator .
The Lord of the Rings is an epic high fantasy novel written by J. R. R. Tolkien, which was later fitted as a trilogy. The story began as a sequel to Tolkien's earlier fantasy book The Hobbit and soon developed into a much larger story.
It was written in stages between and , with. This webpage is for Dr. Wheeler's literature students, and it offers introductory survey information concerning the literature of classical China, classical Rome, classical Greece, the Bible as Literature, medieval literature, Renaissance literature, and genre studies. | 777 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The fifth grade have been educating themselves on various inventions throughout the ages. I'm incredibly proud of the final results of their timelines, which included a minimum of eight inventions and a paragraph to educate someone who may not know about the chosen invention. In addition, they got creative with decorating and even going as far as creating replicas of their inventions.
Today, the students continued their discussions about matter. Students discussed the 3 states of matter and began designing posters about a periodic element of their choice.
Today, the students learned about matter, i.e. it makes of everything and we all matter. Our discussion of matter led us to discuss density and polymers. The students made their own slime, which is a polymer, from household materials (borax, water, and Elmer's clear glue). | <urn:uuid:feab072e-fa66-40b0-a248-37599ac5b09a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://srlscience.weebly.com/5th | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00444.warc.gz | en | 0.983209 | 163 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
-0.5036243200302124,
0.09457255154848099,
0.4309479892253876,
-0.570183277130127,
-0.2546168267726898,
0.02981407567858696,
0.17035067081451416,
0.5965855717658997,
-0.07616075873374939,
-0.010176711715757847,
-0.17436328530311584,
0.008303548209369183,
0.05477449670433998,
0.1185403391718... | 3 | The fifth grade have been educating themselves on various inventions throughout the ages. I'm incredibly proud of the final results of their timelines, which included a minimum of eight inventions and a paragraph to educate someone who may not know about the chosen invention. In addition, they got creative with decorating and even going as far as creating replicas of their inventions.
Today, the students continued their discussions about matter. Students discussed the 3 states of matter and began designing posters about a periodic element of their choice.
Today, the students learned about matter, i.e. it makes of everything and we all matter. Our discussion of matter led us to discuss density and polymers. The students made their own slime, which is a polymer, from household materials (borax, water, and Elmer's clear glue). | 159 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Coursework on The Rascal King (James Michael Curley-Boston) by Jack Beatty Essay
James Michael Curley was a colorful figure in the history of Boston and he left a mark, good or bad in the history and culture of that state during his political carrier, which lasted for fifty years. He was elected governor, mayor, congressman, and alderman of the state during his political life. He did not have any neutral supporter. Either some people used to consider him as a hero, or some used to consider him as a worst villain of the century.
He was the only mayor in US who was thrice indicted and jailed twice. (McDonough, 1)
For this reason, Jack Beatty has described him in his book as “The Rascal King”. Beatty has tried to find out the reason that why, in spite of being such a worthless person, he was elected by the people of Boston over and over again. Beatty has described Curley in the book as “The Rascal King”. During his political carrier, Irish people were migrating to the United States and settling down in Boston area.
The book reflects the complexities of the urban politics of that time. “For the Irish Americans…he was a political and cultural hero, an axial figure in their annals…the main thread in Curley’s public life: doing little things for little people who repaid him in votes and gratitude, who as the years went by and they tasted something of the world’s indifference, magnified manifold the value of the little things Curley had done for them” (McDonough, 1)
Describing the rule of Curley, Beatty has actually covered a journey, describing hundred years of Boston history and in the process, he was always critical about the activities of Curley. The book deals with Irish immigration into the US and their history.
Irish Protestants started arriving in the United States in the mid 18th century as they were becoming frustrated by the difference of the Presbyterians in Ascendancy Ireland. Their numbers increased after the failed revolt of Wolf Tone in 1798. On the contrary, Irish Catholic immigration started from the beginning of the 19th century. But their immigration greatly increased towards the middle of the century when the Great Famine occurred in Ireland. It forced about a million and half people to leave the island. Thomas H. O’Connor has mentioned these in his article The Boston Irish: A Political History.
Thomas H. O’Connor has also mentioned in his article that the Protestant immigrants left Ireland and migrated demanding land and political rights. As they used to speak English it became very easy for them to adjust in any new place that offered land and opportunity. Hence, many of them became well settled soon in the lands occupying the Western Frontier.
Irish Catholics on the other hand were not so fluent in English and were forced to leave Ireland and immigrate because of economic reasons and physical hunger. They were very much socially dependent on each other in this new found world and suspicious about everything around them. Their level of suspicion was same as they used to have towards the English speaking landlords and government officials in their native home. This wave of economically backward immigrants settled in ethnic ghettos in the northeastern cities. Thomas H. O’Connor has mentioned these in his article The Boston Irish: A Political History.
It has also been stated in the article by Thomas H. O’Connor that massive presence of Irish Catholic population led to a conflict for the first time in the history of the US between the natives and legal ethnic immigrants. To quote from the website, “Based in the ghetto network of churches, clubs and bars, the sometimes ruthless and always populist ethnic class politics of Irish party bosses would turn out to be an effective strategy against Anglo-American ‘brahmins’.”
Thomas H. O’Connor was very much critical in his article to mention that just with their vast numbers and well oiled infamous political machinery, their aim was to capture political power and in the process, getting their various interests served from the municipal government and also forcing the Irish Protestants yield to their political power. With a like minded Mayor Curley in office, their aim was to use the political power for further “social and economic aspirations”.
Thomas H. O’Connor has mentioned in his above mentioned article that for nine decades the Irish enjoyed a massive political monopoly in Boston, like Americans in any other American city. In this unbroken reign of Mayors, there arrived ghetto populists like James Curley who dominated the political scene in Boston during the first four decades of the twentieth century.
Jack Beatty has described in his book The Rascal King this urban politics of Boston and how it helped an inefficient person James Curley to get elected so many times by the voters of this region. To quote from the Chapter The Shin of a Sparrow Page 21 of the book, “The instrument of their remembrance would be James Michel Curley, who would reach back beyond his father’s generation to reclaim for politics the ethnic bitterness stemming from the events of the fifties that had been kept out of politics for decades. It would be what lent them the sullen psychology of an aggrieved minority long after they had become a majority.” (Amazon.com book reading section)
Thomas H. O’Connor has also stated in his article that these Irish Catholics used to live in their ethnically insulated neighborhoods and had very limited social exposure. Out of these, they would feel betrayed at some things and created an objection on the path to development. They used to protest against the urban development policies initiated by their elected Mayor based on the fear that it may come as an attack on their ghettos which once had given them some identity and the force and security to live as a group. The author has mentioned in his article that they tried to enforce racial integration in municipal schools by sending their children in buses from the ethnic ghettos.
Describing the generation that Curley belonged to as someone who “look back to pick up”, Beatty feels that it is the generation that never progressed and it is because of this reason that they prevented from going forward. Beatty has also stated in the Page 22 of his book that this “Famine Irish” people were undigested and indigestible and they came in a city where they were not asked to come. These words are a reflection of the fact that Beatty has openly expressed his hatred towards the Irish community as a whole.
It can be seen that Beatty has stated in Page 22 of his book that before the arrival of these Irish Catholics, Boston was a clean and ‘salubrious’ place and after they came, it became dirty and noisy. He has also stated that before their arrival, Boston was a unified lot and after these people arrived, the question of social divisions arose. To quote from the text on page 22, “Boston had stood for religion and politics; now it is a home to reactionary religion whose official organ, The Pilot, called the sacred cause of abolition ‘niggerology’.”
McDonough has stated in his article that in a democracy, a nation gets the politician it deserves. To quote from his article, “At the same time–paradoxically–the opposite is also true: society is a mirror of its politicians. Politicians are indeed a mirror of their society, and a kind of embodiment of its potential. ” That is exactly what Jack Beatty has tried to describe in his book The Rascal King.
Describing the urban politics of a place for a specific time period, it is better to be narrative while describing the events and leave the conclusion in the hands of the readers. The way Beatty has expressed his words against the Irish Catholic, is very much unwanted from a writer of his stature. I was getting confused at some places, feeling that Beatty is a political opponent of Curley. You can blame the policies of a particular ruler or a mayor or a politician, but it is always unwise to blame an entire community for the misdoings of Curley.
After Second World War, many modern politicians like John B. Hynes, John F. Collins and Ray Flynn became the mayor of Boston and succeeded in developing a new Boston. The same Irish people voted them. It is always unfair to blame an entire community for that.
1) The Boston Irish: A Political History, Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1995, Thomas H. O’Connor: Nordic Irish Studies Network: 10th March 2009 :
2) The Rascal King: The Life and Times of James Michael Curley. – book reviews, Feb 12, 1993, John E. McDonough: Bnet Network : 10th March 2009 : <http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1252/is_n3_v120/ai_13434671>
3) Amazon.com book reading section: Look Inside Category : 10th March, 2009
Cite this Coursework on The Rascal King (James Michael Curley-Boston) by Jack Beatty Essay
Coursework on The Rascal King (James Michael Curley-Boston) by Jack Beatty Essay. (2016, Nov 12). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/coursework-on-the-rascal-king-james-michael-curley-boston-by-jack-beatty/ | <urn:uuid:b9d7a020-cb9f-48d3-85a6-39302e149632> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://graduateway.com/coursework-on-the-rascal-king-james-michael-curley-boston-by-jack-beatty/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00070.warc.gz | en | 0.980342 | 1,970 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
-0.08206459134817123,
-0.17215675115585327,
0.46574801206588745,
-0.28697437047958374,
-0.1424231231212616,
-0.10814028978347778,
0.08938345313072205,
-0.2596307396888733,
-0.14189867675304413,
0.025040488690137863,
-0.005350240971893072,
-0.2177070677280426,
0.2443757802248001,
-0.1640540... | 1 | Coursework on The Rascal King (James Michael Curley-Boston) by Jack Beatty Essay
James Michael Curley was a colorful figure in the history of Boston and he left a mark, good or bad in the history and culture of that state during his political carrier, which lasted for fifty years. He was elected governor, mayor, congressman, and alderman of the state during his political life. He did not have any neutral supporter. Either some people used to consider him as a hero, or some used to consider him as a worst villain of the century.
He was the only mayor in US who was thrice indicted and jailed twice. (McDonough, 1)
For this reason, Jack Beatty has described him in his book as “The Rascal King”. Beatty has tried to find out the reason that why, in spite of being such a worthless person, he was elected by the people of Boston over and over again. Beatty has described Curley in the book as “The Rascal King”. During his political carrier, Irish people were migrating to the United States and settling down in Boston area.
The book reflects the complexities of the urban politics of that time. “For the Irish Americans…he was a political and cultural hero, an axial figure in their annals…the main thread in Curley’s public life: doing little things for little people who repaid him in votes and gratitude, who as the years went by and they tasted something of the world’s indifference, magnified manifold the value of the little things Curley had done for them” (McDonough, 1)
Describing the rule of Curley, Beatty has actually covered a journey, describing hundred years of Boston history and in the process, he was always critical about the activities of Curley. The book deals with Irish immigration into the US and their history.
Irish Protestants started arriving in the United States in the mid 18th century as they were becoming frustrated by the difference of the Presbyterians in Ascendancy Ireland. Their numbers increased after the failed revolt of Wolf Tone in 1798. On the contrary, Irish Catholic immigration started from the beginning of the 19th century. But their immigration greatly increased towards the middle of the century when the Great Famine occurred in Ireland. It forced about a million and half people to leave the island. Thomas H. O’Connor has mentioned these in his article The Boston Irish: A Political History.
Thomas H. O’Connor has also mentioned in his article that the Protestant immigrants left Ireland and migrated demanding land and political rights. As they used to speak English it became very easy for them to adjust in any new place that offered land and opportunity. Hence, many of them became well settled soon in the lands occupying the Western Frontier.
Irish Catholics on the other hand were not so fluent in English and were forced to leave Ireland and immigrate because of economic reasons and physical hunger. They were very much socially dependent on each other in this new found world and suspicious about everything around them. Their level of suspicion was same as they used to have towards the English speaking landlords and government officials in their native home. This wave of economically backward immigrants settled in ethnic ghettos in the northeastern cities. Thomas H. O’Connor has mentioned these in his article The Boston Irish: A Political History.
It has also been stated in the article by Thomas H. O’Connor that massive presence of Irish Catholic population led to a conflict for the first time in the history of the US between the natives and legal ethnic immigrants. To quote from the website, “Based in the ghetto network of churches, clubs and bars, the sometimes ruthless and always populist ethnic class politics of Irish party bosses would turn out to be an effective strategy against Anglo-American ‘brahmins’.”
Thomas H. O’Connor was very much critical in his article to mention that just with their vast numbers and well oiled infamous political machinery, their aim was to capture political power and in the process, getting their various interests served from the municipal government and also forcing the Irish Protestants yield to their political power. With a like minded Mayor Curley in office, their aim was to use the political power for further “social and economic aspirations”.
Thomas H. O’Connor has mentioned in his above mentioned article that for nine decades the Irish enjoyed a massive political monopoly in Boston, like Americans in any other American city. In this unbroken reign of Mayors, there arrived ghetto populists like James Curley who dominated the political scene in Boston during the first four decades of the twentieth century.
Jack Beatty has described in his book The Rascal King this urban politics of Boston and how it helped an inefficient person James Curley to get elected so many times by the voters of this region. To quote from the Chapter The Shin of a Sparrow Page 21 of the book, “The instrument of their remembrance would be James Michel Curley, who would reach back beyond his father’s generation to reclaim for politics the ethnic bitterness stemming from the events of the fifties that had been kept out of politics for decades. It would be what lent them the sullen psychology of an aggrieved minority long after they had become a majority.” (Amazon.com book reading section)
Thomas H. O’Connor has also stated in his article that these Irish Catholics used to live in their ethnically insulated neighborhoods and had very limited social exposure. Out of these, they would feel betrayed at some things and created an objection on the path to development. They used to protest against the urban development policies initiated by their elected Mayor based on the fear that it may come as an attack on their ghettos which once had given them some identity and the force and security to live as a group. The author has mentioned in his article that they tried to enforce racial integration in municipal schools by sending their children in buses from the ethnic ghettos.
Describing the generation that Curley belonged to as someone who “look back to pick up”, Beatty feels that it is the generation that never progressed and it is because of this reason that they prevented from going forward. Beatty has also stated in the Page 22 of his book that this “Famine Irish” people were undigested and indigestible and they came in a city where they were not asked to come. These words are a reflection of the fact that Beatty has openly expressed his hatred towards the Irish community as a whole.
It can be seen that Beatty has stated in Page 22 of his book that before the arrival of these Irish Catholics, Boston was a clean and ‘salubrious’ place and after they came, it became dirty and noisy. He has also stated that before their arrival, Boston was a unified lot and after these people arrived, the question of social divisions arose. To quote from the text on page 22, “Boston had stood for religion and politics; now it is a home to reactionary religion whose official organ, The Pilot, called the sacred cause of abolition ‘niggerology’.”
McDonough has stated in his article that in a democracy, a nation gets the politician it deserves. To quote from his article, “At the same time–paradoxically–the opposite is also true: society is a mirror of its politicians. Politicians are indeed a mirror of their society, and a kind of embodiment of its potential. ” That is exactly what Jack Beatty has tried to describe in his book The Rascal King.
Describing the urban politics of a place for a specific time period, it is better to be narrative while describing the events and leave the conclusion in the hands of the readers. The way Beatty has expressed his words against the Irish Catholic, is very much unwanted from a writer of his stature. I was getting confused at some places, feeling that Beatty is a political opponent of Curley. You can blame the policies of a particular ruler or a mayor or a politician, but it is always unwise to blame an entire community for the misdoings of Curley.
After Second World War, many modern politicians like John B. Hynes, John F. Collins and Ray Flynn became the mayor of Boston and succeeded in developing a new Boston. The same Irish people voted them. It is always unfair to blame an entire community for that.
1) The Boston Irish: A Political History, Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1995, Thomas H. O’Connor: Nordic Irish Studies Network: 10th March 2009 :
2) The Rascal King: The Life and Times of James Michael Curley. – book reviews, Feb 12, 1993, John E. McDonough: Bnet Network : 10th March 2009 : <http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1252/is_n3_v120/ai_13434671>
3) Amazon.com book reading section: Look Inside Category : 10th March, 2009
Cite this Coursework on The Rascal King (James Michael Curley-Boston) by Jack Beatty Essay
Coursework on The Rascal King (James Michael Curley-Boston) by Jack Beatty Essay. (2016, Nov 12). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/coursework-on-the-rascal-king-james-michael-curley-boston-by-jack-beatty/ | 1,942 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Take a look at a map of the United States and you’ll find an abundance of cities and towns named for the people who helped shape the nation through its early history. One such place is Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania, whose founding father built a legacy that is remembered fondly to this day.
Jacob Stroud was born in New Jersey in 1735, and his family relocated across the Delaware to Pennsylvania about 10 years later. Jacob’s father Barnard Stroud apprenticed him to Nicholas DePue, the first European settler in the area and a large landholder. DePue taught Jacob the farming trade, and he worked for DePue until he turned 21.
In 1756, the French and Indian War – fought between Britain and France over their holdings in North America – had been going on for two years. Jacob enlisted in the English Colonial Army as a private, joining his brothers James, John and Bernard, all of whom were already fighting. John Stroud was killed during the war, while Jacob took part in the Battle of Quebec in 1759 – considered the battle that turned the war in favor of the British.
Jacob was discharged from the army in 1761 and returned home to Smithfield Township. Later that year, he married Elizabeth McDowell, the granddaughter of his former mentor, Nicholas DePue. He became a prominent businessman and, in February 1769, Jacob purchased 300 acres of land west of Danbury. The purchase included a grist mill, a residence and other dwellings. Over time, as his family grew – he and Elizabeth had 12 children – he added a saw mill, a blacksmith shop, a tavern and a general store.
In 1775, the American Revolution broke out and Jacob once again served – this time as a captain (and, eventually, a colonel) in the ranks of the Continental Army, fighting against the British. After the war, he was a delegate to the first Pennsylvania Constitutional Convention (the colony achieved statehood in 1787); he later served as a representative in the Pennsylvania General Assembly.
Jacob spent his later years developing his land holdings and business. By 1788, he owned 1,400 acres – an amount he ultimately increased to 4,000 acres. As his children grew and got married, he built homes for those who remained in the area. Some of those homes still stand today – his son John’s residence is now the clubhouse of the Glenbrook Country Club, his son Daniel’s home is now the headquarters for the Monroe County Historical Association.
Finally, in 1799, Jacob laid out the plans for the town that bears his name. He died in 1806, at the age of 71. Though no paintings, drawings or sketches of Stroudsburg’s founder are known to exist, some believe that he is depicted as one of the soldiers in Benjamin West’s painting “The Death of General Wolfe” (pictured above), which illustrates a key moment from the Battle of Quebec.
To learn more about Stroudsburg, visit our website at www.takethreenights.com. For help planning a trip to discover the natural wonders that Jacob Stroud enjoyed centuries ago, drop us a line at firstname.lastname@example.org. | <urn:uuid:32afe7b9-254f-4921-9722-6c819a78a24d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://blog.takethreenights.com/2016/03/3068/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00267.warc.gz | en | 0.982533 | 671 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
0.20624510943889618,
0.2648320198059082,
0.5442965030670166,
-0.17847314476966858,
-0.35172533988952637,
-0.060818906873464584,
0.2885284423828125,
0.11257408559322357,
-0.43569159507751465,
-0.21826575696468353,
-0.1550721377134323,
-0.1026686578989029,
0.06205162778496742,
0.231991201639... | 1 | Take a look at a map of the United States and you’ll find an abundance of cities and towns named for the people who helped shape the nation through its early history. One such place is Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania, whose founding father built a legacy that is remembered fondly to this day.
Jacob Stroud was born in New Jersey in 1735, and his family relocated across the Delaware to Pennsylvania about 10 years later. Jacob’s father Barnard Stroud apprenticed him to Nicholas DePue, the first European settler in the area and a large landholder. DePue taught Jacob the farming trade, and he worked for DePue until he turned 21.
In 1756, the French and Indian War – fought between Britain and France over their holdings in North America – had been going on for two years. Jacob enlisted in the English Colonial Army as a private, joining his brothers James, John and Bernard, all of whom were already fighting. John Stroud was killed during the war, while Jacob took part in the Battle of Quebec in 1759 – considered the battle that turned the war in favor of the British.
Jacob was discharged from the army in 1761 and returned home to Smithfield Township. Later that year, he married Elizabeth McDowell, the granddaughter of his former mentor, Nicholas DePue. He became a prominent businessman and, in February 1769, Jacob purchased 300 acres of land west of Danbury. The purchase included a grist mill, a residence and other dwellings. Over time, as his family grew – he and Elizabeth had 12 children – he added a saw mill, a blacksmith shop, a tavern and a general store.
In 1775, the American Revolution broke out and Jacob once again served – this time as a captain (and, eventually, a colonel) in the ranks of the Continental Army, fighting against the British. After the war, he was a delegate to the first Pennsylvania Constitutional Convention (the colony achieved statehood in 1787); he later served as a representative in the Pennsylvania General Assembly.
Jacob spent his later years developing his land holdings and business. By 1788, he owned 1,400 acres – an amount he ultimately increased to 4,000 acres. As his children grew and got married, he built homes for those who remained in the area. Some of those homes still stand today – his son John’s residence is now the clubhouse of the Glenbrook Country Club, his son Daniel’s home is now the headquarters for the Monroe County Historical Association.
Finally, in 1799, Jacob laid out the plans for the town that bears his name. He died in 1806, at the age of 71. Though no paintings, drawings or sketches of Stroudsburg’s founder are known to exist, some believe that he is depicted as one of the soldiers in Benjamin West’s painting “The Death of General Wolfe” (pictured above), which illustrates a key moment from the Battle of Quebec.
To learn more about Stroudsburg, visit our website at www.takethreenights.com. For help planning a trip to discover the natural wonders that Jacob Stroud enjoyed centuries ago, drop us a line at firstname.lastname@example.org. | 691 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Who was Alexander The Great?QUESTION: Who was Alexander the Great? What does he have to do with biblical prophecy?ANSWER:
Alexander the Great was one of the most successful military commanders in human history. At the age of 20, he gained control of the Greek army and quickly conquered territories east of Greece, all the way to India. When he was 33-years-old, he suddenly died from a mysterious illness.
The book of Daniel, which was written 250 years before Alexander was born, describes him in finite detail from the beginning of his reign to the end:
"As I was thinking about this, suddenly a goat with a prominent horn between his eyes came from the west, crossing the whole earth without touching the ground. He came toward the two-horned ram I had seen standing beside the canal and charged at him in great rage. I saw him attack the ram furiously striking the ram and shattering his two horns. The ram was powerless to stand against him; the goat knocked him to the ground and trampled on him, and none could rescue the ram from his power. The goat became very great, but at the height of his power his large horn was broken off, and in its place four prominent horns grew up toward the four winds of heaven" (Daniel 8:5-8).
The Bible interpreted the dream for Daniel. In verses 20-22 it says, "The two-horned ram that you saw represents the kings of Media and Persia. The shaggy goat is the king of Greece and the large horn between his eyes in the first king. The four horns that replaced the one that was broken off represent four kingdoms that will emerge from this nations but will not have the same power."
Thus, Alexander the Great fell ill in May of 323 and died on June 11. Even though he left an heir, the Greeks revolted and Alexander's officers began a civil war.
Some biblical scholars disagree with the interpretation of Daniel's dream. They say it did not identify Alexander the Great, but predicts the end times to come. As with most of the Bible, events that happened in the past seem to be repeated in the future. Man's character and actions do not change, just the circumstances.
There may be another Alexander the Great on the horizon. Only time will tell. | <urn:uuid:5ddc16dd-a7b0-4bf4-b559-4e952737d0eb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.allabouttruth.org/who-was-alexander-the-great-faq.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00034.warc.gz | en | 0.986808 | 473 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
-0.02379695326089859,
0.516746461391449,
0.26319587230682373,
0.10654610395431519,
-0.42324236035346985,
-0.6073994636535645,
0.20391879975795746,
0.5681651830673218,
-0.15085962414741516,
0.0023677584249526262,
-0.10767485946416855,
-0.1964019536972046,
0.1713111400604248,
-0.021133182570... | 4 | Who was Alexander The Great?QUESTION: Who was Alexander the Great? What does he have to do with biblical prophecy?ANSWER:
Alexander the Great was one of the most successful military commanders in human history. At the age of 20, he gained control of the Greek army and quickly conquered territories east of Greece, all the way to India. When he was 33-years-old, he suddenly died from a mysterious illness.
The book of Daniel, which was written 250 years before Alexander was born, describes him in finite detail from the beginning of his reign to the end:
"As I was thinking about this, suddenly a goat with a prominent horn between his eyes came from the west, crossing the whole earth without touching the ground. He came toward the two-horned ram I had seen standing beside the canal and charged at him in great rage. I saw him attack the ram furiously striking the ram and shattering his two horns. The ram was powerless to stand against him; the goat knocked him to the ground and trampled on him, and none could rescue the ram from his power. The goat became very great, but at the height of his power his large horn was broken off, and in its place four prominent horns grew up toward the four winds of heaven" (Daniel 8:5-8).
The Bible interpreted the dream for Daniel. In verses 20-22 it says, "The two-horned ram that you saw represents the kings of Media and Persia. The shaggy goat is the king of Greece and the large horn between his eyes in the first king. The four horns that replaced the one that was broken off represent four kingdoms that will emerge from this nations but will not have the same power."
Thus, Alexander the Great fell ill in May of 323 and died on June 11. Even though he left an heir, the Greeks revolted and Alexander's officers began a civil war.
Some biblical scholars disagree with the interpretation of Daniel's dream. They say it did not identify Alexander the Great, but predicts the end times to come. As with most of the Bible, events that happened in the past seem to be repeated in the future. Man's character and actions do not change, just the circumstances.
There may be another Alexander the Great on the horizon. Only time will tell. | 481 | ENGLISH | 1 |
“Amid the chaos and confusion, one thing alone was certain: for the first time, a woman would sit upon the throne of England.”
When King Edward VI died in July 1553, the Tudor line of succession was in a peculiar position. Henry VIII had left behind one son—now dead—and two supposedly illegitimate daughters from earlier marriages. Henry VIII also had two sisters, Mary and Margaret, whose living descendants were all daughters. Thus, all the potential claimants to the throne were women, and while the identity of the next occupant of the English throne was by no means certain, the fact that England would have its first reigning Queen seemed indisputable. In order to contextualize the succession crises that followed Edward VI’s death, historian Helen Castor examines four precedents for female power in England, from the Empress Matilda in the 12th century, to Margaret of Anjou in the 15th.
Of the four women Castor profiles in She-Wolves, only one was an English-born princess who aimed to rule the country in her own right. She was also the earliest. When her father Henry I died without any living legitimate sons in 1135, his daughter Matilda, widow of the Holy Roman Emperor, was named as his heir and sought to claim his throne, but was usurped by her cousin, Stephen, who moved decisively to claim the crown. With her illegitimate half-brother at the head of her armies, Matilda fought for her rights, but the fact the she was unable to lead troops herself is one of the many factors Castor cites in her inability to gain a decisive advantage. The result was a civil war that tore the country apart for a generation, and ended only with a compromise; Matilda would never rule in her own right, but her son, Henry II would be Stephen’s heir. It would be another four hundred years before the country was faced with the prospect of being ruled by a woman outright.
The remaining three women were not English by birth, but French-born princesses and duchesses who married into the English royal family, the first being Matilda’s daughter-in-law, Eleanor, Duchess of Aquitaine. Here were three more typical examples of the means by which women could expect to wield power, in the names of their husbands and sons. From crusades to foreign wars to mental incapacity and long minorities, there were a variety of extenuating circumstances in which English Queens Consort or Queen Mothers might temporarily take hold of the reins of power. But as Castor’s account makes clear, the prospect of being reigned by a woman rarely sat easily, or lasted long, save in the hands of the cleverest politicians. Isabella of France would seize power from her inept husband, Edward II, in the name of their young son, only to succumb to the same excesses that had made her husband so deeply unpopular, and live to see that power seized back by the teenage son for whom she claimed to rule.
Castor acknowledges the difficulties inherent in writing about these four women particularly that, despite being Queens, the records of their lives are shockingly spotty. In many places, it is necessary to infer what their actions or motives might have been based on the surrounding context of documented English politics and history of the period. Castor relies on contemporary chroniclers, but duly notes their sympathies and prejudices, mindful of the fact that their accounts are often coloured by their own loyalties and preferences. In many places there are long gaps, such as the fifteen year period when Eleanor of Aquitaine was kept under house arrest after leading her sons into rebellion against their father. If it is not quite possible to know the personalities of these women, however, their strengths and weaknesses as politicians at least come into focus.
Overall, She-Wolves stands out due to the unique structure Castor employs, in which she opens with Edward VI’s death, turns back the clock to profile the four Queens, and then returns to the Tudor succession crisis to view it in light of what we have learned. The result is a unique take on a period of history that is already well-covered. Fans of the Tudors should note that while they frame this story, they are not the primary focus, and that the bulk of the text is dedicated to the women who preceded them.
You might also like:
How to Be a Tudor by Ruth Goodman
Wars of the Roses by Dan Jones
Faith and Treason by Antonia Fraser | <urn:uuid:99b9748b-428a-4f25-8111-b061325323ae> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://shayshortt.com/category/history/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00245.warc.gz | en | 0.982795 | 931 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
-0.3613261580467224,
0.3124096393585205,
0.36306560039520264,
-0.1679278463125229,
-0.3172268271446228,
0.17667031288146973,
0.08955839276313782,
-0.08971692621707916,
0.3536982536315918,
0.009363001212477684,
-0.11108466982841492,
-0.3830505907535553,
0.049447692930698395,
0.0888542979955... | 12 | “Amid the chaos and confusion, one thing alone was certain: for the first time, a woman would sit upon the throne of England.”
When King Edward VI died in July 1553, the Tudor line of succession was in a peculiar position. Henry VIII had left behind one son—now dead—and two supposedly illegitimate daughters from earlier marriages. Henry VIII also had two sisters, Mary and Margaret, whose living descendants were all daughters. Thus, all the potential claimants to the throne were women, and while the identity of the next occupant of the English throne was by no means certain, the fact that England would have its first reigning Queen seemed indisputable. In order to contextualize the succession crises that followed Edward VI’s death, historian Helen Castor examines four precedents for female power in England, from the Empress Matilda in the 12th century, to Margaret of Anjou in the 15th.
Of the four women Castor profiles in She-Wolves, only one was an English-born princess who aimed to rule the country in her own right. She was also the earliest. When her father Henry I died without any living legitimate sons in 1135, his daughter Matilda, widow of the Holy Roman Emperor, was named as his heir and sought to claim his throne, but was usurped by her cousin, Stephen, who moved decisively to claim the crown. With her illegitimate half-brother at the head of her armies, Matilda fought for her rights, but the fact the she was unable to lead troops herself is one of the many factors Castor cites in her inability to gain a decisive advantage. The result was a civil war that tore the country apart for a generation, and ended only with a compromise; Matilda would never rule in her own right, but her son, Henry II would be Stephen’s heir. It would be another four hundred years before the country was faced with the prospect of being ruled by a woman outright.
The remaining three women were not English by birth, but French-born princesses and duchesses who married into the English royal family, the first being Matilda’s daughter-in-law, Eleanor, Duchess of Aquitaine. Here were three more typical examples of the means by which women could expect to wield power, in the names of their husbands and sons. From crusades to foreign wars to mental incapacity and long minorities, there were a variety of extenuating circumstances in which English Queens Consort or Queen Mothers might temporarily take hold of the reins of power. But as Castor’s account makes clear, the prospect of being reigned by a woman rarely sat easily, or lasted long, save in the hands of the cleverest politicians. Isabella of France would seize power from her inept husband, Edward II, in the name of their young son, only to succumb to the same excesses that had made her husband so deeply unpopular, and live to see that power seized back by the teenage son for whom she claimed to rule.
Castor acknowledges the difficulties inherent in writing about these four women particularly that, despite being Queens, the records of their lives are shockingly spotty. In many places, it is necessary to infer what their actions or motives might have been based on the surrounding context of documented English politics and history of the period. Castor relies on contemporary chroniclers, but duly notes their sympathies and prejudices, mindful of the fact that their accounts are often coloured by their own loyalties and preferences. In many places there are long gaps, such as the fifteen year period when Eleanor of Aquitaine was kept under house arrest after leading her sons into rebellion against their father. If it is not quite possible to know the personalities of these women, however, their strengths and weaknesses as politicians at least come into focus.
Overall, She-Wolves stands out due to the unique structure Castor employs, in which she opens with Edward VI’s death, turns back the clock to profile the four Queens, and then returns to the Tudor succession crisis to view it in light of what we have learned. The result is a unique take on a period of history that is already well-covered. Fans of the Tudors should note that while they frame this story, they are not the primary focus, and that the bulk of the text is dedicated to the women who preceded them.
You might also like:
How to Be a Tudor by Ruth Goodman
Wars of the Roses by Dan Jones
Faith and Treason by Antonia Fraser | 923 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Tom Phelan visiting the World War I memorial in Mountmellick, Co. Laois.
By Tom Phelan
Somme. The whole history of the world cannot contain a more ghastly word. —Friedrich Steinbrecher
1914 On their way to making a quick capture of Paris, the German army invaded Belgium on August 4, 1914. Britain immediately declared war on Germany, and the Belgians slowed the Germans sufficiently to allow for the British Expeditionary Force to get to Europe and join up with the French. Together, in what became known as the Race to the Sea, they defeated every effort by the Germans to gain access to the harbors in northern France and thus isolate Paris.
With the Germans continually on the move to get around the Allies, and the Allies forever moving to face these new threats, by Sept. 15 both sides were exhausted and the Germans dug their first trenches. During this first month on the Western Front, 86,000 men died or were wounded.
The Germans built their trenches as defenses because they planned to stay put. Many of these trenches were openings down into bunkers, many of which were 40-feet deep and which were serviced with communication and escape tunnels. Some underground officers’ quarters were equipped with electricity and running water, and some were paneled or draped to soften the rough walls.
In comparison, the Allied trenches were scrapes in the ground, intended as assembly points for attacks on the enemy positions and as temporary lines to fight off sudden German forays. The trenches on both sides stretched from Switzerland to the Belgian coast as the opposing armies settled in for the winter.
1915 In the Mediterranean in 1915 the Gallipoli disaster unfolded in April and ended the following January. There were almost 400,000 casualties. Back on the Western Front the British attacked the Germans in Neuve Chapelle in March, held onto the village for several days, but then had to withdraw with a loss of 11,200 casualties. During the Germans’ one attack that year, known as the Second Battle of Ypres, they were repulsed, but the Allies suffered 87,223 casualties.
Numbers of German casualties during World War I are not reliable. However, it would not be a stretch to say that in most or all hostile encounters, the Germans suffered as many casualties as the Allies.
1916 In the quiet winter of 1915-16 the French, British, Italians, and Russians drew up plans for three simultaneous offensives against the German lines. The British and the French would attack side by side on the Somme. However, before these plans could be activated, in late February the Germans launched a huge offensive in Verdun, a fortified town in eastern France. The French knew that a defeat here would cause a total collapse of its French army. As the situation at Verdun deteriorated, French soldiers in other theatres, including the Somme, were summoned to reinforce the troops. Even so, the French feared they could not hold Verdun after June. In these desperate circumstances a diversion was planned along an 18-mile stretch of trenches in the area of the Somme to draw German forces from Verdun.
Along that 18-mile stretch the Allies installed a howitzer every 17 yards. These guns would clear no-man’s-land of the barbed wire between the opposing trenches, and they would subject the Germans to an unending seven-day bombardment to soften them up for the infantry attack that would immediately follow. With so many German casualties expected, and with the survivors terrorized, disorganized, and disoriented from lack of sleep, the British soldiers would simply climb out of their trenches with their 80-pound knapsacks strapped on, walk across no-man’s-land, and take up residence in the first row of enemy trenches. Then the second and third rows of trenches would be captured and a gap made for Field Marshall Haig’s cavalry – soldiers on horseback brandishing sabers.
During the bombardment in that last week of June, which could be heard in the south of England, 1,457 British guns fired more than 1.5 million shells. Meanwhile, British soldiers, many of them fresh recruits from Ireland with no fighting experience, were rotated back from the forward trenches and trained for the battle ahead. Their spirits were lifted, not only by the sound of their own big guns but by speeches from senior officers. “You will be able to go over the top with a walking stick. You will not need rifles. You will find all the Germans dead. You will reach Moquet Farm by 11 and the field kitchens will be right behind you to give you a good meal.”
In the early morning of July 1, the Germans in their trenches were aware–from spies, British newspapers, and loose lips that sink ships–that the artillery barrage was about to end. On the British side, coal miners who had been brought in especially for the project, checked the fuses of the tons of explosives they had placed in tunnels under the German lines. At 7:20 a.m. the largest underground mine was blown at Hawthorn Ridge. This massive explosion, which was heard in London, gave the Germans a ten-minute warning that the British infantry was about to charge, and they immediately bombarded the opposing trenches in the area facing Hawthorn Ridge. A young British soldier recorded, “I watched the enormous core of earth go up and, within five minutes, it seemed that every Boche machine-gun was shooting full belt, the bullets simply whistling like hail over our position.”
At 7:28 a.m. four lesser mines were blown by the British, and at exactly 7:30 a.m. the seven-day bombardment ceased. All along the lines, the British climbed out of their trenches. One officer even threw footballs at the feet of his troops to encourage them to play their way across no-man’s-land.
The Germans heard the silence too, and they scampered to the surface with their machine guns. The seven-day bombardment had only made gaps in the barbed wire in no-man’s-land. As the British troops headed for the gaps, the Germans aimed their machine guns at the openings.
Four hours later, the British had suffered 50,000 casualties, 5,500 of them from the 36th Division from the north of Ireland. There had been 15,000 young men in that division, and the unimaginable grief that settled over Ulster in the days that followed, still clings, 100 years later, like old cobwebs in dark corners. The south of Ireland lost its share of youngsters that day too, but it was in the 36th where the losses were keenest; many in the 36th had been recruited in groups from their towns, villages football clubs, and factories, and the unforeseen consequences of this resulted in those towns, villages, and factories losing a generation of their children in one fell swoop.
What had been planned as a diversionary tactic segued into the First Battle of the Somme, and each side would slog on till Nov. 18, 1916. In all, there would be over one million casualties: British, 485,000; French and Germans, 630,000.
The British forces advanced less than half a mile during the slaughter.
The paperback edition of Tom Phelan’s novel of Ireland in World War I, “The Canal Bridge,” will be published by Arcade in early July. The book will be launched Thursday, July 21, at 7 p.m., at Turn of the Corkscrew Books in Rockville Centre. On Monday, August 8, at 7 p.m., Phelan will read at the Summer Gazebo Readings to benefit Kamp Kiwanis, 65 Foxhurst Ave., Oceanside, N.Y. | <urn:uuid:5ad2aa20-1c12-4595-a49b-4984c0baae7b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://africanewswire.za.com/2016/06/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00438.warc.gz | en | 0.981524 | 1,623 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
-0.13730695843696594,
0.5055741667747498,
0.24322718381881714,
-0.06065486744046211,
0.024410028010606766,
0.09966170787811279,
-0.2177770584821701,
0.44146856665611267,
0.10855278372764587,
-0.4931063652038574,
0.2355823516845703,
-0.7604381442070007,
0.03537255525588989,
0.45168274641036... | 1 | Tom Phelan visiting the World War I memorial in Mountmellick, Co. Laois.
By Tom Phelan
Somme. The whole history of the world cannot contain a more ghastly word. —Friedrich Steinbrecher
1914 On their way to making a quick capture of Paris, the German army invaded Belgium on August 4, 1914. Britain immediately declared war on Germany, and the Belgians slowed the Germans sufficiently to allow for the British Expeditionary Force to get to Europe and join up with the French. Together, in what became known as the Race to the Sea, they defeated every effort by the Germans to gain access to the harbors in northern France and thus isolate Paris.
With the Germans continually on the move to get around the Allies, and the Allies forever moving to face these new threats, by Sept. 15 both sides were exhausted and the Germans dug their first trenches. During this first month on the Western Front, 86,000 men died or were wounded.
The Germans built their trenches as defenses because they planned to stay put. Many of these trenches were openings down into bunkers, many of which were 40-feet deep and which were serviced with communication and escape tunnels. Some underground officers’ quarters were equipped with electricity and running water, and some were paneled or draped to soften the rough walls.
In comparison, the Allied trenches were scrapes in the ground, intended as assembly points for attacks on the enemy positions and as temporary lines to fight off sudden German forays. The trenches on both sides stretched from Switzerland to the Belgian coast as the opposing armies settled in for the winter.
1915 In the Mediterranean in 1915 the Gallipoli disaster unfolded in April and ended the following January. There were almost 400,000 casualties. Back on the Western Front the British attacked the Germans in Neuve Chapelle in March, held onto the village for several days, but then had to withdraw with a loss of 11,200 casualties. During the Germans’ one attack that year, known as the Second Battle of Ypres, they were repulsed, but the Allies suffered 87,223 casualties.
Numbers of German casualties during World War I are not reliable. However, it would not be a stretch to say that in most or all hostile encounters, the Germans suffered as many casualties as the Allies.
1916 In the quiet winter of 1915-16 the French, British, Italians, and Russians drew up plans for three simultaneous offensives against the German lines. The British and the French would attack side by side on the Somme. However, before these plans could be activated, in late February the Germans launched a huge offensive in Verdun, a fortified town in eastern France. The French knew that a defeat here would cause a total collapse of its French army. As the situation at Verdun deteriorated, French soldiers in other theatres, including the Somme, were summoned to reinforce the troops. Even so, the French feared they could not hold Verdun after June. In these desperate circumstances a diversion was planned along an 18-mile stretch of trenches in the area of the Somme to draw German forces from Verdun.
Along that 18-mile stretch the Allies installed a howitzer every 17 yards. These guns would clear no-man’s-land of the barbed wire between the opposing trenches, and they would subject the Germans to an unending seven-day bombardment to soften them up for the infantry attack that would immediately follow. With so many German casualties expected, and with the survivors terrorized, disorganized, and disoriented from lack of sleep, the British soldiers would simply climb out of their trenches with their 80-pound knapsacks strapped on, walk across no-man’s-land, and take up residence in the first row of enemy trenches. Then the second and third rows of trenches would be captured and a gap made for Field Marshall Haig’s cavalry – soldiers on horseback brandishing sabers.
During the bombardment in that last week of June, which could be heard in the south of England, 1,457 British guns fired more than 1.5 million shells. Meanwhile, British soldiers, many of them fresh recruits from Ireland with no fighting experience, were rotated back from the forward trenches and trained for the battle ahead. Their spirits were lifted, not only by the sound of their own big guns but by speeches from senior officers. “You will be able to go over the top with a walking stick. You will not need rifles. You will find all the Germans dead. You will reach Moquet Farm by 11 and the field kitchens will be right behind you to give you a good meal.”
In the early morning of July 1, the Germans in their trenches were aware–from spies, British newspapers, and loose lips that sink ships–that the artillery barrage was about to end. On the British side, coal miners who had been brought in especially for the project, checked the fuses of the tons of explosives they had placed in tunnels under the German lines. At 7:20 a.m. the largest underground mine was blown at Hawthorn Ridge. This massive explosion, which was heard in London, gave the Germans a ten-minute warning that the British infantry was about to charge, and they immediately bombarded the opposing trenches in the area facing Hawthorn Ridge. A young British soldier recorded, “I watched the enormous core of earth go up and, within five minutes, it seemed that every Boche machine-gun was shooting full belt, the bullets simply whistling like hail over our position.”
At 7:28 a.m. four lesser mines were blown by the British, and at exactly 7:30 a.m. the seven-day bombardment ceased. All along the lines, the British climbed out of their trenches. One officer even threw footballs at the feet of his troops to encourage them to play their way across no-man’s-land.
The Germans heard the silence too, and they scampered to the surface with their machine guns. The seven-day bombardment had only made gaps in the barbed wire in no-man’s-land. As the British troops headed for the gaps, the Germans aimed their machine guns at the openings.
Four hours later, the British had suffered 50,000 casualties, 5,500 of them from the 36th Division from the north of Ireland. There had been 15,000 young men in that division, and the unimaginable grief that settled over Ulster in the days that followed, still clings, 100 years later, like old cobwebs in dark corners. The south of Ireland lost its share of youngsters that day too, but it was in the 36th where the losses were keenest; many in the 36th had been recruited in groups from their towns, villages football clubs, and factories, and the unforeseen consequences of this resulted in those towns, villages, and factories losing a generation of their children in one fell swoop.
What had been planned as a diversionary tactic segued into the First Battle of the Somme, and each side would slog on till Nov. 18, 1916. In all, there would be over one million casualties: British, 485,000; French and Germans, 630,000.
The British forces advanced less than half a mile during the slaughter.
The paperback edition of Tom Phelan’s novel of Ireland in World War I, “The Canal Bridge,” will be published by Arcade in early July. The book will be launched Thursday, July 21, at 7 p.m., at Turn of the Corkscrew Books in Rockville Centre. On Monday, August 8, at 7 p.m., Phelan will read at the Summer Gazebo Readings to benefit Kamp Kiwanis, 65 Foxhurst Ave., Oceanside, N.Y. | 1,672 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The question of free will and the role of fate in humanity’s collective existence has long been a topic explored by authors and thinkers throughout history. Over many centuries, humans have questioned their own existence and what this means, as well as what has the capacity to change our lives. One of the most prominent themes in the famous tragedy Oedipus the King by Sophocles is the influence of fate in determining the actions of each character. Traditionally in Greek philosophy, fate is predetermined and there is nothing that people can do to alter or sway the outcome of what fate decides for them. The Greeks were of the opinion that fate itself is unavoidable and thus, one should avoid attempting to change what is destined for themselves. Throughout the entirety of Oedipus the King, fate ironically facilitates the ultimate downfall of Oedipus. Furthermore, fate itself plays a large role in how many of the other main characters’ stories unfold. In this story, the gods have already declared what Oedipus and Jocasta’s life will bring and what fate will cast upon them. The entirety of their existence is predetermined, and the main narrative unfolds from Oedipus’ attempts to deny this fate himself. As a result, the concept of fate and its existence greatly alters the entirety of Oedipus’ life and many other characters throughout the story.
Essay due? We'll write it for you!
The Greeks prominently believed that fate existed outside the realm in which we live and thus, it has a capacity for altering our existence that exceeds our own interpretation or comprehension. The Greeks believed that fate was used by the gods as an extension of their own will and that fate itself controlled how they interacted with the world around them. The Greeks believed that “oracles” were selected by the gods to tell of their decisions and to inform people of their fates. The most famous oracle in Greek history is that of the oracle at Delphi, which allegedly spoke for Apollo and interacted with the humans to propagate Apollo’s will. (Ahl, 22) In Oedipus the King, Oedipus is predetermined by fate that he is to kill his father and marry his mother. He receives this information through two different messengers and the oracle at Delphi, both informing him of fate’s proclamation for himself. When this occurs, he panics and falls into a state of disillusionment. The messengers tell him that long before he was born, it was decreed that he would kill his own father and eventually take his mother as his wife. (Ahl, 28)
Oedipus sets out to make this proclaimed fate something that he avoids entirely, and he openly attempts to not only avoid this predetermined existence but to change it as well. In his attempts to redefine his own fate, Oedipus leaves everything behind and runs from the existence that he knew so well. He even goes so far as to not tell his parents that he’s leaving so that they couldn’t deter him, and also so that he doesn’t hurt them in the long run. (Dawe, 82) Yet, fate still alters the course of Oedipus’ life tremendously and this action actually brings him closer to the predetermined outcome that the oracle gave him. While on his journey to the city of Thebes, he crosses paths with another man and the two come into conflict over who have the right of way at an area where three different roads intersect. The conflict comes to a violent head and Oedipus rashly kills the man that he has the encounter with there. As it was proclaimed, Oedipus’ father was to “die a victim at the hands of his own son.” (Belfiore, 176)
Ironically, this man turns out to be Oedipus’ actual father. As the story progresses, the reader learns that the parents that Oedipus had known all of his life were actually adoptive parents and that the man who he killed here is actually his own father. This catalyzes the series of events which Sophocles uses to illustrate the inescapable nature of fate itself. Despite his attempts to avoid doing so, Oedipus’ actions directly lead to him fulfilling one attribute of the prophecy early in the narrative of the play. In this regard, fate affects his father as well as it was predetermined that he would be killed by his own son. (Dawe, 84) The odds of them meeting each other randomly along the road is something that would appear as merely chance, but Sophocles frames the story in a way that gives prominence to fate as the defining factor for why this occurred.
Fast forward several years and the plot starts to develop quickly, showing many signs that Oedipus is fated to fulfill the role that is set forth by the oracle. Oedipus’ character throughout the story is one who possesses an expansive intellect and a penchant for confidence. He manages to solve a riddle from the Sphinx earlier in his life. It is during this time that he inadvertently fulfills the second part of the prophecy. As a reward for solving the Sphinx’s riddle, Jacosta is given to Oedipus as a wife. When the story begins, Oedipus sends Creon to consult with the oracle of Delphi over the plague that has taken Thebes, and he returns to inform Oedipus that the plague is caused by some sort of curse since the former king Laius’ murderer was never discovered. (Smith, 29) Oedipus then consults with a blind prophet by the name of Tiresias about what it all means, and Tiresias only informs Oedipus that he should discontinue his search. This enrages Oedipus and Tiresias is forced to tell Oedipus that he is in fact the one who murdered the king. Oedipus then believes that there is collusion between the prophet and Creon, and Oedipus attempts to execute Creon before the chorus is able to convince him that Creon deserves to live. (Smith, 29) Jocasta, in an attempt to comfort Oedipus, tells him that Laius was predetermined to die by his son’s hand but this never occurred, as he was killed at a crossroads by bandits.
As Jocasta recounts this story, it brings a sense of worry to Oedipus and he summons the last remaining witness of the event before him. As he continues to investigate the story, Oedipus discovers that his parents weren’t his parents at all and that Laius was his true father. This in turn makes Jocasta his own mother. Fate plays a prominent role in this exchange, which eventually leads Jocasta to kill herself and Oedipus to cut out his own eyes. (Smith, 32) Fate is inescapable in this story and it permeates into every aspect of life that the characters experience. It is an undeniable force that manages to alter the lives of each character, including those that have a thorough grasp on their own lives, such as Oedipus. Despite every advance that he makes to ensure that he doesn’t fulfill the prophecy, it still ends up occurring and he kills his father and marries his mother. Fate shapes the entirety of the narrative in this story and is at many times the prominent antagonist to the characters, who are all anxiously attempting to ensure that this prophecy doesn’t fulfill itself. Even when these characters are convinced that it hasn’t been fulfilled, it’s revealed that it has and the characters are shaped by the events that unfold as a result of fate.
Disclaimer: This essay has been submitted by a student. This is not an example of the work written by our professional essay writers. You can order our professional work here.
Sorry, copying is not allowed on our website. If you’d like this or any other sample, we’ll happily email it to you.
Your essay sample has been sent.
Want us to write one just for you? We can custom edit this essay into an original, 100% plagiarism free essay.Order now | <urn:uuid:ba9c474c-6cfb-48c5-b182-a6cc034797b7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://eduzaurus.com/free-essay-samples/concept-of-fate-and-its-existence-in-oedipus-the-king/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00067.warc.gz | en | 0.98034 | 1,720 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
-0.12726320326328278,
0.19719064235687256,
0.3992783725261688,
-0.3808230757713318,
-0.3151609003543854,
-0.508467435836792,
0.35808539390563965,
0.4750231206417084,
0.32137513160705566,
0.07759159058332443,
-0.16730381548404694,
-0.09684806317090988,
0.005234403070062399,
0.12277653813362... | 2 | The question of free will and the role of fate in humanity’s collective existence has long been a topic explored by authors and thinkers throughout history. Over many centuries, humans have questioned their own existence and what this means, as well as what has the capacity to change our lives. One of the most prominent themes in the famous tragedy Oedipus the King by Sophocles is the influence of fate in determining the actions of each character. Traditionally in Greek philosophy, fate is predetermined and there is nothing that people can do to alter or sway the outcome of what fate decides for them. The Greeks were of the opinion that fate itself is unavoidable and thus, one should avoid attempting to change what is destined for themselves. Throughout the entirety of Oedipus the King, fate ironically facilitates the ultimate downfall of Oedipus. Furthermore, fate itself plays a large role in how many of the other main characters’ stories unfold. In this story, the gods have already declared what Oedipus and Jocasta’s life will bring and what fate will cast upon them. The entirety of their existence is predetermined, and the main narrative unfolds from Oedipus’ attempts to deny this fate himself. As a result, the concept of fate and its existence greatly alters the entirety of Oedipus’ life and many other characters throughout the story.
Essay due? We'll write it for you!
The Greeks prominently believed that fate existed outside the realm in which we live and thus, it has a capacity for altering our existence that exceeds our own interpretation or comprehension. The Greeks believed that fate was used by the gods as an extension of their own will and that fate itself controlled how they interacted with the world around them. The Greeks believed that “oracles” were selected by the gods to tell of their decisions and to inform people of their fates. The most famous oracle in Greek history is that of the oracle at Delphi, which allegedly spoke for Apollo and interacted with the humans to propagate Apollo’s will. (Ahl, 22) In Oedipus the King, Oedipus is predetermined by fate that he is to kill his father and marry his mother. He receives this information through two different messengers and the oracle at Delphi, both informing him of fate’s proclamation for himself. When this occurs, he panics and falls into a state of disillusionment. The messengers tell him that long before he was born, it was decreed that he would kill his own father and eventually take his mother as his wife. (Ahl, 28)
Oedipus sets out to make this proclaimed fate something that he avoids entirely, and he openly attempts to not only avoid this predetermined existence but to change it as well. In his attempts to redefine his own fate, Oedipus leaves everything behind and runs from the existence that he knew so well. He even goes so far as to not tell his parents that he’s leaving so that they couldn’t deter him, and also so that he doesn’t hurt them in the long run. (Dawe, 82) Yet, fate still alters the course of Oedipus’ life tremendously and this action actually brings him closer to the predetermined outcome that the oracle gave him. While on his journey to the city of Thebes, he crosses paths with another man and the two come into conflict over who have the right of way at an area where three different roads intersect. The conflict comes to a violent head and Oedipus rashly kills the man that he has the encounter with there. As it was proclaimed, Oedipus’ father was to “die a victim at the hands of his own son.” (Belfiore, 176)
Ironically, this man turns out to be Oedipus’ actual father. As the story progresses, the reader learns that the parents that Oedipus had known all of his life were actually adoptive parents and that the man who he killed here is actually his own father. This catalyzes the series of events which Sophocles uses to illustrate the inescapable nature of fate itself. Despite his attempts to avoid doing so, Oedipus’ actions directly lead to him fulfilling one attribute of the prophecy early in the narrative of the play. In this regard, fate affects his father as well as it was predetermined that he would be killed by his own son. (Dawe, 84) The odds of them meeting each other randomly along the road is something that would appear as merely chance, but Sophocles frames the story in a way that gives prominence to fate as the defining factor for why this occurred.
Fast forward several years and the plot starts to develop quickly, showing many signs that Oedipus is fated to fulfill the role that is set forth by the oracle. Oedipus’ character throughout the story is one who possesses an expansive intellect and a penchant for confidence. He manages to solve a riddle from the Sphinx earlier in his life. It is during this time that he inadvertently fulfills the second part of the prophecy. As a reward for solving the Sphinx’s riddle, Jacosta is given to Oedipus as a wife. When the story begins, Oedipus sends Creon to consult with the oracle of Delphi over the plague that has taken Thebes, and he returns to inform Oedipus that the plague is caused by some sort of curse since the former king Laius’ murderer was never discovered. (Smith, 29) Oedipus then consults with a blind prophet by the name of Tiresias about what it all means, and Tiresias only informs Oedipus that he should discontinue his search. This enrages Oedipus and Tiresias is forced to tell Oedipus that he is in fact the one who murdered the king. Oedipus then believes that there is collusion between the prophet and Creon, and Oedipus attempts to execute Creon before the chorus is able to convince him that Creon deserves to live. (Smith, 29) Jocasta, in an attempt to comfort Oedipus, tells him that Laius was predetermined to die by his son’s hand but this never occurred, as he was killed at a crossroads by bandits.
As Jocasta recounts this story, it brings a sense of worry to Oedipus and he summons the last remaining witness of the event before him. As he continues to investigate the story, Oedipus discovers that his parents weren’t his parents at all and that Laius was his true father. This in turn makes Jocasta his own mother. Fate plays a prominent role in this exchange, which eventually leads Jocasta to kill herself and Oedipus to cut out his own eyes. (Smith, 32) Fate is inescapable in this story and it permeates into every aspect of life that the characters experience. It is an undeniable force that manages to alter the lives of each character, including those that have a thorough grasp on their own lives, such as Oedipus. Despite every advance that he makes to ensure that he doesn’t fulfill the prophecy, it still ends up occurring and he kills his father and marries his mother. Fate shapes the entirety of the narrative in this story and is at many times the prominent antagonist to the characters, who are all anxiously attempting to ensure that this prophecy doesn’t fulfill itself. Even when these characters are convinced that it hasn’t been fulfilled, it’s revealed that it has and the characters are shaped by the events that unfold as a result of fate.
Disclaimer: This essay has been submitted by a student. This is not an example of the work written by our professional essay writers. You can order our professional work here.
Sorry, copying is not allowed on our website. If you’d like this or any other sample, we’ll happily email it to you.
Your essay sample has been sent.
Want us to write one just for you? We can custom edit this essay into an original, 100% plagiarism free essay.Order now | 1,676 | ENGLISH | 1 |
To even casual students of the Vietnam War, his statement has an eerie echo.
Detail of a lithograph by John Skinner Prout showing the Cascades Female FactoryFemale factories in Australia housed convict women who were awaiting assignment, pregnant or undergoing punishment.
They were called factories because the women were expected to work and because they also employed free working women.
Task work was established in female factories inrequiring the occupants to do chores, needle-work and washing. If extra work was done, the convict's sentence might be shortened.
Conditions in these factories were miserable. In the Parramatta female factory Women in afghanistan essay occupants were not given mattresses or blankets to sleep on and the social conditions inside were indecent. The factory had room for only a third of the female prisoners; the rest had to find lodgings with the local settlers at some cost usually about four shillings a week.
Their customers were usually the male convicts who came and left the factory as they pleased. In Macquarie had ex-convict Francis Greenway create a new design for the factory. This new design had the inmates divided into three categories: The "merit" or first class comprised women who had been well behaved for at least six months and women who had recently arrived from England.
These girls were eligible to marry and eligible for assignment. The second or "general" class was made up of women who were sentenced for minor offences and could be transferred to the first class after a period of probation.
This class consisted of many women who had become pregnant during their assigned service. The factory at Parramatta was a source of wives for settlers and emancipated convicts. With a written permit from the Reverend Samuel Marsden and a written note to the matrona bachelor could take his pick of a willing "factory lass.
It was the objective of the British government to establish a colony in Australia rather than have it remain as a penal settlement. This compelled the government to send more women to Australia as a way of establishing a native population.
On the arrival of 'female' ships, colonists would swarm to the dock to bargain for a servant. High-ranking officers had first pick. Some women were taken as mistressesothers as servants. There were no legal ties for these assignments, so a settler could dismiss a convict woman freely.
When this did occur, it created a class of woman who often resorted to prostitution in order to feed and house themselves properly. Male convicts had the chance to select a bride from the female factories by a system called 'convict courtship'.
The male convicts came to the female factories to inspect the women, who had to line up for the occasion. If the male convict saw a woman that he liked, he made a motion at her to signal that he wanted to choose her.
Most women accepted the offering. This process was often described as similar to the one in which slaves were selected.WEEKLY ESSAY CHALLENGES – WEEKLY ESSAY CHALLENGES – WEEKLY ESSAY CHALLENGE – (The following post was created when Essay Challenge was first started)In the newly introduced pattern for the UPSC Civil Services Main examination, the Essay paper has been given high priority..
Now it carries Marks, same as for other General Studies papers. This essay delves deeply into the origins of the Vietnam War, critiques U.S. justifications for intervention, examines the brutal conduct of the war, and discusses the . Free women in afghanistan papers, essays, and research papers.
Essay on “Global Terrorism- The Fight Against Terrorism” Complete Essay for Class 10 and Class Afghanistan: A Russian Soldier's Story [Vladislav Tamarov] on torosgazete.com *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers.
In Tamarov, then 19, was drafted into the Soviet Army and posted to Afghanistan where he spent 20 months in a minesweeper outfit. Despite heavy operational responsibilities and danger.
What role do women play in Al Qaeda?
|Women In Afghanistan Samples of Essay, Topics & Paper Examples on StudentShare||It minimizes the efforts they spend on the homework tasks as choosing the relevant, interesting persuasive essay topics all alone may be a time-consuming task based on the in-depth research. Many students think it is a waste of time.|
A few are suicide bombers; others may encourage their men to become one. | <urn:uuid:37082400-4250-49e5-8d88-76fbd3ece8c1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://jexiwohyri.torosgazete.com/women-in-afghanistan-essay-1091jr.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00133.warc.gz | en | 0.981487 | 922 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
-0.10423476994037628,
0.639501690864563,
-0.01012466661632061,
0.25765159726142883,
0.04347975179553032,
0.12977896630764008,
0.12983916699886322,
0.11078745126724243,
-0.2028505802154541,
-0.07308042794466019,
0.14547312259674072,
-0.21173973381519318,
0.10582135617733002,
0.5173373222351... | 1 | To even casual students of the Vietnam War, his statement has an eerie echo.
Detail of a lithograph by John Skinner Prout showing the Cascades Female FactoryFemale factories in Australia housed convict women who were awaiting assignment, pregnant or undergoing punishment.
They were called factories because the women were expected to work and because they also employed free working women.
Task work was established in female factories inrequiring the occupants to do chores, needle-work and washing. If extra work was done, the convict's sentence might be shortened.
Conditions in these factories were miserable. In the Parramatta female factory Women in afghanistan essay occupants were not given mattresses or blankets to sleep on and the social conditions inside were indecent. The factory had room for only a third of the female prisoners; the rest had to find lodgings with the local settlers at some cost usually about four shillings a week.
Their customers were usually the male convicts who came and left the factory as they pleased. In Macquarie had ex-convict Francis Greenway create a new design for the factory. This new design had the inmates divided into three categories: The "merit" or first class comprised women who had been well behaved for at least six months and women who had recently arrived from England.
These girls were eligible to marry and eligible for assignment. The second or "general" class was made up of women who were sentenced for minor offences and could be transferred to the first class after a period of probation.
This class consisted of many women who had become pregnant during their assigned service. The factory at Parramatta was a source of wives for settlers and emancipated convicts. With a written permit from the Reverend Samuel Marsden and a written note to the matrona bachelor could take his pick of a willing "factory lass.
It was the objective of the British government to establish a colony in Australia rather than have it remain as a penal settlement. This compelled the government to send more women to Australia as a way of establishing a native population.
On the arrival of 'female' ships, colonists would swarm to the dock to bargain for a servant. High-ranking officers had first pick. Some women were taken as mistressesothers as servants. There were no legal ties for these assignments, so a settler could dismiss a convict woman freely.
When this did occur, it created a class of woman who often resorted to prostitution in order to feed and house themselves properly. Male convicts had the chance to select a bride from the female factories by a system called 'convict courtship'.
The male convicts came to the female factories to inspect the women, who had to line up for the occasion. If the male convict saw a woman that he liked, he made a motion at her to signal that he wanted to choose her.
Most women accepted the offering. This process was often described as similar to the one in which slaves were selected.WEEKLY ESSAY CHALLENGES – WEEKLY ESSAY CHALLENGES – WEEKLY ESSAY CHALLENGE – (The following post was created when Essay Challenge was first started)In the newly introduced pattern for the UPSC Civil Services Main examination, the Essay paper has been given high priority..
Now it carries Marks, same as for other General Studies papers. This essay delves deeply into the origins of the Vietnam War, critiques U.S. justifications for intervention, examines the brutal conduct of the war, and discusses the . Free women in afghanistan papers, essays, and research papers.
Essay on “Global Terrorism- The Fight Against Terrorism” Complete Essay for Class 10 and Class Afghanistan: A Russian Soldier's Story [Vladislav Tamarov] on torosgazete.com *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers.
In Tamarov, then 19, was drafted into the Soviet Army and posted to Afghanistan where he spent 20 months in a minesweeper outfit. Despite heavy operational responsibilities and danger.
What role do women play in Al Qaeda?
|Women In Afghanistan Samples of Essay, Topics & Paper Examples on StudentShare||It minimizes the efforts they spend on the homework tasks as choosing the relevant, interesting persuasive essay topics all alone may be a time-consuming task based on the in-depth research. Many students think it is a waste of time.|
A few are suicide bombers; others may encourage their men to become one. | 892 | ENGLISH | 1 |
(Last Updated on : 01/03/2014)
The Matsyas appear to have been one of the prominent Kshatriya tribes that made up the Vedic Aryan people in the earliest period of their residence in India. It has been mentioned in the Rig Veda
that the Matsyas were attacked by Turvasa, a famous king, in order to extract from them the wealth which he required for the performance of a sacrifice. The Matsyas were regarded as wealthy people, their riches most probably consisting of cows which were much in demand for the performance of lengthy and elaborate sacrifices. It is a well known fact that in epic times the Matsyas were very rich in their wealth of cows, for which the Trigarttas and the Kurus led predatory expeditions against them. However in this context Matsya clearly refers to the people and not to fish. Arjuna had recovered the cattle plundered by the Kurus as described in the Mahabharata. Other tribes of Western India who have been mentioned along with the Matsyas are the Druhyus and the Bhrigus.
The Matsyas have been mentioned in several historical records along with other tribes namely the Usinaras, Kuru-Panchalas, and Kail-Videhas. In the Gopatha Brahmana, they are connected with the Salvas, a Kshatriya tribe in their neighbourhood, and are mentioned along with other well-known Kshatriya tribes of the Vedic period, such as the Kuru-Panchalas, Anga-Magadhas, Kasi-Kosalas and Vasa-Usinaras. The relation of the Matsyas with the Salvas has also been attested by the Mahabharata
. In the Padma Purana
and the Vishnu Purana
the Matysyas have been mentioned as one of the Janapadas of Bharatavarsa. In the Bhisma Parva of the Mahabharata, the Cedi-Matsya-Karusas, Matsya-Karusas, Cedi-Panchala-Karusa-Matsyas, Matsya-Panchala-Cedis, Cedi-Karusa-Matsyas, and Cedi-Matsyas have been grouped together.
History says that Matsyas were regarded by the Indians as belonging to the most orthodox followers of Brahmanism in ancient times. In fact the Matsyas occupied a pre-eminent position both because of the purity of their conduct and customs, and through their bravery and prowess on the battle field of Kurukshetra
. It has also been said that during the time of Ramayana
the Matsyas were not regarded as important people perhaps they had lost the importance which they had acquired in the Vedic age.
Even in the Buddhist literature there has been ample mention of the Matsyas. In the Shatapatha Brahmana
there has been mention of a Matsya King Dhvasan Dvaitavana. Manu has said that Matsya country formed a part of the Brahmarsi-desa that is the country of the holy sages. In later times the Matsya country appears to have been known also as Virata or Vairata.
The capital of the country of the Matysya was generally called Viratanagara in the Virdtaparvan and sometimes was also called Matsyanagara. Another important city of the Matysyas was Upaplavya. Evidently it was this Viratanagara which afterwards came to be known as Vairat. It was the city which had the royal seat of the epic king Virata, the friend of the Pandavas
It has been referred in several places of history that the Pandava brothers had completed their period of exile in the kingdom of the Matsyas and when king Virata of Virat was captured it was Bhima
, the second Pandava brother who had rescued him and after the exile of the Pandavas ended the marriage of Abhimanyu, son of Arjuna
, and Uttara, daughter of King Virata, was arranged and celebrated with great pomp.
Kautaliya has said in his account that that the monarchical constitution lasted throughout the period of Matsya's independence. The kingdom was probably annexed at one time by the neighbouring kingdom of Cedi, and was finally absorbed into the Magadhan Empire. | <urn:uuid:afc71827-962d-4f94-8368-1868e68b1e00> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.indianetzone.com/47/matysyas.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00477.warc.gz | en | 0.98581 | 937 | 3.5 | 4 | [
0.1330508589744568,
-0.04559857398271561,
0.10247842967510223,
0.06628213822841644,
-0.06957025080919266,
-0.30106934905052185,
0.430423378944397,
0.018343346193432808,
0.33137086033821106,
-0.12875375151634216,
0.227616086602211,
-0.46243029832839966,
0.13607460260391235,
0.01739687286317... | 1 | (Last Updated on : 01/03/2014)
The Matsyas appear to have been one of the prominent Kshatriya tribes that made up the Vedic Aryan people in the earliest period of their residence in India. It has been mentioned in the Rig Veda
that the Matsyas were attacked by Turvasa, a famous king, in order to extract from them the wealth which he required for the performance of a sacrifice. The Matsyas were regarded as wealthy people, their riches most probably consisting of cows which were much in demand for the performance of lengthy and elaborate sacrifices. It is a well known fact that in epic times the Matsyas were very rich in their wealth of cows, for which the Trigarttas and the Kurus led predatory expeditions against them. However in this context Matsya clearly refers to the people and not to fish. Arjuna had recovered the cattle plundered by the Kurus as described in the Mahabharata. Other tribes of Western India who have been mentioned along with the Matsyas are the Druhyus and the Bhrigus.
The Matsyas have been mentioned in several historical records along with other tribes namely the Usinaras, Kuru-Panchalas, and Kail-Videhas. In the Gopatha Brahmana, they are connected with the Salvas, a Kshatriya tribe in their neighbourhood, and are mentioned along with other well-known Kshatriya tribes of the Vedic period, such as the Kuru-Panchalas, Anga-Magadhas, Kasi-Kosalas and Vasa-Usinaras. The relation of the Matsyas with the Salvas has also been attested by the Mahabharata
. In the Padma Purana
and the Vishnu Purana
the Matysyas have been mentioned as one of the Janapadas of Bharatavarsa. In the Bhisma Parva of the Mahabharata, the Cedi-Matsya-Karusas, Matsya-Karusas, Cedi-Panchala-Karusa-Matsyas, Matsya-Panchala-Cedis, Cedi-Karusa-Matsyas, and Cedi-Matsyas have been grouped together.
History says that Matsyas were regarded by the Indians as belonging to the most orthodox followers of Brahmanism in ancient times. In fact the Matsyas occupied a pre-eminent position both because of the purity of their conduct and customs, and through their bravery and prowess on the battle field of Kurukshetra
. It has also been said that during the time of Ramayana
the Matsyas were not regarded as important people perhaps they had lost the importance which they had acquired in the Vedic age.
Even in the Buddhist literature there has been ample mention of the Matsyas. In the Shatapatha Brahmana
there has been mention of a Matsya King Dhvasan Dvaitavana. Manu has said that Matsya country formed a part of the Brahmarsi-desa that is the country of the holy sages. In later times the Matsya country appears to have been known also as Virata or Vairata.
The capital of the country of the Matysya was generally called Viratanagara in the Virdtaparvan and sometimes was also called Matsyanagara. Another important city of the Matysyas was Upaplavya. Evidently it was this Viratanagara which afterwards came to be known as Vairat. It was the city which had the royal seat of the epic king Virata, the friend of the Pandavas
It has been referred in several places of history that the Pandava brothers had completed their period of exile in the kingdom of the Matsyas and when king Virata of Virat was captured it was Bhima
, the second Pandava brother who had rescued him and after the exile of the Pandavas ended the marriage of Abhimanyu, son of Arjuna
, and Uttara, daughter of King Virata, was arranged and celebrated with great pomp.
Kautaliya has said in his account that that the monarchical constitution lasted throughout the period of Matsya's independence. The kingdom was probably annexed at one time by the neighbouring kingdom of Cedi, and was finally absorbed into the Magadhan Empire. | 899 | ENGLISH | 1 |
History of Mother’s Day
Written by: Doug
Published: 21st March 2017
Last Updated on
Once a year, a day is set aside in celebration of mothers. In the UK, this day is generally the second or third Sunday of March, which corresponds with the fourth Sunday of Lent. While the holiday no longer has specific religious significance for every person that observes it, the traditions of the day date back centuries and were once very much a part of the church.
Mothering Sunday Origins & History
Mothering Sunday, as it was first known, dates all the way back to the sixteenth century and was celebrated by Catholic and Protestant Christians throughout Europe. It began at a time when children were often taken on as servants for noble families and did not have regular visiting times with their families due to the need to work to provide for them. They would be allowed this Sunday to return to their “mother church”, which was generally the church they were baptised in, and would be able to attend with their families. The children would often pick wildflowers en route to the service to give to their mothers or to lay at the church. There were also special Mothering Day cakes such as simnel and wafer cakes that were shared. These traditions were eventually carried on to modern times in the form of gifts of appreciation for mothers that we see these days, which is why so many give their mothers flowers, cards, treats and gifts.
Becoming Mother’s Day
Mothering Sunday remained a religious holiday right up until the 20th century when it began to change into the day we are familiar with. It was around this point that the celebration of the holiday had begun to fall to the wayside. This was when the work of two women, first Anna Jarvis in the United States and later Constance Adelaide Smith of England, came together to reinvigorate the holiday and alter its course to become the day we celebrate (even though the specific dates differ on these two continents).
Anna Jarvis was a social activist from Philadelphia who rallied for a day of celebration for mothers. Though she never became a mother herself, it became a passion and focus of her life in the 1910s-20s. She held the first observation for the day at a memorial service 3 years after her mother passed away on May 10, 1908. The idea caught on, as many holidays do, and it began to become commercialised with card and flower companies cashing in on the opportunity. This bothered Anna greatly, causing her to eventually try to start a petition to revoke the holiday in 1943. Clearly her efforts were not successful and North America continues to recognise their moms on the second Sunday in May. Anna’s version of Mothering Sunday clearly took on less of a religious meaning as the original date had changed to correspond with the death of her mother.
Inspired by the events happening in the US, Constance Adelaide Smith chose to try to organise a similar celebratory day for mothers in the UK. She understood the sentiment in having a day for honouring these women, but as she came from a family of priests and vicars, decided that instead of fighting for a day like Anna had, she would instead try to reinvigorate the Mothering Sunday observing from years before that also involved a visit to your “mother church” amongst the celebrations. Until she died in 1938, Constance worked tirelessly to bring more awareness to this day and wrote much about the traditions of the past and encouraged people throughout the UK to take part again, on the 4th Sunday of Lent. The religious holiday stayed that way until after the Second World War when the frequent visits of US Servicemen began to intertwine the USA’s Mother’s Day with the traditions of Mothering Sunday to bring us the day we still celebrate now. Very interestingly, both Anna Jarvis and Constance Adelaide Smith died unmarried and without children of their own!
These days, many of us will likely honour our mums the more commercialised way with flowers and cards than possibly make the effort to return to our “mother church”. This is not to say that these traditions do not hold true to this day, though, especially here in the UK. Mother’s Day should be celebrated in a way that is fitting for each mum individually, as we know no two are the same, the way you choose to honour them should also be just as special. | <urn:uuid:bab2da00-adea-46a2-995c-ae500329a725> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.highlandtitles.com/blog/story-mothers-day/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00376.warc.gz | en | 0.983881 | 906 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
0.04096551239490509,
0.5301265120506287,
0.36337152123451233,
0.030613185837864876,
-0.33057695627212524,
-0.020613068714737892,
-0.5644453763961792,
-0.16637930274009705,
-0.051042698323726654,
0.13195249438285828,
-0.28433841466903687,
0.04812673479318619,
0.03460695222020149,
0.08143016... | 1 | History of Mother’s Day
Written by: Doug
Published: 21st March 2017
Last Updated on
Once a year, a day is set aside in celebration of mothers. In the UK, this day is generally the second or third Sunday of March, which corresponds with the fourth Sunday of Lent. While the holiday no longer has specific religious significance for every person that observes it, the traditions of the day date back centuries and were once very much a part of the church.
Mothering Sunday Origins & History
Mothering Sunday, as it was first known, dates all the way back to the sixteenth century and was celebrated by Catholic and Protestant Christians throughout Europe. It began at a time when children were often taken on as servants for noble families and did not have regular visiting times with their families due to the need to work to provide for them. They would be allowed this Sunday to return to their “mother church”, which was generally the church they were baptised in, and would be able to attend with their families. The children would often pick wildflowers en route to the service to give to their mothers or to lay at the church. There were also special Mothering Day cakes such as simnel and wafer cakes that were shared. These traditions were eventually carried on to modern times in the form of gifts of appreciation for mothers that we see these days, which is why so many give their mothers flowers, cards, treats and gifts.
Becoming Mother’s Day
Mothering Sunday remained a religious holiday right up until the 20th century when it began to change into the day we are familiar with. It was around this point that the celebration of the holiday had begun to fall to the wayside. This was when the work of two women, first Anna Jarvis in the United States and later Constance Adelaide Smith of England, came together to reinvigorate the holiday and alter its course to become the day we celebrate (even though the specific dates differ on these two continents).
Anna Jarvis was a social activist from Philadelphia who rallied for a day of celebration for mothers. Though she never became a mother herself, it became a passion and focus of her life in the 1910s-20s. She held the first observation for the day at a memorial service 3 years after her mother passed away on May 10, 1908. The idea caught on, as many holidays do, and it began to become commercialised with card and flower companies cashing in on the opportunity. This bothered Anna greatly, causing her to eventually try to start a petition to revoke the holiday in 1943. Clearly her efforts were not successful and North America continues to recognise their moms on the second Sunday in May. Anna’s version of Mothering Sunday clearly took on less of a religious meaning as the original date had changed to correspond with the death of her mother.
Inspired by the events happening in the US, Constance Adelaide Smith chose to try to organise a similar celebratory day for mothers in the UK. She understood the sentiment in having a day for honouring these women, but as she came from a family of priests and vicars, decided that instead of fighting for a day like Anna had, she would instead try to reinvigorate the Mothering Sunday observing from years before that also involved a visit to your “mother church” amongst the celebrations. Until she died in 1938, Constance worked tirelessly to bring more awareness to this day and wrote much about the traditions of the past and encouraged people throughout the UK to take part again, on the 4th Sunday of Lent. The religious holiday stayed that way until after the Second World War when the frequent visits of US Servicemen began to intertwine the USA’s Mother’s Day with the traditions of Mothering Sunday to bring us the day we still celebrate now. Very interestingly, both Anna Jarvis and Constance Adelaide Smith died unmarried and without children of their own!
These days, many of us will likely honour our mums the more commercialised way with flowers and cards than possibly make the effort to return to our “mother church”. This is not to say that these traditions do not hold true to this day, though, especially here in the UK. Mother’s Day should be celebrated in a way that is fitting for each mum individually, as we know no two are the same, the way you choose to honour them should also be just as special. | 911 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Wilhelm Heinrich Otto Dix was born on December 2, 1891. He was a renowned German painter and printmaker who was recognized for his ability throw realism on the canvas.
Otto spent most of his childhood in Germany. He was the son of Franz who worked in an iron factory. Otto’s mother on the other hand was a seamstress who used to write poetry in her youth. Hence, he was in the vicinity of an artistic mindset from a very young age. His cousin, Fritz Amann, was also a painter. Otto used to spend a lot of time in his company. Consequently, he had the motivation and guidance from very early age. Even his primary school teacher encouraged him to pursue his artistic inklings.
Between 1906 and 1910, under the supervision of painter Carl Senff, he created his first landscapes. Soon after he joined in Dresden Academy of Fine Arts in Dresden.
Otto was an active participant in the First World War, siding with the Germans. In December 1918, he was eventually discharged from the army.
Otto was gravely moved by the scenes he saw during the war. In fact he is speculated to have experienced a recurring nightmare in which he was surrounded by flaming homes. The depictions of these various events can be spotted in a number of places in his work.
It happened in the end of 1918 that Otto raced back to Gera before coming back to Dresden in the following year. Soon after, he co-founded the Dresdner Sezession group along with his teacher Conrad Felixmüller. During the time, his work was passing through an expressionist phase.
Otto also actively contributed in the Neue Sachlichkeit exhibition which took place in Mannheim in 1925. His work threw light on subjects holding immense pertinence to the German society, namely violence and prostitution.
On return of the Nazis to power in Germany, they immediately removed Otto from his position of an art teacher. Hence, he had to shift to the southwest of Germany. Much of his work was burned during the time.
Otto Dix, like his contemporaries, was made to join the Nazi government’s Reich Chamber of Fine Arts. It was compulsory for all the artists to take part and Otto specifically had to pledge not to paint anything even marginally controversial. Yet, he continued living by his beliefs and painted whatever pleased him. “Degennerate” was the label given to him. Perhaps, it was the pressure that made him keep much of his work away from the public eye which was subsequently found as late as 2012. It is speculated that his art dealer had hidden them for him.
In 1939, he was alleged of being involved in a plot against Hitler and hence was arrested. Soon after, he was released. During World War II, Otto was put in prison by the French troops and was only released when the war ended at February 1946.
In his final years, Otto returned to Dresden where he stayed till 1966. Post war, most of Otto’s works was religious allegories. He was awarded the Grand Merit Cross of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1950. He was also nominated for the National Prize of the GDR but he did not win it. He, however, did win the Lichtwark Prize in Hamburg and the Martin Andersen Nexo Art Prize in Dresden. The glorious occasion happened to mark his 75th birthday in 1967.
On July 25, 1969, Otto Dix died because of a stroke. He is buried by Lake Constance. Otto’s three children, a daughter and son survived him. | <urn:uuid:f56d82ef-4ed1-4de9-a536-01b254b5576f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.famouspainters.net/otto-dix/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00099.warc.gz | en | 0.994877 | 739 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
-0.38578668236732483,
0.69549560546875,
0.22283895313739777,
0.24422867596149445,
-0.1256483942270279,
-0.08494244515895844,
-0.031124558299779892,
0.3672373294830322,
-0.6364690065383911,
-0.572223424911499,
0.2281959354877472,
-0.4993106722831726,
-0.3485488295555115,
0.4899847209453583,... | 11 | Wilhelm Heinrich Otto Dix was born on December 2, 1891. He was a renowned German painter and printmaker who was recognized for his ability throw realism on the canvas.
Otto spent most of his childhood in Germany. He was the son of Franz who worked in an iron factory. Otto’s mother on the other hand was a seamstress who used to write poetry in her youth. Hence, he was in the vicinity of an artistic mindset from a very young age. His cousin, Fritz Amann, was also a painter. Otto used to spend a lot of time in his company. Consequently, he had the motivation and guidance from very early age. Even his primary school teacher encouraged him to pursue his artistic inklings.
Between 1906 and 1910, under the supervision of painter Carl Senff, he created his first landscapes. Soon after he joined in Dresden Academy of Fine Arts in Dresden.
Otto was an active participant in the First World War, siding with the Germans. In December 1918, he was eventually discharged from the army.
Otto was gravely moved by the scenes he saw during the war. In fact he is speculated to have experienced a recurring nightmare in which he was surrounded by flaming homes. The depictions of these various events can be spotted in a number of places in his work.
It happened in the end of 1918 that Otto raced back to Gera before coming back to Dresden in the following year. Soon after, he co-founded the Dresdner Sezession group along with his teacher Conrad Felixmüller. During the time, his work was passing through an expressionist phase.
Otto also actively contributed in the Neue Sachlichkeit exhibition which took place in Mannheim in 1925. His work threw light on subjects holding immense pertinence to the German society, namely violence and prostitution.
On return of the Nazis to power in Germany, they immediately removed Otto from his position of an art teacher. Hence, he had to shift to the southwest of Germany. Much of his work was burned during the time.
Otto Dix, like his contemporaries, was made to join the Nazi government’s Reich Chamber of Fine Arts. It was compulsory for all the artists to take part and Otto specifically had to pledge not to paint anything even marginally controversial. Yet, he continued living by his beliefs and painted whatever pleased him. “Degennerate” was the label given to him. Perhaps, it was the pressure that made him keep much of his work away from the public eye which was subsequently found as late as 2012. It is speculated that his art dealer had hidden them for him.
In 1939, he was alleged of being involved in a plot against Hitler and hence was arrested. Soon after, he was released. During World War II, Otto was put in prison by the French troops and was only released when the war ended at February 1946.
In his final years, Otto returned to Dresden where he stayed till 1966. Post war, most of Otto’s works was religious allegories. He was awarded the Grand Merit Cross of the Federal Republic of Germany in 1950. He was also nominated for the National Prize of the GDR but he did not win it. He, however, did win the Lichtwark Prize in Hamburg and the Martin Andersen Nexo Art Prize in Dresden. The glorious occasion happened to mark his 75th birthday in 1967.
On July 25, 1969, Otto Dix died because of a stroke. He is buried by Lake Constance. Otto’s three children, a daughter and son survived him. | 769 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Jakarta Post
One’s sleep cycle impacts the chances of depression in middle to older women, according to research. (Shutterstock/File)
Depression is a condition that impacts individuals all over the world, and while there is currently no cure, there are ways to lessen its development.
New research found that women who sleep later and wake up later have increased chances of depression. The study, which was published in The Journal of Psychiatric Research, looked at 32,470 women who had an average age of 55.
The women’s sleeping patterns and rates of depression were examined, and results found that those who were early sleepers and risers had a lower risk of depression compared to the other women.
According to the researchers, these patterns suggested that one’s sleep cycle impacted the chances of depression in middle to older women.
Still, it was noted that researchers did not account for the effects of the environment and genetics in this particular study.
This is not the first study to examine the correlation between sleep and depression. It was found previously by The National Sleep Foundation that people suffering from insomnia were up to 10 times more likely to develop depression than people without. (sul/kes)
Your premium period will expire in 0 day(s)close x | <urn:uuid:edaa2d9b-4342-4371-9e90-ba9b35567a2b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thejakartapost.com/life/2018/07/01/women-should-sleep-wake-earlier-to-avoid-depression-study.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00387.warc.gz | en | 0.98009 | 262 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
-0.11817735433578491,
0.27902889251708984,
0.19233626127243042,
0.3446437120437622,
-0.05251830816268921,
0.583290696144104,
-0.12138345092535019,
0.1368538737297058,
0.23940865695476532,
0.00004670233465731144,
0.015362643636763096,
0.03619198128581047,
-0.13839738070964813,
0.41925251483... | 2 | The Jakarta Post
One’s sleep cycle impacts the chances of depression in middle to older women, according to research. (Shutterstock/File)
Depression is a condition that impacts individuals all over the world, and while there is currently no cure, there are ways to lessen its development.
New research found that women who sleep later and wake up later have increased chances of depression. The study, which was published in The Journal of Psychiatric Research, looked at 32,470 women who had an average age of 55.
The women’s sleeping patterns and rates of depression were examined, and results found that those who were early sleepers and risers had a lower risk of depression compared to the other women.
According to the researchers, these patterns suggested that one’s sleep cycle impacted the chances of depression in middle to older women.
Still, it was noted that researchers did not account for the effects of the environment and genetics in this particular study.
This is not the first study to examine the correlation between sleep and depression. It was found previously by The National Sleep Foundation that people suffering from insomnia were up to 10 times more likely to develop depression than people without. (sul/kes)
Your premium period will expire in 0 day(s)close x | 257 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of UK Essays.
Often regarded as a ruthless military leader, George Armstrong Custer led an interesting life full of luck and second chances. In this paper, Custer will be analyzed in a biographic fashion. This paper will highlight his birth and family background, childhood, schooling and entrance into the military, involvement in the Civil War, marriage, involvement in the Indian Wars, his untimely death, and an insight into his questionable legacy.
Born on December 5, 1839, in New Rumley, Ohio, Custer was the son of German and English immigrants Emanuel Henry and Marie Ward Kirkpatrick. Emanuel, a blacksmith by trade, named his son after Minister George Armstrong, as he hoped Custer might become a member of the clergy when he grew up. Custer had four siblings, two of which would later accompany him during his battles in the Indian Wars.
Although born in Ohio, Custer spent the majority of his childhood in Monroe, Michigan, where he lived with his half-sister and brother-in-law. He attended primary school in Michigan, but he then attended the McNeely Normal School (later renamed the Hopedale Normal School) in Hopedale, Ohio. While at the McNeely Normal School, he and his classmate William Enos Emery would often carry coal in an attempt to pay for their room and board. Upon graduating, Custer accepted a teaching position with a school in Cadiz, Ohio.
After teaching for a short time in Cadiz, Custer was surprisingly accepted into the United State Military Academy at West Point in 1857. Although considered a bright student, Custer did not excel in school because he lacked initiative and hated to study. He was considered a prankster while in school, and he was nearly expelled several times for his antics. His lazy nature led him to graduate at the bottom of his class of cadets in 1861. He graduated just at the beginning of the Civil War, and this was pivotal to his career since someone with his academic ranking would have typically held a boring position freshly out of school.
Custer was appointed to a second lieutenant in the 2nd United States Calvary, and his first taste of battle was found with his participation in the First Battle of Bull Run. During that time, he was involved in several cavalry raids against Confederate strong holds in the Virginia area. He then joined soldiers in the James River Peninsula with the Army of the Potomac. In the fall, following the battle, he went back to Michigan to visit his sister. At that time, he promised her to lead a life of sobriety from alcohol, and he kept his promise to her for the rest of his life.
Shortly after that visit with his sister, he was reassigned to the 5th United States Calvary in 1862 where he joined the Peninsula Campaign under Major General George B. McClellan. McClellan admired Custer’s energy and bravery that he saw him display during the First Battle of Bull Run. A famous example of his bravery is summarized in this recollection:
“During the pursuit of Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston up the Peninsula, on May 24, 1862 when Gen. Barnard and his staff were reconnoitering a potential crossing point on the Chickahominy River, they stopped and Custer overheard his commander mutter to himself, ‘I wish I knew how deep it is.’ Custer dashed forward on his horse out to the middle of the river and turned to the astonished officers of the staff and shouted triumphantly, ‘That’s how deep it is, Mr. General!’ (“George Armstrong Custer”, 2010).”
After this gallant move, Custer led an attack across the Chickahominy River above New Bridge with four companies all from the 4th Michigan Infantry. He was successful in the attack, and he and the company were able to capture 50 Confederate soldiers. Custer is noted as taking the first battle flag of the Civil War. Initially, Custer, under McClellan, was in charge of supervising the hot-air balloon spy tactics against Confederate forces, but not soon after, McClellan made him an aide-de-camp with a promotion to the rank of captain. This promotion and subsequent attention made Custer hunger for media interest.
When McClellan was removed from commanding the Army of the Potomac, Custer lost his extravagant title and was listed back as a first lieutenant in November of 1862. Although Custer initially lost rank, he gained a mentor that would mold the rest of his life. His cavalry leader, Maj. Gen. Alfred Pleasonton, taught Custer the way of dressing for attention (which Custer would later be noted for in the Indian Wars) and how to play the political game. In addition to serving Pleasonton as his General, Custer also served on his staff.
In early 1863, Pleasonton allowed Custer to participate in the Battles of Brandy Station and Aldie. He was honored as a brave leader in that he always forged the front lines with his men, while others in command would often lag behind so as to not be injured or killed. In regards to his strong relationship with Pleasonton by that time, Custer was quoted as saying, “no father could love his son more than General Pleasonton loves me” (“George Armstrong Custer”, 2010).
By June of 1863, Custer had been promoted to Brigadier-General of volunteers. At the young and inexperienced age of 23, he was in control of the Second Brigade, 3rd Division, of the Union Cavalry Corps. On the way to the famous Battle of Gettysburg, Custer successfully beat Confederate General, J.E.B. Stewart, at Hanover and Hunterstown. In Hunterstown, Custer was wounded in the leg after he fell from his horse in a poorly thought-out move, which made his vulnerable to Confederate advances. He was then forced to take a leave of absence to recover. Custer openly referred to being lucky and how luck is what saved him at Gettysburg.
During his break from battle, Custer married Elizabeth Clift Bacon on February 9, 1864. They had met when Custer was just 10 years old, and he had seen her socially on his visit to Michigan to see his sister in 1862. At first, Bacon’s father did not allow them to date because he saw Custer as the son of a Blacksmith and assumed he would amount to nothing. After proving his bravery in battle and appointment to Brigadier-General, Bacon’s father allowed her and Custer to marry. Elizabeth would later spend her life perpetuating her husband’s memory by writing several books.
After the wedding, Custer returned to his cavalry position in the Army of the Potomac. Custer came under the command of Major General Philip Sheridan where he led several cavalry raids against the Army of Northern Virginia, as well as raids in Richmond, Virginia, which was then commonly known as the Confederate capital. He gained command of the 3rd Division, and during the early fall of 1864, he was transferred with Sheridan to the Army of the Shenandoah. He led his cavalry in the Shenandoah Valley Campaign where he received praise from Sheridan and a subsequent promotion to Major General of Volunteers by that winter.
Through the beginning of 1865, Custer continued to serve under Major General Philip Sheridan. Custer participated in several keys battles of the time, including Waynesboro, Dinwiddie Court House, and Five Forks. In April of that year, the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia surrendered after the Union’s Armies of the Shenandoah and Potomac united against them. Custer was invited to witness the signing of the surrender at the Appomattox Courthouse; in fact, he was gifted the actual table upon which the surrender was signed. The note that was attached from Sheridan was addressed to his wife and is now an artifact in the Smithsonian. By the end of the war, Custer had been promoted again to Brigadier-General and Major General in the regular army and Major General of Volunteers.
The time following Custer’s involvement in the Civil War is probably the most controversial and most noted of his legacy. He was put in command of the 7th United State Cavalry Regiment with the title of Lieutenant Colonel. At that time, he decided to return home to see his wife and see what else was out there for him. Not soon after returning home, Custer found himself in disagreement with commanding officers over issues such as being absent without proper leave papers. Custer lost the legal fight and was found guilty, losing rank and pay in the process. He was court-martialed to be suspended for a year.
Before his punishment was through, Custer returned to active duty at the request of Sheridan who was starting his plans to attack the Native Americans-notably the Cheyenne. During the late 1860’s and early 1870’s, Custer was involved in a few battles against the Cheyenne. Most famous was the Battle of Washita River on November 27, 1868, where he killed the Cheyenne Chief, Black Kettle. The battle was fierce, and Custer made no distinction between the people, killing women and children in the process. This marked the beginning of the Cheyenne movement to the federal reservations.
In 1873, Custer was sent to the Dakota Territory to protect the building of the railroad and to check out the activities of the Sioux. During that visit, he discovered gold and silver while traveling through the Black Hills on the French Creek. The Black Hills gold and silver rush was then perpetuated by Custer, and there is a town near the creek in present day South Dakota named Custer.
The tension between the Sioux and the white settlers in the Dakota Territory had grown to a fierce state. Both sides were ready for a fight, and Custer found himself right in the middle of the conflict. In 1876, he was commanded to wrangle the Sioux and the Cheyenne in the area to federally run reservations. He was given two other units with which to work, commanded by General George Crook and Colonel John Gibbon. The next and final battle would make Custer a household name.
On June 25, 1876, Custer and his two adjoining units came to pass the Little Big Horn River. Unexpectedly, they came across a Sioux village with visiting tribes including the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho Indians. Against his direct orders, Custer took control of the two other detachments and devised an attack plan on the Native Americans. He divided the units into three, and have them come in from three separate points onto the camp. Custer planned to have them circle the camp and enter with him from the North.
The sheer number of Indian warriors that met him on his advance surprised Custer. The numbers vary by story, but it is estimated that the average was 3,500. This was no match to the 208 United States soldiers under Custer’s command. Never one to turn away from a battle or a tight spot, “Custer’s Last Stand” took place on that June day (“George Armstrong Custer”, 2010). Every soldier under Custer’s command was killed, and two bullets slew Custer himself. He and his comrades were buried there on the battle sight, and over a year later, his body was exhumed and buried at the United States Military Academy at West Point on October 10, 1877.
After Custer’s death and the battle of Little Big Horn, his legacy was marked with bravery on the battlefield and giving his life for his country, yet it was slightly tainted with embarrassment due to the number of United States casualties he caused at the famous battle. In regards to the battle, President Grant was quoted as saying, “I regard Custer’s Massacre as a sacrifice of troops, brought on by Custer himself that was wholly unnecessary – wholly unnecessary”(“George Armstrong Custer”, 2010). He is remembered today as a ruthless leader with little regard for the Native American people. This is a common story of a nobody that became a somebody at any cost.
If you need assistance with writing your essay, our professional essay writing service is here to help!Find out more
Cite This Work
To export a reference to this article please select a referencing stye below:
Related ServicesView all
DMCA / Removal Request
If you are the original writer of this essay and no longer wish to have the essay published on the UK Essays website then please: | <urn:uuid:e0537442-ddec-4de0-b262-ca81ca872f8a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ukessays.com/essays/history/a-review-of-george-armstrong-custer-history-essay.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00161.warc.gz | en | 0.987397 | 2,665 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
-0.4021363854408264,
0.3501790165901184,
0.3310341536998749,
-0.32233279943466187,
-0.23518076539039612,
-0.08105161786079407,
-0.10427694022655487,
-0.007612437475472689,
-0.44915473461151123,
-0.21883058547973633,
0.16905181109905243,
0.046829018741846085,
0.28233903646469116,
0.36273401... | 1 | Any opinions, findings, conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of UK Essays.
Often regarded as a ruthless military leader, George Armstrong Custer led an interesting life full of luck and second chances. In this paper, Custer will be analyzed in a biographic fashion. This paper will highlight his birth and family background, childhood, schooling and entrance into the military, involvement in the Civil War, marriage, involvement in the Indian Wars, his untimely death, and an insight into his questionable legacy.
Born on December 5, 1839, in New Rumley, Ohio, Custer was the son of German and English immigrants Emanuel Henry and Marie Ward Kirkpatrick. Emanuel, a blacksmith by trade, named his son after Minister George Armstrong, as he hoped Custer might become a member of the clergy when he grew up. Custer had four siblings, two of which would later accompany him during his battles in the Indian Wars.
Although born in Ohio, Custer spent the majority of his childhood in Monroe, Michigan, where he lived with his half-sister and brother-in-law. He attended primary school in Michigan, but he then attended the McNeely Normal School (later renamed the Hopedale Normal School) in Hopedale, Ohio. While at the McNeely Normal School, he and his classmate William Enos Emery would often carry coal in an attempt to pay for their room and board. Upon graduating, Custer accepted a teaching position with a school in Cadiz, Ohio.
After teaching for a short time in Cadiz, Custer was surprisingly accepted into the United State Military Academy at West Point in 1857. Although considered a bright student, Custer did not excel in school because he lacked initiative and hated to study. He was considered a prankster while in school, and he was nearly expelled several times for his antics. His lazy nature led him to graduate at the bottom of his class of cadets in 1861. He graduated just at the beginning of the Civil War, and this was pivotal to his career since someone with his academic ranking would have typically held a boring position freshly out of school.
Custer was appointed to a second lieutenant in the 2nd United States Calvary, and his first taste of battle was found with his participation in the First Battle of Bull Run. During that time, he was involved in several cavalry raids against Confederate strong holds in the Virginia area. He then joined soldiers in the James River Peninsula with the Army of the Potomac. In the fall, following the battle, he went back to Michigan to visit his sister. At that time, he promised her to lead a life of sobriety from alcohol, and he kept his promise to her for the rest of his life.
Shortly after that visit with his sister, he was reassigned to the 5th United States Calvary in 1862 where he joined the Peninsula Campaign under Major General George B. McClellan. McClellan admired Custer’s energy and bravery that he saw him display during the First Battle of Bull Run. A famous example of his bravery is summarized in this recollection:
“During the pursuit of Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston up the Peninsula, on May 24, 1862 when Gen. Barnard and his staff were reconnoitering a potential crossing point on the Chickahominy River, they stopped and Custer overheard his commander mutter to himself, ‘I wish I knew how deep it is.’ Custer dashed forward on his horse out to the middle of the river and turned to the astonished officers of the staff and shouted triumphantly, ‘That’s how deep it is, Mr. General!’ (“George Armstrong Custer”, 2010).”
After this gallant move, Custer led an attack across the Chickahominy River above New Bridge with four companies all from the 4th Michigan Infantry. He was successful in the attack, and he and the company were able to capture 50 Confederate soldiers. Custer is noted as taking the first battle flag of the Civil War. Initially, Custer, under McClellan, was in charge of supervising the hot-air balloon spy tactics against Confederate forces, but not soon after, McClellan made him an aide-de-camp with a promotion to the rank of captain. This promotion and subsequent attention made Custer hunger for media interest.
When McClellan was removed from commanding the Army of the Potomac, Custer lost his extravagant title and was listed back as a first lieutenant in November of 1862. Although Custer initially lost rank, he gained a mentor that would mold the rest of his life. His cavalry leader, Maj. Gen. Alfred Pleasonton, taught Custer the way of dressing for attention (which Custer would later be noted for in the Indian Wars) and how to play the political game. In addition to serving Pleasonton as his General, Custer also served on his staff.
In early 1863, Pleasonton allowed Custer to participate in the Battles of Brandy Station and Aldie. He was honored as a brave leader in that he always forged the front lines with his men, while others in command would often lag behind so as to not be injured or killed. In regards to his strong relationship with Pleasonton by that time, Custer was quoted as saying, “no father could love his son more than General Pleasonton loves me” (“George Armstrong Custer”, 2010).
By June of 1863, Custer had been promoted to Brigadier-General of volunteers. At the young and inexperienced age of 23, he was in control of the Second Brigade, 3rd Division, of the Union Cavalry Corps. On the way to the famous Battle of Gettysburg, Custer successfully beat Confederate General, J.E.B. Stewart, at Hanover and Hunterstown. In Hunterstown, Custer was wounded in the leg after he fell from his horse in a poorly thought-out move, which made his vulnerable to Confederate advances. He was then forced to take a leave of absence to recover. Custer openly referred to being lucky and how luck is what saved him at Gettysburg.
During his break from battle, Custer married Elizabeth Clift Bacon on February 9, 1864. They had met when Custer was just 10 years old, and he had seen her socially on his visit to Michigan to see his sister in 1862. At first, Bacon’s father did not allow them to date because he saw Custer as the son of a Blacksmith and assumed he would amount to nothing. After proving his bravery in battle and appointment to Brigadier-General, Bacon’s father allowed her and Custer to marry. Elizabeth would later spend her life perpetuating her husband’s memory by writing several books.
After the wedding, Custer returned to his cavalry position in the Army of the Potomac. Custer came under the command of Major General Philip Sheridan where he led several cavalry raids against the Army of Northern Virginia, as well as raids in Richmond, Virginia, which was then commonly known as the Confederate capital. He gained command of the 3rd Division, and during the early fall of 1864, he was transferred with Sheridan to the Army of the Shenandoah. He led his cavalry in the Shenandoah Valley Campaign where he received praise from Sheridan and a subsequent promotion to Major General of Volunteers by that winter.
Through the beginning of 1865, Custer continued to serve under Major General Philip Sheridan. Custer participated in several keys battles of the time, including Waynesboro, Dinwiddie Court House, and Five Forks. In April of that year, the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia surrendered after the Union’s Armies of the Shenandoah and Potomac united against them. Custer was invited to witness the signing of the surrender at the Appomattox Courthouse; in fact, he was gifted the actual table upon which the surrender was signed. The note that was attached from Sheridan was addressed to his wife and is now an artifact in the Smithsonian. By the end of the war, Custer had been promoted again to Brigadier-General and Major General in the regular army and Major General of Volunteers.
The time following Custer’s involvement in the Civil War is probably the most controversial and most noted of his legacy. He was put in command of the 7th United State Cavalry Regiment with the title of Lieutenant Colonel. At that time, he decided to return home to see his wife and see what else was out there for him. Not soon after returning home, Custer found himself in disagreement with commanding officers over issues such as being absent without proper leave papers. Custer lost the legal fight and was found guilty, losing rank and pay in the process. He was court-martialed to be suspended for a year.
Before his punishment was through, Custer returned to active duty at the request of Sheridan who was starting his plans to attack the Native Americans-notably the Cheyenne. During the late 1860’s and early 1870’s, Custer was involved in a few battles against the Cheyenne. Most famous was the Battle of Washita River on November 27, 1868, where he killed the Cheyenne Chief, Black Kettle. The battle was fierce, and Custer made no distinction between the people, killing women and children in the process. This marked the beginning of the Cheyenne movement to the federal reservations.
In 1873, Custer was sent to the Dakota Territory to protect the building of the railroad and to check out the activities of the Sioux. During that visit, he discovered gold and silver while traveling through the Black Hills on the French Creek. The Black Hills gold and silver rush was then perpetuated by Custer, and there is a town near the creek in present day South Dakota named Custer.
The tension between the Sioux and the white settlers in the Dakota Territory had grown to a fierce state. Both sides were ready for a fight, and Custer found himself right in the middle of the conflict. In 1876, he was commanded to wrangle the Sioux and the Cheyenne in the area to federally run reservations. He was given two other units with which to work, commanded by General George Crook and Colonel John Gibbon. The next and final battle would make Custer a household name.
On June 25, 1876, Custer and his two adjoining units came to pass the Little Big Horn River. Unexpectedly, they came across a Sioux village with visiting tribes including the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho Indians. Against his direct orders, Custer took control of the two other detachments and devised an attack plan on the Native Americans. He divided the units into three, and have them come in from three separate points onto the camp. Custer planned to have them circle the camp and enter with him from the North.
The sheer number of Indian warriors that met him on his advance surprised Custer. The numbers vary by story, but it is estimated that the average was 3,500. This was no match to the 208 United States soldiers under Custer’s command. Never one to turn away from a battle or a tight spot, “Custer’s Last Stand” took place on that June day (“George Armstrong Custer”, 2010). Every soldier under Custer’s command was killed, and two bullets slew Custer himself. He and his comrades were buried there on the battle sight, and over a year later, his body was exhumed and buried at the United States Military Academy at West Point on October 10, 1877.
After Custer’s death and the battle of Little Big Horn, his legacy was marked with bravery on the battlefield and giving his life for his country, yet it was slightly tainted with embarrassment due to the number of United States casualties he caused at the famous battle. In regards to the battle, President Grant was quoted as saying, “I regard Custer’s Massacre as a sacrifice of troops, brought on by Custer himself that was wholly unnecessary – wholly unnecessary”(“George Armstrong Custer”, 2010). He is remembered today as a ruthless leader with little regard for the Native American people. This is a common story of a nobody that became a somebody at any cost.
If you need assistance with writing your essay, our professional essay writing service is here to help!Find out more
Cite This Work
To export a reference to this article please select a referencing stye below:
Related ServicesView all
DMCA / Removal Request
If you are the original writer of this essay and no longer wish to have the essay published on the UK Essays website then please: | 2,694 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Fever and Cholera in Belfast
Belfast was repeatedly hit by fever and cholera epidemics in the nineteenth century
On April 7, 1846, 33 year old Margaret Owen from Henry Street was buried in the poor section of the New Burying Ground, Clifton Street. She was one of the first deaths from a new fever epidemic.
Belfast had been hit by a fever epidemic in 1836 and 1837. At that time the fever was accompanied by outbreaks of influenza and erysipelas, a skin disease caused by a bacterial infection.
The fever which struck the town in the 1840s was, in fact, two different fevers, typhus and relapsing, both of which were carried by body lice, fleas and ticks. Both fevers caused pain in the joints and muscles, extreme headache, continuous vomiting, widespread rash, and a slow and painful death for its unfortunate victims.
At the same time as the fever outbreak, Ireland was facing the potato blight, otherwise known as the Great Famine. The famine had a less disastrous effect on the northern counties of Ireland than on other parts of the country, as people were not so dependent on the potato for survival. Oatmeal was a traditional addition to their diet. Nevertheless, many country people left their homes in search of food and work in the towns. The fever epidemic, which followed, was attributed to the introduction of infection into the town by some 10,000 refugees.
Andrew Malcolm, who was a doctor in the General Hospital in Frederick Street at the time of the outbreak, wrote, ‘We will remember the aspect of the hordes of poor who thronged into the town from all parts. Famine depicted in the look, in the hue, in the voice and gait’.
In 1847, the People’s Magazine printed a series of articles written by Dr Malcolm entitled 'Sanitary Inspections of Belfast’. In one of these he presented a map of the New Lodge district, in which back-to-back houses were shown alongside water pumps and open sewers. He also found gross overcrowding, with upwards of five families sometimes living in one terrace.
Other poor areas such as Carrick Hill and the Pound Loney were worse again. Indeed, all the poorer districts of Belfast, with their appalling conditions, proved no hindrance to the spread of this new fever epidemic.
It was not long before large numbers of people began to die. Bodies were found in the streets, and others were left outside graveyards for burial. At the New Burying Ground, sometimes up to four bodies were being found outside on Henry Place daily. On February 27, 1847, the body of an unknown two year old child was found on the doorstep of the graveyard gatehouse. It was the first of many.
By now the number of people dying was rising at an alarming rate, with upwards of 100 people being buried in the New Burying Ground each week. As the fever reached its peak, Belfast was struck by outbreaks of dysentery and smallpox. The first person to die of dysentery and to be buried in the New Burying Ground was 26 year old Alexander McMurry, an inmate of the poorhouse. The next day brought another seven deaths.
The newly established board of health enlarged the Union Infirmary and moved the poorhouse inmates, who were thought to carry the disease, into it. The board also built a large shed in the grounds of the General Hospital. Two unused hospitals, the College Hospital and the Cholera Hospital, were once again opened. Later, tents were erected in the grounds of the workhouse to accommodate 700 convalescent patients.
In the burying grounds of Belfast, burial space was running out, and bodies were arriving faster than the gravediggers could accommodate them. Some coffins contained more than one body and sometimes up to five bodies were placed in one coffin, which were really large boxes. Soon, coffins were not used at all. When the poor ground was full, the cholera ground, which was last used in the 1830s epidemic, was opened once again. In the New Burying Ground, even the gap between the Antrim Road wall and the graveyard wall was used.
By this time, it was realised that to control the epidemic, it was first necessary to control vagrancy, and thus prevent more paupers coming into the town. A meeting was held by the poorhouse committee on July 20, 1847, and it was agreed that all beggars were to be ’placed’ in the House of Correction (the prison).
From August, there was a gradual decline in the fever. By November, the General Hospital ceased to admit any further fever cases, and the following month the Barrack Hospital was closed as the new Workhouse Hospital provided sufficient beds for any remaining cases.
By the end of 1847, Dr Andrew Malcolm was warning people that Asiatic cholera was spreading throughout Europe at an alarming rate. At the same time, the board of health, which had been set up to combat the fever epidemic, was disbanded.
The first case of cholera occurred in the Lunatic Asylum on November 1, 1847, and for upwards of a month was the only case.
In the poorhouse, great care was taken to prevent the entry of infection. No inmate was allowed out and no one was allowed in. Only on Sundays could the inmates leave to attend worship under strict supervision. Consequently, the poorhouse escaped infection.
However, the poor who were dying outside the poorhouse were causing a major problem. The committee in charge of the New Burying Ground decided to reopen the mass cholera grave. However, the cholera outbreak did not last as long as had been predicted and it claimed fewer victims. Soon the scare was over, and the mass grave at the burying ground was filled in for the last time.
© The Glenravel Local History Project | <urn:uuid:fa3547a8-e8a8-49e7-86c8-ba5c5806ee0b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.culturenorthernireland.org/features/heritage/fever-and-cholera-belfast | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00024.warc.gz | en | 0.986742 | 1,233 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
-0.20452266931533813,
-0.07471563667058945,
0.5256475210189819,
0.43389105796813965,
0.7751510739326477,
-0.24272005259990692,
0.22408032417297363,
-0.12339521944522858,
-0.23697546124458313,
-0.39095067977905273,
-0.08805084973573685,
-0.6552388668060303,
0.0590500645339489,
-0.0019872167... | 3 | Fever and Cholera in Belfast
Belfast was repeatedly hit by fever and cholera epidemics in the nineteenth century
On April 7, 1846, 33 year old Margaret Owen from Henry Street was buried in the poor section of the New Burying Ground, Clifton Street. She was one of the first deaths from a new fever epidemic.
Belfast had been hit by a fever epidemic in 1836 and 1837. At that time the fever was accompanied by outbreaks of influenza and erysipelas, a skin disease caused by a bacterial infection.
The fever which struck the town in the 1840s was, in fact, two different fevers, typhus and relapsing, both of which were carried by body lice, fleas and ticks. Both fevers caused pain in the joints and muscles, extreme headache, continuous vomiting, widespread rash, and a slow and painful death for its unfortunate victims.
At the same time as the fever outbreak, Ireland was facing the potato blight, otherwise known as the Great Famine. The famine had a less disastrous effect on the northern counties of Ireland than on other parts of the country, as people were not so dependent on the potato for survival. Oatmeal was a traditional addition to their diet. Nevertheless, many country people left their homes in search of food and work in the towns. The fever epidemic, which followed, was attributed to the introduction of infection into the town by some 10,000 refugees.
Andrew Malcolm, who was a doctor in the General Hospital in Frederick Street at the time of the outbreak, wrote, ‘We will remember the aspect of the hordes of poor who thronged into the town from all parts. Famine depicted in the look, in the hue, in the voice and gait’.
In 1847, the People’s Magazine printed a series of articles written by Dr Malcolm entitled 'Sanitary Inspections of Belfast’. In one of these he presented a map of the New Lodge district, in which back-to-back houses were shown alongside water pumps and open sewers. He also found gross overcrowding, with upwards of five families sometimes living in one terrace.
Other poor areas such as Carrick Hill and the Pound Loney were worse again. Indeed, all the poorer districts of Belfast, with their appalling conditions, proved no hindrance to the spread of this new fever epidemic.
It was not long before large numbers of people began to die. Bodies were found in the streets, and others were left outside graveyards for burial. At the New Burying Ground, sometimes up to four bodies were being found outside on Henry Place daily. On February 27, 1847, the body of an unknown two year old child was found on the doorstep of the graveyard gatehouse. It was the first of many.
By now the number of people dying was rising at an alarming rate, with upwards of 100 people being buried in the New Burying Ground each week. As the fever reached its peak, Belfast was struck by outbreaks of dysentery and smallpox. The first person to die of dysentery and to be buried in the New Burying Ground was 26 year old Alexander McMurry, an inmate of the poorhouse. The next day brought another seven deaths.
The newly established board of health enlarged the Union Infirmary and moved the poorhouse inmates, who were thought to carry the disease, into it. The board also built a large shed in the grounds of the General Hospital. Two unused hospitals, the College Hospital and the Cholera Hospital, were once again opened. Later, tents were erected in the grounds of the workhouse to accommodate 700 convalescent patients.
In the burying grounds of Belfast, burial space was running out, and bodies were arriving faster than the gravediggers could accommodate them. Some coffins contained more than one body and sometimes up to five bodies were placed in one coffin, which were really large boxes. Soon, coffins were not used at all. When the poor ground was full, the cholera ground, which was last used in the 1830s epidemic, was opened once again. In the New Burying Ground, even the gap between the Antrim Road wall and the graveyard wall was used.
By this time, it was realised that to control the epidemic, it was first necessary to control vagrancy, and thus prevent more paupers coming into the town. A meeting was held by the poorhouse committee on July 20, 1847, and it was agreed that all beggars were to be ’placed’ in the House of Correction (the prison).
From August, there was a gradual decline in the fever. By November, the General Hospital ceased to admit any further fever cases, and the following month the Barrack Hospital was closed as the new Workhouse Hospital provided sufficient beds for any remaining cases.
By the end of 1847, Dr Andrew Malcolm was warning people that Asiatic cholera was spreading throughout Europe at an alarming rate. At the same time, the board of health, which had been set up to combat the fever epidemic, was disbanded.
The first case of cholera occurred in the Lunatic Asylum on November 1, 1847, and for upwards of a month was the only case.
In the poorhouse, great care was taken to prevent the entry of infection. No inmate was allowed out and no one was allowed in. Only on Sundays could the inmates leave to attend worship under strict supervision. Consequently, the poorhouse escaped infection.
However, the poor who were dying outside the poorhouse were causing a major problem. The committee in charge of the New Burying Ground decided to reopen the mass cholera grave. However, the cholera outbreak did not last as long as had been predicted and it claimed fewer victims. Soon the scare was over, and the mass grave at the burying ground was filled in for the last time.
© The Glenravel Local History Project | 1,259 | ENGLISH | 1 |
As a result of the British victory in the French and Indian War, France was effectively expelled from the New World. They relinquished virtually all of their New World possessions including all of Canada. They did manage to retain a few small islands off the coast of Canada and in the Caribbean. They also agreed to stay out of India, which made Great Britain the supreme military power in that part of Asia. In addition, as compensation for Spain's loss of Florida to England, Spain was awarded the Louisiana Territory. The entire face of North America had been dramatically changed.
Taxes on the Colonies
Following the war, England issued the Proclamation of 1763. Westward-bound settlers, however, ignored the proclamation and moved into Indian lands.
Because the English had incurred significant debt while fighting the war in and for the colonies, Parliament attempted to recoup the financial loss by issuing the 1765 Stamp Act on the colonists. The Stamp Act was a tax on virtually all printed documents. The tax was ill-received by the colonists, who began a boycott of British goods and even attacked British tax collectors. Parliament repealed the Stamp Act and instead issued the Declaratory Act, which maintained Britain's right to tax the colonists. These tax issues would become the cause of an even greater conflict 10 years later - The American Revolution. | <urn:uuid:5fc65016-df9f-4686-b4db-e28322a8b3ad> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mrnussbaum.com/effects-of-the-french-and-indian-war-online | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00387.warc.gz | en | 0.980945 | 267 | 3.984375 | 4 | [
-0.3677334785461426,
0.23392175137996674,
0.3537346124649048,
-0.14099794626235962,
0.02155947871506214,
-0.05544226989150047,
-0.049995824694633484,
0.454426646232605,
0.1223813146352768,
0.4287385046482086,
0.11533795297145844,
-0.06881721317768097,
-0.18231330811977386,
0.28875595331192... | 1 | As a result of the British victory in the French and Indian War, France was effectively expelled from the New World. They relinquished virtually all of their New World possessions including all of Canada. They did manage to retain a few small islands off the coast of Canada and in the Caribbean. They also agreed to stay out of India, which made Great Britain the supreme military power in that part of Asia. In addition, as compensation for Spain's loss of Florida to England, Spain was awarded the Louisiana Territory. The entire face of North America had been dramatically changed.
Taxes on the Colonies
Following the war, England issued the Proclamation of 1763. Westward-bound settlers, however, ignored the proclamation and moved into Indian lands.
Because the English had incurred significant debt while fighting the war in and for the colonies, Parliament attempted to recoup the financial loss by issuing the 1765 Stamp Act on the colonists. The Stamp Act was a tax on virtually all printed documents. The tax was ill-received by the colonists, who began a boycott of British goods and even attacked British tax collectors. Parliament repealed the Stamp Act and instead issued the Declaratory Act, which maintained Britain's right to tax the colonists. These tax issues would become the cause of an even greater conflict 10 years later - The American Revolution. | 275 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Previous Challenge Entry (Level 3 - Advanced)
Topic: Illustrate the meaning of “A Bird in the Hand is Worth Two in the Bush” (without using the actual phrase or literal example). (01/10/08)
- TITLE: A Peasant or Two Princes?
By Sandra Fischer
LEAVE COMMENT ON ARTICLE
SEND A PRIVATE COMMENT
ADD TO MY FAVORITES
“Are you sure you want to forsake Samuel? He’s a good man, solid and reliable”, Aunt Eppie pleaded, trying to dissuade Elizabeth.
Elizabeth looked in the mirror and pinched her cheeks to make them as rosy as the glow she felt inside. “Samuel is like an old pair of cowhide boots, weather-worn and stuck in the mud. But, William and Zachary,” she sighed, “are like patent leather – polished and attractive – ready to dance and sweep me off my feet!”
“They’ve certainly put you in the clouds,” Aunt Eppie shook her head, recalling how the two brothers had come to town and turned Elizabeth’s head.
Elizabeth had been entrusted to Eppie’s care since the age of twelve when her parents were killed. Having grown up in the city, Elizabeth had never reconciled herself to the mundane life of the small, frontier town where her aunt lived. She missed the parties her parents hosted and the good times with her many friends. When she came to Canyon Gulch, she remarked that it should have been named Desolate Gulch, because it was so dreary.
Samuel Bronson, a simple, rugged man who loved the canyon and its beauty, had grown to be her only real friend over the years. He had worked hard to purchase his own ranch and had little time for anything else, except Elizabeth. He would occasionally take her riding to the canyon’s edge to watch the sunset brushing its palette of colors across the sky and they would talk – he, about his ranch and cattle; she, about the excitement of the city life she missed. To Elizabeth, Samuel was a convenient diversion from her present existence. To Samuel, and to most folks in Canyon Gulch, Elizabeth was Samuel‘s future wife.
Elizabeth had other plans, having bided her time until she became of age, taking full charge of the large inheritance her parents left her. She was amazed at the timing of it all. She had just celebrated her eighteenth birthday - “freedom” day, she called it, when William and Zachary Johnson, friends from the city, arrived in Canyon Gulch. She had forgotten how much fun they were. Handsome, debonair, both had been so charming. Her heart fluttered and her head whirled with giddiness as she thought about them; she couldn’t decide which one delighted her more. They had been on their way to Sacramento and had stopped to spend some time with her. Vying for her favor, each had secretly sworn his love for her and begged her to follow him. They assured her the investment company they had started would soon make them independently wealthy.
While Samuel was like the bedrock of the canyon, the Johnsons glittered like gold. They promised excitement, romance, adventure - how could she resist? She would have ample time on the train to decide which one she should marry. Too bad, she thought, she couldn’t marry both.
Everything was set. She had arranged a stipend for Aunt Eppie, bought her train ticket and wired the remainder of her funds to the Johnson Trust Company, just as William and Zachary had suggested. They told her she could expect the money to double by the time she arrived.
Aunt Eppie made another attempt to persuade her to stay. “Why risk what you have here to chase a dream? Samuel is steadfast and sure. Men like him don’t come along every day.”
“Neither do men like William and Zachary,” Elizabeth countered. “Why should I settle for a peasant when princes are waiting for me?”
Eppie finally gave in to Elizabeth’s determination, bidding her a tearful farewell. Samuel said he hoped she would find the happiness she sought.
Afterwards, life in Canyon Gulch continued on in its steady, quiet pace, the winds of time quickly blowing over the brief footprint of Elizabeth Carradine. Winter came and the chill of death claimed Aunt Eppie. Spring followed and brought new life to Samuel Bronson with his marriage to the Widow Flanagan.
As far as Elizabeth Carradine - no one knew exactly what happened to her, although it was rumored the Johnson brothers made off with her fortune, leaving her bereft and alone in Sacramento, too ashamed to return to Canyon Gulch.
The opinions expressed by authors may not necessarily reflect the opinion of FaithWriters.com.
Accept Jesus as Your Lord and Savior Right Now - CLICK HERE
JOIN US at FaithWriters for Free. Grow as a Writer and Spread the Gospel. | <urn:uuid:530b2c39-b31d-42f1-aa3c-9582688c5b1b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.faithwriters.com/wc-article-level3-previous.php?id=20622 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00151.warc.gz | en | 0.983064 | 1,074 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
-0.3734396696090698,
-0.209524005651474,
0.05950825288891792,
0.2549437880516052,
-0.08709868788719177,
-0.04777401685714722,
0.6767558455467224,
-0.2029305100440979,
-0.09518204629421234,
0.0849805697798729,
-0.04393173009157181,
-0.3317190408706665,
0.3074512481689453,
-0.344423115253448... | 2 | Previous Challenge Entry (Level 3 - Advanced)
Topic: Illustrate the meaning of “A Bird in the Hand is Worth Two in the Bush” (without using the actual phrase or literal example). (01/10/08)
- TITLE: A Peasant or Two Princes?
By Sandra Fischer
LEAVE COMMENT ON ARTICLE
SEND A PRIVATE COMMENT
ADD TO MY FAVORITES
“Are you sure you want to forsake Samuel? He’s a good man, solid and reliable”, Aunt Eppie pleaded, trying to dissuade Elizabeth.
Elizabeth looked in the mirror and pinched her cheeks to make them as rosy as the glow she felt inside. “Samuel is like an old pair of cowhide boots, weather-worn and stuck in the mud. But, William and Zachary,” she sighed, “are like patent leather – polished and attractive – ready to dance and sweep me off my feet!”
“They’ve certainly put you in the clouds,” Aunt Eppie shook her head, recalling how the two brothers had come to town and turned Elizabeth’s head.
Elizabeth had been entrusted to Eppie’s care since the age of twelve when her parents were killed. Having grown up in the city, Elizabeth had never reconciled herself to the mundane life of the small, frontier town where her aunt lived. She missed the parties her parents hosted and the good times with her many friends. When she came to Canyon Gulch, she remarked that it should have been named Desolate Gulch, because it was so dreary.
Samuel Bronson, a simple, rugged man who loved the canyon and its beauty, had grown to be her only real friend over the years. He had worked hard to purchase his own ranch and had little time for anything else, except Elizabeth. He would occasionally take her riding to the canyon’s edge to watch the sunset brushing its palette of colors across the sky and they would talk – he, about his ranch and cattle; she, about the excitement of the city life she missed. To Elizabeth, Samuel was a convenient diversion from her present existence. To Samuel, and to most folks in Canyon Gulch, Elizabeth was Samuel‘s future wife.
Elizabeth had other plans, having bided her time until she became of age, taking full charge of the large inheritance her parents left her. She was amazed at the timing of it all. She had just celebrated her eighteenth birthday - “freedom” day, she called it, when William and Zachary Johnson, friends from the city, arrived in Canyon Gulch. She had forgotten how much fun they were. Handsome, debonair, both had been so charming. Her heart fluttered and her head whirled with giddiness as she thought about them; she couldn’t decide which one delighted her more. They had been on their way to Sacramento and had stopped to spend some time with her. Vying for her favor, each had secretly sworn his love for her and begged her to follow him. They assured her the investment company they had started would soon make them independently wealthy.
While Samuel was like the bedrock of the canyon, the Johnsons glittered like gold. They promised excitement, romance, adventure - how could she resist? She would have ample time on the train to decide which one she should marry. Too bad, she thought, she couldn’t marry both.
Everything was set. She had arranged a stipend for Aunt Eppie, bought her train ticket and wired the remainder of her funds to the Johnson Trust Company, just as William and Zachary had suggested. They told her she could expect the money to double by the time she arrived.
Aunt Eppie made another attempt to persuade her to stay. “Why risk what you have here to chase a dream? Samuel is steadfast and sure. Men like him don’t come along every day.”
“Neither do men like William and Zachary,” Elizabeth countered. “Why should I settle for a peasant when princes are waiting for me?”
Eppie finally gave in to Elizabeth’s determination, bidding her a tearful farewell. Samuel said he hoped she would find the happiness she sought.
Afterwards, life in Canyon Gulch continued on in its steady, quiet pace, the winds of time quickly blowing over the brief footprint of Elizabeth Carradine. Winter came and the chill of death claimed Aunt Eppie. Spring followed and brought new life to Samuel Bronson with his marriage to the Widow Flanagan.
As far as Elizabeth Carradine - no one knew exactly what happened to her, although it was rumored the Johnson brothers made off with her fortune, leaving her bereft and alone in Sacramento, too ashamed to return to Canyon Gulch.
The opinions expressed by authors may not necessarily reflect the opinion of FaithWriters.com.
Accept Jesus as Your Lord and Savior Right Now - CLICK HERE
JOIN US at FaithWriters for Free. Grow as a Writer and Spread the Gospel. | 1,010 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Little White House was the second home built by New York Governor and future President Franklin D. Roosevelt in the quaint town of Warm Springs. FDR first came to Warm Springs in 1924 hoping to find a cure for the infantile paralysis (polio) that had paralyzed him from the waist down in 1921. Swimming in the 78-degree, buoyant spring waters brought Roosevelt no miracle cure, but it did bring improvement to his muscles. FDR was elected president in 1932, the same year this house was completed. Roosevelt kept the house during his four terms in office and used this as both a personal and a presidential retreat. It was at the Little White House that FDR died on April 12, 1945. Since 1948 the home has served as a state historic site and museum dedicated to the life of Roosevelt and his life in Georgia.
Franklin D. Roosevelt first set foot in Warm Springs, Georgia in October 1924. It was three years after he had been stricken with polio at the age of 39 and he had heard about the natural spring waters of the area containing healing powers for paraplegics. From 1924 until his death in 1945, FDR believed that the waters did in fact help his muscles, but it was the town and the people that captured FDR's heart and mind.
In 1932, shortly before he was elected president and while he was Governor of New York, FDR built the simple cottage known as the Little White House. Throughout his presidency, FDR would return to the Little White House and Warm Springs to escape the rigors of Washington. Many New Deal programs were conceived in Warm Springs as FDR was witness to the plight of the farmers and the poverty that had devastated the South. Because of the New Deal, new schools were built in the region, electrical power was established, roads were paved, and many other innovations were installed.
FDR also loved to retreat to the nearby Dowdell's Knob, with its beautiful overlook of Georgia. Here he would host picnics, grill hot dogs, and eventually contemplated the fate of the world during World War II. The war exhausted FDR and took a heavy toll on his health. On April 12, 1945, he was sitting for a portrait with Madame Elizabeth Shoumatoff and suddenly collapsed from a massive cerebral hemorrhage. He died less than two hours later in his bedroom at the Little White House.
Visitors are able to view the Unfinished Portrait in the museum at the Little White House, which also features his 1938 Ford convertible with hand controls, some of his Fireside Chats, gifts from the people of Warm Springs, and many other historical items. Before his death, famed journalist Walter Cronkite narrated a short video featuring historic footage of FDR swimming in the pools in Warm Springs and from his funeral in April 1945. In addition to the main house, visitors can also tour the servants' quarters and guest house, where visiting heads-of-state would often stay. As one of the most visited historic sites in the state of Georgia, the Little White House offers a unique glimpse into the life of the 32nd president, who grew-up on an aristocratic estate in New York, but who found inspiration and solace in this small Georgia town. | <urn:uuid:7e9602fc-d708-45d0-bb90-778ac4a4a0c3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/95 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00236.warc.gz | en | 0.987512 | 650 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
-0.03221356123685837,
-0.1168290451169014,
0.5512644052505493,
0.0034577471669763327,
0.38950198888778687,
0.2569294273853302,
-0.024083202704787254,
0.1072731465101242,
-0.1702340543270111,
-0.14362120628356934,
0.4818795919418335,
0.4840034544467926,
0.2682088613510132,
0.792226135730743... | 2 | The Little White House was the second home built by New York Governor and future President Franklin D. Roosevelt in the quaint town of Warm Springs. FDR first came to Warm Springs in 1924 hoping to find a cure for the infantile paralysis (polio) that had paralyzed him from the waist down in 1921. Swimming in the 78-degree, buoyant spring waters brought Roosevelt no miracle cure, but it did bring improvement to his muscles. FDR was elected president in 1932, the same year this house was completed. Roosevelt kept the house during his four terms in office and used this as both a personal and a presidential retreat. It was at the Little White House that FDR died on April 12, 1945. Since 1948 the home has served as a state historic site and museum dedicated to the life of Roosevelt and his life in Georgia.
Franklin D. Roosevelt first set foot in Warm Springs, Georgia in October 1924. It was three years after he had been stricken with polio at the age of 39 and he had heard about the natural spring waters of the area containing healing powers for paraplegics. From 1924 until his death in 1945, FDR believed that the waters did in fact help his muscles, but it was the town and the people that captured FDR's heart and mind.
In 1932, shortly before he was elected president and while he was Governor of New York, FDR built the simple cottage known as the Little White House. Throughout his presidency, FDR would return to the Little White House and Warm Springs to escape the rigors of Washington. Many New Deal programs were conceived in Warm Springs as FDR was witness to the plight of the farmers and the poverty that had devastated the South. Because of the New Deal, new schools were built in the region, electrical power was established, roads were paved, and many other innovations were installed.
FDR also loved to retreat to the nearby Dowdell's Knob, with its beautiful overlook of Georgia. Here he would host picnics, grill hot dogs, and eventually contemplated the fate of the world during World War II. The war exhausted FDR and took a heavy toll on his health. On April 12, 1945, he was sitting for a portrait with Madame Elizabeth Shoumatoff and suddenly collapsed from a massive cerebral hemorrhage. He died less than two hours later in his bedroom at the Little White House.
Visitors are able to view the Unfinished Portrait in the museum at the Little White House, which also features his 1938 Ford convertible with hand controls, some of his Fireside Chats, gifts from the people of Warm Springs, and many other historical items. Before his death, famed journalist Walter Cronkite narrated a short video featuring historic footage of FDR swimming in the pools in Warm Springs and from his funeral in April 1945. In addition to the main house, visitors can also tour the servants' quarters and guest house, where visiting heads-of-state would often stay. As one of the most visited historic sites in the state of Georgia, the Little White House offers a unique glimpse into the life of the 32nd president, who grew-up on an aristocratic estate in New York, but who found inspiration and solace in this small Georgia town. | 712 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Communist Party of Korea
The Communist Party of Korea was created in April 1925 during a surge in the national liberation movement. The Communist Party of Korea (CPK) created revolutionary worker and peasant mass organizations. In June 1926 it organized anti-Japanese demonstrations. In 1927 the CPK joined into an association of anti-Japanese nationalist force. Immediately after its creation, the communist party was subjected to repression from the Japanese colonial administation. Many party leaders were jailed.
The repression plus constant faction fights led to the CPK not being an organized force of any sort by 1928. However, communists had gone underground and fought the colonial oppression. In the early 1930's, armed conflict against the Japanese colonizers begun, which communists participated in. In August 1945, Korea was liberated from Japanese control by the Soviet army and Korean revolutionary nationalist forces including the CPK. At this point, the communist party of Korea was re-established as an organized entity.
In September 1945, United States troops occupied the southern part of Korea. This splitting of Korea in two hindered the activity of CPK. On October 10, 1945, communists in the northern part of Korea territory established an organization for their area. In 1946 in North Korea, people's committees arose, agrarian reform was carried out, industry was nationalized, and other changes were made. In South Korea, the communists were aligned with the democratic movement of the masses that were against the harmful policies of the US imperialists and domestic reactionaries.
In August 1946 the North Korean communists combined with the New People's Party and formed the Workers Party of North Korea. The communists in the southern territory merged with other parties as well and formed the Workers Party of South Korea. | <urn:uuid:ed977f9b-9993-4e53-9353-e51162961ddc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.wikinfo.org/w/index.php/Communist_Party_of_Korea | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00330.warc.gz | en | 0.981524 | 345 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
-0.4027806222438812,
0.3085578382015228,
0.36912456154823303,
-0.40227189660072327,
-0.1381087601184845,
0.1773381233215332,
-0.08201190829277039,
0.03340061381459236,
-0.5924223065376282,
0.07804548740386963,
0.5160847306251526,
0.06084465980529785,
0.8081395030021667,
0.12890413403511047... | 1 | Communist Party of Korea
The Communist Party of Korea was created in April 1925 during a surge in the national liberation movement. The Communist Party of Korea (CPK) created revolutionary worker and peasant mass organizations. In June 1926 it organized anti-Japanese demonstrations. In 1927 the CPK joined into an association of anti-Japanese nationalist force. Immediately after its creation, the communist party was subjected to repression from the Japanese colonial administation. Many party leaders were jailed.
The repression plus constant faction fights led to the CPK not being an organized force of any sort by 1928. However, communists had gone underground and fought the colonial oppression. In the early 1930's, armed conflict against the Japanese colonizers begun, which communists participated in. In August 1945, Korea was liberated from Japanese control by the Soviet army and Korean revolutionary nationalist forces including the CPK. At this point, the communist party of Korea was re-established as an organized entity.
In September 1945, United States troops occupied the southern part of Korea. This splitting of Korea in two hindered the activity of CPK. On October 10, 1945, communists in the northern part of Korea territory established an organization for their area. In 1946 in North Korea, people's committees arose, agrarian reform was carried out, industry was nationalized, and other changes were made. In South Korea, the communists were aligned with the democratic movement of the masses that were against the harmful policies of the US imperialists and domestic reactionaries.
In August 1946 the North Korean communists combined with the New People's Party and formed the Workers Party of North Korea. The communists in the southern territory merged with other parties as well and formed the Workers Party of South Korea. | 390 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How the defenders of Barney helped thwart a north rebellion
SOME 450 years ago, Barnard Castle was drawn into the rebellion known as The Rising of the North.
Many of the population in the region had never become reconciled to England’s break with Rome and in 1569 the Earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland led a revolt to re-establish the old religion.
Their aims, though confused, included a desire to settle the succession on the Roman Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots, who was then in captivity in England, and her offspring.
Charles Neville, Earl of Westmoreland, owned both Brancepeth and Raby Castles, while Thomas Percy, Earl of Northumberland, was based at Alnwick. They mustered their followers at Brancepeth and marched south as far as Bramham Moor, near Wetherby. They then turned back and, passing through Ripon and Richmond, laid siege to Barnard Castle.
In the course of their march through the North, groups of rebels forced people to attend Roman Catholic services at Darlington and Durham, broke communion tables and burned service books at the cathedral – a particular grievance had been the imposition of the Anglican Book of Common Prayer).
Their faith was symbolised by the banner they carried depicting the Five Wounds of Christ, also used on the Pilgrimage of Grace in 1536-7, an earlier attempt to reverse Henry VIII's suppression of the old religion.
Sir George Bowes (1527-1580) was an ancestor of John Bowes, the founder, with his wife Josephine, of The Bowes Museum. A devout Protestant and loyal servant of Queen Elizabeth, he had been watching developments for some months from his seat at Streatlam Castle. An experienced military commander, he realised that the royal forces were not yet in a position to confront the rebels head-on in open battle. He had therefore set in hand detailed preparations for holding the castle at “Barney Castell” until reinforcements could be brought up from the south.
The garrison consisted of more than 100 local men, with 200 foot soldiers and 100 horsemen drawn from the gentry. They were well armed, with 104 spears, 85 bows, and seven portable guns (arquebuses) which could be mounted on tripods. Facing them were up to 1,500 horsemen and 3,000 foot soldiers.
The siege began on December 1, 1569, and lasted for 11 days. The rebels began by attacking the walls on the town side and after three days broke into the town ward, the defenders falling back across an inner moat and continuing the fight from the middle ward. Sir George and his family were living in the inner ward.
As conditions became harder, with food and water running low, men began to desert. Finally, one night, 226 leapt over the wall and joined the enemy. Of these, as Sir George reported to Secretary of State William Cecil, “thirty-fyve broke their necks, legges and arms in the leaping.” Shortly afterwards, 150 men who had continued to guard the gates flung them open and also joined the rebels.
After this, there was no alternative but to surrender.
Sir George and the remaining defenders marched out and capitulated to the Earl of Westmoreland, who allowed them to march away unharmed.
Tying up the rebel forces at Barnard Castle had allowed the Queen’s armies time to gather in strength, and the rebellion was crushed soon afterwards. The Earl of Northumberland was executed, still asserting the Pope’s supremacy, and the Earl of Westmoreland fled into exile, never to return.
Sir George was tasked with organising the savage reprisals which followed the rising – the Queen ordered that 700 of those involved across the North should be executed. Each town and village was assigned a quota of men to meet the target.
Sir George may have been the less inclined to show mercy when he discovered, on returning to Streatlam, that his castle had been trashed and looted by the rebels.
Nevertheless, he was chided by the authorities for being too dilatory in carrying out the executions. Some villages escaped altogether but Staindrop, for example, was unlucky, losing seven men, while only 16 of 83 known rebels were executed in Darlington. The rising is seen as a major turning point in the history of the North. It was the last attempt to re-establish the old religion and way of life, and henceforth the region was to become fully integrated into the Protestant Reformation initiated by Henry VIII.
By the late 18th century the rising was being romanticised in poetry and legend – a ballad on the subject was included in Bishop Percy’s Reliques of Ancient English Poetry (1765). Wordsworth reworked this in his White Doe of Rylstone (1815), several verses of which are devoted to the siege.
Pictured above are pages from a sumptuous Victorian edition, with illustrations by Birket Foster.
It must be noted that the artist has shown the castle as the romantic ruin it had become by the 1800s, making no attempt to imagine it as it would have been in 1569.
An important primary source for historians of the rising is a collection of documents discovered in a cupboard at Gibside in 1833.
The Hartlepool antiquarian Sir Cuthbert Sharp undertook the task of preserving and transcribing these, and published them in 1840 as Memorials of the Rebellion of the Earls of Northumberland and Westmorland. The manuscripts were bound up in 18 volumes, one of which is held by The Bowes Museum – crucially for our purpose, this volume contains Sir George Bowes’s correspondence during the rebellion, consisting mainly of detailed reports to the authorities as the crisis develops, and the measures he is taking to deal with it.
Extracts from the letters will form part of a small display in the museum foyer through December 2019 and January 2020, to mark the 450th anniversary of the siege. | <urn:uuid:02882bd6-634f-4a2d-90ed-f6a46f77fcf3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.teesdalemercury.co.uk/features/how-the-defenders-of-barney-helped-thwart-a-northrebellion_3 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00111.warc.gz | en | 0.980691 | 1,254 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
-0.19304171204566956,
0.3450702428817749,
0.35449427366256714,
0.02845926582813263,
0.03182553872466087,
-0.2626113295555115,
-0.0648772269487381,
-0.23762880265712738,
0.017174294218420982,
-0.14915801584720612,
-0.31874555349349976,
-0.44669950008392334,
0.3237892687320709,
0.04208082705... | 3 | How the defenders of Barney helped thwart a north rebellion
SOME 450 years ago, Barnard Castle was drawn into the rebellion known as The Rising of the North.
Many of the population in the region had never become reconciled to England’s break with Rome and in 1569 the Earls of Northumberland and Westmoreland led a revolt to re-establish the old religion.
Their aims, though confused, included a desire to settle the succession on the Roman Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots, who was then in captivity in England, and her offspring.
Charles Neville, Earl of Westmoreland, owned both Brancepeth and Raby Castles, while Thomas Percy, Earl of Northumberland, was based at Alnwick. They mustered their followers at Brancepeth and marched south as far as Bramham Moor, near Wetherby. They then turned back and, passing through Ripon and Richmond, laid siege to Barnard Castle.
In the course of their march through the North, groups of rebels forced people to attend Roman Catholic services at Darlington and Durham, broke communion tables and burned service books at the cathedral – a particular grievance had been the imposition of the Anglican Book of Common Prayer).
Their faith was symbolised by the banner they carried depicting the Five Wounds of Christ, also used on the Pilgrimage of Grace in 1536-7, an earlier attempt to reverse Henry VIII's suppression of the old religion.
Sir George Bowes (1527-1580) was an ancestor of John Bowes, the founder, with his wife Josephine, of The Bowes Museum. A devout Protestant and loyal servant of Queen Elizabeth, he had been watching developments for some months from his seat at Streatlam Castle. An experienced military commander, he realised that the royal forces were not yet in a position to confront the rebels head-on in open battle. He had therefore set in hand detailed preparations for holding the castle at “Barney Castell” until reinforcements could be brought up from the south.
The garrison consisted of more than 100 local men, with 200 foot soldiers and 100 horsemen drawn from the gentry. They were well armed, with 104 spears, 85 bows, and seven portable guns (arquebuses) which could be mounted on tripods. Facing them were up to 1,500 horsemen and 3,000 foot soldiers.
The siege began on December 1, 1569, and lasted for 11 days. The rebels began by attacking the walls on the town side and after three days broke into the town ward, the defenders falling back across an inner moat and continuing the fight from the middle ward. Sir George and his family were living in the inner ward.
As conditions became harder, with food and water running low, men began to desert. Finally, one night, 226 leapt over the wall and joined the enemy. Of these, as Sir George reported to Secretary of State William Cecil, “thirty-fyve broke their necks, legges and arms in the leaping.” Shortly afterwards, 150 men who had continued to guard the gates flung them open and also joined the rebels.
After this, there was no alternative but to surrender.
Sir George and the remaining defenders marched out and capitulated to the Earl of Westmoreland, who allowed them to march away unharmed.
Tying up the rebel forces at Barnard Castle had allowed the Queen’s armies time to gather in strength, and the rebellion was crushed soon afterwards. The Earl of Northumberland was executed, still asserting the Pope’s supremacy, and the Earl of Westmoreland fled into exile, never to return.
Sir George was tasked with organising the savage reprisals which followed the rising – the Queen ordered that 700 of those involved across the North should be executed. Each town and village was assigned a quota of men to meet the target.
Sir George may have been the less inclined to show mercy when he discovered, on returning to Streatlam, that his castle had been trashed and looted by the rebels.
Nevertheless, he was chided by the authorities for being too dilatory in carrying out the executions. Some villages escaped altogether but Staindrop, for example, was unlucky, losing seven men, while only 16 of 83 known rebels were executed in Darlington. The rising is seen as a major turning point in the history of the North. It was the last attempt to re-establish the old religion and way of life, and henceforth the region was to become fully integrated into the Protestant Reformation initiated by Henry VIII.
By the late 18th century the rising was being romanticised in poetry and legend – a ballad on the subject was included in Bishop Percy’s Reliques of Ancient English Poetry (1765). Wordsworth reworked this in his White Doe of Rylstone (1815), several verses of which are devoted to the siege.
Pictured above are pages from a sumptuous Victorian edition, with illustrations by Birket Foster.
It must be noted that the artist has shown the castle as the romantic ruin it had become by the 1800s, making no attempt to imagine it as it would have been in 1569.
An important primary source for historians of the rising is a collection of documents discovered in a cupboard at Gibside in 1833.
The Hartlepool antiquarian Sir Cuthbert Sharp undertook the task of preserving and transcribing these, and published them in 1840 as Memorials of the Rebellion of the Earls of Northumberland and Westmorland. The manuscripts were bound up in 18 volumes, one of which is held by The Bowes Museum – crucially for our purpose, this volume contains Sir George Bowes’s correspondence during the rebellion, consisting mainly of detailed reports to the authorities as the crisis develops, and the measures he is taking to deal with it.
Extracts from the letters will form part of a small display in the museum foyer through December 2019 and January 2020, to mark the 450th anniversary of the siege. | 1,301 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The First Try
On January 12, 1835, territorial governor Stevens T. Mason announced that Michigan was ready to become a state. But, the United State Congress said no. Congress said Michigan had work to do before becoming a state.
First, at least 60,000 people had to live within its boundaries. Governor Mason ordered a census, a count of people, of Michigan. The census counted more than 85,000 people living in Michigan.
Second, the people of Michigan needed to write a constitution. A constitution is a set of laws or a plan about how the government will work. In April 1835, delegates, people who represent others, were elected by voters to write a constitution.
The delegates met in a Constitutional Convention, a meeting to form and adopt a new constitution. Ninety-one delegates came to the meeting. Forty-five of them farmed. Twenty worked as store owners, mill workers or lumbermen. In addition, there were 12 lawyers, three doctors, two land surveyors, a writer, a school teacher and a person who designs buildings. Eight people did not record their professions. All of the delegates were white men. Indigenous people, African Americans and women were not a part of the decision making process.
Writing a constitution was hard work. Deciding who could vote in elections was especially difficult. In some states people had to own property to vote. The delegates debated over what Michigan’s voting rules should be. Eventually, they decided that every white man over 21 years old could vote if he lived in the state for six months. Indigenous people, African Americans and women were not allowed to vote.
On October 5, 1835, Michigan voters accepted the constitution and elected Stevens T. Mason as the first governor. One month later, Mason was sworn in as Michigan’s first governor. But Michigan was still not accepted as a state.
No Fighting With Ohio
Before Michigan could become a state, it had to stop fighting with Ohio. Both Ohio and Michigan claimed that they owned a small strip of land near present-day Toledo, Ohio. But Congress refused to allow Michigan to become a state until Michigan and Ohio reached a compromise.
It took more than a year for the Toledo War to be settled. In the end, Toledo became part of Ohio. Michigan was given the western part of the Upper Peninsula instead. Finally, on January 26, 1837, Michigan became a state.
This article was originally published in the Spring 2001 issue of Michigan History for Kids. | <urn:uuid:0f0adb49-8b45-4b04-a88d-0dcb7c1a174b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://staging.seekingmichigan.org/stories/steps-to-statehood-for-michigan/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00294.warc.gz | en | 0.986888 | 512 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
-0.5514332056045532,
-0.11173871159553528,
0.21877476572990417,
0.0019528561970219016,
-0.34081608057022095,
0.4898696839809418,
0.008323278278112411,
-0.02724285237491131,
-0.3421856462955475,
0.14728756248950958,
0.18696796894073486,
0.21242883801460266,
-0.018468571826815605,
0.44226098... | 14 | The First Try
On January 12, 1835, territorial governor Stevens T. Mason announced that Michigan was ready to become a state. But, the United State Congress said no. Congress said Michigan had work to do before becoming a state.
First, at least 60,000 people had to live within its boundaries. Governor Mason ordered a census, a count of people, of Michigan. The census counted more than 85,000 people living in Michigan.
Second, the people of Michigan needed to write a constitution. A constitution is a set of laws or a plan about how the government will work. In April 1835, delegates, people who represent others, were elected by voters to write a constitution.
The delegates met in a Constitutional Convention, a meeting to form and adopt a new constitution. Ninety-one delegates came to the meeting. Forty-five of them farmed. Twenty worked as store owners, mill workers or lumbermen. In addition, there were 12 lawyers, three doctors, two land surveyors, a writer, a school teacher and a person who designs buildings. Eight people did not record their professions. All of the delegates were white men. Indigenous people, African Americans and women were not a part of the decision making process.
Writing a constitution was hard work. Deciding who could vote in elections was especially difficult. In some states people had to own property to vote. The delegates debated over what Michigan’s voting rules should be. Eventually, they decided that every white man over 21 years old could vote if he lived in the state for six months. Indigenous people, African Americans and women were not allowed to vote.
On October 5, 1835, Michigan voters accepted the constitution and elected Stevens T. Mason as the first governor. One month later, Mason was sworn in as Michigan’s first governor. But Michigan was still not accepted as a state.
No Fighting With Ohio
Before Michigan could become a state, it had to stop fighting with Ohio. Both Ohio and Michigan claimed that they owned a small strip of land near present-day Toledo, Ohio. But Congress refused to allow Michigan to become a state until Michigan and Ohio reached a compromise.
It took more than a year for the Toledo War to be settled. In the end, Toledo became part of Ohio. Michigan was given the western part of the Upper Peninsula instead. Finally, on January 26, 1837, Michigan became a state.
This article was originally published in the Spring 2001 issue of Michigan History for Kids. | 530 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Invention of January
Thursday Nov 21st, 2019Share
Happy January, the traditional first month of the year! But how did January get to be the first month of the year? Consider that until the 1700s, calendars were not always as we see them today.
January 1 became the first day of the new year when Julius Caesar reorganized the Roman calendar and made it solar rather than lunar In the year 45 B.C.E. he moved the beginning of the year to January 1.
When the Gregorian calendar—which most of the world uses today—was introduced in 1582, January 1 continued to be recognized as the first day of the year in most places. However, in England and the American colonies the first of the year was March 25, intended to represent the spring equinox. Under this system, March 24, 1700, was followed by March 25, 1701. In 1752, the British government changed the beginning of the year to January 1.
January is named for Janus, considered the Roman god of the doorway or the gatekeeper, appropriate as January is the doorway of the year | <urn:uuid:edc95bf4-a6d7-430c-bed0-d6102aa27086> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bevmaclean.com/the-invention-of-january | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00265.warc.gz | en | 0.984577 | 230 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
-0.22245992720127106,
0.22040390968322754,
0.531584620475769,
-0.4299372136592865,
-0.35463544726371765,
-0.1542300134897232,
-0.030202945694327354,
0.282999187707901,
0.2276248186826706,
0.0505913607776165,
0.14514228701591492,
0.13695909082889557,
-0.02489236369729042,
0.3988066613674164... | 8 | The Invention of January
Thursday Nov 21st, 2019Share
Happy January, the traditional first month of the year! But how did January get to be the first month of the year? Consider that until the 1700s, calendars were not always as we see them today.
January 1 became the first day of the new year when Julius Caesar reorganized the Roman calendar and made it solar rather than lunar In the year 45 B.C.E. he moved the beginning of the year to January 1.
When the Gregorian calendar—which most of the world uses today—was introduced in 1582, January 1 continued to be recognized as the first day of the year in most places. However, in England and the American colonies the first of the year was March 25, intended to represent the spring equinox. Under this system, March 24, 1700, was followed by March 25, 1701. In 1752, the British government changed the beginning of the year to January 1.
January is named for Janus, considered the Roman god of the doorway or the gatekeeper, appropriate as January is the doorway of the year | 259 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Atlantic Wall (German: Atlantikwall) was an extensive system of coastal defence and fortifications built by Germany between 1942 and 1944, along the coast of continental Europe and Scandinavia as a defence against an anticipated Allied invasion from the U.K., during WWII.
The manning and operation of the Atlantic Wall was administratively overseen by the German Army with some support from Luftwaffe ground forces. The German Navy maintained a separate coastal defence network, organised into a number of sea defence zones..
Many major ports and positions were incorporated into the Atlantic Wall, receiving heavy fortifications. Hitler ordered all positions to fight to the end, and some of them remained in German hands until Germany's unconditional surrender.
Several of the port fortresses were resupplied by submarines after being surrounded by Allied Forces. The defenders of these positions included foreign volunteers and Waffen-SS troops.
Labour comprised skilled volunteers, engineers, designers and supervisors, who were paid and treated well.
Second came volunteer workers, often skilled technicians, such as carpenters, plumbers, electricians and metal workers. Again, these workers were paid, took holidays and were well treated.
Next came unskilled forced labour, paid very little and treated quite harshly.
Lastly came effective slave labour, paid little, badly fed and treated very harshly.
This gentleman was a child during the war. His father worked on the first bunker to be built.
As a child he fraternized with the Germans. The bunkers were his "playground".
He decided to try and keep these bunkers as a memorial.
As the Allies were landing in Normandy, the Germans decided to move the BIG guns from this site to Normandy. However, the French Resistance blew up the train and tracks, so the BIG guns never made it.
This forest mysteriously "grew" after the Allied shelling.
This bunker was as a "DISCO" by the local teenagers in the 70's | <urn:uuid:b2821c99-c36d-47df-8369-60c2ee5eff20> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://zzzland.webs.com/le-verdon-sur-mer-the-wall | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00515.warc.gz | en | 0.98584 | 402 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
0.009892536327242851,
0.5828951597213745,
0.021992405876517296,
-0.05142365023493767,
0.19114673137664795,
-0.09821102023124695,
-0.11848768591880798,
-0.3689418435096741,
-0.20887763798236847,
-0.16244946420192719,
0.34239068627357483,
-0.6122731566429138,
-0.10715121030807495,
0.50667959... | 2 | The Atlantic Wall (German: Atlantikwall) was an extensive system of coastal defence and fortifications built by Germany between 1942 and 1944, along the coast of continental Europe and Scandinavia as a defence against an anticipated Allied invasion from the U.K., during WWII.
The manning and operation of the Atlantic Wall was administratively overseen by the German Army with some support from Luftwaffe ground forces. The German Navy maintained a separate coastal defence network, organised into a number of sea defence zones..
Many major ports and positions were incorporated into the Atlantic Wall, receiving heavy fortifications. Hitler ordered all positions to fight to the end, and some of them remained in German hands until Germany's unconditional surrender.
Several of the port fortresses were resupplied by submarines after being surrounded by Allied Forces. The defenders of these positions included foreign volunteers and Waffen-SS troops.
Labour comprised skilled volunteers, engineers, designers and supervisors, who were paid and treated well.
Second came volunteer workers, often skilled technicians, such as carpenters, plumbers, electricians and metal workers. Again, these workers were paid, took holidays and were well treated.
Next came unskilled forced labour, paid very little and treated quite harshly.
Lastly came effective slave labour, paid little, badly fed and treated very harshly.
This gentleman was a child during the war. His father worked on the first bunker to be built.
As a child he fraternized with the Germans. The bunkers were his "playground".
He decided to try and keep these bunkers as a memorial.
As the Allies were landing in Normandy, the Germans decided to move the BIG guns from this site to Normandy. However, the French Resistance blew up the train and tracks, so the BIG guns never made it.
This forest mysteriously "grew" after the Allied shelling.
This bunker was as a "DISCO" by the local teenagers in the 70's | 404 | ENGLISH | 1 |
File:East Youngstown 1916 Strike.jpg|
This brochure, "Influenza: How to Avoid It and How to Care for Those Who Have It," was distributed in Sandusky, Ohio during the 1918 flu epidemic. The four-page pamphlet was published by the Ohio Department of Health..
A deadly outbreak of Spanish Influenza, which reached epidemic proportions, spread from Europe to the United States and to Ohio in 1918. Approximately 500,000 Americans died from the virus in the United States. The epidemic seemed to be particularly bad in army camps, where the men lived in close proximity to each other. Within only two months, more than 300,000 soldiers had contracted the illness. Approximately twenty thousand troops died of influenza.
In Ohio, Camp Sherman was affected more by the epidemic than any other training camp in the nation. The disease swept through the camp in the late summer and early fall. Almost twelve hundred men died at Camp Sherman before the epidemic ended. Although the nearby community of Chillicothe was quarantined to prevent the spread of the epidemic, some people outside of the camp still became ill and died of the disease.
Communities across Ohio experienced illnesses and deaths from the influenza at this time. During the last week of October 1918, 1,500 Ohioans died. Between October 1918 and January 1919, almost six hundred Dayton residents perished. In an attempt to stop the spread of the disease, many colleges temporarily closed their doors. In some cases, campus buildings were made into makeshift hospitals to treat those who had contracted the illness. Many other parts of the country also experienced tragedy as a result of the influenza epidemic of 1918. | <urn:uuid:eb2348a4-eaa0-4757-8806-2d607da525dc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ohiohistorycentral.org/index.php?title=Influenza_Epidemic_of_1918&oldid=18242 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00206.warc.gz | en | 0.984736 | 333 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
-0.10757842659950256,
0.176570862531662,
0.10536083579063416,
-0.03166463226079941,
0.0694812759757042,
0.024809379130601883,
0.03715737536549568,
0.2221682369709015,
-0.36219099164009094,
-0.055937014520168304,
-0.09625532478094101,
-0.2553177773952484,
0.13149279356002808,
0.180820554494... | 2 | File:East Youngstown 1916 Strike.jpg|
This brochure, "Influenza: How to Avoid It and How to Care for Those Who Have It," was distributed in Sandusky, Ohio during the 1918 flu epidemic. The four-page pamphlet was published by the Ohio Department of Health..
A deadly outbreak of Spanish Influenza, which reached epidemic proportions, spread from Europe to the United States and to Ohio in 1918. Approximately 500,000 Americans died from the virus in the United States. The epidemic seemed to be particularly bad in army camps, where the men lived in close proximity to each other. Within only two months, more than 300,000 soldiers had contracted the illness. Approximately twenty thousand troops died of influenza.
In Ohio, Camp Sherman was affected more by the epidemic than any other training camp in the nation. The disease swept through the camp in the late summer and early fall. Almost twelve hundred men died at Camp Sherman before the epidemic ended. Although the nearby community of Chillicothe was quarantined to prevent the spread of the epidemic, some people outside of the camp still became ill and died of the disease.
Communities across Ohio experienced illnesses and deaths from the influenza at this time. During the last week of October 1918, 1,500 Ohioans died. Between October 1918 and January 1919, almost six hundred Dayton residents perished. In an attempt to stop the spread of the disease, many colleges temporarily closed their doors. In some cases, campus buildings were made into makeshift hospitals to treat those who had contracted the illness. Many other parts of the country also experienced tragedy as a result of the influenza epidemic of 1918. | 374 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Gettysburg: The Confederate Tragedy
In the summer of 1863, the United States was sharply divided in a brutal civil war. The Union army of the northern states was pitted against the Confederate army of the separatist southern states in what would prove to be the bloodiest war that the nation has ever been involved in. That summer was especially harsh on both sides. The casualty lists were extremely lengthy as the two sides faced off in some of the deadliest engagements of the war.
The summer of 1863 was a particularly desperate time in the war for the South. The southern stronghold of Vicksburg, Mississippi, was under siege by a powerful Union force. The economic state of the South was all but destroyed by the ravages of war and it was becoming increasingly difficult to keep the Confederate armies well supplied. General Robert E. Lee, commanding the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia, was well aware of the situation when he came up with one of the most daring plans of the entire war. He planned to move his forces across the Potomac River and invade the North. Considering the circumstances that he faced, it was probably a wise and justified move (Freeman 147). He hoped to ease the pressure on Vicksburg simply by applying a little on Washington. At the same time, the constant demand for supplies would be solved as the army lived off the fertile lands in the north for the summer.
The Confederate army's uncontested march northward, however, did not last long. As expected, once General Joseph Hooker of the Union Army of the Potomac heard of the Confederate advance, he maneuvered his army into position between the Confederates and Washington in order to protect the northern capital. The days of June grew long as the two mighty armies slowly drifted northward. Tensions were high as President Lincoln's patience wore thin. By the time he had replaced Hooker with General George G. Meade, the gap between the two armies had already become dangerously small. By then, only one small town stood between them and it seemed as if every road in the area led to it. On July 1, 1863, a division of Confederate infantry marched to Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, in hopes of seizing a supply of desperately needed shoes for the ill-shod, sore-footed infantry of the Army of Northern Virginia. Much to their surprise, however, a division of Union cavalry, who had reached the town only a few hours earlier, had dismounted and was awaiting their arrival on the northwest side of town. Fierce fighting broke out as the Confederates slowly pushed their opponent back through the town itself and into the highlands to the south. That night, thousands of troops from both sides were rushed to the vicinity of Gettysburg and by morning there were over 100,000 soldiers in position there. The Battle of Gettysburg had begun, and it would soon prove to be one of the most pivotal battles of the entire war.
Ever since the conclusion of the American Civil War, there has been... | <urn:uuid:84548524-d934-42a7-9b08-e17b3780ecbd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/gettysburg-the-confederate-tragedy | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00239.warc.gz | en | 0.98425 | 606 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
-0.35734987258911133,
0.21043264865875244,
0.24038660526275635,
0.3883621096611023,
0.07199782878160477,
0.32296276092529297,
0.0497538261115551,
-0.19108431041240692,
-0.22757704555988312,
-0.06857408583164215,
0.0674719288945198,
-0.04337931051850319,
0.19987058639526367,
0.4175215959548... | 1 | Gettysburg: The Confederate Tragedy
In the summer of 1863, the United States was sharply divided in a brutal civil war. The Union army of the northern states was pitted against the Confederate army of the separatist southern states in what would prove to be the bloodiest war that the nation has ever been involved in. That summer was especially harsh on both sides. The casualty lists were extremely lengthy as the two sides faced off in some of the deadliest engagements of the war.
The summer of 1863 was a particularly desperate time in the war for the South. The southern stronghold of Vicksburg, Mississippi, was under siege by a powerful Union force. The economic state of the South was all but destroyed by the ravages of war and it was becoming increasingly difficult to keep the Confederate armies well supplied. General Robert E. Lee, commanding the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia, was well aware of the situation when he came up with one of the most daring plans of the entire war. He planned to move his forces across the Potomac River and invade the North. Considering the circumstances that he faced, it was probably a wise and justified move (Freeman 147). He hoped to ease the pressure on Vicksburg simply by applying a little on Washington. At the same time, the constant demand for supplies would be solved as the army lived off the fertile lands in the north for the summer.
The Confederate army's uncontested march northward, however, did not last long. As expected, once General Joseph Hooker of the Union Army of the Potomac heard of the Confederate advance, he maneuvered his army into position between the Confederates and Washington in order to protect the northern capital. The days of June grew long as the two mighty armies slowly drifted northward. Tensions were high as President Lincoln's patience wore thin. By the time he had replaced Hooker with General George G. Meade, the gap between the two armies had already become dangerously small. By then, only one small town stood between them and it seemed as if every road in the area led to it. On July 1, 1863, a division of Confederate infantry marched to Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, in hopes of seizing a supply of desperately needed shoes for the ill-shod, sore-footed infantry of the Army of Northern Virginia. Much to their surprise, however, a division of Union cavalry, who had reached the town only a few hours earlier, had dismounted and was awaiting their arrival on the northwest side of town. Fierce fighting broke out as the Confederates slowly pushed their opponent back through the town itself and into the highlands to the south. That night, thousands of troops from both sides were rushed to the vicinity of Gettysburg and by morning there were over 100,000 soldiers in position there. The Battle of Gettysburg had begun, and it would soon prove to be one of the most pivotal battles of the entire war.
Ever since the conclusion of the American Civil War, there has been... | 633 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The United States National Park Service and numerous scholars attribute the beginning of a Memorial Day practice in the South to a group of women of Columbus, Georgia. The women were the Ladies Memorial Association of Columbus. They were represented by Mary Ann Williams (Mrs. Charles J. Williams) who, as Secretary, wrote a letter to press in March 1866 asking their assistance in establishing annual holiday to decorate the graves of soldiers throughout the south. The letter was reprinted in several southern states and the plans were noted in newspapers in the north. The date of April 26 was chosen. The holiday was observed in Atlanta, Augusta, Macon, Columbus and elsewhere in Georgia as well as Montgomery, AL; Memphis, TN; Louisville, KY; New Orleans, LA; Jackson, MS and across the south. In some cities, mostly in Virginia, other dates in May and June were observed. General John A. Logan commented on the observances in a speech to veterans on July 4, 1866 in Salem, IL. After General Logan's General Order No. 11 to the Grand Army of the Republic to observe May 30, 1868, the earlier version of the holiday began to be referred to as Confederate Memorial Day. | <urn:uuid:81d9d993-49d7-45de-aef2-2f401cda5a06> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://tgblogsite.com/coloring/memorial-day-coloring-pages-printable.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00472.warc.gz | en | 0.983636 | 242 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
-0.43594688177108765,
0.3505414128303528,
0.5953003168106079,
0.12437217682600021,
-0.42108193039894104,
0.1836826503276825,
0.09643792361021042,
-0.12018987536430359,
-0.27863311767578125,
-0.044086162000894547,
0.15846192836761475,
0.20304571092128754,
-0.09727715700864792,
0.49988040328... | 5 | The United States National Park Service and numerous scholars attribute the beginning of a Memorial Day practice in the South to a group of women of Columbus, Georgia. The women were the Ladies Memorial Association of Columbus. They were represented by Mary Ann Williams (Mrs. Charles J. Williams) who, as Secretary, wrote a letter to press in March 1866 asking their assistance in establishing annual holiday to decorate the graves of soldiers throughout the south. The letter was reprinted in several southern states and the plans were noted in newspapers in the north. The date of April 26 was chosen. The holiday was observed in Atlanta, Augusta, Macon, Columbus and elsewhere in Georgia as well as Montgomery, AL; Memphis, TN; Louisville, KY; New Orleans, LA; Jackson, MS and across the south. In some cities, mostly in Virginia, other dates in May and June were observed. General John A. Logan commented on the observances in a speech to veterans on July 4, 1866 in Salem, IL. After General Logan's General Order No. 11 to the Grand Army of the Republic to observe May 30, 1868, the earlier version of the holiday began to be referred to as Confederate Memorial Day. | 258 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Since prehistoric times, humans have always felt the need to build homes or shelters for themselves and their families. With time, as civilizations expanded and people learnt about new techniques and materials to build their homes, the surroundings began to look different. Engineering and architecture flourished and masonry techniques evolved- the most marked changes were the durability of the construction materials used, increase in the scale of structures (both the height and span), the extent to which we could exert our control over the surroundings and lastly, the degree to which we could manipulate energy to modify and improve construction processes. We have developed so much and now we use tools to create what we once did with our hands, we can now get the best table saw, hammers and so many other things for us to use.
The New Stone Age was basically about the usage of stones and natural man-made tools of bone, wood, stones, and fibers to name a few. With time, wood began to be used along with stones to fortify shelters that protected the early inhabitants from the elements of nature and from wild animals.
Later on, metals like copper and iron came into use along with alloys like bronze and brass. Tools like axes, chisels, and saws were made from bronze and brass. Steel came into being as iron was mixed with carbon, and we all know how indispensable these metals are for masonry practices.
Gradually, stones were replaced by bricks- these bricks were of different materials like mud (which was baked under the sun) as well as fired bricks. They were of varied shapes and sizes, depending on the type of structure being raised.
Lime mortar was being used by Romans in their structures. They were the earliest people to use the technology of concrete on a major scale. However, as the Roman Empire saw its downfall, so did the usage of concrete, until its revival in the middle of the 18th century.
It is quite interesting to trace how concrete masonry techniques have changed with time. The earliest known deposits of concrete date back to more than 12 million years ago. Today, concrete is produced and used extensively to create architectural wonders that inspire awe among all. | <urn:uuid:7ce5da62-2a85-42c1-b098-d8dc8d219c9a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://tonysmasonry.com/construction-materials-and-practices-over-the-years/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00410.warc.gz | en | 0.983211 | 439 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
-0.23158805072307587,
0.40001338720321655,
0.5938656330108643,
0.05880873650312424,
-0.19314831495285034,
-0.04055022820830345,
-0.21648885309696198,
0.0702105164527893,
-0.10577841848134995,
0.04355340823531151,
0.06233810633420944,
-0.3341115713119507,
-0.3325234353542328,
0.368027865886... | 1 | Since prehistoric times, humans have always felt the need to build homes or shelters for themselves and their families. With time, as civilizations expanded and people learnt about new techniques and materials to build their homes, the surroundings began to look different. Engineering and architecture flourished and masonry techniques evolved- the most marked changes were the durability of the construction materials used, increase in the scale of structures (both the height and span), the extent to which we could exert our control over the surroundings and lastly, the degree to which we could manipulate energy to modify and improve construction processes. We have developed so much and now we use tools to create what we once did with our hands, we can now get the best table saw, hammers and so many other things for us to use.
The New Stone Age was basically about the usage of stones and natural man-made tools of bone, wood, stones, and fibers to name a few. With time, wood began to be used along with stones to fortify shelters that protected the early inhabitants from the elements of nature and from wild animals.
Later on, metals like copper and iron came into use along with alloys like bronze and brass. Tools like axes, chisels, and saws were made from bronze and brass. Steel came into being as iron was mixed with carbon, and we all know how indispensable these metals are for masonry practices.
Gradually, stones were replaced by bricks- these bricks were of different materials like mud (which was baked under the sun) as well as fired bricks. They were of varied shapes and sizes, depending on the type of structure being raised.
Lime mortar was being used by Romans in their structures. They were the earliest people to use the technology of concrete on a major scale. However, as the Roman Empire saw its downfall, so did the usage of concrete, until its revival in the middle of the 18th century.
It is quite interesting to trace how concrete masonry techniques have changed with time. The earliest known deposits of concrete date back to more than 12 million years ago. Today, concrete is produced and used extensively to create architectural wonders that inspire awe among all. | 438 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Discriminative Training on Two Different Luminance of Key Lights
Not a few experiments on the discriminative training with pigeons were done over past several decades, and many researchers found that various factors relate to the results of discriminative training with pigeons. In a classical study by Heinemann and Rudolph (1963), they suggested that the geometric size of the stimulus influences on the efficiency of the learning by pigeons. There are several other factors pertaining to that efficiency of the learning. According to Sargisson and White (2001), the training delay is one of those factors. They found that the longer the training delay, the more sessions were required for all birds to reach the same level of response accuracy (Sargisson & White, 2001).
In this discriminative training, therefore, the ring doves were trained with several different conditions in order to obtain some suggestions for to understand how they learn and what factors relates to the efficiency of their learning. What the doves learned in this operant conditioning was the discrimination of two different luminance of key-lights. Because many researches found that the doves had the reliable ability for discrimination of the intensity of lights, the results of learning depends on the long term memory of the subjects.
Summarily, the purpose of this training was to know whether the doves can discriminate the differences of luminance of lights, and the factors which influences on their learning.
Seven hungry ring doves (Streptopelia risoria) were tested. Six of them had previous experience on training to discriminate between the two red lights which had different luminosity. Before that, all of the doves were autoshaped to peck at a red key illuminated by one red bulb. Two of them have participated in many experiments for 14 years.
Testing was conducted in a student chamber (37 cm wide × 29 cm deep × 23 cm high) designed by Lehigh Valley. The side of the chamber was clear plastic board to see the reaction of the doves. Stimuli were the light produced by one or two red bulbs. The each bulb had approximately 120 cd/㎡of luminosity. The light produced by two bulbs had approximately 240 cd/㎡of luminosity. The size of stimuli was the circular switch which was approximately 2 cm in diameter. It was presented at the point of where 7 cm from the floor. The reinforcement was 2 seconds in the discrimination training. The food was mixed grains.
The seven chambers were located in the different sound attenuated cubicles. The chambers were operated not by computers but the hands of students. The number of pecks on the key-lights with sufficient force was automatically counted by the machine connected to the chamber. That machine controlled the luminosity of red lights. Basically, pecking the switch with one red light delivered reinforcements (opportunities to eat mixed grains for 2 seconds) to the subjects . No punishment was... | <urn:uuid:8e794b4e-e94c-4820-b8db-a3ede0db54b9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/discriminative-training-on-two-different-luminance-of-key-lights | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00459.warc.gz | en | 0.983431 | 596 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
0.19452917575836182,
-0.10737141966819763,
-0.04801086336374283,
0.382939875125885,
0.03018047660589218,
0.5821089744567871,
0.37894806265830994,
0.17613396048545837,
0.3515480160713196,
-0.0642084926366806,
-0.2347414493560791,
-0.31559714674949646,
-0.07903104275465012,
0.331115067005157... | 1 | Discriminative Training on Two Different Luminance of Key Lights
Not a few experiments on the discriminative training with pigeons were done over past several decades, and many researchers found that various factors relate to the results of discriminative training with pigeons. In a classical study by Heinemann and Rudolph (1963), they suggested that the geometric size of the stimulus influences on the efficiency of the learning by pigeons. There are several other factors pertaining to that efficiency of the learning. According to Sargisson and White (2001), the training delay is one of those factors. They found that the longer the training delay, the more sessions were required for all birds to reach the same level of response accuracy (Sargisson & White, 2001).
In this discriminative training, therefore, the ring doves were trained with several different conditions in order to obtain some suggestions for to understand how they learn and what factors relates to the efficiency of their learning. What the doves learned in this operant conditioning was the discrimination of two different luminance of key-lights. Because many researches found that the doves had the reliable ability for discrimination of the intensity of lights, the results of learning depends on the long term memory of the subjects.
Summarily, the purpose of this training was to know whether the doves can discriminate the differences of luminance of lights, and the factors which influences on their learning.
Seven hungry ring doves (Streptopelia risoria) were tested. Six of them had previous experience on training to discriminate between the two red lights which had different luminosity. Before that, all of the doves were autoshaped to peck at a red key illuminated by one red bulb. Two of them have participated in many experiments for 14 years.
Testing was conducted in a student chamber (37 cm wide × 29 cm deep × 23 cm high) designed by Lehigh Valley. The side of the chamber was clear plastic board to see the reaction of the doves. Stimuli were the light produced by one or two red bulbs. The each bulb had approximately 120 cd/㎡of luminosity. The light produced by two bulbs had approximately 240 cd/㎡of luminosity. The size of stimuli was the circular switch which was approximately 2 cm in diameter. It was presented at the point of where 7 cm from the floor. The reinforcement was 2 seconds in the discrimination training. The food was mixed grains.
The seven chambers were located in the different sound attenuated cubicles. The chambers were operated not by computers but the hands of students. The number of pecks on the key-lights with sufficient force was automatically counted by the machine connected to the chamber. That machine controlled the luminosity of red lights. Basically, pecking the switch with one red light delivered reinforcements (opportunities to eat mixed grains for 2 seconds) to the subjects . No punishment was... | 613 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1919, 12 years after he founded the Scout Movement, Baden-Powell ran a series of training courses for scout leaders at a campsite named Gilwell Park. The courses taught the basic principles of Scouting along with key woodcraft and camping skills. At the completion of the training the Scout Leaders were each given a "Wood Badge" which Baden-Powell made by knotting two of Dinuzulu's beads onto a leather bootlace. According to scouting lore, the beads had been taken from the Zulu Chief Dinuzulu kaCetshwayo by Baden-Powell when he put down Dinuzulu's insurrection against English rule in Africa in 1888. Although Baden-Powell was unable to catch Dinuzulu he did manage to acquire what—according to Scouting lore—is commonly held to be his "iziQu."
Dinuzulu was known to have worn a four meter long "iziQu" about his neck—a necklace made of thousands of small South African Acacia yellow wood beads strung on a leather thong. This wood has a soft central pith, which makes it easy for a rawhide lace to be threaded through from end-to-end and this is how the 1,000 beads were arranged. The beads themselves varied in size from tiny emblems to others 4 inches in length. The necklace was considered sacred by the Zulu, being a badge conferred upon royalty and warriors for their courage in battle. The necklace, passed down from generation to generation, was considered sacred and was closely guarded.
Doubt is cast upon the fact that the beads in Baden-Powell's possession were those that belonged to Dinuzulu, however. Baden-Powell's own letters and diaries at the time, for example, record him removing beads from a dead African girl, with no mention of Dinuzulu ever made.
After the Second World War the scouting lore surrounding the "Wood Badge" started to cause embarrassment. To have stolen a Zulu ruler's sacred property was thought underhanded and unpleasant, as the English might say, as was the idea of the founder and Chief Scout of the worldwide brotherhood being the principal culprit in the matter. So it became policy within the Movement to claim that Baden-Powell had been given the necklace by Dinuzulu. "This Change," wrote the Deputy Chief Scout in 1959, "was made first in The Gilwell Book and gradually in all our literature."
Other biographers of Baden-Powell, such as William Hillcourt, repeat Baden-Powell's 1919 telling of the story, albeit Hillcourt leaves the reader with the implication that the beads might have belonged Dinuzulu, when he states that in one of the captured Zulu forts Baden-Powell found a number of weapons and trinkets left behind, among them a long string of quaintly carved wooden beads such as only a chief would have worn. "There was," as Hillcourt writes, "no doubt in his mind [Baden-Powell] that this had been Dinuzulu's own hide-out."
I guess you have to decide for yourself where the truth lies.
Good night, gentlemen.
Note: Dinuzulu kaCetshwayo was the king of the Zulu nation from 1884 until his death in 1913. He and Baden-Powell did eventually meet and that meeting formed the basis for another of scouting's great stories. That is a tale for another time! | <urn:uuid:abe17b93-bd93-4297-a0c8-d11b0c0a40eb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://troop4673.org/troop_traditions/scoutmasters_minute/pages/origin_of_the_wood_badge_beads.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00146.warc.gz | en | 0.98214 | 721 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
-0.35996341705322266,
0.977798581123352,
-0.0876111164689064,
-0.06270399689674377,
-0.10375060141086578,
0.021473929286003113,
0.37256649136543274,
-0.1901370882987976,
-0.30674076080322266,
-0.14792342483997345,
0.34225744009017944,
-0.5393948554992676,
0.1433373987674713,
0.556239485740... | 2 | In 1919, 12 years after he founded the Scout Movement, Baden-Powell ran a series of training courses for scout leaders at a campsite named Gilwell Park. The courses taught the basic principles of Scouting along with key woodcraft and camping skills. At the completion of the training the Scout Leaders were each given a "Wood Badge" which Baden-Powell made by knotting two of Dinuzulu's beads onto a leather bootlace. According to scouting lore, the beads had been taken from the Zulu Chief Dinuzulu kaCetshwayo by Baden-Powell when he put down Dinuzulu's insurrection against English rule in Africa in 1888. Although Baden-Powell was unable to catch Dinuzulu he did manage to acquire what—according to Scouting lore—is commonly held to be his "iziQu."
Dinuzulu was known to have worn a four meter long "iziQu" about his neck—a necklace made of thousands of small South African Acacia yellow wood beads strung on a leather thong. This wood has a soft central pith, which makes it easy for a rawhide lace to be threaded through from end-to-end and this is how the 1,000 beads were arranged. The beads themselves varied in size from tiny emblems to others 4 inches in length. The necklace was considered sacred by the Zulu, being a badge conferred upon royalty and warriors for their courage in battle. The necklace, passed down from generation to generation, was considered sacred and was closely guarded.
Doubt is cast upon the fact that the beads in Baden-Powell's possession were those that belonged to Dinuzulu, however. Baden-Powell's own letters and diaries at the time, for example, record him removing beads from a dead African girl, with no mention of Dinuzulu ever made.
After the Second World War the scouting lore surrounding the "Wood Badge" started to cause embarrassment. To have stolen a Zulu ruler's sacred property was thought underhanded and unpleasant, as the English might say, as was the idea of the founder and Chief Scout of the worldwide brotherhood being the principal culprit in the matter. So it became policy within the Movement to claim that Baden-Powell had been given the necklace by Dinuzulu. "This Change," wrote the Deputy Chief Scout in 1959, "was made first in The Gilwell Book and gradually in all our literature."
Other biographers of Baden-Powell, such as William Hillcourt, repeat Baden-Powell's 1919 telling of the story, albeit Hillcourt leaves the reader with the implication that the beads might have belonged Dinuzulu, when he states that in one of the captured Zulu forts Baden-Powell found a number of weapons and trinkets left behind, among them a long string of quaintly carved wooden beads such as only a chief would have worn. "There was," as Hillcourt writes, "no doubt in his mind [Baden-Powell] that this had been Dinuzulu's own hide-out."
I guess you have to decide for yourself where the truth lies.
Good night, gentlemen.
Note: Dinuzulu kaCetshwayo was the king of the Zulu nation from 1884 until his death in 1913. He and Baden-Powell did eventually meet and that meeting formed the basis for another of scouting's great stories. That is a tale for another time! | 728 | ENGLISH | 1 |
From 1793 Britain was at war almost continuously till 1815 with, first, Revolutionary France, and, later, the French Empire under Napoleon. From early on the Scots Guards were engaged in operations in Flanders and on the Dutch coast, several of them both questionable in concept and also badly planned and executed. From time to time there was a marked success including the outstanding minor battle near Lille in 1793 which led to the Battle Honour “LINCELLES”. After Admiral Nelson’s crushing victory in 1798 over the French fleet in the Battle of the Nile there were still French troops in Egypt and for the time being, in the light of the rise of Napoleon’s star on mainland Europe, opportunities for British land operations were restricted to the periphery and in particular in the Mediterranean. Lieutenant General Sir Ralph Abercromby, very thorough and careful, commanded the expedition, the Scots Guards amongst them, which landed near Alexandria in 1801. The French were completely defeated, but General Abercromby died of wounds. The Scots Guards were awarded “THE SPHINX” superscribed “EGYPT”, the first Battle Honour to be emblazoned on the Colours. It was at this time that the French began to decorate their regimental colours with battle honours and the British took up the practice. There was one other interesting and successful operation in which the Scots Guards took part, the 1807 naval and military expedition to Copenhagen to secure the surrender of the Danish fleet, which it was feared might otherwise fall into Napoleon’s hands. The military commander was Major General Sir Arthur Wellesley, on whose staff was Lieutenant Colonel George Murray of the Scots Guards.
Because of his victories on the European mainland in 1809 Napoleon was almost in a position to close down all British trade with the Continent and because of his, admittedly shaky, domination over Spain had in mind the capture of Gibraltar and the closing of the Mediterranean to the British as well. However, when he ordered Portugal to ban the British from her harbours he met with a refusal. There were Spanish requests for assistance too. The British Government agreed to send a small force to Portugal under Sir Arthur Wellesley and so began the Peninsular War. The 1st Battalion Scots Guards was in reinforcements landing in Lisbon in March and very soon afterwards Sir Arthur Wellesley arrived to take command with Colonel George Murray in the role of Chief of Staff, a very sound partnership. From here on Sir Arthur Wellesley, later Duke of Wellington, gradually wore down a succession of French generals, as their armies were impeded by Napoleon’s other schemes, including the invasion of Russia in 1812, while the rising confidence of Spanish guerrilla bands strangled French communications and ensured a steady flow of reliable information to the British. All along Wellington was very much dependant on the Royal Navy for effectively securing his supply lines. The Scots Guards were present at many of the actions and battles and were awarded six Battle Honours. Chronologically they were in 1809 at the Capture of Oporto, a brilliant operation, and “TALAVERA”, a brutal, bloody fight in sweltering heat, in 1810 at Bussaco, in 1811 at “BARROSA” and “FUENTES D’ONOR”, in 1812 at Ciudad Rodrigo, “SALAMANCA”, Wellington’s outstanding battle, and the Siege of Burgos, in 1813 at Vittoria, the Capture of St Sebastian and “NIVE”, with the general “PENINSULA”. In 1814 as the Peninsular War ended and Britain’s Allies, Austria, Prussia and Russia, closed in on Paris Napoleon was forced to abdicate and was given the Italian island of Elba as consolation.
He did not stay there long and the stage was soon set for the last battle for both Napoleon and Wellington. While the 1st Battalion Scots Guards had been in the Peninsula, the 2nd Battalion was in England, apart from the debacle of the Walcheren expedition in 1809. Recently a similar operation had been undertaken, also unsuccessfully, at Bergen-op-Zoom, but when Napoleon abdicated the 2nd Battalion stayed on as part of the garrison of the Netherlands (all Holland and Belgium) until very recently part of the French Empire. On 16 June 1815 Wellington’s Allied Army, only a third of them British, and Field Marshal von Blücher’s Prussian Army first had contact with Napoleon’s rapidly raised and equipped new Army, though containing many veterans. Wellington’s Army was only partly engaged at Quatre Bras, fighting a successful delaying action. The 2nd Scots Guards had spent almost all day marching to the battlefield and only arrived at the very end of the fighting. Two days later was the Battle of Waterloo. On the right of Wellington’s position and rather forward of it was a walled farm containing several buildings and a garden, with an orchard outside it. Initially the defence of Hougoumont was put in the hands of the four light companies of the four Foot Guards battalions present, plus a number of Allied soldiers and riflemen, mostly German. The first move that Napoleon made that day was to order an attack towards Hougoumont at about half past eleven and from then on until the French broke at about half past seven Hougoumont was subjected to attack after attack. The farm buildings, most of them ablaze, were mainly held by the Coldstream and Scots Guards light companies, but most of the 2nd Coldstream Guards were drawn into the fight and all the 2nd Scots Guards. “WATERLOO” is one of the most honoured Battle Honours of both Regiments as well as of the Grenadier Guards, who adopted that name after their part in the defeat of Napoleon’s Imperial Guard. This broke the French will to fight on as the Prussians attacked their right flank. Because of the bearskin caps of the French Guardsmen at Waterloo the Foot Guards adopted them as their headdress. | <urn:uuid:825defb3-1c3a-4613-8c23-2224e7a0b6f2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://scotsguards.org/historical-overview/the-napoleonic-wars/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00407.warc.gz | en | 0.98205 | 1,274 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
-0.20240531861782074,
0.5264432430267334,
0.4054313898086548,
-0.5106817483901978,
-0.23012033104896545,
-0.37634170055389404,
0.05578410625457764,
0.34200799465179443,
0.16174986958503723,
-0.0596487857401371,
0.24505028128623962,
-0.7972593307495117,
-0.13842162489891052,
0.2144036889076... | 14 | From 1793 Britain was at war almost continuously till 1815 with, first, Revolutionary France, and, later, the French Empire under Napoleon. From early on the Scots Guards were engaged in operations in Flanders and on the Dutch coast, several of them both questionable in concept and also badly planned and executed. From time to time there was a marked success including the outstanding minor battle near Lille in 1793 which led to the Battle Honour “LINCELLES”. After Admiral Nelson’s crushing victory in 1798 over the French fleet in the Battle of the Nile there were still French troops in Egypt and for the time being, in the light of the rise of Napoleon’s star on mainland Europe, opportunities for British land operations were restricted to the periphery and in particular in the Mediterranean. Lieutenant General Sir Ralph Abercromby, very thorough and careful, commanded the expedition, the Scots Guards amongst them, which landed near Alexandria in 1801. The French were completely defeated, but General Abercromby died of wounds. The Scots Guards were awarded “THE SPHINX” superscribed “EGYPT”, the first Battle Honour to be emblazoned on the Colours. It was at this time that the French began to decorate their regimental colours with battle honours and the British took up the practice. There was one other interesting and successful operation in which the Scots Guards took part, the 1807 naval and military expedition to Copenhagen to secure the surrender of the Danish fleet, which it was feared might otherwise fall into Napoleon’s hands. The military commander was Major General Sir Arthur Wellesley, on whose staff was Lieutenant Colonel George Murray of the Scots Guards.
Because of his victories on the European mainland in 1809 Napoleon was almost in a position to close down all British trade with the Continent and because of his, admittedly shaky, domination over Spain had in mind the capture of Gibraltar and the closing of the Mediterranean to the British as well. However, when he ordered Portugal to ban the British from her harbours he met with a refusal. There were Spanish requests for assistance too. The British Government agreed to send a small force to Portugal under Sir Arthur Wellesley and so began the Peninsular War. The 1st Battalion Scots Guards was in reinforcements landing in Lisbon in March and very soon afterwards Sir Arthur Wellesley arrived to take command with Colonel George Murray in the role of Chief of Staff, a very sound partnership. From here on Sir Arthur Wellesley, later Duke of Wellington, gradually wore down a succession of French generals, as their armies were impeded by Napoleon’s other schemes, including the invasion of Russia in 1812, while the rising confidence of Spanish guerrilla bands strangled French communications and ensured a steady flow of reliable information to the British. All along Wellington was very much dependant on the Royal Navy for effectively securing his supply lines. The Scots Guards were present at many of the actions and battles and were awarded six Battle Honours. Chronologically they were in 1809 at the Capture of Oporto, a brilliant operation, and “TALAVERA”, a brutal, bloody fight in sweltering heat, in 1810 at Bussaco, in 1811 at “BARROSA” and “FUENTES D’ONOR”, in 1812 at Ciudad Rodrigo, “SALAMANCA”, Wellington’s outstanding battle, and the Siege of Burgos, in 1813 at Vittoria, the Capture of St Sebastian and “NIVE”, with the general “PENINSULA”. In 1814 as the Peninsular War ended and Britain’s Allies, Austria, Prussia and Russia, closed in on Paris Napoleon was forced to abdicate and was given the Italian island of Elba as consolation.
He did not stay there long and the stage was soon set for the last battle for both Napoleon and Wellington. While the 1st Battalion Scots Guards had been in the Peninsula, the 2nd Battalion was in England, apart from the debacle of the Walcheren expedition in 1809. Recently a similar operation had been undertaken, also unsuccessfully, at Bergen-op-Zoom, but when Napoleon abdicated the 2nd Battalion stayed on as part of the garrison of the Netherlands (all Holland and Belgium) until very recently part of the French Empire. On 16 June 1815 Wellington’s Allied Army, only a third of them British, and Field Marshal von Blücher’s Prussian Army first had contact with Napoleon’s rapidly raised and equipped new Army, though containing many veterans. Wellington’s Army was only partly engaged at Quatre Bras, fighting a successful delaying action. The 2nd Scots Guards had spent almost all day marching to the battlefield and only arrived at the very end of the fighting. Two days later was the Battle of Waterloo. On the right of Wellington’s position and rather forward of it was a walled farm containing several buildings and a garden, with an orchard outside it. Initially the defence of Hougoumont was put in the hands of the four light companies of the four Foot Guards battalions present, plus a number of Allied soldiers and riflemen, mostly German. The first move that Napoleon made that day was to order an attack towards Hougoumont at about half past eleven and from then on until the French broke at about half past seven Hougoumont was subjected to attack after attack. The farm buildings, most of them ablaze, were mainly held by the Coldstream and Scots Guards light companies, but most of the 2nd Coldstream Guards were drawn into the fight and all the 2nd Scots Guards. “WATERLOO” is one of the most honoured Battle Honours of both Regiments as well as of the Grenadier Guards, who adopted that name after their part in the defeat of Napoleon’s Imperial Guard. This broke the French will to fight on as the Prussians attacked their right flank. Because of the bearskin caps of the French Guardsmen at Waterloo the Foot Guards adopted them as their headdress. | 1,274 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Alexander Graham Bell’s interests began to broaden and include the mysteries of telegraphy. He knew that telegraph messages are carried by means of a charged wire, and he wondered why the human voice could not be carried on the wire. The more he thought about this idea the more reasonable it seemed to him. So he began to try to make an instrument that would send the voice over the wire and catch its clear tones at the other end.
Alexander and his friend Thomas set to work. They strung a wire through the house in which they were rooming, and at each end they attached a small instrument which Alexander had instructed Thomas to make. Then Thomas took his station in the basement, down three flights of stairs, and Alexander tried to talk to him. A sound came over the wire, which Thomas recognized as Alexander’s voice, but he could not make out a word. This did not discourage the young men, for they knew they were on the right track. So they continued to work and work, trying to improve the instrument. Months passed by, and nearly a year, and then one day, while trying out their latest improvement, Thomas heard Alexander say, “Watson, come here, I want you.” With a bound of delight Thomas sprang up the flights of stairs, and Alexander met him with a beaming face. At last they had succeeded. To read the full story about this visionary inventor, look for “Boys of Grit Who Never Gave Up” available at https://store.lamplighter.net/boys-of-grit-who-never-gave-up-vol3-p34.aspx | <urn:uuid:24c2d452-c7bc-4d5a-bbd9-859e0ff9a7a9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.lamplightertheatre.com/single-post/2016/05/20/The-Boy-Who-Discovered-that-Wire-can-%E2%80%9CTalk%E2%80%9D-The-Invention-of-the-Telephone | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00269.warc.gz | en | 0.982577 | 344 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
-0.055369783192873,
0.081693634390831,
0.39723679423332214,
-0.0765165463089943,
-0.7310129404067993,
-0.2605433762073517,
0.44346874952316284,
0.478216290473938,
-0.3146553635597229,
-0.032224658876657486,
0.09251298755407333,
0.11506062000989914,
0.03988773748278618,
0.05351477116346359,... | 3 | Alexander Graham Bell’s interests began to broaden and include the mysteries of telegraphy. He knew that telegraph messages are carried by means of a charged wire, and he wondered why the human voice could not be carried on the wire. The more he thought about this idea the more reasonable it seemed to him. So he began to try to make an instrument that would send the voice over the wire and catch its clear tones at the other end.
Alexander and his friend Thomas set to work. They strung a wire through the house in which they were rooming, and at each end they attached a small instrument which Alexander had instructed Thomas to make. Then Thomas took his station in the basement, down three flights of stairs, and Alexander tried to talk to him. A sound came over the wire, which Thomas recognized as Alexander’s voice, but he could not make out a word. This did not discourage the young men, for they knew they were on the right track. So they continued to work and work, trying to improve the instrument. Months passed by, and nearly a year, and then one day, while trying out their latest improvement, Thomas heard Alexander say, “Watson, come here, I want you.” With a bound of delight Thomas sprang up the flights of stairs, and Alexander met him with a beaming face. At last they had succeeded. To read the full story about this visionary inventor, look for “Boys of Grit Who Never Gave Up” available at https://store.lamplighter.net/boys-of-grit-who-never-gave-up-vol3-p34.aspx | 329 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Daughters of Bilitis //, also called the DOB or the Daughters, was the first lesbian civil and political rights organization in the United States. The organization, formed in San Francisco in 1955, was conceived as a social alternative to lesbian bars, which were subject to raids and police harassment. As the DOB gained members, their focus shifted to providing support to women who were afraid to come out. The DOB educated them about their rights, and about gay history. The historian Lillian Faderman declared, "Its very establishment in the midst of witch-hunts and police harassment was an act of courage, since members always had to fear that they were under attack, not because of what they did, but merely because of who they were." The Daughters of Bilitis endured for 14 years, becoming an educational resource for lesbians, gay men, researchers and mental health professionals.
The years after the end of World War II were some of the most morally oppressive in US history. Postwar anti-communist feelings quickly became associated with the personal secrets of people who worked for the US government. Congress began to require the registration of members of "subversive groups." In 1950, the State Department declared homosexuals to be security risks (because of vulnerability to blackmail), and what followed was a succession of more repressive acts that included the dismissal of federal, state and local government employees suspected of being homosexual; politically motivated police raids on gay bars all over the US and Canada; even the enactment of laws prohibiting cross-dressing for men and women.
In 1955, Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon had been together as lovers for three years when they complained to a gay male couple that they did not know any other lesbians. The gay couple introduced Martin and Lyon to another lesbian couple, one of whom suggested they create a social club. In October 1955, eight women — four couples — met to provide each other with a social outlet. One of their priorities was to have a place to dance, as dancing with the same sex in a public place was illegal. Martin and Lyon recalled later, "Women needed privacy...not only from the watchful eye of the police, but from gaping tourists in the bars and from inquisitive parents and families." Although unsure of how exactly to proceed with the group, they began to meet regularly, realized they should be organized, and quickly elected Martin as president. From the start they had a clear focus to educate other women about lesbians, and reduce their self-loathing brought on by the socially repressive times.
The name of the newfound club was chosen in its second meeting. Bilitis is the name given to a fictional lesbian contemporary of Sappho, by the French poet Pierre Louÿs in his 1894 work The Songs of Bilitis in which Bilitis lived on the Isle of Lesbos alongside Sappho. The name was chosen for its obscurity; even Martin and Lyon did not know what it meant. "Daughters" was meant to evoke association with other American social associations such as the Daughters of the American Revolution. Early DOB members felt they had to follow two contradictory approaches: trying to recruit interested potential members and being secretive. Martin and Lyon justified the name, writing later, "If anyone asked us, we could always say we belong to a poetry club." They also designed a pin to wear to be able to identify with others, chose club colors and voted on a motto "Qui vive", French for "on alert". The organization filed a charter for non-profit corporation status in 1957, writing a description so vague, Phyllis Lyon remembered, "it could have been a charter for a cat-raising club."
Within a year of its creation, most of the original eight participants were no longer part of the group, but their numbers had grown to 16, and they decided they wanted to be more than only a social alternative to bars. Historian Marcia Gallo writes "They recognized that many women felt shame about their sexual desires and were afraid to admit them. They knew that...without support to develop the self-confidence necessary to advocate for one's rights, no social change would be possible for lesbians."
By 1959 there were chapters of the DOB in New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Rhode Island along with the original chapter in San Francisco. Upon arrival at a meeting, attendees would be greeted at the door. In a show of good faith, the greeter would say, "I'm ---. Who are you? You don't have to give me your real name, not even your real first name."
Soon after forming, the DOB wrote a mission statement that addressed the most significant problem Martin and Lyon had faced as a couple: the complete lack of information about female homosexuality in what historian Martin Meeker termed, "the most fundamental journey a lesbian has to make." When the club realized they were not allowed to advertise their meetings in the local newspaper, Lyon and Martin, who both had backgrounds in journalism, began to print a newsletter to distribute to as many women as the group knew. In October 1956 it became The Ladder, the first nationally distributed lesbian publication in the U.S. and one of the first to publish statistics on lesbians, when they mailed surveys to their readers in 1958 and 1964. Martin was the first president and Lyon became the editor of The Ladder.
The DOB advertised itself as "A Woman's Organization for the purpose of Promoting the Integration of the Homosexual into Society." The statement was composed of four parts that prioritized the purpose of the organization, and it was printed on the inside of the cover of every issue of The Ladder until 1970:
- Education of the variant...to enable her to understand herself and make her adjustment to society...this to be accomplished by establishing...a library...on the sex deviant theme; by sponsoring public discussions...to be conducted by leading members of the legal psychiatric, religious and other professions; by advocating a mode of behavior and dress acceptable to society.
- Education of the public...leading to an eventual breakdown of erroneous taboos and prejudices...
- Participation in research projects by duly authorized and responsible psychologists, sociologists, and other such experts directed towards further knowledge of the homosexual.
- Investigation of the penal code as it pertain to the homosexual, proposal of changes,...and promotion of these changes through the due process of law in the state legislatures."
New York chapter president Barbara Gittings noted that the word "variant" was used instead of "lesbian" in the mission statement, because "lesbian" was a word that had a very negative meaning in 1956.
The early gay rights movement, then called the Homophile Movement, was developed by the Mattachine Society, formed in 1950. Although the Mattachine Society began as a provocative organization with roots in its founders' communist activism, leadership of the Mattachine thought it more prudent and productive to convince heterosexual society at large that gays were not different from themselves, rather than agitate for change. They changed their tactics in 1953. The Daughters of Bilitis followed this model by encouraging its members to assimilate as much as possible into the prevailing heterosexual culture.
This was reflected in ongoing debate over the propriety of butch and femme dress and role play among its members. As early as 1955 a rule was made that women who attended meetings, if wearing pants, should be wearing women's slacks. However, many women remember it being a rule that went unfollowed as attendees at many meetings were wearing jeans, and the only jeans available in the 1950s were men's. Barbara Gittings recalled years later of an instance when, in preparation for a national convention, members of the DOB persuaded a woman who had worn men's clothing all her life, "to deck herself out in as 'feminine' a manner as she could...Everyone rejoiced over this as though some great victory had been accomplished...Today we would be horrified at anyone who thought this kind of evangelism had a legitimate purpose."
The Daughters of Bilitis were used as political fodder in the 1959 mayoral race in San Francisco. Russell Wolden, challenging incumbent George Christopher, distributed information implying that Christopher was making the city safe for "sex deviants". Wolden was responsible for materials that stated, "You parents of daughters — do not sit back complacently feeling that because you have no boys in your family everything is all right...To enlighten you as to the existence of a Lesbian organization composed of homosexual women, make yourself acquainted with the name Daughters of Bilitis." There were only two copies of the subscription list of The Ladder, a deliberate attempt to discourage its getting into the hands of anyone who might use it against the subscribers. DOB leaders moved the list from its headquarters and later found out that San Francisco police had searched the office after its removal. Even the FBI was curious enough to attend meetings to report in 1959, "The purpose of the DOB is to educate the public to accept the Lesbian homosexual into society."
In 1960, the DOB held their first convention in San Francisco, which was so successful that they held one every two years until 1968. Press releases announcing the convention were sent to local radio and newspapers, prompting the San Francisco Chronicle to direct a jab at Russell Wolden and publicize the convention when Herb Caen wrote, "Russ Wolden, if no one else, will be interested to learn that the Daughters of Bilitis will hold their nat'l convention here May 27–30. They're the female counterparts of the Mattachine Society — and one of the convention highlights will be an address by Atty. Morris Lowenthal titled, 'The Gay Bar in the Courts.' Oh brother. I mean sister. Come to think of it, I don't know what I mean..." The blurb was reprinted in the March issue of The Ladder.
Two hundred women attended the conference, as did the San Francisco police, who came to check if any of the DOB members were wearing men's clothes. Del Martin brought them inside to see all the women wearing dresses, stockings and heels. The attendees listened to speakers, including a debate between two attorneys about the legality and morality of gay bars, a presentation by the American Civil Liberties Union, and an Episcopal priest who "served up damnation with dessert", as he went on a "tirade" reminding the audience they were sinners, to which they listened politely. The DOB also gave awards to men who were allied with them, whom they called "Sons of Bilitis", or SOBs, including their lawyer, photographer, and members of the Mattachine Society who assisted them with the convention.
The national convention held in 1962 was also notable, this time for its being covered on television. The show Confidential File on the station KTTV covered the 1962 convention of the DOB and aired after Confidential File became syndicated nationally; this was probably the first American national broadcast that specifically covered lesbianism.
In 1960, letters from readers in The Ladder appeared that expressed exasperation with the emphasis on conformity in the DOB. In the 1970s, Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon reflected that by contemporary standards, the early ideals of the DOB for integration and adjustment of the lesbian into society were outmoded, but they remembered that in the 1950s and early 1960s many gay men and lesbians considered those ideals unreachable, and this approach radical. The DOB never had the number of members comparable to the Mattachine Society's. Although some may have considered the DOB's ideals unrealistic, some also considered them too tame.
In 1961 the largest raid on a gay bar in San Francisco resulted in the arrests of 100 people, and the police forced women arrested in another raid in Chicago to disrobe to prove they were not wearing men's underwear, bringing a call in The Ladder to be more active. "If we ever hope to win our battle, we must fight. First, unshackle ourselves from fear, for it alone is our omnipresent enemy," read the report.
However, in 1962, at the Daughters' second convention, national president Jaye Bell again urged for the pragmatic approach of integration and patience with a slow criminal justice system. Two things happened in 1963 that changed the course of the organization. A windfall came to the group when an anonymous donor who refused her name to be recorded, known only to the DOB as "Pennsylvania," began donating large sums of money to the DOB: $100,000 over five years. "Pennsylvania" wrote $3,000 checks to different DOB members, who in turn signed them over to the organization. The editorship of The Ladder changed from Del Martin to Barbara Gittings.
Because The Ladder was the primary method of communication from the leadership of the DOB to its individual chapters, the editor position was extremely influential in the group. Gittings made significant changes to the magazine, putting an emphasis on being more visible. One of Gitting's priorities was aligning the DOB with the East Coast Homophile Organizations (ECHO), a coalition of other social and political clubs for gays and lesbians. Evidence of how impatient audiences were getting with psychiatrists telling them they were mentally ill was displayed in 1964 when at an ECHO convention, a featured speaker named Dr. Albert Ellis stated that "the exclusive homosexual is a psychopath" to which someone in the audience responded, "Any homosexual who would come to you for treatment, Dr. Ellis, would have to be a psychopath!" a comment that was met with applause.
In 1964, Martin and Lyon began to control less of the organization, saying, "We felt that if the organization had any validity at all it couldn't be based on two people, it had to be able to stand and grow on its own. And it was never going to do it if we didn't move out." Martin and Lyon joined the newly formed Council on Religion and the Homosexual (CRH) to develop a dialogue between organized religion and gays and lesbians. They urged the DOB to join the organization as well, but a previous rule precluding the DOB from joining separate organizations (set in place primarily to ensure it would not join organizations that sympathized with Communist aims) precluded it from doing so.
The Homophile Movement was influenced by the successful activism of the Civil Rights Movement (in 1960 the DOB's national president was Cleo Bonner, an African-American), and higher profile members of the DOB such as Barbara Gittings, Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon began to picket the White House, the State Department, and other federal buildings in 1965 and 1966 with members of the Mattachine Society. Gittings, as editor of The Ladder, encouraged others to do the same, and their activism became controversial in the leadership of the DOB. Gittings also ran a regular column in The Ladder that she called "Living Propaganda", encouraging women to come out to their friends and family members. It often included contributions from Frank Kameny urging political action. Some readers responded positively to Kameny, who in a speech declared homosexuals as normal as heterosexuals; some were put off by the political tone, and some were angered by Kameny, as a man, suggesting to them what they do. DOB leaders disliked Kameny and the decisions Gittings was making for the magazine and she was "let go" as editor in 1966.
Del Martin has written that the Daughters of Bilitis was a feminist organization from the beginning, focusing on the problems of women as well as problems of the female homosexual; however, in the mid-1960s feminism became a much higher priority to many of the women in the organization. In 1966, Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon joined the National Organization for Women, and urged readers of The Ladder to do the same, even reporting they got a family discount. The historian Martin Meeker points to the 1966 DOB convention that was a 10-day affair joining the DOB with the North American Conference of Homophile Organizations (NACHO) as the turning point where women's issues in the DOB began to have more importance to its members than gay issues. It was the largest convention DOB had yet organized, publicized in mass media all over San Francisco, attended by a large panel of nationally known speakers, and many of the presentations focused on topics that were exclusively male-centered.
A November 1966 essay by DOB president Shirley Willer pointed out the differences in problems faced by gay men and lesbians: gay men dealt more with police harassment, entrapment, solicitation, sex in public places, and until recently few women were being arrested for cross-dressing. Willer pointed out the problems specific to lesbians were job security and advancement, and family relationships, child custody, and visitation. Feeling as if their issues were not being addressed by homophile organizations, many members of the DOB began to say that lesbians had more in common with heterosexual women than men.
The Daughters were also affected by the changing times. Younger members did not share the concerns with older members; they were more moved by revolutionary tactics. Problems in the organization of the national governing board were becoming increasingly worse when local chapters were unable to take action on issues important to them without the approval of the national board. Members became disillusioned and left, and younger lesbians were more attracted to join feminist organizations. By the time the 1968 convention was held in Denver, less than two dozen women attended.
Editing The Ladder was truly a full-time job. Longtime DOB member Helen Sandoz, who had taken over editing it after an interim period after Barbara Gittings left, was so burdened by the responsibilities that it was affecting her relationship. She passed it on to Barbara Grier in 1968, who had been contributing to the magazine as a book reviewer and poetry writer. Grier edited the magazine from Kansas City and was a relative newcomer to the workings of the DOB, despite contributing to the magazine since 1957.
Grier had high aspirations for The Ladder. She removed "A Lesbian Review" from the cover, placed there in 1964 by Gittings, to attract more women readers. She doubled the size of the magazine, expanding every section, and devoted much of the space in the magazine to feminist ideals. She reported the first DOB chapter in Australia in 1969 and attempts to form chapters in New Zealand and Scandinavia. In 1970, convinced that the DOB was falling apart and The Ladder must be saved, Barbara Grier worked with DOB president Rita LaPorte to take the subscriber list from the DOB headquarters in San Francisco to Reno and expand the magazine further. There were only two copies of the subscription list. Despite assurances from The Ladder to subscribers that these names would be kept confidential, Rita LaPorte took the list of 3,800 names from DOB headquarters and the printers without telling anyone but Grier. When Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon discovered its loss, they assumed the police or FBI had confiscated it. Previous editors Martin, Lyon, Gittings, and Sandoz considered the act a theft. Because LaPorte took the list over state lines, pursuing it would have been a federal matter, and the Daughters did not have the resources to see it through. Grier severed ties with DOB leadership and in doing so took away the Daughters' primary method of communication from the national organization to its individual chapters. As a national organization, the Daughters of Bilitis folded in 1970, although some local chapters still continue. Grier also effectively ended The Ladder, despite her plans for the magazine to run on advertising (something The Ladder had not previously had) and subscriptions, when the $3,000 checks from "Pennsylvania", written to the DOB, stopped coming. By 1972, The Ladder had run out of funds and it folded.
Dozens of other lesbian and feminist organizations were created in the wake of the Daughters of Bilitis. However, the impact of the fourteen-year run of the DOB on the lives of women was described by historian Martin Meeker: "The DOB succeeded in linking hundreds of lesbians across the country with one another and gathering them into a distinctly modern communication network that was mediated through print and, consequently, imagination, rather than sight, sound, smell, and touch.
The complete surviving organizational records of the national office and the San Francisco Chapter of the Daughters of Bilitis are available to researchers as part of the Phyllis Lyon and Del Martin Papers at the GLBT Historical Society, a nonprofit archives and research center in San Francisco. An online finding aid provides a detailed catalog of the collection. | <urn:uuid:fb80b998-448a-441e-96a7-4a7b2e49af73> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.theinfolist.com/php/SummaryGet.php?FindGo=Daughters_of_Bilitis | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00267.warc.gz | en | 0.980191 | 4,256 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
-0.08670379221439362,
-0.0619409903883934,
0.2551170289516449,
-0.6476472616195679,
-0.024901682510972023,
0.5407779216766357,
-0.20074814558029175,
0.19482949376106262,
0.22483578324317932,
0.09709154069423676,
0.3657432198524475,
0.2746966481208801,
0.11089152097702026,
-0.33174908161163... | 1 | The Daughters of Bilitis //, also called the DOB or the Daughters, was the first lesbian civil and political rights organization in the United States. The organization, formed in San Francisco in 1955, was conceived as a social alternative to lesbian bars, which were subject to raids and police harassment. As the DOB gained members, their focus shifted to providing support to women who were afraid to come out. The DOB educated them about their rights, and about gay history. The historian Lillian Faderman declared, "Its very establishment in the midst of witch-hunts and police harassment was an act of courage, since members always had to fear that they were under attack, not because of what they did, but merely because of who they were." The Daughters of Bilitis endured for 14 years, becoming an educational resource for lesbians, gay men, researchers and mental health professionals.
The years after the end of World War II were some of the most morally oppressive in US history. Postwar anti-communist feelings quickly became associated with the personal secrets of people who worked for the US government. Congress began to require the registration of members of "subversive groups." In 1950, the State Department declared homosexuals to be security risks (because of vulnerability to blackmail), and what followed was a succession of more repressive acts that included the dismissal of federal, state and local government employees suspected of being homosexual; politically motivated police raids on gay bars all over the US and Canada; even the enactment of laws prohibiting cross-dressing for men and women.
In 1955, Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon had been together as lovers for three years when they complained to a gay male couple that they did not know any other lesbians. The gay couple introduced Martin and Lyon to another lesbian couple, one of whom suggested they create a social club. In October 1955, eight women — four couples — met to provide each other with a social outlet. One of their priorities was to have a place to dance, as dancing with the same sex in a public place was illegal. Martin and Lyon recalled later, "Women needed privacy...not only from the watchful eye of the police, but from gaping tourists in the bars and from inquisitive parents and families." Although unsure of how exactly to proceed with the group, they began to meet regularly, realized they should be organized, and quickly elected Martin as president. From the start they had a clear focus to educate other women about lesbians, and reduce their self-loathing brought on by the socially repressive times.
The name of the newfound club was chosen in its second meeting. Bilitis is the name given to a fictional lesbian contemporary of Sappho, by the French poet Pierre Louÿs in his 1894 work The Songs of Bilitis in which Bilitis lived on the Isle of Lesbos alongside Sappho. The name was chosen for its obscurity; even Martin and Lyon did not know what it meant. "Daughters" was meant to evoke association with other American social associations such as the Daughters of the American Revolution. Early DOB members felt they had to follow two contradictory approaches: trying to recruit interested potential members and being secretive. Martin and Lyon justified the name, writing later, "If anyone asked us, we could always say we belong to a poetry club." They also designed a pin to wear to be able to identify with others, chose club colors and voted on a motto "Qui vive", French for "on alert". The organization filed a charter for non-profit corporation status in 1957, writing a description so vague, Phyllis Lyon remembered, "it could have been a charter for a cat-raising club."
Within a year of its creation, most of the original eight participants were no longer part of the group, but their numbers had grown to 16, and they decided they wanted to be more than only a social alternative to bars. Historian Marcia Gallo writes "They recognized that many women felt shame about their sexual desires and were afraid to admit them. They knew that...without support to develop the self-confidence necessary to advocate for one's rights, no social change would be possible for lesbians."
By 1959 there were chapters of the DOB in New York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, and Rhode Island along with the original chapter in San Francisco. Upon arrival at a meeting, attendees would be greeted at the door. In a show of good faith, the greeter would say, "I'm ---. Who are you? You don't have to give me your real name, not even your real first name."
Soon after forming, the DOB wrote a mission statement that addressed the most significant problem Martin and Lyon had faced as a couple: the complete lack of information about female homosexuality in what historian Martin Meeker termed, "the most fundamental journey a lesbian has to make." When the club realized they were not allowed to advertise their meetings in the local newspaper, Lyon and Martin, who both had backgrounds in journalism, began to print a newsletter to distribute to as many women as the group knew. In October 1956 it became The Ladder, the first nationally distributed lesbian publication in the U.S. and one of the first to publish statistics on lesbians, when they mailed surveys to their readers in 1958 and 1964. Martin was the first president and Lyon became the editor of The Ladder.
The DOB advertised itself as "A Woman's Organization for the purpose of Promoting the Integration of the Homosexual into Society." The statement was composed of four parts that prioritized the purpose of the organization, and it was printed on the inside of the cover of every issue of The Ladder until 1970:
- Education of the variant...to enable her to understand herself and make her adjustment to society...this to be accomplished by establishing...a library...on the sex deviant theme; by sponsoring public discussions...to be conducted by leading members of the legal psychiatric, religious and other professions; by advocating a mode of behavior and dress acceptable to society.
- Education of the public...leading to an eventual breakdown of erroneous taboos and prejudices...
- Participation in research projects by duly authorized and responsible psychologists, sociologists, and other such experts directed towards further knowledge of the homosexual.
- Investigation of the penal code as it pertain to the homosexual, proposal of changes,...and promotion of these changes through the due process of law in the state legislatures."
New York chapter president Barbara Gittings noted that the word "variant" was used instead of "lesbian" in the mission statement, because "lesbian" was a word that had a very negative meaning in 1956.
The early gay rights movement, then called the Homophile Movement, was developed by the Mattachine Society, formed in 1950. Although the Mattachine Society began as a provocative organization with roots in its founders' communist activism, leadership of the Mattachine thought it more prudent and productive to convince heterosexual society at large that gays were not different from themselves, rather than agitate for change. They changed their tactics in 1953. The Daughters of Bilitis followed this model by encouraging its members to assimilate as much as possible into the prevailing heterosexual culture.
This was reflected in ongoing debate over the propriety of butch and femme dress and role play among its members. As early as 1955 a rule was made that women who attended meetings, if wearing pants, should be wearing women's slacks. However, many women remember it being a rule that went unfollowed as attendees at many meetings were wearing jeans, and the only jeans available in the 1950s were men's. Barbara Gittings recalled years later of an instance when, in preparation for a national convention, members of the DOB persuaded a woman who had worn men's clothing all her life, "to deck herself out in as 'feminine' a manner as she could...Everyone rejoiced over this as though some great victory had been accomplished...Today we would be horrified at anyone who thought this kind of evangelism had a legitimate purpose."
The Daughters of Bilitis were used as political fodder in the 1959 mayoral race in San Francisco. Russell Wolden, challenging incumbent George Christopher, distributed information implying that Christopher was making the city safe for "sex deviants". Wolden was responsible for materials that stated, "You parents of daughters — do not sit back complacently feeling that because you have no boys in your family everything is all right...To enlighten you as to the existence of a Lesbian organization composed of homosexual women, make yourself acquainted with the name Daughters of Bilitis." There were only two copies of the subscription list of The Ladder, a deliberate attempt to discourage its getting into the hands of anyone who might use it against the subscribers. DOB leaders moved the list from its headquarters and later found out that San Francisco police had searched the office after its removal. Even the FBI was curious enough to attend meetings to report in 1959, "The purpose of the DOB is to educate the public to accept the Lesbian homosexual into society."
In 1960, the DOB held their first convention in San Francisco, which was so successful that they held one every two years until 1968. Press releases announcing the convention were sent to local radio and newspapers, prompting the San Francisco Chronicle to direct a jab at Russell Wolden and publicize the convention when Herb Caen wrote, "Russ Wolden, if no one else, will be interested to learn that the Daughters of Bilitis will hold their nat'l convention here May 27–30. They're the female counterparts of the Mattachine Society — and one of the convention highlights will be an address by Atty. Morris Lowenthal titled, 'The Gay Bar in the Courts.' Oh brother. I mean sister. Come to think of it, I don't know what I mean..." The blurb was reprinted in the March issue of The Ladder.
Two hundred women attended the conference, as did the San Francisco police, who came to check if any of the DOB members were wearing men's clothes. Del Martin brought them inside to see all the women wearing dresses, stockings and heels. The attendees listened to speakers, including a debate between two attorneys about the legality and morality of gay bars, a presentation by the American Civil Liberties Union, and an Episcopal priest who "served up damnation with dessert", as he went on a "tirade" reminding the audience they were sinners, to which they listened politely. The DOB also gave awards to men who were allied with them, whom they called "Sons of Bilitis", or SOBs, including their lawyer, photographer, and members of the Mattachine Society who assisted them with the convention.
The national convention held in 1962 was also notable, this time for its being covered on television. The show Confidential File on the station KTTV covered the 1962 convention of the DOB and aired after Confidential File became syndicated nationally; this was probably the first American national broadcast that specifically covered lesbianism.
In 1960, letters from readers in The Ladder appeared that expressed exasperation with the emphasis on conformity in the DOB. In the 1970s, Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon reflected that by contemporary standards, the early ideals of the DOB for integration and adjustment of the lesbian into society were outmoded, but they remembered that in the 1950s and early 1960s many gay men and lesbians considered those ideals unreachable, and this approach radical. The DOB never had the number of members comparable to the Mattachine Society's. Although some may have considered the DOB's ideals unrealistic, some also considered them too tame.
In 1961 the largest raid on a gay bar in San Francisco resulted in the arrests of 100 people, and the police forced women arrested in another raid in Chicago to disrobe to prove they were not wearing men's underwear, bringing a call in The Ladder to be more active. "If we ever hope to win our battle, we must fight. First, unshackle ourselves from fear, for it alone is our omnipresent enemy," read the report.
However, in 1962, at the Daughters' second convention, national president Jaye Bell again urged for the pragmatic approach of integration and patience with a slow criminal justice system. Two things happened in 1963 that changed the course of the organization. A windfall came to the group when an anonymous donor who refused her name to be recorded, known only to the DOB as "Pennsylvania," began donating large sums of money to the DOB: $100,000 over five years. "Pennsylvania" wrote $3,000 checks to different DOB members, who in turn signed them over to the organization. The editorship of The Ladder changed from Del Martin to Barbara Gittings.
Because The Ladder was the primary method of communication from the leadership of the DOB to its individual chapters, the editor position was extremely influential in the group. Gittings made significant changes to the magazine, putting an emphasis on being more visible. One of Gitting's priorities was aligning the DOB with the East Coast Homophile Organizations (ECHO), a coalition of other social and political clubs for gays and lesbians. Evidence of how impatient audiences were getting with psychiatrists telling them they were mentally ill was displayed in 1964 when at an ECHO convention, a featured speaker named Dr. Albert Ellis stated that "the exclusive homosexual is a psychopath" to which someone in the audience responded, "Any homosexual who would come to you for treatment, Dr. Ellis, would have to be a psychopath!" a comment that was met with applause.
In 1964, Martin and Lyon began to control less of the organization, saying, "We felt that if the organization had any validity at all it couldn't be based on two people, it had to be able to stand and grow on its own. And it was never going to do it if we didn't move out." Martin and Lyon joined the newly formed Council on Religion and the Homosexual (CRH) to develop a dialogue between organized religion and gays and lesbians. They urged the DOB to join the organization as well, but a previous rule precluding the DOB from joining separate organizations (set in place primarily to ensure it would not join organizations that sympathized with Communist aims) precluded it from doing so.
The Homophile Movement was influenced by the successful activism of the Civil Rights Movement (in 1960 the DOB's national president was Cleo Bonner, an African-American), and higher profile members of the DOB such as Barbara Gittings, Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon began to picket the White House, the State Department, and other federal buildings in 1965 and 1966 with members of the Mattachine Society. Gittings, as editor of The Ladder, encouraged others to do the same, and their activism became controversial in the leadership of the DOB. Gittings also ran a regular column in The Ladder that she called "Living Propaganda", encouraging women to come out to their friends and family members. It often included contributions from Frank Kameny urging political action. Some readers responded positively to Kameny, who in a speech declared homosexuals as normal as heterosexuals; some were put off by the political tone, and some were angered by Kameny, as a man, suggesting to them what they do. DOB leaders disliked Kameny and the decisions Gittings was making for the magazine and she was "let go" as editor in 1966.
Del Martin has written that the Daughters of Bilitis was a feminist organization from the beginning, focusing on the problems of women as well as problems of the female homosexual; however, in the mid-1960s feminism became a much higher priority to many of the women in the organization. In 1966, Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon joined the National Organization for Women, and urged readers of The Ladder to do the same, even reporting they got a family discount. The historian Martin Meeker points to the 1966 DOB convention that was a 10-day affair joining the DOB with the North American Conference of Homophile Organizations (NACHO) as the turning point where women's issues in the DOB began to have more importance to its members than gay issues. It was the largest convention DOB had yet organized, publicized in mass media all over San Francisco, attended by a large panel of nationally known speakers, and many of the presentations focused on topics that were exclusively male-centered.
A November 1966 essay by DOB president Shirley Willer pointed out the differences in problems faced by gay men and lesbians: gay men dealt more with police harassment, entrapment, solicitation, sex in public places, and until recently few women were being arrested for cross-dressing. Willer pointed out the problems specific to lesbians were job security and advancement, and family relationships, child custody, and visitation. Feeling as if their issues were not being addressed by homophile organizations, many members of the DOB began to say that lesbians had more in common with heterosexual women than men.
The Daughters were also affected by the changing times. Younger members did not share the concerns with older members; they were more moved by revolutionary tactics. Problems in the organization of the national governing board were becoming increasingly worse when local chapters were unable to take action on issues important to them without the approval of the national board. Members became disillusioned and left, and younger lesbians were more attracted to join feminist organizations. By the time the 1968 convention was held in Denver, less than two dozen women attended.
Editing The Ladder was truly a full-time job. Longtime DOB member Helen Sandoz, who had taken over editing it after an interim period after Barbara Gittings left, was so burdened by the responsibilities that it was affecting her relationship. She passed it on to Barbara Grier in 1968, who had been contributing to the magazine as a book reviewer and poetry writer. Grier edited the magazine from Kansas City and was a relative newcomer to the workings of the DOB, despite contributing to the magazine since 1957.
Grier had high aspirations for The Ladder. She removed "A Lesbian Review" from the cover, placed there in 1964 by Gittings, to attract more women readers. She doubled the size of the magazine, expanding every section, and devoted much of the space in the magazine to feminist ideals. She reported the first DOB chapter in Australia in 1969 and attempts to form chapters in New Zealand and Scandinavia. In 1970, convinced that the DOB was falling apart and The Ladder must be saved, Barbara Grier worked with DOB president Rita LaPorte to take the subscriber list from the DOB headquarters in San Francisco to Reno and expand the magazine further. There were only two copies of the subscription list. Despite assurances from The Ladder to subscribers that these names would be kept confidential, Rita LaPorte took the list of 3,800 names from DOB headquarters and the printers without telling anyone but Grier. When Del Martin and Phyllis Lyon discovered its loss, they assumed the police or FBI had confiscated it. Previous editors Martin, Lyon, Gittings, and Sandoz considered the act a theft. Because LaPorte took the list over state lines, pursuing it would have been a federal matter, and the Daughters did not have the resources to see it through. Grier severed ties with DOB leadership and in doing so took away the Daughters' primary method of communication from the national organization to its individual chapters. As a national organization, the Daughters of Bilitis folded in 1970, although some local chapters still continue. Grier also effectively ended The Ladder, despite her plans for the magazine to run on advertising (something The Ladder had not previously had) and subscriptions, when the $3,000 checks from "Pennsylvania", written to the DOB, stopped coming. By 1972, The Ladder had run out of funds and it folded.
Dozens of other lesbian and feminist organizations were created in the wake of the Daughters of Bilitis. However, the impact of the fourteen-year run of the DOB on the lives of women was described by historian Martin Meeker: "The DOB succeeded in linking hundreds of lesbians across the country with one another and gathering them into a distinctly modern communication network that was mediated through print and, consequently, imagination, rather than sight, sound, smell, and touch.
The complete surviving organizational records of the national office and the San Francisco Chapter of the Daughters of Bilitis are available to researchers as part of the Phyllis Lyon and Del Martin Papers at the GLBT Historical Society, a nonprofit archives and research center in San Francisco. An online finding aid provides a detailed catalog of the collection. | 4,426 | ENGLISH | 1 |
John Fitzgerald Kennedy was a fervent believer in containing communism. In his first speech on becoming president, Kennedy made it clear that he would continue the policy of the former President, Dwight Eisenhower, and support the government of Diem in South Vietnam. Kennedy also made it plain that he supported the ‘Domino Theory’ and he was convinced that if South Vietnam fell to communism, then other states in the region would as a consequence. This Kennedy was not prepared to contemplate.
Kennedy received conflicting advice with regards to Vietnam. Charles De Gaulle warned Kennedy that Vietnam and warfare in Vietnam would trap America in a “bottomless military and political swamp”. This was based on the experience the French had at Dien Bien Phu, which left a sizeable psychological scar of French foreign policy for some years. However, Kennedy had more daily contact with ‘hawks’ in Washington DC who believed that American forces would be far better equipped and prepared for conflict in Vietnam than the French had been. They believed that just a small increase in US support for Diem would ensure success in Vietnam. The ‘hawks’ in particular were strong supporters in the ‘Domino Theory’.
Also Kennedy had to show just exactly what he meant when he said that America should:
“Pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend…to assure the survival and success of liberty ”.
In 1961, Kennedy agreed that America should finance an increase in the size of the South Vietnamese Army from 150,000 to 170,000. He also agreed that an extra 1000 US military advisors should be sent to South Vietnam to help train the South Vietnamese Army. Both of these decisions were not made public as they broke the agreements made at the 1954 Geneva Agreement.
It was during Kennedy’s presidency that the ‘Strategic Hamlet’ programme was introduced. This failed badly and almost certainly drove a number of South Vietnamese peasants into supporting the North Vietnamese communists. This forcible moving of peasants into secure compounds was supported by Diem and did a great deal to further the opposition to him in the South. American television reporters relayed to the US public that ‘Strategic Hamlet’ destroyed decades, if not hundreds, of years of village life in the South and that the process might only take half-a-day. Here was a super-power effectively orchestrating the forced removal of peasants by the South Vietnamese Army who were not asked if they wanted to move. To those who knew about US involvement in Vietnam and were opposed to it, ‘Strategic Hamlet’ provided them with an excellent propaganda opportunity.
Kennedy was informed about the anger of the South Vietnamese peasants and was shocked to learn that membership of the NLF had increased, according to US Intelligence, by 300% in a two year time span – the years when ‘Strategic Hamlet’ was in operation. Kennedy’s response was to send more military advisors to Vietnam so that by the end of 1962 there were 12,000 of these advisors in South Vietnam. As well as sending more advisors to South Vietnam, Kennedy also sent 300 helicopters with US pilots. They were told to avoid military combat at all costs but this became all but impossible to fulfil.
Kennedy’s presidency also saw the response to the Diem government by some Buddhist monks. On June 11th 1963, Thich Quang Duc, a Buddhist monk, committed suicide on a busy Saigon road by being burned to death. Other Buddhist monks followed his example in August 1963. Television reported these events throughout the world. A member of Diem’s government said:
“Let them burn, and we shall clap our hands.”
Another member of Diem’s government was heard to say that he would be happy to provide Buddhist monks with petrol.
Kennedy became convinced that Diem could never unite South Vietnam and he agreed that the CIA should initiate a programme to overthrow him. A CIA operative, Lucien Conein, provided some South Vietnamese generals with $40,000 to overthrow Diem with the added guarantee that the US would not protect the South Vietnam leader. Diem was overthrown and killed in November 1963. Kennedy was assassinated three weeks later.
- The Vietnam War pitted America against communism and was a classic example of Cold War conflict. The western allies had been victorious in Berlin, but… | <urn:uuid:7cca5fc3-dde9-4076-a336-fcc49ffc246e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/vietnam-war/john-f-kennedy-and-vietnam/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00532.warc.gz | en | 0.982766 | 907 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
-0.4856957197189331,
0.23832041025161743,
0.1894116997718811,
-0.12244230508804321,
0.34009119868278503,
0.5641707181930542,
0.06304685771465302,
0.26019901037216187,
-0.15229539573192596,
-0.08563698828220367,
0.04641567915678024,
0.3743670880794525,
0.36772432923316956,
0.339858829975128... | 3 | John Fitzgerald Kennedy was a fervent believer in containing communism. In his first speech on becoming president, Kennedy made it clear that he would continue the policy of the former President, Dwight Eisenhower, and support the government of Diem in South Vietnam. Kennedy also made it plain that he supported the ‘Domino Theory’ and he was convinced that if South Vietnam fell to communism, then other states in the region would as a consequence. This Kennedy was not prepared to contemplate.
Kennedy received conflicting advice with regards to Vietnam. Charles De Gaulle warned Kennedy that Vietnam and warfare in Vietnam would trap America in a “bottomless military and political swamp”. This was based on the experience the French had at Dien Bien Phu, which left a sizeable psychological scar of French foreign policy for some years. However, Kennedy had more daily contact with ‘hawks’ in Washington DC who believed that American forces would be far better equipped and prepared for conflict in Vietnam than the French had been. They believed that just a small increase in US support for Diem would ensure success in Vietnam. The ‘hawks’ in particular were strong supporters in the ‘Domino Theory’.
Also Kennedy had to show just exactly what he meant when he said that America should:
“Pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend…to assure the survival and success of liberty ”.
In 1961, Kennedy agreed that America should finance an increase in the size of the South Vietnamese Army from 150,000 to 170,000. He also agreed that an extra 1000 US military advisors should be sent to South Vietnam to help train the South Vietnamese Army. Both of these decisions were not made public as they broke the agreements made at the 1954 Geneva Agreement.
It was during Kennedy’s presidency that the ‘Strategic Hamlet’ programme was introduced. This failed badly and almost certainly drove a number of South Vietnamese peasants into supporting the North Vietnamese communists. This forcible moving of peasants into secure compounds was supported by Diem and did a great deal to further the opposition to him in the South. American television reporters relayed to the US public that ‘Strategic Hamlet’ destroyed decades, if not hundreds, of years of village life in the South and that the process might only take half-a-day. Here was a super-power effectively orchestrating the forced removal of peasants by the South Vietnamese Army who were not asked if they wanted to move. To those who knew about US involvement in Vietnam and were opposed to it, ‘Strategic Hamlet’ provided them with an excellent propaganda opportunity.
Kennedy was informed about the anger of the South Vietnamese peasants and was shocked to learn that membership of the NLF had increased, according to US Intelligence, by 300% in a two year time span – the years when ‘Strategic Hamlet’ was in operation. Kennedy’s response was to send more military advisors to Vietnam so that by the end of 1962 there were 12,000 of these advisors in South Vietnam. As well as sending more advisors to South Vietnam, Kennedy also sent 300 helicopters with US pilots. They were told to avoid military combat at all costs but this became all but impossible to fulfil.
Kennedy’s presidency also saw the response to the Diem government by some Buddhist monks. On June 11th 1963, Thich Quang Duc, a Buddhist monk, committed suicide on a busy Saigon road by being burned to death. Other Buddhist monks followed his example in August 1963. Television reported these events throughout the world. A member of Diem’s government said:
“Let them burn, and we shall clap our hands.”
Another member of Diem’s government was heard to say that he would be happy to provide Buddhist monks with petrol.
Kennedy became convinced that Diem could never unite South Vietnam and he agreed that the CIA should initiate a programme to overthrow him. A CIA operative, Lucien Conein, provided some South Vietnamese generals with $40,000 to overthrow Diem with the added guarantee that the US would not protect the South Vietnam leader. Diem was overthrown and killed in November 1963. Kennedy was assassinated three weeks later.
- The Vietnam War pitted America against communism and was a classic example of Cold War conflict. The western allies had been victorious in Berlin, but… | 912 | ENGLISH | 1 |
CONE-SHAPED headgear worn by Ancient Egyptians 3,000 years ago has been found by archaeologists.
The wax accessory jutted from the top of the head and is believed to have been worn to "purify" the wearer before they journeyed to the afterlife.
Ancient Egyptians have long been depicted wearing so-called "head cones" in artwork, but until now experts had no physical proof they existed.
Archaeologists had begun to question whether they existed at all or were simply an artistic motif, like halos in religious art.
Discovered in the ancient city of Amarna, head cones placed on two individuals buried 3,300 years ago prove that the hats were real.
Exactly what they were used for, however, remains a mystery.
"Ancient Egyptian art frequently depicted people wearing cone-shaped headgear, but none had ever been found," researchers told Fox News.
"This confirms the objects actually existed, which some researchers were sceptical of.
"It is unknown why these cones were included in the burials," the experts continued.
"They may have been thought to purify the wearer so they could engage with the rituals and deities of the afterlife.
"Alternatively, they could be connected with ideas of fertility and resurrection."
The two cone-wearing corpses were discovered in separate plots at a cemetery in Amarna.
One was a woman who had died between the ages of 20 and 29, and sported "long, thick braids featuring many extensions and end-curls", researchers said.
Her cone was placed on top of the head over the well-preserved hair.
A brief history of Ancient Egypt
Here's everything you need to know...
- The Ancient Egyptians were an advanced civilisation who at one point owned a huge portion of the globe
- The civilisation began about 5,000 years ago when ancient humans began building villages along the River Nile
- It lasted for about 3,000 years and saw the building of complex cities centuries ahead of their time – as well as the famous Great Pyramids
- The Ancient Egyptians were experts at farming and construction
- They invented a solar calendar, and one of the world's earliest writing systems: The hieroglyph
- The Egyptians were ruled by kings and queens called pharaohs
- Religion and the afterlife were a huge part of Ancient Egyptian culture. They had over 2,000 gods
- Pharaohs built huge elaborate tombs to be buried in, some of which were pyramids – at the time among the largest buildings in the world
- The Egyptians believed in life after death, and important people's corpses were mummified to preserve their bodies for the afterlife
- The Ancient Egytpian empire fell due to a mix of factors, including wars with other empires and a 100-year period of drought and starvation
Scientists said cone, a "low dome" shape, originally measured about 3.1 inches high and 3.9 inches across.
The sex of the second individual is not, but experts think they died between the ages of 10 and 15.
In both cases, the cone was cream coloured and likely made of beeswax.
A paper on the research has been published in the journal Antiquity.
TOP STORIES IN SCIENCE
In other news, scientists announced last week that they'd found ancient tattoos depicting animals and gods on several female Egyptian mummies.
We revealed in October that Ancient Egyptian grave robbers looted £700,000 of gold from a Pharaoh’s tomb – and were impaled as punishment.
And, from headless vikings to "screaming" mummies, here are some of the world's most gruesome ancient corpses.
What do you think the cones were used for? Let us know in the comments!
We pay for your stories! Do you have a story for The Sun Online Tech & Science team? Email us at email@example.com | <urn:uuid:12f613c9-17f4-405e-a972-208ef0dfc4d0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thesun.co.uk/tech/10530335/head-cones-ancient-egyptian/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00204.warc.gz | en | 0.981734 | 812 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
-0.15726806223392487,
0.38771504163742065,
0.5742629170417786,
0.2435513436794281,
-0.5559675693511963,
0.10328161716461182,
0.5788096785545349,
-0.3725332021713257,
-0.22426319122314453,
0.1630444973707199,
0.08688254654407501,
-0.5346866846084595,
-0.25611579418182373,
-0.045092575252056... | 2 | CONE-SHAPED headgear worn by Ancient Egyptians 3,000 years ago has been found by archaeologists.
The wax accessory jutted from the top of the head and is believed to have been worn to "purify" the wearer before they journeyed to the afterlife.
Ancient Egyptians have long been depicted wearing so-called "head cones" in artwork, but until now experts had no physical proof they existed.
Archaeologists had begun to question whether they existed at all or were simply an artistic motif, like halos in religious art.
Discovered in the ancient city of Amarna, head cones placed on two individuals buried 3,300 years ago prove that the hats were real.
Exactly what they were used for, however, remains a mystery.
"Ancient Egyptian art frequently depicted people wearing cone-shaped headgear, but none had ever been found," researchers told Fox News.
"This confirms the objects actually existed, which some researchers were sceptical of.
"It is unknown why these cones were included in the burials," the experts continued.
"They may have been thought to purify the wearer so they could engage with the rituals and deities of the afterlife.
"Alternatively, they could be connected with ideas of fertility and resurrection."
The two cone-wearing corpses were discovered in separate plots at a cemetery in Amarna.
One was a woman who had died between the ages of 20 and 29, and sported "long, thick braids featuring many extensions and end-curls", researchers said.
Her cone was placed on top of the head over the well-preserved hair.
A brief history of Ancient Egypt
Here's everything you need to know...
- The Ancient Egyptians were an advanced civilisation who at one point owned a huge portion of the globe
- The civilisation began about 5,000 years ago when ancient humans began building villages along the River Nile
- It lasted for about 3,000 years and saw the building of complex cities centuries ahead of their time – as well as the famous Great Pyramids
- The Ancient Egyptians were experts at farming and construction
- They invented a solar calendar, and one of the world's earliest writing systems: The hieroglyph
- The Egyptians were ruled by kings and queens called pharaohs
- Religion and the afterlife were a huge part of Ancient Egyptian culture. They had over 2,000 gods
- Pharaohs built huge elaborate tombs to be buried in, some of which were pyramids – at the time among the largest buildings in the world
- The Egyptians believed in life after death, and important people's corpses were mummified to preserve their bodies for the afterlife
- The Ancient Egytpian empire fell due to a mix of factors, including wars with other empires and a 100-year period of drought and starvation
Scientists said cone, a "low dome" shape, originally measured about 3.1 inches high and 3.9 inches across.
The sex of the second individual is not, but experts think they died between the ages of 10 and 15.
In both cases, the cone was cream coloured and likely made of beeswax.
A paper on the research has been published in the journal Antiquity.
TOP STORIES IN SCIENCE
In other news, scientists announced last week that they'd found ancient tattoos depicting animals and gods on several female Egyptian mummies.
We revealed in October that Ancient Egyptian grave robbers looted £700,000 of gold from a Pharaoh’s tomb – and were impaled as punishment.
And, from headless vikings to "screaming" mummies, here are some of the world's most gruesome ancient corpses.
What do you think the cones were used for? Let us know in the comments!
We pay for your stories! Do you have a story for The Sun Online Tech & Science team? Email us at email@example.com | 819 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1862, Minnesota was still a young state, part of a frontier inhabited by more than one million Indians. Times were hard and Indian families hungry. When the U.S. government broke its promises, some of the Dakota Indians went to war against the white settlers. Many Dakota did not join in, choosing to aid and protect settlers instead. The fighting lasted six weeks and many people on both sides were killed or fled Minnesota. Former Minnesota governor Henry Sibley led an expedition of soldiers and Dakota scouts against the Dakota warriors. The war ended on December 26, 1862, when thirty-eight Dakota Indians were hanged in Mankato in the largest mass execution in U.S. history. Afterward, the government forced most of the remaining Dakota to leave Minnesota. For white Minnesotans, their experience of blood and terror negated all promises they had made to the Dakota. Stories and history books told about the great "Minnesota Massacre," but for many years the Indian side of the story was ignored. | <urn:uuid:cbdc056c-d411-4577-8678-af1309c01e20> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://libguides.mnhs.org/war1862 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00321.warc.gz | en | 0.981529 | 203 | 4 | 4 | [
0.03140654414892197,
0.38774120807647705,
0.1707955300807953,
-0.08510255813598633,
0.27838271856307983,
0.13102282583713531,
-0.1780688315629959,
0.14356745779514313,
-0.20530860126018524,
-0.09157863259315491,
0.43593207001686096,
0.26155370473861694,
0.26759254932403564,
0.3342636525630... | 12 | In 1862, Minnesota was still a young state, part of a frontier inhabited by more than one million Indians. Times were hard and Indian families hungry. When the U.S. government broke its promises, some of the Dakota Indians went to war against the white settlers. Many Dakota did not join in, choosing to aid and protect settlers instead. The fighting lasted six weeks and many people on both sides were killed or fled Minnesota. Former Minnesota governor Henry Sibley led an expedition of soldiers and Dakota scouts against the Dakota warriors. The war ended on December 26, 1862, when thirty-eight Dakota Indians were hanged in Mankato in the largest mass execution in U.S. history. Afterward, the government forced most of the remaining Dakota to leave Minnesota. For white Minnesotans, their experience of blood and terror negated all promises they had made to the Dakota. Stories and history books told about the great "Minnesota Massacre," but for many years the Indian side of the story was ignored. | 212 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The economic prosperity in families gave more time to sit back and take advantage of the new technologies, and media in the period. The 's were definitely "Roaring" in more ways than one.
This and combined with the prosperity during the s allowed science and technology to develop at a rapid pace which also had brought some downsides with them. Without music, America would not be as culturally developed and artistically modernized.
After the war ended, Americans broke away from their traditional habits and intellection as they transitioned into a modern era. This allowed women to become independent and free from the society.
Dance has changed over the years; new dances have been introduced and older dances have gone out of style.
The way someone dresses says a lot about his or her personality, age, culture and experience. It was an age of prosperity and change.
However, the stock market crash in brought about the Great Depression, which ended this era. Dance music was the starting foundation of classic pop.The 's are often known as the roaring twenties in this essay I will find out if this is true. Your time is important. The stock market crash and prohibition altered U. Brooks developed her fame as soon as she began her career, and her personality stood out among other women, and therefore had an influence on women which made her a star. Many factors contributed to this prosperity, and these factors were co-dependent, affecting each other and relying on each other. Dancing has changed in relation to music, behavior and time passed. The Stock Market started having problems on October 24, which was known as black Thursday Rosenburg. During the mid to late 's, the majority of the population was living in the urban areas of the United States rather than the rural areas. It is characterized by collective improvisation, in which all performers simultaneously play improvised melodic lines within the harmonic structure of the tune It started in the rural areas of Louisiana but quickly moved to the large cities, like New Orleans, over a short period of time. It benefited some, but hurt others.
Many important historical events occurred that would shape the world for the future. During the Renaissance, Harlem was a cultural center, luring in black writers, artists, musicians, photographers, poets and scholars.This, in effect, resulted in much ethnic diversity and tolerance since there were so many cultures living in such relatively small community space. It started in the rural areas of Louisiana but quickly moved to the large cities, like New Orleans, over a short period of time. During this time period, republicans held the position of being against the admittance of the United States into the League of Nations. Music is so influential because it communicates on three different levels: the physical, emotional, and cognitive. It had plenty of natural resources oil, coal, iron ore etc. Politically, the American government was seemingly conservative, but experimented with different approaches to public policy and foreign diplomatic policy. Both the music and the dance styles of salsa is similar to Mambo Any subject. They changed their attire as well as their social attitude. Many writers had chosen this era as a topic of their writings, but the most successful of all the time is The Great Gatsby written by F. If people are unable to find a mate and procreate, then human life ceases to exist.
An old Victorian nation had transformed into a vibrant, modernized America. Brooks developed her fame as soon as she began her career, and her personality stood out among other women, and therefore had an influence on women which made her a star. | <urn:uuid:be015b99-d722-4cb8-87c2-b3687c903725> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://hojuwirucypetam.dellrichards.com/music-of-the-1920s-essay375757757ms.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00500.warc.gz | en | 0.98468 | 722 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
-0.11601336300373077,
-0.22467823326587677,
0.32176560163497925,
-0.13986051082611084,
0.06406666338443756,
0.3826832175254822,
-0.28676605224609375,
0.015688123181462288,
0.046337395906448364,
-0.3252376914024353,
0.5678155422210693,
0.687831699848175,
0.2147952765226364,
-0.2633699476718... | 2 | The economic prosperity in families gave more time to sit back and take advantage of the new technologies, and media in the period. The 's were definitely "Roaring" in more ways than one.
This and combined with the prosperity during the s allowed science and technology to develop at a rapid pace which also had brought some downsides with them. Without music, America would not be as culturally developed and artistically modernized.
After the war ended, Americans broke away from their traditional habits and intellection as they transitioned into a modern era. This allowed women to become independent and free from the society.
Dance has changed over the years; new dances have been introduced and older dances have gone out of style.
The way someone dresses says a lot about his or her personality, age, culture and experience. It was an age of prosperity and change.
However, the stock market crash in brought about the Great Depression, which ended this era. Dance music was the starting foundation of classic pop.The 's are often known as the roaring twenties in this essay I will find out if this is true. Your time is important. The stock market crash and prohibition altered U. Brooks developed her fame as soon as she began her career, and her personality stood out among other women, and therefore had an influence on women which made her a star. Many factors contributed to this prosperity, and these factors were co-dependent, affecting each other and relying on each other. Dancing has changed in relation to music, behavior and time passed. The Stock Market started having problems on October 24, which was known as black Thursday Rosenburg. During the mid to late 's, the majority of the population was living in the urban areas of the United States rather than the rural areas. It is characterized by collective improvisation, in which all performers simultaneously play improvised melodic lines within the harmonic structure of the tune It started in the rural areas of Louisiana but quickly moved to the large cities, like New Orleans, over a short period of time. It benefited some, but hurt others.
Many important historical events occurred that would shape the world for the future. During the Renaissance, Harlem was a cultural center, luring in black writers, artists, musicians, photographers, poets and scholars.This, in effect, resulted in much ethnic diversity and tolerance since there were so many cultures living in such relatively small community space. It started in the rural areas of Louisiana but quickly moved to the large cities, like New Orleans, over a short period of time. During this time period, republicans held the position of being against the admittance of the United States into the League of Nations. Music is so influential because it communicates on three different levels: the physical, emotional, and cognitive. It had plenty of natural resources oil, coal, iron ore etc. Politically, the American government was seemingly conservative, but experimented with different approaches to public policy and foreign diplomatic policy. Both the music and the dance styles of salsa is similar to Mambo Any subject. They changed their attire as well as their social attitude. Many writers had chosen this era as a topic of their writings, but the most successful of all the time is The Great Gatsby written by F. If people are unable to find a mate and procreate, then human life ceases to exist.
An old Victorian nation had transformed into a vibrant, modernized America. Brooks developed her fame as soon as she began her career, and her personality stood out among other women, and therefore had an influence on women which made her a star. | 715 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Hiram Young of Independence, Missouri manufactured freight wagons and equipment in the 1850s. Born about 1812 in Tennessee, he entered Missouri as a slave and worked for George Young of Greene County. In 1847, Young obtained freedom, either from his owner or possibly as a result of an estate partition hearing at the request of George Young’s family. It is said that Young worked out his freedom price and that of his wife, Mathilda, by whittling and selling ox yokes. Young and his wife moved to Independence, Missouri about 1850. They had one daughter, Amanda Jane, who was born around 1849 or 1850.
Taking advantage of his location near the beginning of the Oregon, Santa Fe, and other major overland trails in the 1850s, Young built wagons for western emigrants and for farmers in the area. He also made freighters for the U.S. government. Independence’s first mayor and Santa Fe merchant, William McCoy, served as his business manager. Until 1855, Young had a free black man as a business partner, Dan Smith. Smith left Independence due to increasing anti-free black sentiment in the area. The Young family, however, remained.
By 1860, Young was turning out thousands of yokes and between eight and nine hundred wagons a year. He employed about 20 men in his workshops, which included seven forges. Census officials noted 300 completed wagons and 6,000 yokes in 1860 when they tallied Young’s property. Young branded his work “Hiram Young and Company” along with the purchaser’s initials. The wagons Young and his men built could haul nearly 6,000 pounds and were pulled by up to 12 oxen and his factory was one of the largest businesses in Independence and Jackson County, Missouri. He described himself at the time as “a colored man of means.”
As Civil War tensions mounted between pro-and anti-Union supporters along the Kansas-Missouri border, Young and his family fled to Fort Leavenworth, Kansas in 1861 where slavery was illegal. He continued his wagon business from Fort Leavenworth. After the war, the family returned to Independence. In 1866 they became the founding members of Saint Paul’s African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church. Around the same time Young sued the United States government for $22,100.00 in war-related losses. Neither Young or his wife ever learned the resolution of the case. Hiram Young died in 1882 in Independence, Missouri and his wife, Mathilda, died in 1896. The Young lawsuit however continued until 1907, at which time the courts ruled against his descendants. | <urn:uuid:d2da1d79-296a-4991-842b-c25ed20cb104> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/young-hiram-1812-1882/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00110.warc.gz | en | 0.988704 | 551 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
-0.1412065476179123,
0.38669613003730774,
0.39127397537231445,
-0.37377315759658813,
-0.1922106146812439,
-0.8874382972717285,
-0.09606248140335083,
0.3614133596420288,
-0.5347734689712524,
-0.3276744484901428,
0.34066063165664673,
0.18435721099376678,
-0.10364654660224915,
-0.045130010694... | 5 | Hiram Young of Independence, Missouri manufactured freight wagons and equipment in the 1850s. Born about 1812 in Tennessee, he entered Missouri as a slave and worked for George Young of Greene County. In 1847, Young obtained freedom, either from his owner or possibly as a result of an estate partition hearing at the request of George Young’s family. It is said that Young worked out his freedom price and that of his wife, Mathilda, by whittling and selling ox yokes. Young and his wife moved to Independence, Missouri about 1850. They had one daughter, Amanda Jane, who was born around 1849 or 1850.
Taking advantage of his location near the beginning of the Oregon, Santa Fe, and other major overland trails in the 1850s, Young built wagons for western emigrants and for farmers in the area. He also made freighters for the U.S. government. Independence’s first mayor and Santa Fe merchant, William McCoy, served as his business manager. Until 1855, Young had a free black man as a business partner, Dan Smith. Smith left Independence due to increasing anti-free black sentiment in the area. The Young family, however, remained.
By 1860, Young was turning out thousands of yokes and between eight and nine hundred wagons a year. He employed about 20 men in his workshops, which included seven forges. Census officials noted 300 completed wagons and 6,000 yokes in 1860 when they tallied Young’s property. Young branded his work “Hiram Young and Company” along with the purchaser’s initials. The wagons Young and his men built could haul nearly 6,000 pounds and were pulled by up to 12 oxen and his factory was one of the largest businesses in Independence and Jackson County, Missouri. He described himself at the time as “a colored man of means.”
As Civil War tensions mounted between pro-and anti-Union supporters along the Kansas-Missouri border, Young and his family fled to Fort Leavenworth, Kansas in 1861 where slavery was illegal. He continued his wagon business from Fort Leavenworth. After the war, the family returned to Independence. In 1866 they became the founding members of Saint Paul’s African Methodist Episcopal (AME) Church. Around the same time Young sued the United States government for $22,100.00 in war-related losses. Neither Young or his wife ever learned the resolution of the case. Hiram Young died in 1882 in Independence, Missouri and his wife, Mathilda, died in 1896. The Young lawsuit however continued until 1907, at which time the courts ruled against his descendants. | 599 | ENGLISH | 1 |
|Wordsworth, William (1770-1850), English poet, one of the most accomplished and influential of England's romantic poets, whose theories and style created a new tradition in poetry.
Wordsworth was born on April 7, 1770, in Cockermouth, Cumberland, and educated at Saint John's College, University of Cambridge. He developed a keen love of nature as a youth, and during school vacation periods he frequently visited places noted for their scenic beauty. In the summer of 1790 he took a walking tour through France and Switzerland. After receiving his degree in 1791 he returned to France, where he became an enthusiastic convert to the ideals of the French Revolution (1789-1799). His lover Annette Vallon of Orleans bore him a daughter in December 1792, shortly before his return to England. Disheartened by the outbreak of hostilities between France and Great Britain in 1793, Wordsworth nevertheless remained sympathetic to the French cause.
Although Wordsworth had begun to write poetry while still a schoolboy, none of his poems was published until 1793, when An Evening Walk and Descriptive Sketches appeared. These works, although fresh and original in content, reflect the influence of the formal style of 18th-century English poetry. The poems received little notice, and few copies were sold.
Wordsworth's income from his writings amounted to little, but his financial problems were alleviated for a time when in 1795 he received a bequest of £900 from a close friend. Thereupon he and his sister, Dorothy Wordsworth, went to live in Racedown, Dorsetshire. The two had always enjoyed a warmly sympathetic relationship, and Wordsworth relied greatly on Dorothy, his devoted confidante, for encouragement in his literary endeavors. Her mental breakdown in later years was to cause him great sorrow, as did the death of his brother John. William had met the poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge, an enthusiastic admirer of his early poetic efforts, and in 1797 he and Dorothy moved to Alfoxden, Somersetshire, near Coleridge's home in Nether Stowey. The move marked the beginning of a close and enduring friendship between the poets. In the ensuing period they collaborated on a book of poems entitled Lyrical Ballads, first published in 1798.
This work is generally taken to mark the beginning of the romantic movement in English poetry. Wordsworth wrote almost all the poems in the volume, including the memorable “Tintern Abbey”; Coleridge contributed the famous “Rime of the Ancient Mariner.” Representing a revolt against the artificial classicism of contemporary English verse, Lyrical Ballads was greeted with hostility by most leading critics of the day.
In defense of his unconventional theory of poetry, Wordsworth wrote a “Preface” to the second edition of Ballads, which appeared in 1800 (actual date of publication, 1801). His premise was that the source of poetic truth is the direct experience of the senses. Poetry, he asserted, originates from “emotion recollected in tranquillity.” Rejecting the contemporary emphasis on form and an intellectual approach that drained poetic writing of strong emotion, he maintained that the scenes and events of everyday life and the speech of ordinary people were the raw material of which poetry could and should be made. Far from conciliating the critics, the “Preface” served only to increase their hostility. Wordsworth, however, was not discouraged, continuing to write poetry that graphically illustrated his principles.
Before the publication of the “Preface,” Wordsworth and his sister had accompanied Coleridge to Germany in 1798 and 1799. There Wordsworth wrote several of his finest lyrical verses, the “Lucy” poems, and began The Prelude. This introspective account of his own development was completed in 1805 and, after substantial revision, published posthumously in 1850. Many critics rank it as Wordsworth's greatest work.
Returning to England, William and his sister settled in 1799 at Dove Cottage in Grasmere, Westmorland, the loveliest spot in the English Lake District. The poet Robert Southey as well as Coleridge lived nearby, and the three men became known as the Lake Poets. In 1802 Wordsworth married Mary Hutchinson, a childhood friend, who is portrayed in the charming lyric “She Was a Phantom of Delight.” In 1807Poems in Two Volumes was published. The work contains much of Wordsworth's finest verse, notably the superb “Ode: Intimations of Immortality,” the autobiographical narrative “Resolution and Independence,” and many of his well-known sonnets.
In 1813 Wordsworth obtained a sinecure as distributor of stamps for Westmorland at a salary of £400 a year. In the same year he and his family and sister moved to Rydal Mount, a few kilometers from Dove Cottage, and there the poet spent the remainder of his life, except for periodic travels.
Wordsworth's political and intellectual sympathies underwent a transformation after 1800. By 1810 his viewpoint was staunchly conservative. He was disillusioned by the course of events in France culminating in the rise of Napoleon; his circle of friends, including the Scottish author Sir Walter Scott, also influenced him in the direction of orthodoxy.
As he advanced in age, Wordsworth's poetic vision and inspiration dulled; his later, more rhetorical, moralistic poems cannot be compared to the lyrics of his youth, although a number of them are illumined by the spark of his former greatness. Between 1814 and 1822 his publications included The Excursion (1814), a continuation of The Prelude but lacking the power and beauty of that work; The White Doe of Rylstone (1815); Peter Bell (1819); and Ecclesiastical Sonnets (1822). Yarrow Revisited and Other Poems appeared in 1835, but after that Wordsworth wrote little more. Among his other poetic works are The Borderers: A Tragedy (1796; published 1842), Michael (1800), The Recluse (1800; published 1888), Laodamia (1815), and Memorials of a Tour on the Continent (1822). Wordsworth also wrote the prose works Convention of Cintra (1809) and A Description of the Scenery of the Lakes in the North of England (1810; reprinted with additions, 1822).
Much of Wordsworth's easy flow of conversational blank verse has true lyrical power and grace, and his finest work is permeated by a sense of the human relationship to external nature that is religious in its scope and intensity. To Wordsworth, God was everywhere manifest in the harmony of nature, and he felt deeply the kinship between nature and the soul of humankind.
The tide of critical opinion turned in his favor after 1820, and Wordsworth lived to see his work universally praised. In 1842 he was awarded a government pension, and in the following year he succeeded Southey as poet laureate. Wordsworth died at Rydal Mount, April 23, 1850, and was buried in the Grasmere churchyard.
Michael G. Sundell | <urn:uuid:a5bbe72a-14fc-4619-8a16-c0d93d606a88> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://azrefs.org/wordsworth-william.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00111.warc.gz | en | 0.980708 | 1,511 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
0.3210050165653229,
-0.12837113440036774,
0.4970661699771881,
0.18091484904289246,
-0.1663426160812378,
-0.1085001677274704,
-0.2852535843849182,
-0.06699686497449875,
-0.18480613827705383,
-0.5640280246734619,
0.039851970970630646,
-0.046125032007694244,
0.21842972934246063,
-0.1714522689... | 2 | |Wordsworth, William (1770-1850), English poet, one of the most accomplished and influential of England's romantic poets, whose theories and style created a new tradition in poetry.
Wordsworth was born on April 7, 1770, in Cockermouth, Cumberland, and educated at Saint John's College, University of Cambridge. He developed a keen love of nature as a youth, and during school vacation periods he frequently visited places noted for their scenic beauty. In the summer of 1790 he took a walking tour through France and Switzerland. After receiving his degree in 1791 he returned to France, where he became an enthusiastic convert to the ideals of the French Revolution (1789-1799). His lover Annette Vallon of Orleans bore him a daughter in December 1792, shortly before his return to England. Disheartened by the outbreak of hostilities between France and Great Britain in 1793, Wordsworth nevertheless remained sympathetic to the French cause.
Although Wordsworth had begun to write poetry while still a schoolboy, none of his poems was published until 1793, when An Evening Walk and Descriptive Sketches appeared. These works, although fresh and original in content, reflect the influence of the formal style of 18th-century English poetry. The poems received little notice, and few copies were sold.
Wordsworth's income from his writings amounted to little, but his financial problems were alleviated for a time when in 1795 he received a bequest of £900 from a close friend. Thereupon he and his sister, Dorothy Wordsworth, went to live in Racedown, Dorsetshire. The two had always enjoyed a warmly sympathetic relationship, and Wordsworth relied greatly on Dorothy, his devoted confidante, for encouragement in his literary endeavors. Her mental breakdown in later years was to cause him great sorrow, as did the death of his brother John. William had met the poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge, an enthusiastic admirer of his early poetic efforts, and in 1797 he and Dorothy moved to Alfoxden, Somersetshire, near Coleridge's home in Nether Stowey. The move marked the beginning of a close and enduring friendship between the poets. In the ensuing period they collaborated on a book of poems entitled Lyrical Ballads, first published in 1798.
This work is generally taken to mark the beginning of the romantic movement in English poetry. Wordsworth wrote almost all the poems in the volume, including the memorable “Tintern Abbey”; Coleridge contributed the famous “Rime of the Ancient Mariner.” Representing a revolt against the artificial classicism of contemporary English verse, Lyrical Ballads was greeted with hostility by most leading critics of the day.
In defense of his unconventional theory of poetry, Wordsworth wrote a “Preface” to the second edition of Ballads, which appeared in 1800 (actual date of publication, 1801). His premise was that the source of poetic truth is the direct experience of the senses. Poetry, he asserted, originates from “emotion recollected in tranquillity.” Rejecting the contemporary emphasis on form and an intellectual approach that drained poetic writing of strong emotion, he maintained that the scenes and events of everyday life and the speech of ordinary people were the raw material of which poetry could and should be made. Far from conciliating the critics, the “Preface” served only to increase their hostility. Wordsworth, however, was not discouraged, continuing to write poetry that graphically illustrated his principles.
Before the publication of the “Preface,” Wordsworth and his sister had accompanied Coleridge to Germany in 1798 and 1799. There Wordsworth wrote several of his finest lyrical verses, the “Lucy” poems, and began The Prelude. This introspective account of his own development was completed in 1805 and, after substantial revision, published posthumously in 1850. Many critics rank it as Wordsworth's greatest work.
Returning to England, William and his sister settled in 1799 at Dove Cottage in Grasmere, Westmorland, the loveliest spot in the English Lake District. The poet Robert Southey as well as Coleridge lived nearby, and the three men became known as the Lake Poets. In 1802 Wordsworth married Mary Hutchinson, a childhood friend, who is portrayed in the charming lyric “She Was a Phantom of Delight.” In 1807Poems in Two Volumes was published. The work contains much of Wordsworth's finest verse, notably the superb “Ode: Intimations of Immortality,” the autobiographical narrative “Resolution and Independence,” and many of his well-known sonnets.
In 1813 Wordsworth obtained a sinecure as distributor of stamps for Westmorland at a salary of £400 a year. In the same year he and his family and sister moved to Rydal Mount, a few kilometers from Dove Cottage, and there the poet spent the remainder of his life, except for periodic travels.
Wordsworth's political and intellectual sympathies underwent a transformation after 1800. By 1810 his viewpoint was staunchly conservative. He was disillusioned by the course of events in France culminating in the rise of Napoleon; his circle of friends, including the Scottish author Sir Walter Scott, also influenced him in the direction of orthodoxy.
As he advanced in age, Wordsworth's poetic vision and inspiration dulled; his later, more rhetorical, moralistic poems cannot be compared to the lyrics of his youth, although a number of them are illumined by the spark of his former greatness. Between 1814 and 1822 his publications included The Excursion (1814), a continuation of The Prelude but lacking the power and beauty of that work; The White Doe of Rylstone (1815); Peter Bell (1819); and Ecclesiastical Sonnets (1822). Yarrow Revisited and Other Poems appeared in 1835, but after that Wordsworth wrote little more. Among his other poetic works are The Borderers: A Tragedy (1796; published 1842), Michael (1800), The Recluse (1800; published 1888), Laodamia (1815), and Memorials of a Tour on the Continent (1822). Wordsworth also wrote the prose works Convention of Cintra (1809) and A Description of the Scenery of the Lakes in the North of England (1810; reprinted with additions, 1822).
Much of Wordsworth's easy flow of conversational blank verse has true lyrical power and grace, and his finest work is permeated by a sense of the human relationship to external nature that is religious in its scope and intensity. To Wordsworth, God was everywhere manifest in the harmony of nature, and he felt deeply the kinship between nature and the soul of humankind.
The tide of critical opinion turned in his favor after 1820, and Wordsworth lived to see his work universally praised. In 1842 he was awarded a government pension, and in the following year he succeeded Southey as poet laureate. Wordsworth died at Rydal Mount, April 23, 1850, and was buried in the Grasmere churchyard.
Michael G. Sundell | 1,596 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1900, India was part of the British Empire; but by the end of 1947, India had achieved independence.
For most of the Nineteenth Century, India was ruled by the British. India was considered the jewel in the crown of the British Empire. Queen Victoria had been made Empress of India and the British had a major military presence in India.
Indian nationals had no say in central government and even at a local level, their influence on policy and decision making was minimal.
In 1885, educated middle class nationals had founded the Indian National Congress (INC). Their aim was to get a much greater say in the way India was governed.
In response to this development, the Morley-Minto reforms were introduced in 1909. Morley was the Secretary of State for India and Lord Morley was Viceroy of India. Their reforms lead to each province in India having its own governor and Indian nationals were allowed to sit on the councils which advised these governors.
After 1918, nationalism within India intensified. This was probably due to 2 reasons:
1. Many educated nationals in India were far from satisfied with the Morley-Minto reforms. White Englishmen still dominated India and there had been no real decrease in their power or increase in national power. The INC (Indian National Council) wanted a lot more.
2. Woodrow Wilson had stimulated the minds of many people with his belief in national self-determination – i.e. that people from a country had a right to govern themselves. The whole concept of national self-determination undermined the basic idea of the British Empire – that the British governed this empire (or people appointed by the British to do the same). For national self-determination to fully work, India would have to be governed by the Indians living there.
As early as 1917, Britain had toyed with the idea of giving India a measure of self-government: “the gradual development of self-governing institutions with a view to the progressive realisation of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British Empire”.
In 1919, the Government of India Act was introduced.
This introduced a national parliament with two houses for India.
About 5 million of the wealthiest Indians were given the right to vote (a very small percentage of the total population)
Within the provincial governments, ministers of education, health and public works could now be Indian nationals
A commission would be held in 1929, to see if India was ready for more concessions/reforms.
However, the British controlled all central government and within the provincial governments, the British kept control of the key posts of tax and law and order.
Many Tory MP’s in Britain were against the whole idea of giving anything whatsoever to India in terms of self-government. They had two complaints about the whole idea:
1. If you gave India some form of self-rule, where would it end?
2. Would it start the process that would lead to the break-up of the British Empire?
The reforms were introduced very slowly and their spread throughout such a large country was equally as slow. This angered many as there was a general belief that the British were deliberately stalling on introducing these reforms to ensure their continued supremacy in India.
Riots did break out and the most infamous was at Amritsar in the Punjab where 379 unarmed protesters were shot dead by British soldiers based there. 1200 were injured. This incident shocked many in India but what caused equal outrage was the British reaction to Amritsar – the officer commanding British troops at Amritsar, General Dyer, was simply allowed to resign his commission after an inquiry criticised his leadership during the riot. Many national Indians felt that he, and others in the army, had got away very lightly. The more radical Indians felt that the British government had all but sanctioned murder.
As a result of Amritsar, many Indians rushed to join the INC and it very quickly became the party of the masses.
|“After Amritsar, no matter what compromises and concessions the British might suggest, British rule would ultimately be swept away.”|
The most vocal opponent of the idea of some form of self-rule for India was Lord Birkenhead whole was Secretary of State for India from 1924 to 1928. With such an opponent, any move to self-rule was very difficult at best, and probably impossible in reality.
In India, the 1920’s saw the emergence of three men who were to have a huge impact on the future of India:
Gandhi persuaded many of his followers to use non-violent protests. They had sit-down strikes, they refused to work, they refused to pay their taxes etc. If the British reacted in a heavy-handed manner, it only made the British look worse; essentially, the British would come across as bullies enforcing their rule on the bullied. However, there were those in India who wanted to use more extreme measures.
Part of the 1919 Government of India Act stated that a commission would be established after 10 years to assess whether India could/should have more self-rule. This first met in 1928 – the Simon Commission.
This commission reported in 1930. There were no Indians on the commission. It proposed self-government for the provinces but nothing else. This was unacceptable for the INC, which wanted dominion status, granted immediately.
During the time the Simon Commission reported, Gandhi started his second civil disobedience campaign. This included Gandhi deliberately breaking the law. The law in India stated that only the government could manufacture salt. After a 250-mile march to the sea, Gandhi started to produce his own salt. This produced a violent clash with the British authorities and Gandhi was arrested.
At this time, a sympathetic Viceroy to India had been appointed – Lord Irwin. He believed that India should have dominion status – and he publicly expressed this idea. Irwin pushed for the issue to be discussed. He organised two Round Table conferences in 1930 and 1931. They were both held in London.
The first conference failed as no INC members were present. Most were in Indian prisons. Irwin pushed for their release and he persuaded Gandhi to travel to Britain to take part in the second conference. Despite this development, the conference achieved little as it broke down over an issue that was to haunt India in future years – religion. Those present at the second conference, argued and failed to agree over what the representation of Muslims would be in an independent Indian parliament.
In 1935, the Government of India Act was introduced. Britain, at this time, had a National Government and progress was made over India purely because Stanley Baldwin, the Tory leader, and Ramsey-MacDonald, the Labour leader, agreed on a joint course of action. Winston Churchill was bitterly opposed to it. The Act introduced:
An elected Indian assembly to have a say in everything in India except defence and foreign affairs.
The eleven provincial assemblies were to have effective full control over local affairs.
The nationalists in India were not satisfied with this as the act did not introduce dominion status and white dominions were allowed to control their own defence and foreign policies. Also the princes who still ruled areas of India still refused to co-operate with the provincial assemblies so the second strand of the Act would have been meaningless.
The act’s major failing was that it ignored the religious rivalry between the Muslims and Hindus. Nearly two-thirds of India’s population were Hindus and the Muslims feared that in an independent and democratic India they would be treated unfairly. In the 1937 provincial elections, the Hindus, who dominated the Congress Party under Nehru, won eight out of the eleven provinces. The Muslim League under Jinnah demanded a separate state of their own to be called Pakistan. Both Gandhi and the Congress Party were determined to preserve Indian unity. Such a rivalry between the Hindus and Muslims could only bode ill for the future of India.
World War Two shelved the Indian issue – albeit temporarily. The Indians provided valuable military help in the fight against Japan especially in the campaign in Burma. The British promised dominion status for India once the war had ended.
In 1945, the newly elected Labour government headed by Clement Attlee wanted to push ahead with solving what was seen as the “Indian Problem”. However, the religious rivalry in India was coming to a head and made any potential solution very complex. Attempts to draw up a compromise constitution that was acceptable to both Muslims and Hindus failed. The British plan was to allow the provincial governments extensive powers whilst central government would only have limited powers. The Labour government put its faith in the hope that most Muslims lived in one or two provinces and that the governments in these provinces would reflect this in their decision making. If this plan worked, the need for a separate Muslim state would not be needed. The plan was accepted in principle but the details for it were not.
The Governor-General of India, Lord Wavell, invited Nehru to form an interim government in August 1946. Wavell hoped that the details of such a government could be sorted out later – but he hoped that the creation of an actual government headed by Indian nationals would be supported by all. The Hindu Nehru included two Muslims in his cabinet but this did not succeed in stopping violence. Jinnah became convinced that Nehru could not be trusted and he called on Muslims to take “direct action” to get an independent Muslim state. Violence spread and over 5000 people were killed in Calcutta. India descended into civil war.
Early in 1947, Atlee announced that Britain would leave India no later than June 1948. A new Viceroy was appointed – Lord Mountbatten – and he concluded that peace could only be achieved if partition was introduced. The Hindu Congress agreed with him. Mountbatten became convinced that any delay would increase violence and he pushed forward the date for Britain leaving India to August 1947.
In August 1947, the Indian Independence Act was signed. This separated the Muslim majority areas (in the north-west and north-east regions of India) from India to create the independent state of Pakistan. This new state was split in two, the two parts being 1000 miles apart. The act was not easy to put into action.
Some people found themselves on the wrong side of frontiers especially in the mixed provinces of the Punjab and Bengal. Millions moved to the new frontiers – Hindus in what was to be the new Pakistan moved to India while Muslims in India moved to Pakistan. Where the two moving groups met, violence occurred especially in the volatile Punjab province where it is though 250,000 people were murdered in religious clashes. By the end of 1947, it seemed as if the violence was on the wane but in January 1948, a Hindu assassinated Gandhi. In a gesture that summed up the whole problem of India, the Hindu detested Gandhi’s tolerance towards Muslims. However, the murder of Gandhi shocked so many people, that ironically it ushered in a period of stability.
- General Archibald Wavell was born in Colchester on May 5th 1883. Wavell went to school at Winchester and from here he progressed to the army's…
- Mahatma Gandhi became one of the pivotal figures, if not the main figure, in India's history in the Twentieth Century. Along with Jinnah and Nehru,…
- Jawaharlal Nehru, along with Ghandi and Jinnah, was to play a very important part in India's history in the Twentieth Century. Nehru was born in… | <urn:uuid:181cd77d-e418-4d4b-9562-fd6b80fe1642> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/modern-world-history-1918-to-1980/india-1900-to-1947/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00533.warc.gz | en | 0.984519 | 2,360 | 4.28125 | 4 | [
0.14167743921279907,
0.08541863411664963,
0.37795567512512207,
-0.4895615577697754,
-0.3328256607055664,
0.06198911368846893,
0.35609447956085205,
-0.034296926110982895,
0.004195624962449074,
-0.07915045320987701,
0.2204713374376297,
-0.22853036224842072,
0.12307968735694885,
0.32913085818... | 9 | In 1900, India was part of the British Empire; but by the end of 1947, India had achieved independence.
For most of the Nineteenth Century, India was ruled by the British. India was considered the jewel in the crown of the British Empire. Queen Victoria had been made Empress of India and the British had a major military presence in India.
Indian nationals had no say in central government and even at a local level, their influence on policy and decision making was minimal.
In 1885, educated middle class nationals had founded the Indian National Congress (INC). Their aim was to get a much greater say in the way India was governed.
In response to this development, the Morley-Minto reforms were introduced in 1909. Morley was the Secretary of State for India and Lord Morley was Viceroy of India. Their reforms lead to each province in India having its own governor and Indian nationals were allowed to sit on the councils which advised these governors.
After 1918, nationalism within India intensified. This was probably due to 2 reasons:
1. Many educated nationals in India were far from satisfied with the Morley-Minto reforms. White Englishmen still dominated India and there had been no real decrease in their power or increase in national power. The INC (Indian National Council) wanted a lot more.
2. Woodrow Wilson had stimulated the minds of many people with his belief in national self-determination – i.e. that people from a country had a right to govern themselves. The whole concept of national self-determination undermined the basic idea of the British Empire – that the British governed this empire (or people appointed by the British to do the same). For national self-determination to fully work, India would have to be governed by the Indians living there.
As early as 1917, Britain had toyed with the idea of giving India a measure of self-government: “the gradual development of self-governing institutions with a view to the progressive realisation of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British Empire”.
In 1919, the Government of India Act was introduced.
This introduced a national parliament with two houses for India.
About 5 million of the wealthiest Indians were given the right to vote (a very small percentage of the total population)
Within the provincial governments, ministers of education, health and public works could now be Indian nationals
A commission would be held in 1929, to see if India was ready for more concessions/reforms.
However, the British controlled all central government and within the provincial governments, the British kept control of the key posts of tax and law and order.
Many Tory MP’s in Britain were against the whole idea of giving anything whatsoever to India in terms of self-government. They had two complaints about the whole idea:
1. If you gave India some form of self-rule, where would it end?
2. Would it start the process that would lead to the break-up of the British Empire?
The reforms were introduced very slowly and their spread throughout such a large country was equally as slow. This angered many as there was a general belief that the British were deliberately stalling on introducing these reforms to ensure their continued supremacy in India.
Riots did break out and the most infamous was at Amritsar in the Punjab where 379 unarmed protesters were shot dead by British soldiers based there. 1200 were injured. This incident shocked many in India but what caused equal outrage was the British reaction to Amritsar – the officer commanding British troops at Amritsar, General Dyer, was simply allowed to resign his commission after an inquiry criticised his leadership during the riot. Many national Indians felt that he, and others in the army, had got away very lightly. The more radical Indians felt that the British government had all but sanctioned murder.
As a result of Amritsar, many Indians rushed to join the INC and it very quickly became the party of the masses.
|“After Amritsar, no matter what compromises and concessions the British might suggest, British rule would ultimately be swept away.”|
The most vocal opponent of the idea of some form of self-rule for India was Lord Birkenhead whole was Secretary of State for India from 1924 to 1928. With such an opponent, any move to self-rule was very difficult at best, and probably impossible in reality.
In India, the 1920’s saw the emergence of three men who were to have a huge impact on the future of India:
Gandhi persuaded many of his followers to use non-violent protests. They had sit-down strikes, they refused to work, they refused to pay their taxes etc. If the British reacted in a heavy-handed manner, it only made the British look worse; essentially, the British would come across as bullies enforcing their rule on the bullied. However, there were those in India who wanted to use more extreme measures.
Part of the 1919 Government of India Act stated that a commission would be established after 10 years to assess whether India could/should have more self-rule. This first met in 1928 – the Simon Commission.
This commission reported in 1930. There were no Indians on the commission. It proposed self-government for the provinces but nothing else. This was unacceptable for the INC, which wanted dominion status, granted immediately.
During the time the Simon Commission reported, Gandhi started his second civil disobedience campaign. This included Gandhi deliberately breaking the law. The law in India stated that only the government could manufacture salt. After a 250-mile march to the sea, Gandhi started to produce his own salt. This produced a violent clash with the British authorities and Gandhi was arrested.
At this time, a sympathetic Viceroy to India had been appointed – Lord Irwin. He believed that India should have dominion status – and he publicly expressed this idea. Irwin pushed for the issue to be discussed. He organised two Round Table conferences in 1930 and 1931. They were both held in London.
The first conference failed as no INC members were present. Most were in Indian prisons. Irwin pushed for their release and he persuaded Gandhi to travel to Britain to take part in the second conference. Despite this development, the conference achieved little as it broke down over an issue that was to haunt India in future years – religion. Those present at the second conference, argued and failed to agree over what the representation of Muslims would be in an independent Indian parliament.
In 1935, the Government of India Act was introduced. Britain, at this time, had a National Government and progress was made over India purely because Stanley Baldwin, the Tory leader, and Ramsey-MacDonald, the Labour leader, agreed on a joint course of action. Winston Churchill was bitterly opposed to it. The Act introduced:
An elected Indian assembly to have a say in everything in India except defence and foreign affairs.
The eleven provincial assemblies were to have effective full control over local affairs.
The nationalists in India were not satisfied with this as the act did not introduce dominion status and white dominions were allowed to control their own defence and foreign policies. Also the princes who still ruled areas of India still refused to co-operate with the provincial assemblies so the second strand of the Act would have been meaningless.
The act’s major failing was that it ignored the religious rivalry between the Muslims and Hindus. Nearly two-thirds of India’s population were Hindus and the Muslims feared that in an independent and democratic India they would be treated unfairly. In the 1937 provincial elections, the Hindus, who dominated the Congress Party under Nehru, won eight out of the eleven provinces. The Muslim League under Jinnah demanded a separate state of their own to be called Pakistan. Both Gandhi and the Congress Party were determined to preserve Indian unity. Such a rivalry between the Hindus and Muslims could only bode ill for the future of India.
World War Two shelved the Indian issue – albeit temporarily. The Indians provided valuable military help in the fight against Japan especially in the campaign in Burma. The British promised dominion status for India once the war had ended.
In 1945, the newly elected Labour government headed by Clement Attlee wanted to push ahead with solving what was seen as the “Indian Problem”. However, the religious rivalry in India was coming to a head and made any potential solution very complex. Attempts to draw up a compromise constitution that was acceptable to both Muslims and Hindus failed. The British plan was to allow the provincial governments extensive powers whilst central government would only have limited powers. The Labour government put its faith in the hope that most Muslims lived in one or two provinces and that the governments in these provinces would reflect this in their decision making. If this plan worked, the need for a separate Muslim state would not be needed. The plan was accepted in principle but the details for it were not.
The Governor-General of India, Lord Wavell, invited Nehru to form an interim government in August 1946. Wavell hoped that the details of such a government could be sorted out later – but he hoped that the creation of an actual government headed by Indian nationals would be supported by all. The Hindu Nehru included two Muslims in his cabinet but this did not succeed in stopping violence. Jinnah became convinced that Nehru could not be trusted and he called on Muslims to take “direct action” to get an independent Muslim state. Violence spread and over 5000 people were killed in Calcutta. India descended into civil war.
Early in 1947, Atlee announced that Britain would leave India no later than June 1948. A new Viceroy was appointed – Lord Mountbatten – and he concluded that peace could only be achieved if partition was introduced. The Hindu Congress agreed with him. Mountbatten became convinced that any delay would increase violence and he pushed forward the date for Britain leaving India to August 1947.
In August 1947, the Indian Independence Act was signed. This separated the Muslim majority areas (in the north-west and north-east regions of India) from India to create the independent state of Pakistan. This new state was split in two, the two parts being 1000 miles apart. The act was not easy to put into action.
Some people found themselves on the wrong side of frontiers especially in the mixed provinces of the Punjab and Bengal. Millions moved to the new frontiers – Hindus in what was to be the new Pakistan moved to India while Muslims in India moved to Pakistan. Where the two moving groups met, violence occurred especially in the volatile Punjab province where it is though 250,000 people were murdered in religious clashes. By the end of 1947, it seemed as if the violence was on the wane but in January 1948, a Hindu assassinated Gandhi. In a gesture that summed up the whole problem of India, the Hindu detested Gandhi’s tolerance towards Muslims. However, the murder of Gandhi shocked so many people, that ironically it ushered in a period of stability.
- General Archibald Wavell was born in Colchester on May 5th 1883. Wavell went to school at Winchester and from here he progressed to the army's…
- Mahatma Gandhi became one of the pivotal figures, if not the main figure, in India's history in the Twentieth Century. Along with Jinnah and Nehru,…
- Jawaharlal Nehru, along with Ghandi and Jinnah, was to play a very important part in India's history in the Twentieth Century. Nehru was born in… | 2,426 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mirabeau Lama served as the second president of the Republic of Texas. He had a vision that one day, Texas would extend from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific Coast —a somewhat linear projection not unlike the earliest maps depicting the eastern state territories extending from the Atlantic coast to the Mississippi River (the beginning of Spanish territory). Lamar was a well-educated man, but also insufferably arrogant. His hubris may have gotten in the way of common sense when he “unofficially” authorized the Santa Fe Expedition in 1841. In his mind, the opportunity to transform the Republic of Texas into a continental power was limited; time was of the essence for two reasons: first, to hinder a growing sentiment in Texas to petition the United States for annexation, and second, to defeat the suggestion of other southern states (in connection with the concept of annexation) to break Texas up into (five) smaller states that might be admitted into the Union as slave states [Note 1].
Lamar’s intent, in addition to transforming Texas into a continental power, was to develop trade links between Texas and New Mexico, which at the time was still a province of Mexico. President Lamar had already dispatched commissioners to New Mexico with the hope that these emissaries could demonstrate that New Mexico would fare better under Texas than it could under the flag of Mexico.
The Santa Fe Expedition began on 19 June 1841 from Kenny’s Fort near Austin. It was a massive train of 21 ox-drawn wagons carrying merchandise worth around a quarter of a million dollars. Most of the men were merchants, who were promised transportation and protection of their persons and their goods along the expedition’s route of march. Four Texian emissaries accompanied the train: William G. Cooke, Richard F. Brenham, Jose Antonio Navarro, and George Van Ness. A military escort of 300 men and a company of artillery served under the command of Hugh Macleod. The train was poorly prepared and organized from the beginning. Indian attacks, inadequate supplies, and a dearth of water plagued the expedition from its beginning. During the journey, their Mexican guide disappeared in the wilderness, which caused the train to lose its way. Macleod was forced to split his command to create a discovery force to find a proper route to Santa Fe.
The expedition finally arrived in New Mexico in September. Several scouts were captured by Mexican military units, including Captain William G. Lewis. Everyone on the expedition was shocked by New Mexico’s hostility; they expected a welcoming committee but were instead met by 1,500 irritated Mexican soldiers. Apparently, New Mexico’s governor, Manuel Armijo [Note 1] was not happy to receive these Texans and he wanted them to leave. If the Texians agreed to leave, Governor Armijo would grant them safe passage and an armed escort to the border. The Texans had little choice in this matter because they were seriously outnumbered by Mexican forces, they were worn out from their journey, their supplies were depleted, and there was no hope for reinforcement from Texas. These circumstances led the Texians to surrender to Governor Armijo.
By the next morning, however, Governor Armijo had changed his mind. Armijo’s soldiers arrested the Texians, bound them, abused them, and informed them that their deaths were imminent. Not everyone in Armijo’s governing council supported execution, however, and the matter was put to a vote. By a single vote, Armijo’s council decided to spare the Texans from death. Instead, they were forced to march 2,000 miles from Santa Fe to Mexico City. Not everyone survived the journey. Those who did survive were imprisoned at the Perote Prison at Vera Cruz until diplomats from the United States could secure their release —about one year.
By his decision to surrender, the people of Texas reviled Lewis —but his options were nil. Fighting would have resulted in a second Alamo. Beyond this, Lewis assumed Governor Armijo was an honorable man and would keep his word. Taken in context with the dishonor displayed by Mexican officials from 1835-42, this too was a mistake. Mariano Chaves [Note 2], who had acted as Armijo’s spokesman in brokering the surrender of the Texians, claimed for the balance of his life that he had acted in good faith toward the Texans. Chaves died in 1845.
Nor were the Texians happy with Mirabeau B. Lamar for authorizing the expedition or for his mishandling the Republic’s economy. What was proved, however, was that the Republic of Texas lacked the resources needed to control its claimed western territories. A majority of the people living in Texas were born and raised in the United States, and even though they voluntarily moved to a “new country,” they were idealistically and culturally Americans. More than anything Sam Houston ever did to persuade Texians to support annexation, Mirabeau Lamar’s arrogant mistake convinced them that it was the sensible thing to do. Houston was reelected to the office of the Texas presidency in 1841, serving until 1844. Lamar’s folly brought General Adrian Woll to San Antonio again in 1842 and Houston was forced to deal with yet another Texan-Mexican conflict. Anson Jones became the fourth and last president of Texas as Texas became the 28th US State, annexed in 1845.
With annexation, the quarrel between Texas and Mexico became a quarrel between Mexico and the United States. Mexican officials had always believed that the goal of the United States was to steal Texas away from them. They were probably right about that, but it was Mexico who invited Americans to the Mexican State of Tejas to populate it, settle it, and defend it against the Comanche Indians. In any case, the treatment of the members of the Santa Fe Expedition while imprisoned added to the animosity between the United States and Mexico over the issue of its territorial border. What followed in 1846 was the Mexican American War, which lasted until 1848.
The conflict ended in victory for the United States, giving it undisputed control of all lands that up until then had been claimed by Texas. The issue of adding western territory to the state of Texas was vociferously resisted by the United States Congress and other southern states. At this time, Sam Houston was serving as a US Senator representing Texas. As part of the Compromise of 1850, the government of Texas agreed to relinquish its northwestern territorial claims, including Santa Fe. In exchange, the US government agreed to assume responsibility for the state’s debts; Texas was left in control of its territorial boundaries (which was actually twice the size of the territory it had ever controlled as a republic), and most of the remaining western lands were organized as the Territory of New Mexico.
During the Mexican American War, Governor Armijo surrendered Santa Fe without firing a shot and made a hasty departure for Mexico; Mariano Chaves died in New Mexico in 1845. After the war, Armijo returned to New Mexico, where he died in 1853.
A final disposition of the lands west of Texas were not settled prior to the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861 and because the issues were unsettled, the Confederate States of America attempted to establish control over New Mexico prompted by the arguments previously offered by the Republic of Texas under Mirabeau B. Lamar. Rebel attempts to seize New Mexico brought that territory back into conflict with Texas. The issue of Confederate control of New Mexico was resolved at the Battle of Glorieta Pass (26-28 March 1862).
- Kendall, G. W. Narrative of the Texas Santa Fe Expedition: Comprising a Description of a Tour Through Texas and Capture of the Texans. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1844, brokered through Bauman Rare Books, New York, Philadelphia, and Las Vegas. [Note 4].
- Simmons, M. The Little Lion of the Southwest: a life of Manuel Antonio Chaves. Chicago: Swallow Press, 1973.
- Connor, S. V. Perote Prison. Handbook of Texas Online, 2015.
- University of Texas (Austin), Robert D. Phillips (1842-1844), Phillips Family Texan Santa Fe Expedition Letters and Documents.
- This effort to attach conditions to the possibility of Texas annexation, which was always the goal of Texas President Sam Houston, serves as an excellent example of repugnant politics in the United States from the very beginning of the United States of America. In his reaction to such moves, Lamar similarly demonstrates that Texas politicians were themselves inadequate to the needs of their citizens.
- Mariano Chaves is often confused with Manuel Antonio Chaves (1818-1889), who was a soldier in the Mexican Army, a New Mexico rancher, and a man known for his courage and marksmanship. Manuel Antonio Chaves, having proclaimed his loyalty to the United States, participated in the Battle of Glorieta Pass as a lieutenant colonel of US volunteers and helped the Union regain control over the Territory of New Mexico during the American Civil War.
- Manuel Armijo (1793-1853) served three times as New Mexico’s governor. He was instrumental in putting down the revolt of 1837, commanded the force that captured the Santa Fe Expedition, and surrendered to the United States at the conclusion of the Mexican American War (after which New Mexico became a territory of the United States).
- George Wilkins Kendall was born in Mount Vernon, New Hampshire in 1809. He published the first issue of the Picayune of New Orleans in 1837, which was sold for a Picayune (a Spanish coin worth about 6.25 cents). In 1841, Kendall joined the Santa Fe Expedition as an observer and reporter. In this capacity, Kendall is today regarded as America’s first war correspondent owing to the expedition and his coverage of the Mexican American War. After 1855, Kendall resided with his family in New Braunfels and Boerne. Source: Daughters of the American Revolution, George W. Kendall Chapter, Boerne, Kendall County, Texas. | <urn:uuid:15682577-4ad3-4958-922b-c7b55982a7c9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://thoughtsfromafar.blog/2019/12/09/the-santa-fe-expedition/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00276.warc.gz | en | 0.980543 | 2,091 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
-0.27495288848876953,
0.06430695950984955,
0.6219377517700195,
0.32459917664527893,
-0.12759539484977722,
0.09622243046760559,
-0.40715712308883667,
0.14958180487155914,
-0.3284931480884552,
-0.09603476524353027,
0.4261755049228668,
-0.003866244340315461,
0.21860821545124054,
0.18264934420... | 14 | Mirabeau Lama served as the second president of the Republic of Texas. He had a vision that one day, Texas would extend from the Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific Coast —a somewhat linear projection not unlike the earliest maps depicting the eastern state territories extending from the Atlantic coast to the Mississippi River (the beginning of Spanish territory). Lamar was a well-educated man, but also insufferably arrogant. His hubris may have gotten in the way of common sense when he “unofficially” authorized the Santa Fe Expedition in 1841. In his mind, the opportunity to transform the Republic of Texas into a continental power was limited; time was of the essence for two reasons: first, to hinder a growing sentiment in Texas to petition the United States for annexation, and second, to defeat the suggestion of other southern states (in connection with the concept of annexation) to break Texas up into (five) smaller states that might be admitted into the Union as slave states [Note 1].
Lamar’s intent, in addition to transforming Texas into a continental power, was to develop trade links between Texas and New Mexico, which at the time was still a province of Mexico. President Lamar had already dispatched commissioners to New Mexico with the hope that these emissaries could demonstrate that New Mexico would fare better under Texas than it could under the flag of Mexico.
The Santa Fe Expedition began on 19 June 1841 from Kenny’s Fort near Austin. It was a massive train of 21 ox-drawn wagons carrying merchandise worth around a quarter of a million dollars. Most of the men were merchants, who were promised transportation and protection of their persons and their goods along the expedition’s route of march. Four Texian emissaries accompanied the train: William G. Cooke, Richard F. Brenham, Jose Antonio Navarro, and George Van Ness. A military escort of 300 men and a company of artillery served under the command of Hugh Macleod. The train was poorly prepared and organized from the beginning. Indian attacks, inadequate supplies, and a dearth of water plagued the expedition from its beginning. During the journey, their Mexican guide disappeared in the wilderness, which caused the train to lose its way. Macleod was forced to split his command to create a discovery force to find a proper route to Santa Fe.
The expedition finally arrived in New Mexico in September. Several scouts were captured by Mexican military units, including Captain William G. Lewis. Everyone on the expedition was shocked by New Mexico’s hostility; they expected a welcoming committee but were instead met by 1,500 irritated Mexican soldiers. Apparently, New Mexico’s governor, Manuel Armijo [Note 1] was not happy to receive these Texans and he wanted them to leave. If the Texians agreed to leave, Governor Armijo would grant them safe passage and an armed escort to the border. The Texans had little choice in this matter because they were seriously outnumbered by Mexican forces, they were worn out from their journey, their supplies were depleted, and there was no hope for reinforcement from Texas. These circumstances led the Texians to surrender to Governor Armijo.
By the next morning, however, Governor Armijo had changed his mind. Armijo’s soldiers arrested the Texians, bound them, abused them, and informed them that their deaths were imminent. Not everyone in Armijo’s governing council supported execution, however, and the matter was put to a vote. By a single vote, Armijo’s council decided to spare the Texans from death. Instead, they were forced to march 2,000 miles from Santa Fe to Mexico City. Not everyone survived the journey. Those who did survive were imprisoned at the Perote Prison at Vera Cruz until diplomats from the United States could secure their release —about one year.
By his decision to surrender, the people of Texas reviled Lewis —but his options were nil. Fighting would have resulted in a second Alamo. Beyond this, Lewis assumed Governor Armijo was an honorable man and would keep his word. Taken in context with the dishonor displayed by Mexican officials from 1835-42, this too was a mistake. Mariano Chaves [Note 2], who had acted as Armijo’s spokesman in brokering the surrender of the Texians, claimed for the balance of his life that he had acted in good faith toward the Texans. Chaves died in 1845.
Nor were the Texians happy with Mirabeau B. Lamar for authorizing the expedition or for his mishandling the Republic’s economy. What was proved, however, was that the Republic of Texas lacked the resources needed to control its claimed western territories. A majority of the people living in Texas were born and raised in the United States, and even though they voluntarily moved to a “new country,” they were idealistically and culturally Americans. More than anything Sam Houston ever did to persuade Texians to support annexation, Mirabeau Lamar’s arrogant mistake convinced them that it was the sensible thing to do. Houston was reelected to the office of the Texas presidency in 1841, serving until 1844. Lamar’s folly brought General Adrian Woll to San Antonio again in 1842 and Houston was forced to deal with yet another Texan-Mexican conflict. Anson Jones became the fourth and last president of Texas as Texas became the 28th US State, annexed in 1845.
With annexation, the quarrel between Texas and Mexico became a quarrel between Mexico and the United States. Mexican officials had always believed that the goal of the United States was to steal Texas away from them. They were probably right about that, but it was Mexico who invited Americans to the Mexican State of Tejas to populate it, settle it, and defend it against the Comanche Indians. In any case, the treatment of the members of the Santa Fe Expedition while imprisoned added to the animosity between the United States and Mexico over the issue of its territorial border. What followed in 1846 was the Mexican American War, which lasted until 1848.
The conflict ended in victory for the United States, giving it undisputed control of all lands that up until then had been claimed by Texas. The issue of adding western territory to the state of Texas was vociferously resisted by the United States Congress and other southern states. At this time, Sam Houston was serving as a US Senator representing Texas. As part of the Compromise of 1850, the government of Texas agreed to relinquish its northwestern territorial claims, including Santa Fe. In exchange, the US government agreed to assume responsibility for the state’s debts; Texas was left in control of its territorial boundaries (which was actually twice the size of the territory it had ever controlled as a republic), and most of the remaining western lands were organized as the Territory of New Mexico.
During the Mexican American War, Governor Armijo surrendered Santa Fe without firing a shot and made a hasty departure for Mexico; Mariano Chaves died in New Mexico in 1845. After the war, Armijo returned to New Mexico, where he died in 1853.
A final disposition of the lands west of Texas were not settled prior to the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861 and because the issues were unsettled, the Confederate States of America attempted to establish control over New Mexico prompted by the arguments previously offered by the Republic of Texas under Mirabeau B. Lamar. Rebel attempts to seize New Mexico brought that territory back into conflict with Texas. The issue of Confederate control of New Mexico was resolved at the Battle of Glorieta Pass (26-28 March 1862).
- Kendall, G. W. Narrative of the Texas Santa Fe Expedition: Comprising a Description of a Tour Through Texas and Capture of the Texans. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1844, brokered through Bauman Rare Books, New York, Philadelphia, and Las Vegas. [Note 4].
- Simmons, M. The Little Lion of the Southwest: a life of Manuel Antonio Chaves. Chicago: Swallow Press, 1973.
- Connor, S. V. Perote Prison. Handbook of Texas Online, 2015.
- University of Texas (Austin), Robert D. Phillips (1842-1844), Phillips Family Texan Santa Fe Expedition Letters and Documents.
- This effort to attach conditions to the possibility of Texas annexation, which was always the goal of Texas President Sam Houston, serves as an excellent example of repugnant politics in the United States from the very beginning of the United States of America. In his reaction to such moves, Lamar similarly demonstrates that Texas politicians were themselves inadequate to the needs of their citizens.
- Mariano Chaves is often confused with Manuel Antonio Chaves (1818-1889), who was a soldier in the Mexican Army, a New Mexico rancher, and a man known for his courage and marksmanship. Manuel Antonio Chaves, having proclaimed his loyalty to the United States, participated in the Battle of Glorieta Pass as a lieutenant colonel of US volunteers and helped the Union regain control over the Territory of New Mexico during the American Civil War.
- Manuel Armijo (1793-1853) served three times as New Mexico’s governor. He was instrumental in putting down the revolt of 1837, commanded the force that captured the Santa Fe Expedition, and surrendered to the United States at the conclusion of the Mexican American War (after which New Mexico became a territory of the United States).
- George Wilkins Kendall was born in Mount Vernon, New Hampshire in 1809. He published the first issue of the Picayune of New Orleans in 1837, which was sold for a Picayune (a Spanish coin worth about 6.25 cents). In 1841, Kendall joined the Santa Fe Expedition as an observer and reporter. In this capacity, Kendall is today regarded as America’s first war correspondent owing to the expedition and his coverage of the Mexican American War. After 1855, Kendall resided with his family in New Braunfels and Boerne. Source: Daughters of the American Revolution, George W. Kendall Chapter, Boerne, Kendall County, Texas. | 2,144 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Let’s get straight to the point: a flapper was everything that a woman (in general) wasn’t in the 1900’s-1910’s. She was frivolous with spending and spent an excessive amount of time dancing, drinking, smoking, dating, and casual intimacy. Hence the nickname “Roaring Twenties.” But why the sudden change in culture? With the passing of the 19th Amendment, the role women took during WWI as leaders, and a more progressive view, women began to pursue a new idea of what they believed freedom to be.
During the Victorian Era, women were confined with their fashion in a sense. Corsets were still an everyday norm, especially the S-bend corset. It made the hips appear thrown backward and moved the chest forward. Tops were comprised of puff sleeves, and often times fake hair was added to a woman’s head to support the wide brimmed hats worn atop their heads. The length of a woman’s skirt or dress was still to the floor.
It wasn’t until the 1910s that we began to see the hem rise. What’s that I see? Is that an ankle? Yes. In the 1910s, ankle length and hobble skirts became the new fashion. The hobble skirts cinched at the hem of a dress, which made it a little difficult for women to walk sometimes. Overall, the blouses, hats, and wide brimmed hair remained the same, yet the introduction of trousers and work clothing became acceptable. One main reason we most likely began to see this trend was due to the introduction of the world war. With a small percentage of men left in the states, women were called into action to take up duties that men would have normally filled. This includes factory workers, policemen, mailmen, instructors, and weapon producers. The suffragists’ quest to put aside their own desire to vote to help the war effort had a huge impact in the signing of the 19th amendment.
After showing their ability to work as efficiently as men receiving high wage jobs, the passing of the 19th amendment, and the end of the first world war, women found a new found sense of independence. Now enter the era of the flapper. A young, financially equipped, independent woman was on her way to rule the twenties. She cut her hair short – a bobbed haircut. It gave a sense of freedom, and the opposite of what we had seen for the past 20 years. The style of the 20’s is easily recognizable. Unlike the the wide brimmed hats and additions of fake hair for support, women weren’t gaining hair – but losing it. With bobbed hair came bobbed hats. Queue the entrance of the cloche hat – perhaps the most notable style for hats of the decade. It was an absolute icon for the time. The cloche was a tightly fitted hat that was worn to just above the eyebrows, decreasing visibility of a woman’s face. (pictured right)
The lifestyle of a flapper only lasted until 1929 when we saw the stock market crash. Frivolous spending was no longer an option during the Great Depression. Despite the sudden end, the era of the flapper had a huge impact on the decades to come. It was not only a shift in style, but a step forward for what women could accomplish. Their roles in WWI, the right to vote, and financial independence made straight preparation for the second world war. | <urn:uuid:dd1d4f33-7c24-464e-a0ee-7ae50126fdb2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://u.osu.edu/clotheslines/author/thibault-21/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00311.warc.gz | en | 0.98084 | 727 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
-0.33924588561058044,
0.38128361105918884,
0.3126884698867798,
0.1854393482208252,
-0.06538639962673187,
0.22435252368450165,
0.373144268989563,
0.20253248512744904,
-0.18647727370262146,
-0.3932550549507141,
0.28726935386657715,
0.07007645070552826,
-0.1171996146440506,
0.0286793764680624... | 18 | Let’s get straight to the point: a flapper was everything that a woman (in general) wasn’t in the 1900’s-1910’s. She was frivolous with spending and spent an excessive amount of time dancing, drinking, smoking, dating, and casual intimacy. Hence the nickname “Roaring Twenties.” But why the sudden change in culture? With the passing of the 19th Amendment, the role women took during WWI as leaders, and a more progressive view, women began to pursue a new idea of what they believed freedom to be.
During the Victorian Era, women were confined with their fashion in a sense. Corsets were still an everyday norm, especially the S-bend corset. It made the hips appear thrown backward and moved the chest forward. Tops were comprised of puff sleeves, and often times fake hair was added to a woman’s head to support the wide brimmed hats worn atop their heads. The length of a woman’s skirt or dress was still to the floor.
It wasn’t until the 1910s that we began to see the hem rise. What’s that I see? Is that an ankle? Yes. In the 1910s, ankle length and hobble skirts became the new fashion. The hobble skirts cinched at the hem of a dress, which made it a little difficult for women to walk sometimes. Overall, the blouses, hats, and wide brimmed hair remained the same, yet the introduction of trousers and work clothing became acceptable. One main reason we most likely began to see this trend was due to the introduction of the world war. With a small percentage of men left in the states, women were called into action to take up duties that men would have normally filled. This includes factory workers, policemen, mailmen, instructors, and weapon producers. The suffragists’ quest to put aside their own desire to vote to help the war effort had a huge impact in the signing of the 19th amendment.
After showing their ability to work as efficiently as men receiving high wage jobs, the passing of the 19th amendment, and the end of the first world war, women found a new found sense of independence. Now enter the era of the flapper. A young, financially equipped, independent woman was on her way to rule the twenties. She cut her hair short – a bobbed haircut. It gave a sense of freedom, and the opposite of what we had seen for the past 20 years. The style of the 20’s is easily recognizable. Unlike the the wide brimmed hats and additions of fake hair for support, women weren’t gaining hair – but losing it. With bobbed hair came bobbed hats. Queue the entrance of the cloche hat – perhaps the most notable style for hats of the decade. It was an absolute icon for the time. The cloche was a tightly fitted hat that was worn to just above the eyebrows, decreasing visibility of a woman’s face. (pictured right)
The lifestyle of a flapper only lasted until 1929 when we saw the stock market crash. Frivolous spending was no longer an option during the Great Depression. Despite the sudden end, the era of the flapper had a huge impact on the decades to come. It was not only a shift in style, but a step forward for what women could accomplish. Their roles in WWI, the right to vote, and financial independence made straight preparation for the second world war. | 724 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1809 a sea monster was exhibited at Warwick Racecourse. The sea monster had been caught off the coast of Cornwall. It was described as being 31 feet long, 9 foot 2 inches high with a girth of 19 feet, to most this would have been a mighty beast, a fish the like they would never have seen before. The sea was a place of mystery and mariners often spoke strange creatures in the sea. The journey from Cornwall probably added to its strangeness as formaldehyde would have been used to arrest its decay.
The Squalus Maximus of Linneaus
The name it was given provides the best clue to what this creature probably was. Today the term squalus is used in taxonomic nomenclature to describe dogfish and sharks. The largest shark found in British waters is the Basking Shark, and during the summer months it can often be found gently swimming along the south west coast. This docile creature can grow up to 30 feet long, and weigh up to three tonnes.
Given that Warwick is so far from the sea, very few of its residents would ever have been there, and would never had chance to encounter sharks. However, they would have heard folktales and stories about the strange creatures from the sea. A prudent man could take such a natural marvel on a tour around the country, and be able to cash in on peoples’ natural curiosity of monsters and the natural world.
A golden period
The late 18th and early 19th centuries were a golden period for science and in particular biology, despite the progression in knowledge, washed up carcasses were often misidentified as monsters due to their decayed nature. Although Britain was a seafaring nation with a strong navy, much about the sea was unknown. | <urn:uuid:9948c696-a32d-41e2-8b34-e87d207894e5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ourwarwickshire.org.uk/content/article/sea-monster-comes-warwickshire | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00126.warc.gz | en | 0.987763 | 358 | 3.5 | 4 | [
0.12575609982013702,
-0.247005432844162,
0.18471957743167877,
0.10305438935756683,
0.033331528306007385,
-0.3993339240550995,
-0.012803361751139164,
-0.10135897994041443,
-0.11580242216587067,
-0.0006129076355136931,
0.2555375397205353,
-0.7327890992164612,
0.1108461320400238,
0.1184034273... | 5 | In 1809 a sea monster was exhibited at Warwick Racecourse. The sea monster had been caught off the coast of Cornwall. It was described as being 31 feet long, 9 foot 2 inches high with a girth of 19 feet, to most this would have been a mighty beast, a fish the like they would never have seen before. The sea was a place of mystery and mariners often spoke strange creatures in the sea. The journey from Cornwall probably added to its strangeness as formaldehyde would have been used to arrest its decay.
The Squalus Maximus of Linneaus
The name it was given provides the best clue to what this creature probably was. Today the term squalus is used in taxonomic nomenclature to describe dogfish and sharks. The largest shark found in British waters is the Basking Shark, and during the summer months it can often be found gently swimming along the south west coast. This docile creature can grow up to 30 feet long, and weigh up to three tonnes.
Given that Warwick is so far from the sea, very few of its residents would ever have been there, and would never had chance to encounter sharks. However, they would have heard folktales and stories about the strange creatures from the sea. A prudent man could take such a natural marvel on a tour around the country, and be able to cash in on peoples’ natural curiosity of monsters and the natural world.
A golden period
The late 18th and early 19th centuries were a golden period for science and in particular biology, despite the progression in knowledge, washed up carcasses were often misidentified as monsters due to their decayed nature. Although Britain was a seafaring nation with a strong navy, much about the sea was unknown. | 371 | ENGLISH | 1 |
An art school is an educational institution with a primary focus on the visual arts, including fine art, especially illustration, painting, photography, sculpture, and graphic design. Art schools can offer elementary, secondary, post-secondary, or undergraduate programs, and can also offer a broad-based range of programs (such as the liberal arts and sciences). There have been six major periods of art school curricula, and each one has had its own hand in developing modern institutions worldwide throughout all levels of education. Art schools have also created a variety of non-academic skills for many students as well.
There have been six definitive curriculum throughout the history of art schools. These include "Apprentice, Academic, Formalist, Expressive, Conceptual, and Professional". Each of these curricula have aided not only the way that modern art schools teach, but how students learn about art as well.
Art schools began being perceived as legitimate universities in the 1980s. Before this, any art programs were used purely as extracurricular activities, and there were no methods of grading works. After the 1980s, however, art programs were integrated into many different kinds of schools and universities as legitimate courses that could be evaluated. While some argue that this has weakened creativity among modern art students, others see this as a way to treat fine arts equally in comparison with other subjects.
Apprentice paths teach art as a mixture of aesthetic and function. Typically, a student would apprentice to someone who was already skilled in some sort of trade in exchange for food and housing. Many of the Old Masters were trained in this manner, copying or painting in the style of their teacher in order to learn the trade. Once the apprenticeship ends, the student would have to prove what they learned by creating what we know today as a masterpiece. In modern schooling, this can be seen in practical art classes, including photography or printmaking.
Academic curricula began during the sixteenth-century Italian Renaissance, in which some of the earliest art academies were established. Up through the nineteenth century, these academies multiplied through both Europe and North America. This is when art began to become about both talent and intellect.
The formalist curriculum began mid-twentieth century, and focused on the basic components of artwork, such as "color, shape, texture, line - and a concern with the particular properties of a material or medium". This curriculum is most noted for including the height in popularity of Bauhaus. It was based on logic, mathematics, and Neoplatonism, which was universal at the time.
Although the expressive curriculum was formed at the same time as the formalist one, it focuses on completely different aspects of art. Rather than being concerned with the literal components of a piece of art, expressive curricula encouraged students to express their emotions and practice spontaneity. This is due to the heightened popularity of romanticism throughout the Renaissance.
The conceptual curriculum began in late twentieth century, and it focused on not only creating artwork, but presenting and describing the thought process behind the work. This is when the idea of critiquing others' works for educational purposes became popularized in North America (as the concept had been shut down quickly in Europe). This serves as a model for modern-day art school programs.
Professional curricula began appearing in art schools at the very end of the twentieths century. They teach students artistry from a perspective of business, and typically focus on modern pop culture within the works themselves. These programs are designed to teach students how to promote both themselves and their artwork.
A wide variety of art mediums and styles are integrated into modern art school programs. Different mediums that are taught include painting, printmaking, drawing and illustration, theatre, and sculpture. Newer programs can, but do not always, include graphic design, filmmaking, graffiti art, and possibly certain kinds of digital media.
According to the International Journal of Art and Design Education, "mainstream educational contexts could foster drawing behaviour and the related emotional benefits to a greater extent". Throughout a study done in the United Kingdom, it was determined that children whose parents/guardians involved them in drawing from an early age had a stronger connection with art. These children were shown to have better art skills and a significantly better chance at pursuing a career in fine arts.
A study done by Bryan Goodwin that was focusing the Mozart Effect, which refers to the idea that listening to classical music is beneficial toward mental and intellectual development, discovered that while there was little correlation between arts and academic achievement, art education is still useful to students of any age. It was discovered that learning both music and art within one's education were helpful in processing symptoms for sufferers of PTSD, anxiety, and depression.
Art schools in Australia are mostly located within Australian universities as a result of the Dawkins higher education reforms of the late 1980s. Prior to the Dawkins reforms, there was a mix of university-based art schools and single-discipline colleges of art. Art schools are now represented by the peak body, the Australian Council of University Art and Design Schools (ACUADS), which was founded in 1981 and was originally called the National Council of Heads of Art and Design Schools. ACUADS has 30 members:
There are other art schools in Australia, such as the Julian Ashton Art School, but they are either not accredited by TEQSA to award degrees or are private, for-profit institutions that sit outside the university system. | <urn:uuid:c9f24f41-f496-4874-986f-3a9239ee5f7d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://popflock.com/learn?s=Art_school | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00336.warc.gz | en | 0.981656 | 1,114 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
0.36879968643188477,
-0.08525148779153824,
0.39648422598838806,
-0.11526624113321304,
-0.4398271441459656,
0.18179790675640106,
-0.38573259115219116,
-0.03452201187610626,
-0.00004573393380269408,
0.02151680178940296,
-0.022091060876846313,
-0.08009622991085052,
-0.026477016508579254,
0.57... | 1 | An art school is an educational institution with a primary focus on the visual arts, including fine art, especially illustration, painting, photography, sculpture, and graphic design. Art schools can offer elementary, secondary, post-secondary, or undergraduate programs, and can also offer a broad-based range of programs (such as the liberal arts and sciences). There have been six major periods of art school curricula, and each one has had its own hand in developing modern institutions worldwide throughout all levels of education. Art schools have also created a variety of non-academic skills for many students as well.
There have been six definitive curriculum throughout the history of art schools. These include "Apprentice, Academic, Formalist, Expressive, Conceptual, and Professional". Each of these curricula have aided not only the way that modern art schools teach, but how students learn about art as well.
Art schools began being perceived as legitimate universities in the 1980s. Before this, any art programs were used purely as extracurricular activities, and there were no methods of grading works. After the 1980s, however, art programs were integrated into many different kinds of schools and universities as legitimate courses that could be evaluated. While some argue that this has weakened creativity among modern art students, others see this as a way to treat fine arts equally in comparison with other subjects.
Apprentice paths teach art as a mixture of aesthetic and function. Typically, a student would apprentice to someone who was already skilled in some sort of trade in exchange for food and housing. Many of the Old Masters were trained in this manner, copying or painting in the style of their teacher in order to learn the trade. Once the apprenticeship ends, the student would have to prove what they learned by creating what we know today as a masterpiece. In modern schooling, this can be seen in practical art classes, including photography or printmaking.
Academic curricula began during the sixteenth-century Italian Renaissance, in which some of the earliest art academies were established. Up through the nineteenth century, these academies multiplied through both Europe and North America. This is when art began to become about both talent and intellect.
The formalist curriculum began mid-twentieth century, and focused on the basic components of artwork, such as "color, shape, texture, line - and a concern with the particular properties of a material or medium". This curriculum is most noted for including the height in popularity of Bauhaus. It was based on logic, mathematics, and Neoplatonism, which was universal at the time.
Although the expressive curriculum was formed at the same time as the formalist one, it focuses on completely different aspects of art. Rather than being concerned with the literal components of a piece of art, expressive curricula encouraged students to express their emotions and practice spontaneity. This is due to the heightened popularity of romanticism throughout the Renaissance.
The conceptual curriculum began in late twentieth century, and it focused on not only creating artwork, but presenting and describing the thought process behind the work. This is when the idea of critiquing others' works for educational purposes became popularized in North America (as the concept had been shut down quickly in Europe). This serves as a model for modern-day art school programs.
Professional curricula began appearing in art schools at the very end of the twentieths century. They teach students artistry from a perspective of business, and typically focus on modern pop culture within the works themselves. These programs are designed to teach students how to promote both themselves and their artwork.
A wide variety of art mediums and styles are integrated into modern art school programs. Different mediums that are taught include painting, printmaking, drawing and illustration, theatre, and sculpture. Newer programs can, but do not always, include graphic design, filmmaking, graffiti art, and possibly certain kinds of digital media.
According to the International Journal of Art and Design Education, "mainstream educational contexts could foster drawing behaviour and the related emotional benefits to a greater extent". Throughout a study done in the United Kingdom, it was determined that children whose parents/guardians involved them in drawing from an early age had a stronger connection with art. These children were shown to have better art skills and a significantly better chance at pursuing a career in fine arts.
A study done by Bryan Goodwin that was focusing the Mozart Effect, which refers to the idea that listening to classical music is beneficial toward mental and intellectual development, discovered that while there was little correlation between arts and academic achievement, art education is still useful to students of any age. It was discovered that learning both music and art within one's education were helpful in processing symptoms for sufferers of PTSD, anxiety, and depression.
Art schools in Australia are mostly located within Australian universities as a result of the Dawkins higher education reforms of the late 1980s. Prior to the Dawkins reforms, there was a mix of university-based art schools and single-discipline colleges of art. Art schools are now represented by the peak body, the Australian Council of University Art and Design Schools (ACUADS), which was founded in 1981 and was originally called the National Council of Heads of Art and Design Schools. ACUADS has 30 members:
There are other art schools in Australia, such as the Julian Ashton Art School, but they are either not accredited by TEQSA to award degrees or are private, for-profit institutions that sit outside the university system. | 1,110 | ENGLISH | 1 |
|Date(s):||May 28, 1818|
|Tag(s):||Government, Native-Americans, War|
|Course:||“Rise And Fall of the Slave South,” University of Virginia|
|Rating:||4.01 (130 votes)|
General Andrew Jackson learned in the spring of 1818 that the Seminoles were gathering en masse in Pensacola, which, at the time, was in Spanish-controlled Florida. He also had heard reports of Indians murdering whites in Alabama, Georgia, and Florida. He was, in fact, sent down to Fort Scott because of Seminole retaliatory strikes against the United States in late 1817. General Jackson concluded that it was necessary for the United States to invade Spanish territory and forcibly take control of Pensacola, thereby dispersing (or killing) the Indians gathered there. On May 28, 1818, he did just that. He claimed, after the invasion, that his action stemmed in no way from a desire to extend the territorial limits of the United States but was instead a preventative measure against further Indian violence against whites.
General Jackson issued a statement regarding his taking of Pensacola that was then published in at least one newspaper; The Times printed his statement on August 3, 1818. His report also included details of his plans for occupying the city. He stated that all Spanish laws, so far as they effect personal rights and property would remain in effect.
This ultimately became a moot point, as Spain agreed to cede the Florida Territory to the United States on February 22, 1819, although the treaty legalizing this sale, the Adam-Onis Treaty, was not ratified until 1821. The United States, in return, agreed to assume 5 million worth of Spain's debt. The taking of Pensacola and General Jackson's statement of intent, however, are still important. The atrocities that the Indians committed against white settlers in the Deep South deeply upset General Jackson. He justified all of his actions against the Indians in the First Seminole War on the perpetration of these 'atrocities'-even the ones that were provoked by General Gaines' actions. The Indians were occupying valuable land and reacting violently when the Americans tried to coerce these lands from them.
The ultimate realization of General Jackson's antipathy towards the Indians was realized with his signing, as President, of the Indian Removal Act of 1830. With the passage and later implementation for this act, Jackson claimed repeatedly that this was for the good of the Indians, rather than for the Americans. He stated to Congress and to the Indians that the purpose of the act was to enable the Indians to preserve their culture from assimilation into white culture, and to give them the space necessary to govern themselves free from the American legal system. Regardless of his intentions, the result remains the same. President Jackson was almost solely responsible for the uprooting of North America's oldest human inhabitants and for one of the most egregious violations of the Constitution in American history. This act was written by his supporters and signed by him; rather than simply mandating the removal of the Indians, however, it authorized the President make voluntary treaties with the Indians exchanging their current land for land west of the Mississippi River. In other words, this treaty required that President Jackson to keep up his facade of removing the Indians in their best interest in order to sell them on his plan.
The Seminoles in Florida were, ironically, one of the last tribes to be officially effected by President Jackson's decision to remove the Indians west. They were also one of the most determined to resist this relocation, eventually forcing the United States into the Second Seminole War. Upon losing the war, all but about one quarter of the Seminoles were relocated. | <urn:uuid:d9727495-4554-4409-afb4-3a985bf63a30> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historyengine.richmond.edu/episodes/view/2329 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00454.warc.gz | en | 0.980744 | 764 | 3.625 | 4 | [
-0.16703160107135773,
0.02328217402100563,
0.4658394455909729,
-0.08603277802467346,
0.12612579762935638,
-0.19063618779182434,
0.020243249833583832,
-0.0346466600894928,
0.1834917813539505,
-0.028475387021899223,
0.1808101236820221,
0.04830225184559822,
-0.20848098397254944,
0.40068316459... | 1 | |Date(s):||May 28, 1818|
|Tag(s):||Government, Native-Americans, War|
|Course:||“Rise And Fall of the Slave South,” University of Virginia|
|Rating:||4.01 (130 votes)|
General Andrew Jackson learned in the spring of 1818 that the Seminoles were gathering en masse in Pensacola, which, at the time, was in Spanish-controlled Florida. He also had heard reports of Indians murdering whites in Alabama, Georgia, and Florida. He was, in fact, sent down to Fort Scott because of Seminole retaliatory strikes against the United States in late 1817. General Jackson concluded that it was necessary for the United States to invade Spanish territory and forcibly take control of Pensacola, thereby dispersing (or killing) the Indians gathered there. On May 28, 1818, he did just that. He claimed, after the invasion, that his action stemmed in no way from a desire to extend the territorial limits of the United States but was instead a preventative measure against further Indian violence against whites.
General Jackson issued a statement regarding his taking of Pensacola that was then published in at least one newspaper; The Times printed his statement on August 3, 1818. His report also included details of his plans for occupying the city. He stated that all Spanish laws, so far as they effect personal rights and property would remain in effect.
This ultimately became a moot point, as Spain agreed to cede the Florida Territory to the United States on February 22, 1819, although the treaty legalizing this sale, the Adam-Onis Treaty, was not ratified until 1821. The United States, in return, agreed to assume 5 million worth of Spain's debt. The taking of Pensacola and General Jackson's statement of intent, however, are still important. The atrocities that the Indians committed against white settlers in the Deep South deeply upset General Jackson. He justified all of his actions against the Indians in the First Seminole War on the perpetration of these 'atrocities'-even the ones that were provoked by General Gaines' actions. The Indians were occupying valuable land and reacting violently when the Americans tried to coerce these lands from them.
The ultimate realization of General Jackson's antipathy towards the Indians was realized with his signing, as President, of the Indian Removal Act of 1830. With the passage and later implementation for this act, Jackson claimed repeatedly that this was for the good of the Indians, rather than for the Americans. He stated to Congress and to the Indians that the purpose of the act was to enable the Indians to preserve their culture from assimilation into white culture, and to give them the space necessary to govern themselves free from the American legal system. Regardless of his intentions, the result remains the same. President Jackson was almost solely responsible for the uprooting of North America's oldest human inhabitants and for one of the most egregious violations of the Constitution in American history. This act was written by his supporters and signed by him; rather than simply mandating the removal of the Indians, however, it authorized the President make voluntary treaties with the Indians exchanging their current land for land west of the Mississippi River. In other words, this treaty required that President Jackson to keep up his facade of removing the Indians in their best interest in order to sell them on his plan.
The Seminoles in Florida were, ironically, one of the last tribes to be officially effected by President Jackson's decision to remove the Indians west. They were also one of the most determined to resist this relocation, eventually forcing the United States into the Second Seminole War. Upon losing the war, all but about one quarter of the Seminoles were relocated. | 791 | ENGLISH | 1 |
After Lewis returned to Washington from Philadelphia in the summer of 1803, the United States' purchase of the Louisiana territory from France was announced. Now the journey was even more important. Lewis and his party would be exploring land that belonged to the United States. Armed with Jefferson's letter of instructions, Lewis traveled to Pittsburgh and then set out on the Ohio River. At Clarksville, in present-day Indiana, he met up with William Clark. They packed the keelboat, which Lewis had designed, and two pirogues (canoe-like boats) with supplies and headed downriver. They were accompanied by some recruited soldiers, Clark's African-American slave York, and Lewis's Newfoundland dog Seaman.
Lewis and Clark spent the winter of 1803-04 at Camp Dubois on the east bank of the Mississippi River, upstream from St. Louis. Here the captains recruited more men, increasing the ranks of the "Corps of Volunteers for Northwest Discovery" to more than 40. As spring approached, the members of the Expedition gathered food and supplies and packed them into barrels, bags, and boxes. The boats were loaded and the party made ready to depart. On May 14, 1804, the Lewis & Clark Expedition began its trip up the Missouri River.
Lewis, Clark, and other members of the Expedition began writing in their journals, a practice that continued throughout the journey. Map-making was equally important, particularly in the previously unexplored regions. As the explorers encountered new rivers and streams, they were responsible for naming them. They named some for famous Americans, such as Jefferson and James Madison, and others for friends and members of the Expedition. The same was true for some of the new plants and animals they encountered. Many of these names are still in use today.
In late July the explorers camped north of the mouth of the Platte River, at a site they called Council Bluff. Lewis noted in his journal that the location was good for a trading post. It was here on August 3 that Lewis and Clark had their first council with Native Americans, a small group of Oto and Missouri Indians. During this time Sergeant Charles Floyd, one of the soldiers, became ill and died of a ruptured appendix on August 20. He was the only member of the Expedition to die during the journey.
As the Expedition traveled up the Missouri River during late August and into September, the landscape along the river changed drastically. The forests receded, replaced first by tall prairie grass and then the shorter grass of the high plains. Thousands of buffalo were seen grazing, and prairie dogs were first sighted. The evening temperatures became colder, with frost on the ground some mornings. Lewis and Clark planned to winter near long-established villages inhabited by large numbers of the Mandan and Hidatsa tribes, north of present-day Bismarck, North Dakota. On October 26, 1804, the Expedition arrived at the earth-lodge Indian villages, approximately 1,600 miles from Camp Dubois. A good site was found for a camp, and the men set about building Fort Mandan across the river from the Indian villages.
During the winter Lewis and Clark worked to establish good relations with the Indians, who had been dealing with English and French-Canadian traders for some time. One of these traders, Toussaint Charbonneau, was persuaded to accompany the Expedition as an interpreter when it left in the spring. His young pregnant wife, Sacagawea, who had been captured from her Lemhi Shoshone tribe years before by Hidatsas, was to go along as well. Sacagawea thus became the only female member of the Expedition. Her baby, named Jean Baptiste, was born on February 11, 1805. Lewis and Clark realized Sacagawea would be useful as a guide as the Expedition proceeded west, and believed the presence of the woman and her child would signal that the party was a peaceful one.
During the cold winter at Fort Mandan, the members of the Expedition prepared a shipment that was to be sent back to President Jefferson. The shipment included maps, written reports, items made by Native Americans, the skins and skeletons of previously unknown animals, soil samples, minerals, seeds, and cages containing a live prairie dog, a sharp-tailed grouse, and magpies. The large keelboat and about a dozen men were dispatched downriver on April 7. The shipment was received at the President's House in Washington four months later. Many of these items, including a painted Mandan buffalo robe, were eventually put on display in Jefferson's "Indian Hall," the entrance hall of Monticello, his home near Charlottesville, Virginia. Other objects were later displayed in Charles Willson Peale's museum in Philadelphia. The same day the shipment was sent downriver, the "permanent party" of the Expedition left Fort Mandan in the two pirogues and six dugout canoes and headed westward into uncharted territory.
Proceeding into present-day Montana, the explorers were amazed by herds of buffalo numbering more than 10,000 and by the ferocity of grizzly bears. On June 13, more than two months after leaving Fort Mandan, the Expedition reached the Great Falls of the Missouri River, one of the greatest natural obstacles it would face. The falls gave off a thunderous roar, which emanated from a 10-mile stretch of river that dropped more than 400 feet over five cascades. The members of the Expedition unloaded the supplies from the boats and undertook a difficult overland portage around the falls.
In late July, the Expedition reached the Three Forks of the Missouri River then headed southwest, up the shallow, swift stream they named the Jefferson River. Sacagawea recognized Beaverhead Rock (north of present-day Dillon, Montana) and said the party was near the home of her people, the Shoshone. Desperate to find the Indians and their horses, Lewis decided to scout ahead with three men. On August 12, Lewis ascended the final ridge to the Continental Divide on the Lemhi Pass (on the present-day border between Montana and Idaho). From the summit he expected to see plains with a large river flowing to the Pacific Ocean. But when he reached the peak and looked west, he came to the realization that there was no water route to the Pacific Ocean, only more mountains.
A few days later, Lewis came upon a Shoshone village and tried to negotiate for horses needed to cross the daunting mountains. Clark and the rest of the Expedition arrived and Sacagawea was brought in to help translate. She was reunited with her brother, Cameahwait, the Shoshone chief. The explorers set up camp near the Indian village and named it Camp Fortunate. The Shoshones provided the Expedition with some horses, a guide named Old Toby who had traveled through the mountains before, and information about mountain trails and other Indian tribes the explorers might encounter. The entire Expedition proceeded through the Lemhi Pass and made camp along a creek. This camp was called Traveler's Rest.
Even though winter was fast approaching and snow was covering some of the peaks, Lewis and Clark decided to continue on through the Bitterroots, a range of the Rocky Mountains. Cameahwait had told them of a trail (Lolo Trail) used by the Nez Perce, a tribe that lived west of the mountains. Unfortunately, the Expedition failed to locate this trail and spent many more days in the treacherous mountains than necessary. Temperatures dropped below freezing and the trail was steep and rocky. The men were fatigued and food supplies were low, but the Expedition succeeded in making it across the mountains. Once out of the Bitterroots, the explorers made canoes using the Indian method of burning out the inside of logs. Game was still scarce, so Lewis and Clark purchased roots, fish, and dogs from the Nez Perce.
On October 7, the Expedition put five new canoes into the Clearwater River and, for the first time since leaving St. Louis, paddled downstream. The party went down the Clearwater and Snake Rivers to the Columbia River, which the explorers knew flowed into the Pacific Ocean. By the end of October the Expedition had made its way around the falls of the Columbia and sighted Mount Hood. In November the Pacific Ocean was sighted. Clark estimated in his journal that the party had traveled 4,162 miles from the mouth of the Missouri River.
By Christmas, the men had nearly finished their winter quarters, which they called Fort Clatsop after the local Indian tribe. The explorers spent the cold, rainy, generally miserable winter updating their journals, trading with the Indians for food and other needed items, and preparing for the long return journey.
On March 23, 1806, Lewis and Clark presented Fort Clatsop to Chief Coboway (a Clatsop Indian) and the Expedition began its trek home. The party reached the Nez Perce lands in May but had to wait there until late June for the snows to melt on the Bitterroots. Once it crossed the mountains and reached Traveler's Rest, the Expedition split up. Lewis took part of the men north and Clark led a party down the Yellowstone River. On July 26, Lewis and his men become engaged in a fight with Blackfeet warriors, who were attempting to take horses and guns. Two of the warriors were killed. On August 12, the entire Expedition was reunited at the point where the Yellowstone flows into the Missouri River.
Traveling with the Missouri's current, the Expedition was able to cover up to 70 miles in a day. The explorers reached the Mandan villages on August 14, and there parted company with Charbonneau, Sacagawea, and young Jean Baptiste. The Expedition finished its journey when it reached St. Louis on September 23, 1806. President Jefferson had thought that the men would be gone for about a year, and consequently had feared for their safety. In fact, it took the Lewis and Clark Expedition two years, four months, and nine days to travel across the western part of the continent and back.
President Jefferson's instructions to Lewis were so extensive as to be almost impossible to fulfill, yet he viewed the Expedition as a tremendous success. The discoveries made by the explorers changed the vision of this young country. No water route to the Pacific was found, but accurate and detailed maps were drawn. Peaceful contact was made with Native American tribes and trade was discussed. The body of knowledge added to the scientific community proved to be truly invaluable and vast reaches of North America had been explored. Lewis and Clark's "voyage of discovery" turned out to be one of Thomas Jefferson's most enduring legacies. | <urn:uuid:7117ecda-d664-417c-a3c0-98e7a3945bfe> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.monticello.org/thomas-jefferson/louisiana-lewis-clark/the-journey-west/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00470.warc.gz | en | 0.981532 | 2,196 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
-0.5956358909606934,
0.08035338670015335,
0.4072133004665375,
-0.11822903156280518,
-0.3319835662841797,
-0.2873716950416565,
-0.12273481488227844,
0.1492411196231842,
-0.3585040867328644,
0.052070386707782745,
0.5752034187316895,
-0.0962095633149147,
-0.2200642228126526,
-0.13972325623035... | 11 | After Lewis returned to Washington from Philadelphia in the summer of 1803, the United States' purchase of the Louisiana territory from France was announced. Now the journey was even more important. Lewis and his party would be exploring land that belonged to the United States. Armed with Jefferson's letter of instructions, Lewis traveled to Pittsburgh and then set out on the Ohio River. At Clarksville, in present-day Indiana, he met up with William Clark. They packed the keelboat, which Lewis had designed, and two pirogues (canoe-like boats) with supplies and headed downriver. They were accompanied by some recruited soldiers, Clark's African-American slave York, and Lewis's Newfoundland dog Seaman.
Lewis and Clark spent the winter of 1803-04 at Camp Dubois on the east bank of the Mississippi River, upstream from St. Louis. Here the captains recruited more men, increasing the ranks of the "Corps of Volunteers for Northwest Discovery" to more than 40. As spring approached, the members of the Expedition gathered food and supplies and packed them into barrels, bags, and boxes. The boats were loaded and the party made ready to depart. On May 14, 1804, the Lewis & Clark Expedition began its trip up the Missouri River.
Lewis, Clark, and other members of the Expedition began writing in their journals, a practice that continued throughout the journey. Map-making was equally important, particularly in the previously unexplored regions. As the explorers encountered new rivers and streams, they were responsible for naming them. They named some for famous Americans, such as Jefferson and James Madison, and others for friends and members of the Expedition. The same was true for some of the new plants and animals they encountered. Many of these names are still in use today.
In late July the explorers camped north of the mouth of the Platte River, at a site they called Council Bluff. Lewis noted in his journal that the location was good for a trading post. It was here on August 3 that Lewis and Clark had their first council with Native Americans, a small group of Oto and Missouri Indians. During this time Sergeant Charles Floyd, one of the soldiers, became ill and died of a ruptured appendix on August 20. He was the only member of the Expedition to die during the journey.
As the Expedition traveled up the Missouri River during late August and into September, the landscape along the river changed drastically. The forests receded, replaced first by tall prairie grass and then the shorter grass of the high plains. Thousands of buffalo were seen grazing, and prairie dogs were first sighted. The evening temperatures became colder, with frost on the ground some mornings. Lewis and Clark planned to winter near long-established villages inhabited by large numbers of the Mandan and Hidatsa tribes, north of present-day Bismarck, North Dakota. On October 26, 1804, the Expedition arrived at the earth-lodge Indian villages, approximately 1,600 miles from Camp Dubois. A good site was found for a camp, and the men set about building Fort Mandan across the river from the Indian villages.
During the winter Lewis and Clark worked to establish good relations with the Indians, who had been dealing with English and French-Canadian traders for some time. One of these traders, Toussaint Charbonneau, was persuaded to accompany the Expedition as an interpreter when it left in the spring. His young pregnant wife, Sacagawea, who had been captured from her Lemhi Shoshone tribe years before by Hidatsas, was to go along as well. Sacagawea thus became the only female member of the Expedition. Her baby, named Jean Baptiste, was born on February 11, 1805. Lewis and Clark realized Sacagawea would be useful as a guide as the Expedition proceeded west, and believed the presence of the woman and her child would signal that the party was a peaceful one.
During the cold winter at Fort Mandan, the members of the Expedition prepared a shipment that was to be sent back to President Jefferson. The shipment included maps, written reports, items made by Native Americans, the skins and skeletons of previously unknown animals, soil samples, minerals, seeds, and cages containing a live prairie dog, a sharp-tailed grouse, and magpies. The large keelboat and about a dozen men were dispatched downriver on April 7. The shipment was received at the President's House in Washington four months later. Many of these items, including a painted Mandan buffalo robe, were eventually put on display in Jefferson's "Indian Hall," the entrance hall of Monticello, his home near Charlottesville, Virginia. Other objects were later displayed in Charles Willson Peale's museum in Philadelphia. The same day the shipment was sent downriver, the "permanent party" of the Expedition left Fort Mandan in the two pirogues and six dugout canoes and headed westward into uncharted territory.
Proceeding into present-day Montana, the explorers were amazed by herds of buffalo numbering more than 10,000 and by the ferocity of grizzly bears. On June 13, more than two months after leaving Fort Mandan, the Expedition reached the Great Falls of the Missouri River, one of the greatest natural obstacles it would face. The falls gave off a thunderous roar, which emanated from a 10-mile stretch of river that dropped more than 400 feet over five cascades. The members of the Expedition unloaded the supplies from the boats and undertook a difficult overland portage around the falls.
In late July, the Expedition reached the Three Forks of the Missouri River then headed southwest, up the shallow, swift stream they named the Jefferson River. Sacagawea recognized Beaverhead Rock (north of present-day Dillon, Montana) and said the party was near the home of her people, the Shoshone. Desperate to find the Indians and their horses, Lewis decided to scout ahead with three men. On August 12, Lewis ascended the final ridge to the Continental Divide on the Lemhi Pass (on the present-day border between Montana and Idaho). From the summit he expected to see plains with a large river flowing to the Pacific Ocean. But when he reached the peak and looked west, he came to the realization that there was no water route to the Pacific Ocean, only more mountains.
A few days later, Lewis came upon a Shoshone village and tried to negotiate for horses needed to cross the daunting mountains. Clark and the rest of the Expedition arrived and Sacagawea was brought in to help translate. She was reunited with her brother, Cameahwait, the Shoshone chief. The explorers set up camp near the Indian village and named it Camp Fortunate. The Shoshones provided the Expedition with some horses, a guide named Old Toby who had traveled through the mountains before, and information about mountain trails and other Indian tribes the explorers might encounter. The entire Expedition proceeded through the Lemhi Pass and made camp along a creek. This camp was called Traveler's Rest.
Even though winter was fast approaching and snow was covering some of the peaks, Lewis and Clark decided to continue on through the Bitterroots, a range of the Rocky Mountains. Cameahwait had told them of a trail (Lolo Trail) used by the Nez Perce, a tribe that lived west of the mountains. Unfortunately, the Expedition failed to locate this trail and spent many more days in the treacherous mountains than necessary. Temperatures dropped below freezing and the trail was steep and rocky. The men were fatigued and food supplies were low, but the Expedition succeeded in making it across the mountains. Once out of the Bitterroots, the explorers made canoes using the Indian method of burning out the inside of logs. Game was still scarce, so Lewis and Clark purchased roots, fish, and dogs from the Nez Perce.
On October 7, the Expedition put five new canoes into the Clearwater River and, for the first time since leaving St. Louis, paddled downstream. The party went down the Clearwater and Snake Rivers to the Columbia River, which the explorers knew flowed into the Pacific Ocean. By the end of October the Expedition had made its way around the falls of the Columbia and sighted Mount Hood. In November the Pacific Ocean was sighted. Clark estimated in his journal that the party had traveled 4,162 miles from the mouth of the Missouri River.
By Christmas, the men had nearly finished their winter quarters, which they called Fort Clatsop after the local Indian tribe. The explorers spent the cold, rainy, generally miserable winter updating their journals, trading with the Indians for food and other needed items, and preparing for the long return journey.
On March 23, 1806, Lewis and Clark presented Fort Clatsop to Chief Coboway (a Clatsop Indian) and the Expedition began its trek home. The party reached the Nez Perce lands in May but had to wait there until late June for the snows to melt on the Bitterroots. Once it crossed the mountains and reached Traveler's Rest, the Expedition split up. Lewis took part of the men north and Clark led a party down the Yellowstone River. On July 26, Lewis and his men become engaged in a fight with Blackfeet warriors, who were attempting to take horses and guns. Two of the warriors were killed. On August 12, the entire Expedition was reunited at the point where the Yellowstone flows into the Missouri River.
Traveling with the Missouri's current, the Expedition was able to cover up to 70 miles in a day. The explorers reached the Mandan villages on August 14, and there parted company with Charbonneau, Sacagawea, and young Jean Baptiste. The Expedition finished its journey when it reached St. Louis on September 23, 1806. President Jefferson had thought that the men would be gone for about a year, and consequently had feared for their safety. In fact, it took the Lewis and Clark Expedition two years, four months, and nine days to travel across the western part of the continent and back.
President Jefferson's instructions to Lewis were so extensive as to be almost impossible to fulfill, yet he viewed the Expedition as a tremendous success. The discoveries made by the explorers changed the vision of this young country. No water route to the Pacific was found, but accurate and detailed maps were drawn. Peaceful contact was made with Native American tribes and trade was discussed. The body of knowledge added to the scientific community proved to be truly invaluable and vast reaches of North America had been explored. Lewis and Clark's "voyage of discovery" turned out to be one of Thomas Jefferson's most enduring legacies. | 2,253 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A research team with members from the U.K., Germany, and Mexico has confirmed the first known existence of a venomous crustacean. In their paper published in the journal Molecular Biology and Evolution, the researchers describe their study of Speleonectes tulumensis, of the group remipedes as well as their finding that it is indeed the first known crustacean to use venom to capture and kill prey.
Remipedes are a type of crustacean, which is a subgroup of arthropods. Venom is of course found in a wide variety of arthropods such as spiders and scorpions, but never before has a crustacean (of which there are 70,000 known kinds) been known to create and use venom.
Scientists have suspected S. tulumensis may be unique since they were first discovered living in underwater caves along coastlines in Mexico and Central America as far back as the 1980’s. They have hollow fangs on the sides of their head behind their jaws. No one’s been able to study them up close until now, however because of the difficulty in getting to where they live. In this latest effort, the team was able to collect some samples and then took them back to their lab. There they discovered that the one-of-a-kind creature actually has a complex venom delivery system, and that it produces more than one type of toxin.
Read more at: Phys.org | <urn:uuid:44f496c2-3819-4b4f-a6fd-bdf2746f6b5a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.technology.org/2013/10/24/first-venomous-crustacean-discovered-living-underwater-caves/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00478.warc.gz | en | 0.98087 | 297 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
-0.1952192187309265,
-0.11508012562990189,
0.17959007620811462,
-0.007978555746376514,
-0.20276685059070587,
-0.13629017770290375,
0.3476774990558624,
0.331084281206131,
-0.3645031452178955,
-0.19502989947795868,
0.558834969997406,
-0.30053165555000305,
0.07794715464115143,
0.2618452906608... | 1 | A research team with members from the U.K., Germany, and Mexico has confirmed the first known existence of a venomous crustacean. In their paper published in the journal Molecular Biology and Evolution, the researchers describe their study of Speleonectes tulumensis, of the group remipedes as well as their finding that it is indeed the first known crustacean to use venom to capture and kill prey.
Remipedes are a type of crustacean, which is a subgroup of arthropods. Venom is of course found in a wide variety of arthropods such as spiders and scorpions, but never before has a crustacean (of which there are 70,000 known kinds) been known to create and use venom.
Scientists have suspected S. tulumensis may be unique since they were first discovered living in underwater caves along coastlines in Mexico and Central America as far back as the 1980’s. They have hollow fangs on the sides of their head behind their jaws. No one’s been able to study them up close until now, however because of the difficulty in getting to where they live. In this latest effort, the team was able to collect some samples and then took them back to their lab. There they discovered that the one-of-a-kind creature actually has a complex venom delivery system, and that it produces more than one type of toxin.
Read more at: Phys.org | 293 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Kings of the Liberation
King Olav V of Norway was born at the Royal Estate Sandringham in England as Prince Alexander Edward Christian Frederik on July 2nd in 1903, as the son of Prince Carl of Denmark and Princess Maud of Wales. He was a member of the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg.
A change of events came when his father accepted the Norwegian throne in September 1905, and he moved to the young nation with his new old norse name Olav. Now the heir to the Norwegian throne, he was the first prince to be brought up in the country since the medieval King Olav IV.
King Haakon and Queen Maud wanted Prince Olav’s upbringing to be as Norwegian as possible, and in preparation for his royal duties he attended both civilian and military schools.
The Prince chose to do his main military education in the army and graduated from the three-year Norwegian Military Academy in 1924. He then went on to study jurisprudence and economics for two years at Balliol College, Oxford.
In 1929 Prince Olav married his first cousin Princess Märtha of Sweden, with whom he had Princess Ragnhild (born 1930), Princess Astrid (born 1932) and Prince Harald (born 1937).
During a visit to the United States before the war Crown Prince Olav and Crown Princess Märtha established a close relationship with President Roosevelt. This connection would prove important for the Norwegian fight against the attacking German forces as well as for the Royal Family itself.
The Norwegian Royal Family is especially closely linked to the events of WWII. When Nazi troops invaded Norway on April 9th in 1940 the family was forced to flee the country, and came to came to play an immensely important role in the resistance movement.
It is hardly possible to exaggerate the impact King Haakon personally came to have on the historic events during WWII, from his threat to abdicate if his Government wished to cooperate with the Germans to his role as a symbol and a uniting leader of the Norwegian resistance throughout the war.
The triple portrait The Kings of the Liberation was painted to Norway’s Resistance Museum at Akershus fortress at the occasion of the 70 years celebration of the liberation of Norway from Nazi occupation in 2015. The paintings were a gift from Samlerhuset and Norway’s Resistance Museum’s friends.
The documentary film The Kings of the Liberation tells the tale of the Royal Family’s role in WWII and sets Kolby’s portraits of King Haakon, King Olav and King Harald in a historic context.
After the war King Haakon moved back to the Royal Palace where the empty space after Queen Maud was noticeable. The Crown Prince family returned to the residence Skaugum outside of Oslo, and the Royal Family resumed their duties all over the country immediately.
The Royal Family experienced yet another tragedy when Crown Princess Märtha died in April 1954 only 53 years old due to jaundice from a blood transfer, and Norway lost its future Queen.
With an aging father King Olav was now suddenly left to solely prepare for the coming ascending of the Norwegian throne, which he succeeded to in September 1957 upon his father’s death.
His consecration was held on June 22nd in 1958 in the medieval cathedral Nidarosdomen. The King had a down to earth style, and was known for his ability to connect with his people. He reigned as a "People's King," and became extremely popular.
King Olav conducted state visits all over the world during his 34 year long reign to countries varying from Denmark to Ethiopia. He was a true military officer by nature and had a strong interest in military matters, taking his role as titular Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces very seriously.
He was an accomplished athlete both as a skier and a sailor. The King jumped from the Holmenkollen ski jump in Oslo, and also competed in sailing regattas. He won a gold medal in sailing at the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam and remained an active sailor into old age.
During the summer of 1990 the King began suffering from health problems. As every year he resided in the Royal Lodge Kongsseteren in Oslo during Christmas, and in the evening of Januar 17th 1991 he became acutely ill and died.
His death made a tremendous impression on the Norwegians. The night after he died and for several days up until the state funeral they mourned immensely. Hundreds of thousands of candles were lit in the snow in the courtyard outside the Royal Palace in Oslo with letters and cards placed amongst them.
At his death King Olav was the last surviving grandchild of King Edward VII of the United Kingdom. In a 2005 poll by the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation King Olav V was voted "Norwegian of the century".
King Olav and his Crown Princess Märtha rest in the green sarcophagus in the Royal Mausoleum at Akershus Fortress. | <urn:uuid:c5fe46af-08bc-4136-8dfd-65c325a9c7d7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.rosskolby.com/work/king-olav-v-of-norway | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00235.warc.gz | en | 0.981072 | 1,044 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
-0.014143448323011398,
1.1182175874710083,
0.07865571975708008,
-0.31738826632499695,
0.3658562898635864,
0.2986087203025818,
0.16770023107528687,
0.10472032427787781,
-0.11959870159626007,
0.19472019374370575,
-0.010826092213392258,
-0.3293974697589874,
0.49991440773010254,
0.121051467955... | 7 | The Kings of the Liberation
King Olav V of Norway was born at the Royal Estate Sandringham in England as Prince Alexander Edward Christian Frederik on July 2nd in 1903, as the son of Prince Carl of Denmark and Princess Maud of Wales. He was a member of the House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg.
A change of events came when his father accepted the Norwegian throne in September 1905, and he moved to the young nation with his new old norse name Olav. Now the heir to the Norwegian throne, he was the first prince to be brought up in the country since the medieval King Olav IV.
King Haakon and Queen Maud wanted Prince Olav’s upbringing to be as Norwegian as possible, and in preparation for his royal duties he attended both civilian and military schools.
The Prince chose to do his main military education in the army and graduated from the three-year Norwegian Military Academy in 1924. He then went on to study jurisprudence and economics for two years at Balliol College, Oxford.
In 1929 Prince Olav married his first cousin Princess Märtha of Sweden, with whom he had Princess Ragnhild (born 1930), Princess Astrid (born 1932) and Prince Harald (born 1937).
During a visit to the United States before the war Crown Prince Olav and Crown Princess Märtha established a close relationship with President Roosevelt. This connection would prove important for the Norwegian fight against the attacking German forces as well as for the Royal Family itself.
The Norwegian Royal Family is especially closely linked to the events of WWII. When Nazi troops invaded Norway on April 9th in 1940 the family was forced to flee the country, and came to came to play an immensely important role in the resistance movement.
It is hardly possible to exaggerate the impact King Haakon personally came to have on the historic events during WWII, from his threat to abdicate if his Government wished to cooperate with the Germans to his role as a symbol and a uniting leader of the Norwegian resistance throughout the war.
The triple portrait The Kings of the Liberation was painted to Norway’s Resistance Museum at Akershus fortress at the occasion of the 70 years celebration of the liberation of Norway from Nazi occupation in 2015. The paintings were a gift from Samlerhuset and Norway’s Resistance Museum’s friends.
The documentary film The Kings of the Liberation tells the tale of the Royal Family’s role in WWII and sets Kolby’s portraits of King Haakon, King Olav and King Harald in a historic context.
After the war King Haakon moved back to the Royal Palace where the empty space after Queen Maud was noticeable. The Crown Prince family returned to the residence Skaugum outside of Oslo, and the Royal Family resumed their duties all over the country immediately.
The Royal Family experienced yet another tragedy when Crown Princess Märtha died in April 1954 only 53 years old due to jaundice from a blood transfer, and Norway lost its future Queen.
With an aging father King Olav was now suddenly left to solely prepare for the coming ascending of the Norwegian throne, which he succeeded to in September 1957 upon his father’s death.
His consecration was held on June 22nd in 1958 in the medieval cathedral Nidarosdomen. The King had a down to earth style, and was known for his ability to connect with his people. He reigned as a "People's King," and became extremely popular.
King Olav conducted state visits all over the world during his 34 year long reign to countries varying from Denmark to Ethiopia. He was a true military officer by nature and had a strong interest in military matters, taking his role as titular Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces very seriously.
He was an accomplished athlete both as a skier and a sailor. The King jumped from the Holmenkollen ski jump in Oslo, and also competed in sailing regattas. He won a gold medal in sailing at the 1928 Summer Olympics in Amsterdam and remained an active sailor into old age.
During the summer of 1990 the King began suffering from health problems. As every year he resided in the Royal Lodge Kongsseteren in Oslo during Christmas, and in the evening of Januar 17th 1991 he became acutely ill and died.
His death made a tremendous impression on the Norwegians. The night after he died and for several days up until the state funeral they mourned immensely. Hundreds of thousands of candles were lit in the snow in the courtyard outside the Royal Palace in Oslo with letters and cards placed amongst them.
At his death King Olav was the last surviving grandchild of King Edward VII of the United Kingdom. In a 2005 poll by the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation King Olav V was voted "Norwegian of the century".
King Olav and his Crown Princess Märtha rest in the green sarcophagus in the Royal Mausoleum at Akershus Fortress. | 1,073 | ENGLISH | 1 |
We have discussed book talks in class and the importance of speaking in front of a group as a skill. The children identified that they used this skill during their assembly and at various other times last year. We would like to give them the opportunity to develop this skill individually.
Please could parents and families help the children prepare a short talk about their favourite book. We will start listening to talks during the week commencing 11 November.
Talks should include the following:
- The title and author of your chosen book
- The name of the main character or characters
- A short summary of the story
- The reason why it is your favourite book
- How many stars you have decided to give the book out of a possible five
At home, practise speaking in a voice that will be loud enough for your audience to hear.
If you have a copy of your chosen book, it would be lovely if you were able to bring it with you for your audience to see when you give your talk. | <urn:uuid:8acddf07-0db4-4d42-a685-3258f35948ea> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://buckstoneprimary.com/2019/11/07/home-learning-book-talks/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00285.warc.gz | en | 0.981921 | 204 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
-0.2628343105316162,
0.06127740070223808,
0.17870572209358215,
-0.5561928749084473,
-0.49297112226486206,
0.1918455809354782,
-0.00876543391495943,
0.05702977254986763,
-0.0035698027350008488,
-0.0036227337550371885,
-0.1898481249809265,
-0.06772173196077347,
-0.12601904571056366,
0.414879... | 1 | We have discussed book talks in class and the importance of speaking in front of a group as a skill. The children identified that they used this skill during their assembly and at various other times last year. We would like to give them the opportunity to develop this skill individually.
Please could parents and families help the children prepare a short talk about their favourite book. We will start listening to talks during the week commencing 11 November.
Talks should include the following:
- The title and author of your chosen book
- The name of the main character or characters
- A short summary of the story
- The reason why it is your favourite book
- How many stars you have decided to give the book out of a possible five
At home, practise speaking in a voice that will be loud enough for your audience to hear.
If you have a copy of your chosen book, it would be lovely if you were able to bring it with you for your audience to see when you give your talk. | 202 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Genghis' dad was poisoned and died. Genghis went to claim his title as clan chief but the tribe wasn't willing to take orders from someone so young.
To prove he was worthy, Genghis fought his half brother and won. At 16 he married his wife who was then captured so Genghis raided the tribe and got her back. Not long after Genghis was captured but escaped.
Later Genghis Khan started uniting the clans to have a big enough army to rival the powers of China.
He valued prosperity and peace as much as conquest,enforced respect for environment, and made law for people to treat their natural resources with great respect.
started raiding tribes that have done Genghis wrong in his past. this gave him control of central and eastern Mongolia. His army would have to know how to sword fight, ride a horse with no hand and no saddle, and be able to shoot a bow and arrow.
In 1207 he struck the kingdom of Xi Xia, and later the Jin dynasty. When his army struck the Khwarizm dynasty there were difficulties resulting in Genghis killing the Sultan and his son and burn all cities to the ground.
Genghis Khan died in 1227 and didn't have any special place where he was buried. Instead he was purposely buried where no one could find and disturb him. | <urn:uuid:f11b9dff-7fa0-4551-b994-ae9e3fdc5868> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.storyboardthat.com/storyboards/609dac78/genghis-khan | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00393.warc.gz | en | 0.992618 | 281 | 3.5 | 4 | [
-0.4192373752593994,
0.6654075384140015,
0.2892744243144989,
-0.030184321105480194,
-0.39815983176231384,
-0.25724488496780396,
0.6953849792480469,
-0.14778633415699005,
-0.25569236278533936,
-0.17146335542201996,
0.21521715819835663,
-0.2447514683008194,
0.40179064869880676,
0.07663483917... | 1 | Genghis' dad was poisoned and died. Genghis went to claim his title as clan chief but the tribe wasn't willing to take orders from someone so young.
To prove he was worthy, Genghis fought his half brother and won. At 16 he married his wife who was then captured so Genghis raided the tribe and got her back. Not long after Genghis was captured but escaped.
Later Genghis Khan started uniting the clans to have a big enough army to rival the powers of China.
He valued prosperity and peace as much as conquest,enforced respect for environment, and made law for people to treat their natural resources with great respect.
started raiding tribes that have done Genghis wrong in his past. this gave him control of central and eastern Mongolia. His army would have to know how to sword fight, ride a horse with no hand and no saddle, and be able to shoot a bow and arrow.
In 1207 he struck the kingdom of Xi Xia, and later the Jin dynasty. When his army struck the Khwarizm dynasty there were difficulties resulting in Genghis killing the Sultan and his son and burn all cities to the ground.
Genghis Khan died in 1227 and didn't have any special place where he was buried. Instead he was purposely buried where no one could find and disturb him. | 283 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Panic of 1819 in the United States uk
The Panic of 1819 is usually referred to as the first major depression in the United States (McNamara n.p.; Sobel 45). It struck the U.S. economy during the presidency of James Monroe. The Americans went through harsh challenges, as a result of the crash of the economy, which had lasted for a period from 1819 to 1821.
Buy The Panic of 1819 in the United States essay paper online
* Final order price might be slightly different depending on the current exchange rate of chosen payment system.
Various causes are believed to be behind the Panic of 1819. The primary cause of the depression is believed to be the changes that were implemented by the Second Bank of the United States to provide more conservative credit policies as the some western banks were associated with unconventional practices. Consequently, however, the Second Bank of the United States was forced to recall all its loans (Haulman 23; Murphy 414). Other US banks followed and recalled their loans, as well. Many creditors were land speculators; therefore, they were unable to repay their loans. The consequences were tragic: many banks exhausted their depositories, went bankrupt, and closed down. The economic conditions in the country were worsened by the large influx of imported goods, which flooded the American market (Murphy 414). This fact consequently led to the decline of the cotton industry in the South.
The second reason behind the recession was the war of 1812. It is believed that prior to the war, the US was a young country with a flourishing economy. Its territory was sparsely populated with a population of only seven million people, who were primarily engaged in agriculture. Therefore, there was large export of agricultural goods such as cotton, wheat, meat, and tobacco. However, as a result of the war, the U.S. economy was affected significantly. It was forced to make many sudden and rapid adjustments. Consequently, the country experienced a decline in exports from $138 million in 1807 to $7 million in 1814 (Matson 454). In addition, the monetary system suffered heavily and influenced the federal government borrowing. This event marked the beginning of the recession in the economy, whichdeepened in 1819.
The Panic of 1819 marked the end of the impressive economic expansion of 1812; during this period, the American economy developed from the European commercial status to the U.S. dynamic economy (Bixby 92). At the beginning of 1819, the economy of the country witnessed collapse of both financial and industrial institutions, which lead to Laissez-Faire Capitalism. Mortgages were foreclosed and, as a result, many people were forced out of their homes and farms. There was a decline in the prices for agricultural products and manufactured goods. As an overall result, the unemployment rates increased significantly (Haulman 682). The effects of the Panic were bitterly felt throughout the country. The situation had lasted until 1824 when the U.S. economy started to recover sluggishly.
There were various reactions by people to the panic. However, this reaction was determined by the region where the person lived. In the North, the manufacturers believed that the country could avoid the future downturns. They considered that high taxes should be imposed on all imported goods so as to protect the local market from foreign competition (Leab 122). In the South, however, the residents resented the high taxes because they would contribute to high prices on the imported goods such as machinery. They reacted fiercely in campaigns against the implementation of such changes. They hoped that if there were freer trade, the cotton industry would revive. On the other hand, the westerners took a different approach and considered that the bankers and speculators were responsible for the Panic.
Facing a new state of the economy, both the American government and politicians received a crucial task of designing the way forward to help the economy recover from the depression. Firstly, it was suggested to increase the production and distribution of paper money, in order to allow lowering the interest rates and prices of debts (Smith 22). However, there were some opponents of this idea; they arguued that this step would encourage irresponsible borrowing rather than end the deflation. Secondly, there was a suggestion regarding the initiation of the government-controlled public works. Nevertheless, this idea was rejected as unconstitutional. Thirdly, it was suggested that the best approach was to liquidate all unfavorable conditions and return to the healthy economy and traditional money. The proponents of this idea believed that working hard and spending less would help the economy recover in the nearest future.
James Monroe, the U.S. President during this time, adhered to the Constitution and introduced the government interventions. The interventions implemented included the cuts of the government officials’ payments and decreased spending on the government and its departments (Dupre 276). In three years, the economy started to revive because of this strategies coupled with an increased influx of the Mexican silver.
This study has explored the Panic of 1819, which is considered the first major U.S. economy depression. The main causes include the development and implementation of inappropriate strategies by the Second Bank of the United States, as well as the post-war effects. The consequences of the Panic were bitterly felt in the entire nation. The then economy was characterized by declining financial and industrial institutions, which led to the increased unemployment rates. Various correctional strategies were suggested by both officials and common people. The northerners suggested imposing heavy taxes on imported goods so as to discourage foreign competition. In the South, this idea was declined because it would lead to increased prices for imported machinery. The westerners, in turn, called for the reforms in the banking sector. The crisis ended when the US president, James Monroe introduces the budget and salary cuts for all government officials. This strategy enabled the economy to recover within three years. Today, the Panic of 1819 is considered an inherent part of the US economic history.
Related history essays
Most popular orders | <urn:uuid:fbdd22f9-2625-4c6b-8a4f-4e9513e01ece> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://primewritings.co.uk/essays/history/the-panic-of-1819-in-the-united-states.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00529.warc.gz | en | 0.980362 | 1,227 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
-0.0238653514534235,
-0.20418021082878113,
0.2973697781562805,
0.22715067863464355,
0.40961503982543945,
0.2893674373626709,
-0.005870002321898937,
0.022994251921772957,
0.14281797409057617,
-0.18410161137580872,
0.20191890001296997,
0.035264454782009125,
0.02106304094195366,
0.25889173150... | 1 | The Panic of 1819 in the United States uk
The Panic of 1819 is usually referred to as the first major depression in the United States (McNamara n.p.; Sobel 45). It struck the U.S. economy during the presidency of James Monroe. The Americans went through harsh challenges, as a result of the crash of the economy, which had lasted for a period from 1819 to 1821.
Buy The Panic of 1819 in the United States essay paper online
* Final order price might be slightly different depending on the current exchange rate of chosen payment system.
Various causes are believed to be behind the Panic of 1819. The primary cause of the depression is believed to be the changes that were implemented by the Second Bank of the United States to provide more conservative credit policies as the some western banks were associated with unconventional practices. Consequently, however, the Second Bank of the United States was forced to recall all its loans (Haulman 23; Murphy 414). Other US banks followed and recalled their loans, as well. Many creditors were land speculators; therefore, they were unable to repay their loans. The consequences were tragic: many banks exhausted their depositories, went bankrupt, and closed down. The economic conditions in the country were worsened by the large influx of imported goods, which flooded the American market (Murphy 414). This fact consequently led to the decline of the cotton industry in the South.
The second reason behind the recession was the war of 1812. It is believed that prior to the war, the US was a young country with a flourishing economy. Its territory was sparsely populated with a population of only seven million people, who were primarily engaged in agriculture. Therefore, there was large export of agricultural goods such as cotton, wheat, meat, and tobacco. However, as a result of the war, the U.S. economy was affected significantly. It was forced to make many sudden and rapid adjustments. Consequently, the country experienced a decline in exports from $138 million in 1807 to $7 million in 1814 (Matson 454). In addition, the monetary system suffered heavily and influenced the federal government borrowing. This event marked the beginning of the recession in the economy, whichdeepened in 1819.
The Panic of 1819 marked the end of the impressive economic expansion of 1812; during this period, the American economy developed from the European commercial status to the U.S. dynamic economy (Bixby 92). At the beginning of 1819, the economy of the country witnessed collapse of both financial and industrial institutions, which lead to Laissez-Faire Capitalism. Mortgages were foreclosed and, as a result, many people were forced out of their homes and farms. There was a decline in the prices for agricultural products and manufactured goods. As an overall result, the unemployment rates increased significantly (Haulman 682). The effects of the Panic were bitterly felt throughout the country. The situation had lasted until 1824 when the U.S. economy started to recover sluggishly.
There were various reactions by people to the panic. However, this reaction was determined by the region where the person lived. In the North, the manufacturers believed that the country could avoid the future downturns. They considered that high taxes should be imposed on all imported goods so as to protect the local market from foreign competition (Leab 122). In the South, however, the residents resented the high taxes because they would contribute to high prices on the imported goods such as machinery. They reacted fiercely in campaigns against the implementation of such changes. They hoped that if there were freer trade, the cotton industry would revive. On the other hand, the westerners took a different approach and considered that the bankers and speculators were responsible for the Panic.
Facing a new state of the economy, both the American government and politicians received a crucial task of designing the way forward to help the economy recover from the depression. Firstly, it was suggested to increase the production and distribution of paper money, in order to allow lowering the interest rates and prices of debts (Smith 22). However, there were some opponents of this idea; they arguued that this step would encourage irresponsible borrowing rather than end the deflation. Secondly, there was a suggestion regarding the initiation of the government-controlled public works. Nevertheless, this idea was rejected as unconstitutional. Thirdly, it was suggested that the best approach was to liquidate all unfavorable conditions and return to the healthy economy and traditional money. The proponents of this idea believed that working hard and spending less would help the economy recover in the nearest future.
James Monroe, the U.S. President during this time, adhered to the Constitution and introduced the government interventions. The interventions implemented included the cuts of the government officials’ payments and decreased spending on the government and its departments (Dupre 276). In three years, the economy started to revive because of this strategies coupled with an increased influx of the Mexican silver.
This study has explored the Panic of 1819, which is considered the first major U.S. economy depression. The main causes include the development and implementation of inappropriate strategies by the Second Bank of the United States, as well as the post-war effects. The consequences of the Panic were bitterly felt in the entire nation. The then economy was characterized by declining financial and industrial institutions, which led to the increased unemployment rates. Various correctional strategies were suggested by both officials and common people. The northerners suggested imposing heavy taxes on imported goods so as to discourage foreign competition. In the South, this idea was declined because it would lead to increased prices for imported machinery. The westerners, in turn, called for the reforms in the banking sector. The crisis ended when the US president, James Monroe introduces the budget and salary cuts for all government officials. This strategy enabled the economy to recover within three years. Today, the Panic of 1819 is considered an inherent part of the US economic history.
Related history essays
Most popular orders | 1,281 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Gandhi is one of the titans of the international peace movement, with a name that ranks alongside all of the great purveyors of the humanist message, from Mother Teresa to Nelson Mandela. Gandhi was many things to many people, although he has tended to be associated primarily with the Indian independence movement – and in fact, the opening paragraph of his Wikipedia page describes him as ‘an Indian activist who was the leader of the Indian independence movement against British rule.’
This proves that even Wikipedia can over, or under emphasize the facts. Gandhi was just one member of the Indian independence movement, and not by any means its leader, and he certainly was never in line to assume leadership of the independent nation of India. Gandhi was a man of the people, an a national and spiritual leader, and one of the great, global ambassadors of peace. His message was universal, transcending all national boundaries
In this list we will dig up a few interesting facts about the great man, burst a few myths and hopefully make a few revelations. Just by way of essential background, however, Gandhi was born in in 1868 in the principality of Porbandar, now located in the modern Indian state of Gujarat, and he died in 1948 at the age of seventy-nine. He is buried in a memorial garden on the banks of the Yamuna River of the eastern outskirts of New Delhi.
Gandhi’s name was not ‘Mahatma’
It is probably one of the most enduring myths surrounding the Gandhi name, that ‘Mahatma’ was his first name, which it was not. Gandhi’s birth name was Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, and the name ‘Mahatma’ was added only later as an honorific, as he began to develop his reputation as a great spiritual leader. The standard dictionary definition of ‘Mahatma’ is ‘a person regarded with reverence or loving respect; a holy person or sage’, or ‘a person in India or Tibet said to have supernatural powers.’ Most devotees of Gandhi, however, will answer that question with the reply that ‘Mahatma’ means simply ‘Great Soul’, derived from the Sanskrit महा (maha) meaning ‘great’ and आत्मन् (atman) meaning ‘soul, spirit, life.’
Gandhi certainly began his life as a political activist and organizer, but very quickly his spiritual identity began to eclipse his activism, at which point he began to evolve a style of religious-inspired activism and political awareness around his essential belief and adherence to Hinduism. He was, however, polytheistic insofar as he did not credit Hinduism ( which is itself a polytheistic faith) with sole access to the ‘truth’, but he was prepared to acknowledge every branch of faith, and preached the ideal that adherence to a specific faith was less important than simply having a spiritual identity. That a man or woman worships according to his or her own style satisfied him, as long as that worship was authentic and committed.
There are numerous theories on when Gandhi began to be known as Mahatma, but it is now generally accepted that the title was first publicly employed in 1915 by the great Indian polymath Rabindranath Tagore, introducing Gandhi by this honorific to a gathered audience. It is also probable that the name had entered circulation already, probably among the devout peasants who comprised Gandhi’s most loyal following.
However it happened, Mohandas K Gandhi is now most commonly acknowledged as ‘Mahatma’ Gandhi, in respect of the fact that, above all else, he was a spiritual leader. | <urn:uuid:0e414880-495f-4a0c-bbc1-40e2636e1b2f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historycollection.co/10-things-you-should-really-know-about-mahatma-gandhi/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00129.warc.gz | en | 0.984026 | 784 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
0.04558327794075012,
0.6952143311500549,
-0.033056359738111496,
-0.03961000218987465,
-0.6437351107597351,
-0.08269533514976501,
1.1595549583435059,
-0.13587768375873566,
0.22662395238876343,
0.25612130761146545,
0.12705743312835693,
-0.2387392669916153,
0.16337957978248596,
0.414953172206... | 3 | Gandhi is one of the titans of the international peace movement, with a name that ranks alongside all of the great purveyors of the humanist message, from Mother Teresa to Nelson Mandela. Gandhi was many things to many people, although he has tended to be associated primarily with the Indian independence movement – and in fact, the opening paragraph of his Wikipedia page describes him as ‘an Indian activist who was the leader of the Indian independence movement against British rule.’
This proves that even Wikipedia can over, or under emphasize the facts. Gandhi was just one member of the Indian independence movement, and not by any means its leader, and he certainly was never in line to assume leadership of the independent nation of India. Gandhi was a man of the people, an a national and spiritual leader, and one of the great, global ambassadors of peace. His message was universal, transcending all national boundaries
In this list we will dig up a few interesting facts about the great man, burst a few myths and hopefully make a few revelations. Just by way of essential background, however, Gandhi was born in in 1868 in the principality of Porbandar, now located in the modern Indian state of Gujarat, and he died in 1948 at the age of seventy-nine. He is buried in a memorial garden on the banks of the Yamuna River of the eastern outskirts of New Delhi.
Gandhi’s name was not ‘Mahatma’
It is probably one of the most enduring myths surrounding the Gandhi name, that ‘Mahatma’ was his first name, which it was not. Gandhi’s birth name was Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, and the name ‘Mahatma’ was added only later as an honorific, as he began to develop his reputation as a great spiritual leader. The standard dictionary definition of ‘Mahatma’ is ‘a person regarded with reverence or loving respect; a holy person or sage’, or ‘a person in India or Tibet said to have supernatural powers.’ Most devotees of Gandhi, however, will answer that question with the reply that ‘Mahatma’ means simply ‘Great Soul’, derived from the Sanskrit महा (maha) meaning ‘great’ and आत्मन् (atman) meaning ‘soul, spirit, life.’
Gandhi certainly began his life as a political activist and organizer, but very quickly his spiritual identity began to eclipse his activism, at which point he began to evolve a style of religious-inspired activism and political awareness around his essential belief and adherence to Hinduism. He was, however, polytheistic insofar as he did not credit Hinduism ( which is itself a polytheistic faith) with sole access to the ‘truth’, but he was prepared to acknowledge every branch of faith, and preached the ideal that adherence to a specific faith was less important than simply having a spiritual identity. That a man or woman worships according to his or her own style satisfied him, as long as that worship was authentic and committed.
There are numerous theories on when Gandhi began to be known as Mahatma, but it is now generally accepted that the title was first publicly employed in 1915 by the great Indian polymath Rabindranath Tagore, introducing Gandhi by this honorific to a gathered audience. It is also probable that the name had entered circulation already, probably among the devout peasants who comprised Gandhi’s most loyal following.
However it happened, Mohandas K Gandhi is now most commonly acknowledged as ‘Mahatma’ Gandhi, in respect of the fact that, above all else, he was a spiritual leader. | 745 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Nineteenth century stagecoach drivers were called “whips” in recognition of their skills handling “six ribbons” or handling six lead lines on six horses. It also required a lot of energy and stamina. Charlie Parkhurst spent the early years in an eastern orphanage but ran away and hired out as a stable hand working with horses and driving wagons before heading west to California during the Gold Rush.
The experience he gained working with horses and coaches made it easy to land a job as a stagecoach driver. Parkhurst was usually referred to as “One-Eyed Charlie” or “Cockeyed Charlie” after being kicked in the head. He stood only 5 ft. 7 in. and was slight of build. Charlie went to work for James Birch, better-known in Southwest history as the man who, in 1857, opened the first stagecoach to California; a forerunner to the storied Butterfield Overland Mail. Soon Charlie was known as one of the best drivers on the West Coast and earned a better nickname, “Six Horse Charlie”. Charlie could flick a fly off a horse’s butt with a bullwhip without touching the animal. With inerrant accuracy Charlie could spit tobacco juice in the ear of the lead horse if it was necessary to get its attention
Stagecoach travel was a dangerous way to make a living, with perilous weather conditions, primitive roads and robberies, it took men with the bark still on to survive. A story is told that a stage robber got the drop on Charlie and got away with the loot but he tried it again at the same location. This time Charlie was ready and promptly sent him to the “Long Sleep.”
As the railroad industry began taking over much of the business Charlie retired from driving and worked as a lumberjack and woodsman. Cancer brought an end to the indestructible stage driver. On Sunday, December 29th, 1878, the old whip succumbed to lung cancer.
When his pals dressed Charlie for burial they discovered to their astonishment that Charlie was really a woman.
As a historical sidebar, on November 3, 1868, Charlotte Parkhurst cast her vote in the national election, dressed as a man. She became the first woman known to vote in the United States, 52 years before Congress passed the 19th amendment giving American women the right to vote. | <urn:uuid:c2378fd9-6a72-4509-b028-1d6e23da9da5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://truewestmagazine.com/article/charlie-parkhurst/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00274.warc.gz | en | 0.980472 | 496 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
0.04875729978084564,
-0.1556929498910904,
0.42983728647232056,
-0.12883806228637695,
-0.6682025790214539,
0.4188865125179291,
0.22581008076667786,
0.4324759542942047,
-0.15230733156204224,
-0.36276569962501526,
0.041086550801992416,
-0.026311224326491356,
-0.28514528274536133,
0.0634284541... | 12 | Nineteenth century stagecoach drivers were called “whips” in recognition of their skills handling “six ribbons” or handling six lead lines on six horses. It also required a lot of energy and stamina. Charlie Parkhurst spent the early years in an eastern orphanage but ran away and hired out as a stable hand working with horses and driving wagons before heading west to California during the Gold Rush.
The experience he gained working with horses and coaches made it easy to land a job as a stagecoach driver. Parkhurst was usually referred to as “One-Eyed Charlie” or “Cockeyed Charlie” after being kicked in the head. He stood only 5 ft. 7 in. and was slight of build. Charlie went to work for James Birch, better-known in Southwest history as the man who, in 1857, opened the first stagecoach to California; a forerunner to the storied Butterfield Overland Mail. Soon Charlie was known as one of the best drivers on the West Coast and earned a better nickname, “Six Horse Charlie”. Charlie could flick a fly off a horse’s butt with a bullwhip without touching the animal. With inerrant accuracy Charlie could spit tobacco juice in the ear of the lead horse if it was necessary to get its attention
Stagecoach travel was a dangerous way to make a living, with perilous weather conditions, primitive roads and robberies, it took men with the bark still on to survive. A story is told that a stage robber got the drop on Charlie and got away with the loot but he tried it again at the same location. This time Charlie was ready and promptly sent him to the “Long Sleep.”
As the railroad industry began taking over much of the business Charlie retired from driving and worked as a lumberjack and woodsman. Cancer brought an end to the indestructible stage driver. On Sunday, December 29th, 1878, the old whip succumbed to lung cancer.
When his pals dressed Charlie for burial they discovered to their astonishment that Charlie was really a woman.
As a historical sidebar, on November 3, 1868, Charlotte Parkhurst cast her vote in the national election, dressed as a man. She became the first woman known to vote in the United States, 52 years before Congress passed the 19th amendment giving American women the right to vote. | 494 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Julius Caesar was born in Rome July 13, 100 BC, to an aristocratic family with a family tree that extended back to the founding of Rome. His full name was Gaius Julius Caesar. Caesar started his education at age six with a private tutor, and studied Roman law and public speaking as he got older. He married Cornelia, the daughter of a powerful politician, when he was 17. He was an excellent public speaker, and Caesar started climbing the ranks of the Roman political system.
In 61-60 BC he served as governor of the Roman province of Spain. When he came back to Rome in 60 BC as a forty year old man, Caesar made a deal with the powerful general Pompey and a wealthy Roman named Crassus. They helped him to get elected as consul for 59 BC. A consul position was similar to a president but there were two consuls, and the position was only held for one year. The following year, he was appointed governor of Roman Gaul. He stayed in Gaul for eight years. During this time, he expanded it to include all of modern France and Belgium. He also protected Rome from Gallic invasions. He made two expeditions to Britain, in 55 BC and 54 BC.
Politics in Rome had changed and become hostile while Caesar was in Gaul. Many of the leaders, even Pompey, were jealous of Caesar. When Caesar decided that he was going to return to Rome and run for consul again, the Roman Senate insisted that he give up the command of his army first. Caesar refused and led his army across the Rubicon River to Rome, which started a civil war.
Caesar took control of Rome in 49 BC and spent the next year and a half fighting Pompey. He finally defeated Pompey and then chased him all the way to Egypt. When he got to Egypt, the Pharaoh had Pompey killed and gave his head to Caesar as a gift. Caesar became romantically involved with the Egyptian queen, Cleopatra, during this time and… | <urn:uuid:c1e65d43-4933-4894-865f-44ed8600b6a6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/Julius-Caesar-Biography-569795.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00412.warc.gz | en | 0.993875 | 413 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
-0.1941504031419754,
0.48741650581359863,
0.4489125609397888,
0.24837906658649445,
-0.7828546166419983,
-0.20895898342132568,
0.26648956537246704,
0.0850566178560257,
0.32598334550857544,
-0.0541139654815197,
0.28507015109062195,
-0.42181700468063354,
-0.16371217370033264,
0.32516124844551... | 1 | Julius Caesar was born in Rome July 13, 100 BC, to an aristocratic family with a family tree that extended back to the founding of Rome. His full name was Gaius Julius Caesar. Caesar started his education at age six with a private tutor, and studied Roman law and public speaking as he got older. He married Cornelia, the daughter of a powerful politician, when he was 17. He was an excellent public speaker, and Caesar started climbing the ranks of the Roman political system.
In 61-60 BC he served as governor of the Roman province of Spain. When he came back to Rome in 60 BC as a forty year old man, Caesar made a deal with the powerful general Pompey and a wealthy Roman named Crassus. They helped him to get elected as consul for 59 BC. A consul position was similar to a president but there were two consuls, and the position was only held for one year. The following year, he was appointed governor of Roman Gaul. He stayed in Gaul for eight years. During this time, he expanded it to include all of modern France and Belgium. He also protected Rome from Gallic invasions. He made two expeditions to Britain, in 55 BC and 54 BC.
Politics in Rome had changed and become hostile while Caesar was in Gaul. Many of the leaders, even Pompey, were jealous of Caesar. When Caesar decided that he was going to return to Rome and run for consul again, the Roman Senate insisted that he give up the command of his army first. Caesar refused and led his army across the Rubicon River to Rome, which started a civil war.
Caesar took control of Rome in 49 BC and spent the next year and a half fighting Pompey. He finally defeated Pompey and then chased him all the way to Egypt. When he got to Egypt, the Pharaoh had Pompey killed and gave his head to Caesar as a gift. Caesar became romantically involved with the Egyptian queen, Cleopatra, during this time and… | 428 | ENGLISH | 1 |
African Americans have overcome many struggles as well as obstacles in the early years which have still not been terminated. African Americans have fought for freedom from enslavement, the right to earn a living, have land and a job, have equal justice, good quality education, to escape from oppression, the right to self pride and an end to stereotyping. Blacks everywhere got fed up with being treated as if they were inferior and slaves, so they banded together to form a movement. Not just any kind of movement, but a movement that would see victories as well as violence and death. That movement was the Civil Rights Movement. The Civil Rights Movement had a major goal, and that goal was to end discrimination based on race, creed, color, and gender, and to put an end to segregation. Its' supporters aimed for equality of all people and for the integration of society. The previously mentioned goals were achieved by many different means. The movement had its share of leaders, events, and strategies that helped to reach its' goals. There was a fair share of success and failures that accompanied the Civil Rights Movement. I believe that there were a few amendments that helped blacks to gain some of their rights in the future. Some of those amendments were the 13th and 14th amendment. The 13th amendment abolished servitude everywhere in the U.S. and declared that congress shall have power to enforce this outcome by appropriate legislation. The 14th amendment conferred citizenship on the freedman and prohibited states from abridging their constitutional privileges and immunities. It also barred any state from taking a persons life, liberty, and property without due process of law and from denying equal protection of laws. When these amendments were passed I think it gave many blacks the courage to express themselves and stand up for what they believe in. The rise of the modern civil rights movement was when a group of first- year students from North Carolina and Agricultural and Technical College decided to seat themselves at a segregated lunch counter and refused to leave until the were served. | <urn:uuid:4b1d8a88-e921-4e70-8028-dd9a4738d23d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/99181.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00490.warc.gz | en | 0.988595 | 405 | 4.15625 | 4 | [
-0.4930308759212494,
-0.005729484371840954,
0.05261317268013954,
0.22097614407539368,
-0.32312846183776855,
0.2685610353946686,
0.02268385700881481,
-0.15599653124809265,
-0.1565958857536316,
0.40003129839897156,
0.4884609878063202,
0.0950203388929367,
0.023691553622484207,
-0.254593461751... | 3 | African Americans have overcome many struggles as well as obstacles in the early years which have still not been terminated. African Americans have fought for freedom from enslavement, the right to earn a living, have land and a job, have equal justice, good quality education, to escape from oppression, the right to self pride and an end to stereotyping. Blacks everywhere got fed up with being treated as if they were inferior and slaves, so they banded together to form a movement. Not just any kind of movement, but a movement that would see victories as well as violence and death. That movement was the Civil Rights Movement. The Civil Rights Movement had a major goal, and that goal was to end discrimination based on race, creed, color, and gender, and to put an end to segregation. Its' supporters aimed for equality of all people and for the integration of society. The previously mentioned goals were achieved by many different means. The movement had its share of leaders, events, and strategies that helped to reach its' goals. There was a fair share of success and failures that accompanied the Civil Rights Movement. I believe that there were a few amendments that helped blacks to gain some of their rights in the future. Some of those amendments were the 13th and 14th amendment. The 13th amendment abolished servitude everywhere in the U.S. and declared that congress shall have power to enforce this outcome by appropriate legislation. The 14th amendment conferred citizenship on the freedman and prohibited states from abridging their constitutional privileges and immunities. It also barred any state from taking a persons life, liberty, and property without due process of law and from denying equal protection of laws. When these amendments were passed I think it gave many blacks the courage to express themselves and stand up for what they believe in. The rise of the modern civil rights movement was when a group of first- year students from North Carolina and Agricultural and Technical College decided to seat themselves at a segregated lunch counter and refused to leave until the were served. | 414 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Part One | Part Two | Part Three | Part Four | Part Five
The conflict between India and Pakistan has been going on for decades - ever since both received independence from Britain in 1947. In 1999 it reached its most dangerous point when some Afghan Mujahideen, backed by the Pakistani military, crossed the Line of Control in what is Indian-administered Kashmir. The conflict reached a point where countries such as the US and Britain became concerned that nuclear conflict might be an outcome, since both India and Pakistan had weapons that were capable of carrying nuclear warheads and both had previously tested nuclear missiles. This five-part Entry presents some background history of the Indian nation with specific concentration on the 'Line of Control' in Kargil.
Line of Control
The region of Kargil lies at the foothills of the Himalayas. It is considered to be one of the most inhospitable areas, surrounded by mountains and hills which can vary in height from 12,000ft to 18,000ft above sea level. During the winter the temperature can drop as low as -60° celsius.
The town of Kargil, consisting of a majority Muslim population, lies on the 'Line of Control' which faces the Pakistan-occupied Kashmir region of Baltistan Zanskar and is spread over 14,086 sq km. A national motorway, 1A, connects it to the Indian-administered Kashmir capital of Srinagar. The region, part of the Leh Ladakh region of Kashmir, offers a huge advantage to anyone occupying any of the hills or the mountains, as they would be able to oversee the complete area without being spotted.
The British Raj in India
By the 1800s, the Mughal (a member of a Muslim dynasty of Mongol origin that ruled large parts of India from 1526 - 1857) Empire was in decline. The British were setting foot in the country, with the creation of the British East India Company.
In 1819, the princely state of Kashmir was captured by the Sikhs, enabling it to be a part of the Punjab region. Then, in 1846, it was re-taken by the British East India Company and handed to Maharajah Gulab Singh, who ruled the states of Jammu and Kashmir, in response to his assistance in the war in Afghanistan (relating to the Opium War).
In 1857 there were murmurs of discontent in the native army of the East India Company. When rumours began to spread that the cartridges being used in guns contained pig and cow fat grease, the authorities ignored it. The situation was ignited when one of the Indian soldiers, Mangal Pandey, was executed. Soon it led to what became known as 'The Great Indian Mutiny' or 'The Sepoy Mutiny'. The massive outcry that followed enabled the British government, under liberal politician Viscount Palmerston, to take control of the subcontinent from the company.
From the early 1900s, and more so after 'the massacre of the innocents' at the Golden Temple in Jallianwallah Bagh, Amritsar, in 1919, there were calls and movements aimed at forcing the British to 'Quit India'.
Struggle for Independence
In the 1930s, round table talks in London, which Mahatma Gandhi attended, one of the questions that kept being asked was what would happen to the princely states such as Kashmir after independence? At the same time, some Muslims began to feel they should have an independent state of their own. This idea gained momentum when Mohamed Ali Jinnah resigned from the Congress party, of which Jawaharlal Nehru was a member, and joined the Muslim League.
As World War II broke out in 1939, the question of an independent, united India was put on hold even though some in the country felt it was the right time. Gandhi disagreed with them and insisted it was the wrong time. What still remained to be sorted out was the question of the princely states. When the war ended in 1945, the Labour party came to power under the leadership of Clement Atlee. Atlee appointed Lord Mountbatten as the last viceroy to India. His main task was to grant independence. He was handed the job because of his knowledge and experience of the region during the conflict, and his position as the Supreme Allied Commander in South-east Asia.
Within two weeks of his arrival, the viceroy had met the Muslim leader Jinnah at least six times. Although they disagreed on a lot of things, they agreed on one point: the need to move rapidly towards independence.
Jinnah warned the viceroy that if a speedy division of the country didn't take place it would perish. In return, Mountbatten expressed his concerns that the division would lead to bloodshed and violence. The Muslim leader reassured him that once the 'surgical operation' had been completed all troubles would cease and the two countries would live in peace.
Mountbatten, in his position as viceroy, also met leaders of the Congress party, including the Mahatma. He went as far as to assure Gandhi that partition of the country would be the last option, but it soon became likely. The 'father of the Indian nation', Bapu, as everyone called him, proposed an idea to the viceroy. He would ask Jinnah and the Muslim League to form a government and hand power to them. The viceroy replied that he would consider this so long as the members of the Congress party accepted it. Gandhi assured him they would. Sadly this was not to be and partition became a reality.
The job of drawing border lines went to a barrister in England, Sir Cyril Radcliffe, who knew nothing about India, or even where the states of Punjab or Bengal were. At the same time Nehru and Jinnah were unable to agree on where the border line would be, and Gandhi was totally opposed to it. Therefore the plan for partition lay squarely on the viceroy's shoulders.
The lines that would soon be drawn up would separate thousands of people, many would be displaced, and the lands divided. This led to riots pitting Hindus against Muslims, and slogans such as 'Death to Hindus' and 'Death to Muslims' could be heard. The Mahatma and others soon began to appeal for peace. In the meantime, Nehru came up with the idea that the viceroy should be appointed as the First Governor General of India. This idea was also suggested to Jinnah, who had been informed he had a limited time to live as he was suffering from terminal cancer. Instead, he rebuked it by taking up the position himself, and at the same time insisted that Pakistan should receive its independence first, and then India, and that India change the words to its national anthem as both sounded similar.
Finally, it was decided that Pakistan would be awarded its independence on 14 August, while India would receive it on 15 August — at midnight. This meant time was running out for Sir Cyril, who was sitting behind closed doors amid tight security, to complete the redrawing of the map of India which now showed two separate states — India and Pakistan.
As Sir Cyril continued drawing the map, a mass migration between the two sides began. The division of the country did not just mean the division of lands but also property, families, furniture and small items such as kitchen utensils as well; for many it was unbearable. Riots exploded throughout the cities, towns and villages, and began to spread like wildfire, as did fanaticism. Many Hindus thought the Mahatma, who was campaigning for peace and was against the division of the country, had given away too much to the Muslims. It was at this time that some people began to hatch a plot to assassinate him. Many people were not even aware that the land they owned and worked on would soon become a border line, or, in some cases, not the country they had hoped to be living in.
On 14 August, 1947 the state of Pakistan came into existence, and India received its independence at midnight on 15 August. However, some princely states, such as Junagadh, Hyderabad and Kashmir, remained undecided, even though some had either joined India or Pakistan. While everyone in both countries celebrated their freedom from over 200 years of colonial rule, Gandhi, on a fatal fast, sat in his ashram (a commune or communal house whose members share spiritual goals and practices) spinning cloth.
A mass migration started from both sides, which was soon followed by riots, and millions were misplaced. The Hindus and Muslims began to kill each other. Once again, the Mahatma walked to towns and villages to preach peace and peaceful coexistence. And, as more and more people became misplaced, refugee camps were set up in various parts of India by the governor general's wife.
The Assassination of Gandhi
On 30 January, 1948, as Gandhi walked alone towards a prayer platform outside Birla House in Delhi, a Hindu fanatic by the name of Nathuram Godse stepped forward from the crowd which was cheering for the 'father of the nation', paid his respects by touching the Mahatma's feet, pulled a gun and shot him three times. The dying Gandhi looked up at the sky and breathed his last words: 'Oh god! Oh god!'
The old man who had achieved peace between the rioting Hindus and Muslims just a few days before, and who led the freedom fight, was now dead. Since the assassin was not known, the governor general of India, Mountbatten, instructed the troops to be put on full alert as he feared riots again. But there were none. | <urn:uuid:05643660-03de-4956-8cdf-acef24986172> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://h2g2.com/edited_entry/A44326730 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00370.warc.gz | en | 0.985149 | 1,992 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
0.012780493125319481,
-0.128695547580719,
0.4907463490962982,
-0.1800292581319809,
-0.11081267893314362,
-0.13391432166099548,
0.330910325050354,
-0.10312605649232864,
-0.1843983232975006,
-0.3316354751586914,
-0.059729401022195816,
-0.417294979095459,
0.41161659359931946,
0.13471935689449... | 3 | Part One | Part Two | Part Three | Part Four | Part Five
The conflict between India and Pakistan has been going on for decades - ever since both received independence from Britain in 1947. In 1999 it reached its most dangerous point when some Afghan Mujahideen, backed by the Pakistani military, crossed the Line of Control in what is Indian-administered Kashmir. The conflict reached a point where countries such as the US and Britain became concerned that nuclear conflict might be an outcome, since both India and Pakistan had weapons that were capable of carrying nuclear warheads and both had previously tested nuclear missiles. This five-part Entry presents some background history of the Indian nation with specific concentration on the 'Line of Control' in Kargil.
Line of Control
The region of Kargil lies at the foothills of the Himalayas. It is considered to be one of the most inhospitable areas, surrounded by mountains and hills which can vary in height from 12,000ft to 18,000ft above sea level. During the winter the temperature can drop as low as -60° celsius.
The town of Kargil, consisting of a majority Muslim population, lies on the 'Line of Control' which faces the Pakistan-occupied Kashmir region of Baltistan Zanskar and is spread over 14,086 sq km. A national motorway, 1A, connects it to the Indian-administered Kashmir capital of Srinagar. The region, part of the Leh Ladakh region of Kashmir, offers a huge advantage to anyone occupying any of the hills or the mountains, as they would be able to oversee the complete area without being spotted.
The British Raj in India
By the 1800s, the Mughal (a member of a Muslim dynasty of Mongol origin that ruled large parts of India from 1526 - 1857) Empire was in decline. The British were setting foot in the country, with the creation of the British East India Company.
In 1819, the princely state of Kashmir was captured by the Sikhs, enabling it to be a part of the Punjab region. Then, in 1846, it was re-taken by the British East India Company and handed to Maharajah Gulab Singh, who ruled the states of Jammu and Kashmir, in response to his assistance in the war in Afghanistan (relating to the Opium War).
In 1857 there were murmurs of discontent in the native army of the East India Company. When rumours began to spread that the cartridges being used in guns contained pig and cow fat grease, the authorities ignored it. The situation was ignited when one of the Indian soldiers, Mangal Pandey, was executed. Soon it led to what became known as 'The Great Indian Mutiny' or 'The Sepoy Mutiny'. The massive outcry that followed enabled the British government, under liberal politician Viscount Palmerston, to take control of the subcontinent from the company.
From the early 1900s, and more so after 'the massacre of the innocents' at the Golden Temple in Jallianwallah Bagh, Amritsar, in 1919, there were calls and movements aimed at forcing the British to 'Quit India'.
Struggle for Independence
In the 1930s, round table talks in London, which Mahatma Gandhi attended, one of the questions that kept being asked was what would happen to the princely states such as Kashmir after independence? At the same time, some Muslims began to feel they should have an independent state of their own. This idea gained momentum when Mohamed Ali Jinnah resigned from the Congress party, of which Jawaharlal Nehru was a member, and joined the Muslim League.
As World War II broke out in 1939, the question of an independent, united India was put on hold even though some in the country felt it was the right time. Gandhi disagreed with them and insisted it was the wrong time. What still remained to be sorted out was the question of the princely states. When the war ended in 1945, the Labour party came to power under the leadership of Clement Atlee. Atlee appointed Lord Mountbatten as the last viceroy to India. His main task was to grant independence. He was handed the job because of his knowledge and experience of the region during the conflict, and his position as the Supreme Allied Commander in South-east Asia.
Within two weeks of his arrival, the viceroy had met the Muslim leader Jinnah at least six times. Although they disagreed on a lot of things, they agreed on one point: the need to move rapidly towards independence.
Jinnah warned the viceroy that if a speedy division of the country didn't take place it would perish. In return, Mountbatten expressed his concerns that the division would lead to bloodshed and violence. The Muslim leader reassured him that once the 'surgical operation' had been completed all troubles would cease and the two countries would live in peace.
Mountbatten, in his position as viceroy, also met leaders of the Congress party, including the Mahatma. He went as far as to assure Gandhi that partition of the country would be the last option, but it soon became likely. The 'father of the Indian nation', Bapu, as everyone called him, proposed an idea to the viceroy. He would ask Jinnah and the Muslim League to form a government and hand power to them. The viceroy replied that he would consider this so long as the members of the Congress party accepted it. Gandhi assured him they would. Sadly this was not to be and partition became a reality.
The job of drawing border lines went to a barrister in England, Sir Cyril Radcliffe, who knew nothing about India, or even where the states of Punjab or Bengal were. At the same time Nehru and Jinnah were unable to agree on where the border line would be, and Gandhi was totally opposed to it. Therefore the plan for partition lay squarely on the viceroy's shoulders.
The lines that would soon be drawn up would separate thousands of people, many would be displaced, and the lands divided. This led to riots pitting Hindus against Muslims, and slogans such as 'Death to Hindus' and 'Death to Muslims' could be heard. The Mahatma and others soon began to appeal for peace. In the meantime, Nehru came up with the idea that the viceroy should be appointed as the First Governor General of India. This idea was also suggested to Jinnah, who had been informed he had a limited time to live as he was suffering from terminal cancer. Instead, he rebuked it by taking up the position himself, and at the same time insisted that Pakistan should receive its independence first, and then India, and that India change the words to its national anthem as both sounded similar.
Finally, it was decided that Pakistan would be awarded its independence on 14 August, while India would receive it on 15 August — at midnight. This meant time was running out for Sir Cyril, who was sitting behind closed doors amid tight security, to complete the redrawing of the map of India which now showed two separate states — India and Pakistan.
As Sir Cyril continued drawing the map, a mass migration between the two sides began. The division of the country did not just mean the division of lands but also property, families, furniture and small items such as kitchen utensils as well; for many it was unbearable. Riots exploded throughout the cities, towns and villages, and began to spread like wildfire, as did fanaticism. Many Hindus thought the Mahatma, who was campaigning for peace and was against the division of the country, had given away too much to the Muslims. It was at this time that some people began to hatch a plot to assassinate him. Many people were not even aware that the land they owned and worked on would soon become a border line, or, in some cases, not the country they had hoped to be living in.
On 14 August, 1947 the state of Pakistan came into existence, and India received its independence at midnight on 15 August. However, some princely states, such as Junagadh, Hyderabad and Kashmir, remained undecided, even though some had either joined India or Pakistan. While everyone in both countries celebrated their freedom from over 200 years of colonial rule, Gandhi, on a fatal fast, sat in his ashram (a commune or communal house whose members share spiritual goals and practices) spinning cloth.
A mass migration started from both sides, which was soon followed by riots, and millions were misplaced. The Hindus and Muslims began to kill each other. Once again, the Mahatma walked to towns and villages to preach peace and peaceful coexistence. And, as more and more people became misplaced, refugee camps were set up in various parts of India by the governor general's wife.
The Assassination of Gandhi
On 30 January, 1948, as Gandhi walked alone towards a prayer platform outside Birla House in Delhi, a Hindu fanatic by the name of Nathuram Godse stepped forward from the crowd which was cheering for the 'father of the nation', paid his respects by touching the Mahatma's feet, pulled a gun and shot him three times. The dying Gandhi looked up at the sky and breathed his last words: 'Oh god! Oh god!'
The old man who had achieved peace between the rioting Hindus and Muslims just a few days before, and who led the freedom fight, was now dead. Since the assassin was not known, the governor general of India, Mountbatten, instructed the troops to be put on full alert as he feared riots again. But there were none. | 2,049 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Greek Mathematician Pythagoras is considered by some to be one of the first great mathematicians. Living around 570 to 495 BC, in modern day Greece, he is known to have founded the Pythagorean cult, who were noted by Aristotle to be one of the first groups to actively study and advance mathematics. He is also commonly credited with the Pythagorean Theorem within trigonometry. However, some sources doubt that is was him who constructed the proof (Some attribute it to his students, or Baudhayana, who lived some 300 years earlier in India). Nonetheless, the effect of such, as with large portions of fundamental mathematics, is commonly felt today, with the theorem playing a large part in modern measurements and technological equipment, as well as being the base of a large portion of other areas and theorems in mathematics. But, unlike most ancient theories, it played a bearing on the development of geometry, as well as opening the door to the study of mathematics as a worthwhile endeavor. Thus, he could be called the founding father of modern mathematics. | <urn:uuid:d1c1df3b-d6d0-407f-bcaf-8956066ed949> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://forum.daffodilvarsity.edu.bd/index.php/topic,28269.0.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00126.warc.gz | en | 0.989216 | 219 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
-0.0327284149825573,
0.08365941047668457,
0.23086734116077423,
-0.2661464810371399,
-0.8830650448799133,
-0.11638394743204117,
0.11202741414308548,
0.38051077723503113,
-0.21403062343597412,
0.18769632279872894,
-0.3370705246925354,
-0.3823693096637726,
-0.11074734479188919,
0.467796236276... | 9 | Greek Mathematician Pythagoras is considered by some to be one of the first great mathematicians. Living around 570 to 495 BC, in modern day Greece, he is known to have founded the Pythagorean cult, who were noted by Aristotle to be one of the first groups to actively study and advance mathematics. He is also commonly credited with the Pythagorean Theorem within trigonometry. However, some sources doubt that is was him who constructed the proof (Some attribute it to his students, or Baudhayana, who lived some 300 years earlier in India). Nonetheless, the effect of such, as with large portions of fundamental mathematics, is commonly felt today, with the theorem playing a large part in modern measurements and technological equipment, as well as being the base of a large portion of other areas and theorems in mathematics. But, unlike most ancient theories, it played a bearing on the development of geometry, as well as opening the door to the study of mathematics as a worthwhile endeavor. Thus, he could be called the founding father of modern mathematics. | 225 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Was National Socialism, the ideology of the Third Reich, invented by Hitler or did it exist before, possibly under a different name?
Nazism may be described as a version of fascism that incorporates antisemitism and the so-called scientific racism. This particular package of the themes was new and invented largely by Hitler (although there were probably many, less famous or infamous people whose beliefs corresponded to the very same mixture). However, the individual pieces were not new at all.
Fascism is a radical authoritarian nationalism, energized by its opposition to liberalism, anarchism, and Marxism. The modern nationalist roots go back to the 19th century when nation states of the modern type started to be born while the particular opposition to the other ideologies only arose after those were established, e.g. after Marx's ideas were converted to practice.
Hitler was not the first fascist. The first successful fascist party was Benito Mussolini's party founded in 1919.
Antisemitism has existed in the Christian Europe for a very long time, basically from the era of Jesus Christ who was "crucified by the Jews" (those who say this thing usually overlook that Jesus was another Jew, too). Many countries experienced a strong wave of antisemitism in the late 19th century and the term was coined in 1879.
Scientific racism has been debated since the enlightenment, around 1650, and lots of great thinkers were involved in the debate in one way or another. In the early 20th century, eugenics and similar ideas were extremely popular among many academics. They looked innocent because they seemed largely detached from the real-world politics. It may be accurate to say that Hitler was the first one who brought scientific racism and especially its hostile form to the Realpolitik, who combined the previously scholarly dangerous ideas with the ordinary people's emotions and their desire to act.
Aside from these pillars of the ideology, Nazism may also be said to include many other things – perhaps also positive things – associated either with the German approach to many affairs in the society and the economy or Hitler's idiosyncrasies. Nazism was also inspired by some old traditions of the German nation as well as some philosophers such as Nietzsche. It was really a strange package of assorted ideas, beliefs, plans, and emotions. | <urn:uuid:ffd96548-d574-4b08-b5ce-9f24cd504939> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://history.stackexchange.com/questions/29105/was-the-nazi-ideology-invented-by-hitler | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00525.warc.gz | en | 0.984524 | 468 | 3.375 | 3 | [
-0.20502188801765442,
0.5739234685897827,
-0.319839209318161,
0.1769222766160965,
0.09743655472993851,
0.3832033574581146,
0.059354059398174286,
0.24463409185409546,
-0.15500637888908386,
-0.07846726477146149,
0.2742801308631897,
0.020394137129187584,
0.22555853426456451,
-0.02371696569025... | 1 | Was National Socialism, the ideology of the Third Reich, invented by Hitler or did it exist before, possibly under a different name?
Nazism may be described as a version of fascism that incorporates antisemitism and the so-called scientific racism. This particular package of the themes was new and invented largely by Hitler (although there were probably many, less famous or infamous people whose beliefs corresponded to the very same mixture). However, the individual pieces were not new at all.
Fascism is a radical authoritarian nationalism, energized by its opposition to liberalism, anarchism, and Marxism. The modern nationalist roots go back to the 19th century when nation states of the modern type started to be born while the particular opposition to the other ideologies only arose after those were established, e.g. after Marx's ideas were converted to practice.
Hitler was not the first fascist. The first successful fascist party was Benito Mussolini's party founded in 1919.
Antisemitism has existed in the Christian Europe for a very long time, basically from the era of Jesus Christ who was "crucified by the Jews" (those who say this thing usually overlook that Jesus was another Jew, too). Many countries experienced a strong wave of antisemitism in the late 19th century and the term was coined in 1879.
Scientific racism has been debated since the enlightenment, around 1650, and lots of great thinkers were involved in the debate in one way or another. In the early 20th century, eugenics and similar ideas were extremely popular among many academics. They looked innocent because they seemed largely detached from the real-world politics. It may be accurate to say that Hitler was the first one who brought scientific racism and especially its hostile form to the Realpolitik, who combined the previously scholarly dangerous ideas with the ordinary people's emotions and their desire to act.
Aside from these pillars of the ideology, Nazism may also be said to include many other things – perhaps also positive things – associated either with the German approach to many affairs in the society and the economy or Hitler's idiosyncrasies. Nazism was also inspired by some old traditions of the German nation as well as some philosophers such as Nietzsche. It was really a strange package of assorted ideas, beliefs, plans, and emotions. | 479 | ENGLISH | 1 |
“She represents the type of womanhood America needs, strong, red-blooded, able to shoulder the responsibilities of homemaking and motherhood. It is in her type that the hope of the country rests” (Martin & Watson, 2004, p.3). This was Samuel Gompers sharing his thoughts about the very first “Miss America”, Margaret Gorman. The Miss America Pageant was established in the most fitting of all decades: the 1920s. During a time when women were just starting to experience newfound independence and rights, the Miss America Pageant strengthened the idea that women had more freedom to express themselves. The competition began as a simple tourist attraction, but the fact that the Miss America Pageant survived throughout the decades exemplifies that the competition was so much more.
In the year 1921, Conrad Eckhold, the owner of Atlantic City’s Monticello Hotel was looking for a way to keep tourists in town past Labor Day. After discussing the tourist problem with other Atlantic City business owners, the idea of a “Fall Frolic” was created. The Fall Frolic included a two-day competition to be called “Atlantic City’s Inter-City Beauty Pageant”, in years after it would be known as the “Miss America Pageant” (Miss America, 2/20/2011).
To become a contestant, women across the country entered themselves into popularity contests that featured their pictures in the newspapers. Editors of the paper then chose winners based on physical appearance. The winners were then given a free trip to Atlantic City where they were placed in the Inter-City Beauty Pageant (Bivans, 1991).
The “Fall Frolic” began with “King Neptune”, a man named Hudson Maxim, who wore a crown, seaweed robe, and long white beard. King Neptune announced the competitors and participated in the Rolling Chair Parade with the ladies involved in the pageant. The young women were judged not only on appearance,—though appearance was an important factor—but also on personality, interactions with the crowd and judges, and performance in the parade and Bather’s Revue (Bivans, 1991).
During the 1920s, roles of women were changing drastically, causing the Miss America Competition to be affected as well. Men at this time felt they were losing control over their wives and other women in their lives. Women were recently given the right to vote in 1920 and many were inspired by their new freedom and say in social issues. Women felt that showing themselves off was no longer a crime or something to be looked down upon, and the Miss America Pageant emphasized these new points of view (Carter, 1977).
Women were also experimenting with new clothing options, such as shorter skirts and haircuts. This new generation of women was often referred to as “flappers”. Flappers were known to interact with the opposite sex before marriage and many took up smoking. Women were finally being given the opportunity to do as they pleased, and flappers were taking advantage of it. The Miss America Pageant illustrated these new morals... | <urn:uuid:261d145e-dafe-4868-9de3-17ffd935431e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/miss-america | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00266.warc.gz | en | 0.98546 | 641 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
-0.1285906583070755,
0.05041540414094925,
-0.08412608504295349,
0.19862988591194153,
-0.520595908164978,
0.506321370601654,
0.24903443455696106,
0.05271030589938164,
0.12779304385185242,
-0.021661119535565376,
0.33755046129226685,
0.0001415889710187912,
-0.04238013178110123,
0.028695520013... | 1 | “She represents the type of womanhood America needs, strong, red-blooded, able to shoulder the responsibilities of homemaking and motherhood. It is in her type that the hope of the country rests” (Martin & Watson, 2004, p.3). This was Samuel Gompers sharing his thoughts about the very first “Miss America”, Margaret Gorman. The Miss America Pageant was established in the most fitting of all decades: the 1920s. During a time when women were just starting to experience newfound independence and rights, the Miss America Pageant strengthened the idea that women had more freedom to express themselves. The competition began as a simple tourist attraction, but the fact that the Miss America Pageant survived throughout the decades exemplifies that the competition was so much more.
In the year 1921, Conrad Eckhold, the owner of Atlantic City’s Monticello Hotel was looking for a way to keep tourists in town past Labor Day. After discussing the tourist problem with other Atlantic City business owners, the idea of a “Fall Frolic” was created. The Fall Frolic included a two-day competition to be called “Atlantic City’s Inter-City Beauty Pageant”, in years after it would be known as the “Miss America Pageant” (Miss America, 2/20/2011).
To become a contestant, women across the country entered themselves into popularity contests that featured their pictures in the newspapers. Editors of the paper then chose winners based on physical appearance. The winners were then given a free trip to Atlantic City where they were placed in the Inter-City Beauty Pageant (Bivans, 1991).
The “Fall Frolic” began with “King Neptune”, a man named Hudson Maxim, who wore a crown, seaweed robe, and long white beard. King Neptune announced the competitors and participated in the Rolling Chair Parade with the ladies involved in the pageant. The young women were judged not only on appearance,—though appearance was an important factor—but also on personality, interactions with the crowd and judges, and performance in the parade and Bather’s Revue (Bivans, 1991).
During the 1920s, roles of women were changing drastically, causing the Miss America Competition to be affected as well. Men at this time felt they were losing control over their wives and other women in their lives. Women were recently given the right to vote in 1920 and many were inspired by their new freedom and say in social issues. Women felt that showing themselves off was no longer a crime or something to be looked down upon, and the Miss America Pageant emphasized these new points of view (Carter, 1977).
Women were also experimenting with new clothing options, such as shorter skirts and haircuts. This new generation of women was often referred to as “flappers”. Flappers were known to interact with the opposite sex before marriage and many took up smoking. Women were finally being given the opportunity to do as they pleased, and flappers were taking advantage of it. The Miss America Pageant illustrated these new morals... | 645 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A Christian martyrdom occurs when someone is murdered fighting for and preaching their testimony of Jesus. In previous years at the church, most murders were done through burning to death at the stake, crucifixion, stoning and different types of torture. A martyr is defined as someone who undergoes torturing and usually death as well for supporting or refusing to advocate a belief as required by someone else, along with other things.
Martyrdom began with Greek origins. The word “martus” has a Greek background and is defined as “a spectator who swears to a circumstance of which he has knowledge from personal observation”. This term is first seen in Christian literature. The apostles were all “witnesses” of the public life of Christ and learned all they have learned from His teachings. The concept of martyrdom has previously been questioned and mostly worried about the potential to commit crimes and violence towards others. Later on, the term “martyr” was used to describe people who were arrested, and while they were on trial, admitted to being Christians. Towards the mid second century, the word was reused to people who suffered died for what they believe in. But even then, it hadn’t been only Christians that were prepared to die for their faith and principles. Socrates, a philosopher, was condemned to death in 399 BC because he “refused to recognize the Gods” and “corrupted the youth” of Athens. During the lifespan of the time the Apostles were around, the term martus started to be used to mean someone who could be called to in the court of law to talk about what he/she testified to, with the possible penalty of death. It only happened, in the during the first year of the Church, that the term “martyr” was only used to mean “someone who had died for their faith.”
In the olden days, it was regulation to everyone and was required to believe in the religion of the nation. Failure to do so, in the eyes of the State, was equivalent to betrayal of the nation. Because of this law, there have been many persecutions by Christians. If Christians testified against the presence and chose to not worship the same Gods of the state, they would be spoken to from now on as atheists. New laws in place created a different matter to be worried about from the exiting legislation. Even though they were now legal, Christians had security under a regime which said that they were not allowed to be sought after by the authorities. There were other irrelevant Christians obtained by briberies saying that they had obeyed the law, while others would still fall away from torture. From this date to 284-305, the final persecution initiated by Diocletian, the Church stayed in the same legal situation as earlier, towards the second century. Christian gatherings were not allowed, all Christians were directed to deny their religion, and churches and sacred books were ordered to be ruined. The penalties aligned with the social classes of the times. For higher class, failure to comply meant disgrace and death. For middle class, they would be demoted to slavery and if you were already a slave, you gained the incapability to receive freedom.
After a period of time when the torments of Christianity were lowered, Emperor Decius chose that the Christians were enemies with the Roman order and that they are supposed to be challenged throughout the entire empire with all the power from authorities that the ruler can find. A judgement was then issued that said that “everyone must sacrifice to the Roman gods and produce a certificate signed by an official that they have done so,” and this shows that Christianity, which began in small groups scattered around various citied over the empire, has become so widespread all over the world that they have become a majority of the population.
Throughout time, there has been a large history of martyred saints in the Catholic Church. Some of which got credit for great achievements or commendable behavior. Most, though, lost their lives in protection of their faith. Many were respected for their influences to the Church and their society. We will never know all who were killed in these times, but there are some good examples of what can happen as a Martyr. In most places in Christianity, martyrdom is usually looking into as a path to sainthood and with that people are acknowledged as saints in various denominations. From the first century there was Saint Stephen, Saint James and James, the brother of Jesus. From the second- fourth century, Pope Fabian, Euphemia and Cyprian were all killed. During the fifth through the 15th century, Tsar Lazar and Joan of Arc were both murdered. Moving to the 16th century, both Juan de Padilla and William Hunter sacrificed their lives. Throughout the 17th century to now, Francis Taylor’s life and Arthur Bell’s life were taken. One of the most recent and wide known attacks was on the Normandy Church in 2016, going for Jacques Hamel, a priest during the time.
Being a martyr is a heroic accomplishment. Most do not represent a major part of the Christian population. There aren’t thousands of people being martyred but there are thousands of people who admire and support those who would stand up for what they believe in. Because of this, being a martyr should be something admired but not copied. These stories have an intense effect on Christians in today’s world when they learn about them. The first martyr of Christianity was Jesus and he bravely attested to his own faith against a harsh court. I think the martyrdom stories that were talked about during that time were mostly important and to blame for the growth of early Christianity. Several of the stories that are talked about admit that there were pagans existing at these killings who were so overwhelmed by the bravery of the Christians that they wanted to believe and see the truth of the Christian religion in the flesh and as soon as that happened they converted to Christianity, which thinking about now, is pretty impressive. Although these individuals are bold and courageous for fighting for what they believe in, it is nice to live in a world now that we do not have to be worried about being killed for belief in our faith. | <urn:uuid:e85df34f-03e0-4010-bc1a-9292fc1173e3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essayhub.net/essays/the-history-of-a-christian-martyrdom | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00547.warc.gz | en | 0.990248 | 1,277 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
0.0006985990330576897,
0.4776908755302429,
-0.002345592947676778,
-0.1792612075805664,
-0.1355104297399521,
-0.08975358307361603,
0.24858371913433075,
0.46591809391975403,
0.3368135094642639,
0.17542488873004913,
-0.16790959239006042,
0.23108844459056854,
-0.1527649164199829,
0.15907502174... | 2 | A Christian martyrdom occurs when someone is murdered fighting for and preaching their testimony of Jesus. In previous years at the church, most murders were done through burning to death at the stake, crucifixion, stoning and different types of torture. A martyr is defined as someone who undergoes torturing and usually death as well for supporting or refusing to advocate a belief as required by someone else, along with other things.
Martyrdom began with Greek origins. The word “martus” has a Greek background and is defined as “a spectator who swears to a circumstance of which he has knowledge from personal observation”. This term is first seen in Christian literature. The apostles were all “witnesses” of the public life of Christ and learned all they have learned from His teachings. The concept of martyrdom has previously been questioned and mostly worried about the potential to commit crimes and violence towards others. Later on, the term “martyr” was used to describe people who were arrested, and while they were on trial, admitted to being Christians. Towards the mid second century, the word was reused to people who suffered died for what they believe in. But even then, it hadn’t been only Christians that were prepared to die for their faith and principles. Socrates, a philosopher, was condemned to death in 399 BC because he “refused to recognize the Gods” and “corrupted the youth” of Athens. During the lifespan of the time the Apostles were around, the term martus started to be used to mean someone who could be called to in the court of law to talk about what he/she testified to, with the possible penalty of death. It only happened, in the during the first year of the Church, that the term “martyr” was only used to mean “someone who had died for their faith.”
In the olden days, it was regulation to everyone and was required to believe in the religion of the nation. Failure to do so, in the eyes of the State, was equivalent to betrayal of the nation. Because of this law, there have been many persecutions by Christians. If Christians testified against the presence and chose to not worship the same Gods of the state, they would be spoken to from now on as atheists. New laws in place created a different matter to be worried about from the exiting legislation. Even though they were now legal, Christians had security under a regime which said that they were not allowed to be sought after by the authorities. There were other irrelevant Christians obtained by briberies saying that they had obeyed the law, while others would still fall away from torture. From this date to 284-305, the final persecution initiated by Diocletian, the Church stayed in the same legal situation as earlier, towards the second century. Christian gatherings were not allowed, all Christians were directed to deny their religion, and churches and sacred books were ordered to be ruined. The penalties aligned with the social classes of the times. For higher class, failure to comply meant disgrace and death. For middle class, they would be demoted to slavery and if you were already a slave, you gained the incapability to receive freedom.
After a period of time when the torments of Christianity were lowered, Emperor Decius chose that the Christians were enemies with the Roman order and that they are supposed to be challenged throughout the entire empire with all the power from authorities that the ruler can find. A judgement was then issued that said that “everyone must sacrifice to the Roman gods and produce a certificate signed by an official that they have done so,” and this shows that Christianity, which began in small groups scattered around various citied over the empire, has become so widespread all over the world that they have become a majority of the population.
Throughout time, there has been a large history of martyred saints in the Catholic Church. Some of which got credit for great achievements or commendable behavior. Most, though, lost their lives in protection of their faith. Many were respected for their influences to the Church and their society. We will never know all who were killed in these times, but there are some good examples of what can happen as a Martyr. In most places in Christianity, martyrdom is usually looking into as a path to sainthood and with that people are acknowledged as saints in various denominations. From the first century there was Saint Stephen, Saint James and James, the brother of Jesus. From the second- fourth century, Pope Fabian, Euphemia and Cyprian were all killed. During the fifth through the 15th century, Tsar Lazar and Joan of Arc were both murdered. Moving to the 16th century, both Juan de Padilla and William Hunter sacrificed their lives. Throughout the 17th century to now, Francis Taylor’s life and Arthur Bell’s life were taken. One of the most recent and wide known attacks was on the Normandy Church in 2016, going for Jacques Hamel, a priest during the time.
Being a martyr is a heroic accomplishment. Most do not represent a major part of the Christian population. There aren’t thousands of people being martyred but there are thousands of people who admire and support those who would stand up for what they believe in. Because of this, being a martyr should be something admired but not copied. These stories have an intense effect on Christians in today’s world when they learn about them. The first martyr of Christianity was Jesus and he bravely attested to his own faith against a harsh court. I think the martyrdom stories that were talked about during that time were mostly important and to blame for the growth of early Christianity. Several of the stories that are talked about admit that there were pagans existing at these killings who were so overwhelmed by the bravery of the Christians that they wanted to believe and see the truth of the Christian religion in the flesh and as soon as that happened they converted to Christianity, which thinking about now, is pretty impressive. Although these individuals are bold and courageous for fighting for what they believe in, it is nice to live in a world now that we do not have to be worried about being killed for belief in our faith. | 1,264 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Frederick Douglass 1899 - According to Wikipedia: "Charles Waddell Chesnutt (June 20, 1858 – November 15, 1932) was an African-American author, essayist and political activist, best known for his novels and short stories exploring complex issues of racial and social identity…. Chesnutt's stories were more complex than those of many of his contemporaries. He wrote about characters' dealing with difficult issues of miscegenation, "passing", illegitimacy, racial identities and social place throughout his career. The issues were especially pressing in the social volatility of Reconstruction and late 19th century society, as whites in the South tried to press all people with any African ancestry into one lower caste. At the same time, there was often distance and competition between families who had long been free persons of color, especially if educated and people of property, and newly freed slaves." | <urn:uuid:90e22849-0e24-4d69-9e6c-f21762bce225> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://buybookspro.com/book/411784323/frederick-douglass-1899 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00017.warc.gz | en | 0.985593 | 181 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
0.07756493240594864,
0.4850008487701416,
0.33837372064590454,
0.3623037040233612,
-0.2059849351644516,
0.08646849542856216,
-0.06817914545536041,
-0.08881962299346924,
-0.09316857159137726,
-0.15477870404720306,
0.1657886654138565,
-0.028134433552622795,
-0.11759938299655914,
0.19497291743... | 3 | Frederick Douglass 1899 - According to Wikipedia: "Charles Waddell Chesnutt (June 20, 1858 – November 15, 1932) was an African-American author, essayist and political activist, best known for his novels and short stories exploring complex issues of racial and social identity…. Chesnutt's stories were more complex than those of many of his contemporaries. He wrote about characters' dealing with difficult issues of miscegenation, "passing", illegitimacy, racial identities and social place throughout his career. The issues were especially pressing in the social volatility of Reconstruction and late 19th century society, as whites in the South tried to press all people with any African ancestry into one lower caste. At the same time, there was often distance and competition between families who had long been free persons of color, especially if educated and people of property, and newly freed slaves." | 198 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Essay PreviewMore ↓
During the period when the Celts existed, which is approximately 800 BC - 400 AD, they were just a little tribe compared to other large civilizations such as the Romans and Greeks. They still managed to conquer many regions and prove victorious in most of their battles. Who were these Celts that survived numerous struggles? Where did they originate? What kind of social structure did they have? What kinds of beliefs did they have? What sort of weapons and armor did they use in battle? What were some of their military tactics? These are some of the questions that will be evaluated in the following paragraphs.
The Celts were tall, fair-skinned warriors who were well built, had blond hair and blue eyes. Some of them washed their hair in lime water to increase the hue of it. Some of them shaved their beards, but others let them grow long. Some also shaved their cheeks and let their moustaches grow so long that they would cover their mouth. While eating, they sat on wolves or dog skins. They ate at low tables, like the Chinese, and were served by young boys and girls. They cooked big quarters, usually from a pig or calf over a fire on a spit and the hero was served the biggest portion. Seeing as how the they were so aggressive and easy to anger, they often fought during meals or challenged each other to fights.
The Celts lived in the Western region of Europe called the Normandy region. Normandy is a small region in the north of France, but they spread out from that region through all of France and Belgium. They also conquered areas in the western part of Germany, through the Black Forest region, along the Jura Mountains of Switzerland, along the Alps and to the upper part of Spain in the Pyrenees Mountains. They expanded their region to Spain and Portugal in 600 BC and through Italy, beyond the Alps in 386 BC. In 325 BC - 279 BC, they conquered areas throughout Greece, and in 278 BC they expanded into Asia Minor. But around 250 BC, the Romans regained their power in Italy and pushed the Celts back towards Gaul (modern day France) until 52 BC when the Romans, under command of Julius Caesar finally pushed them out of main land Europe and into England and then into Ireland, where the Celts fended themselves from any further attack from their southern and eastern neighbors.
How to Cite this Page
"Celtic Lifestyle." 123HelpMe.com. 20 Jan 2020
Need Writing Help?
Get feedback on grammar, clarity, concision and logic instantly.Check your paper »
- Celtic Culture and the Arts The legacy the Celts and their culture have bestowed upon the face of civilization is powerful and enduring. With their rich and intriguing history, and their complex and beautiful beliefs, they have been a great influence in many aspects of present day life, from their art and innovations, to deeply rooted traditions modern humanity still continues to preserve. It is through the examination of the Celtic culture as a whole, from their origins, tool usage and inventions, social systems, judicial systems, to their intricate spiritual beliefs that one is able to draw a strong sense of unity and connection to these mysterious people from whom most every Indo-Europe... [tags: Celtic Traditions Cultural Artists Essays]
4015 words (11.5 pages)
- The aim of this essay is to investigate the contributions of Cuthbert to the Celtic traditions and his subsequent roles and lessons that the modern day Christian can learn from his life and actions. Apparently Cuthbert had a rich and a more comprehensive background that provides an in depth analysis of the traditions and the way of life of the Celtics. To achieve the objective of this essay, an argumentative approach would be advanced to ascertain the roles that Cuthbert played in the Celtic traditions.... [tags: Celtic Traditions, Cuthbert]
2252 words (6.4 pages)
- Most readers of the famed Irish and Welsh tales focus on the male characters and their great feats. Celtic literature, however, features a full complement of female characters that deserve recognition; from warriors and rulers, to helpmates and daughters. These women function as either their own entity, or extensions of their male relations. All play crucial roles in their perspective texts, essentially driving the action of the plot and setting into motion a series of events that affect the male characters.... [tags: Celtic Literature]
842 words (2.4 pages)
- For this essay I would like to compare and contrast the past and present, in regards to what was once known as the Celtic celebration of Samhain and its present day—somewhat—equivalent, that which is embraced now-a-days in the United States, Halloween. Halloween takes its roots from\the Celtic-pagan celebration called Samhain; although it has also been sculpted by other cultures in the centuries that have past, the Celts are the foundation of the ideas of such a celebration. I would like to establish more of a contrast between the two celebrations: what exists now and here versus what existed then and there.... [tags: Celtic People, Present Holiday]
900 words (2.6 pages)
- I had a dream that I was in the time period when there was only swords and shields, (but none of those advanced automatic weapons that we have now). In that time period, I woke up in my bunk remembering that I am an active duty Major in King Ajihad's Army known as the Celtic Army. I also remembered that I was the only person who was half-human and half-elf except my brother, which was the same as me, but was two years younger than me. In the army I commanded a six-person unit; three men and three women (seven people in all if you include me).... [tags: blue celtic dragons, china]
857 words (2.4 pages)
- Heroes of Celtic and Germanic Mythology Throughout the myths of the Celtic and Germanic peoples of northern Europe tales of epic heroes and their extraordinary deeds abound. These tales depict heroes performing a variety of incredible feats; many of which appear to be magical, superhuman, and, quite honestly, utterly impossible (e.g., wading across oceans, defeating armies virtually single-handedly, and other astounding exploits). Since the Celtic and Germanic tribes of antiquity inhabited neighboring lands and lived in close proximity to one another (as many of their modern descendants continue to do: i.e., in Great Britain), it is not surprising that they often established intimate rela... [tags: Celtic Germanic Mythology Beowulf Essays]
3690 words (10.5 pages)
- Living a healthy lifestyle is a melting pot of several factors. One is not able to live a healthy lifestyle without a solid diet and workout foundation. The harmful side effects of processed food, drugs, alcohol, and sleep deprivation trump one’s life while mental and emotional stability aids in a healthy lifestyle. According to Jillian Michaels, “The right diet will regulate your blood sugar, balance your hormones, and maximize your energy, all of which promote optimal fat burning and muscle development.” None the less, one must form a platform based on healthy morals and principles in order to live life to its fullest potential.... [tags: Healthy Lifestyle Essay]
2055 words (5.9 pages)
- Happy, confident, energetic, strong and healthy are all qualities an individual wants. The real question is, how bad do they want it. It is really not as hard as it seems. Gradually changing your life into a well balanced, healthy lifestyle can be done. It may be hard getting rid of old habits, but it is well worth it. Start with little changes and less excuses. Living a healthy lifestyle is not a diet or some ridiculous weight loss challenge. A healthy lifestyle is about moderation, balance and simple substitutions.... [tags: Healthy Lifestyle Essays]
2350 words (6.7 pages)
- The Germanic and Celtic Tradition by George MacDonald One of the most interesting things about fairytales is how the author has borrowed ideas from ancient myths and legends and kept them alive in their writings. The Princess and the Goblin is one of these fairytales. In writing this novel, George MacDonald has incorporated much of the folk tradition in his characters and plot. Specifically, his concept of goblins seem to be drawn from the tradition of dwarfs, gnomes, and kobolds of Germanic myth and the fairies, or elves, of Celtic myth.... [tags: Germanic Celtin Macdonald Fairytales Essays]
954 words (2.7 pages)
- The components of a healthy lifestyle include many things. A few examples of these components are eating right, exercising regularly, and keeping your mind calm and content. Eating right means staying on a healthy diet. This does not mean that you cannot eat sweets or fatty foods, it just means that you should constantly keep in mind how a certain food will affect your body. One wants to always remain in control, do not gorge yourself and then skip a few meals to make up for it. Always keep things in proportion, such as maybe eating a light healthy breakfast and lunch and then allowing yourself a slightly heavier food for dinner or for snack.... [tags: components of a healthy lifestyle]
668 words (1.9 pages)
Celtic society was basically divided into three classes, the Nobility, the Aes Dana and the Commoners or Churls. The Nobility, or warrior class, were the landowners who were in control of the land, herds and most of the physical wealth. They spent their time conducting business, playing board games and watching youths at field games. The Aes Dana were men of art and learning and included many skilled craftsmen. The Commoners owned no land, but were free, not slaves. These three groups made up the major clan which was called the Tuath. The Tuath was ruled by the Ri. His role was primarily in dealings outside the Tuath and was a war leader. His authority was held up and carried out by a council of Nobles.
The Celtic tribes had many religious beliefs and were also very superstitious. They believed certain animals represented different omens or messages. For example, the fish symbolized clairvoyance; the serpent was divine wisdom; the hare was good fortune; the birds were spirits of prophecy; the horse represented sovereignty; the dragon was a guardian spirit. Gods played very important roles in people's daily routines. Not a single job could be done without having the gods involved somehow. They were responsible for the seasons and they controlled the natural world of which man was a part: they therefore had to be placated through intermediaries-the druids-who knew the ancient wisdom and could ensure that the correct procedures were at all times followed. There were three religious occupations that were exempted from taxes and military service. They were the Bards, the Augurers and the Druids. The Bards, who were scholars, were responsible for recording poetry and traditions of the tribes. Augurers oversaw sacrifices and foretold the future, like the prophets of ancient times. The Druids, meaning "knowledge of the oak" or alternatively "profound knowledge" were trained in law and philosophy, they were considered "conceivers of wisdom" like Socrates, Aristotle or Hippocrates of Greece. They studied the movements of the heavenly bodies, gave instruction to young men in astronomy, the size of the universe and of the earth, and the power and abilities of the gods. They also taught about the afterlife; they believed that the soul does not perish, it just passes from the earthly body to the heavenly body. It is said that this belief in the afterlife is what gave them their extreme bravery in battle. The Druids were not only teachers, but priests, magicians and judges too. They were highly respected by all of the Celtic tribes and other cultures as well. Some of the Celtic gods were Lugh, De Dagda and Oghma. Lugh was like Ra in the Egyptian culture, he was the Sun god, but he was also the god of war, like Mars of the Roman culture. De Dagda was the high king of the Tuatha de Dannan (Folk of the goddess Dana). His name meant 'The Good god'. He was the Celtic god of the earth, heavens, and magic amongst others. He had a harp made of oak which, and when he played it, it put the seasons in their order, so that spring came after winter, summer after spring and autumn followed summer. He had a wife named Boand, who gave birth to nine children, the most important being Angus, Brigid, Oghma, Midir and Bodb the Red. Oghma was the Irish god of literature and eloquence, one of the sons of De Dagda and the champion of the Tuatha de Dannan. He invented the Ogham Script, which was originally intended to be carved upon the edges of standing stones. Each Tuath would had a divine father or tribal god, who was linked to the welfare of the Tuath and the power and authority of the Ri.
Celtic warriors were well equipped with an arsenal of weapons and armor, and were always ready to fight. During battles, they dressed in long oval shields that covered most of their body. These oval shields were usually made of wicker or wood and might have been covered with leather. Some warriors carried spears, which looked like javelins. These spears were made of wood, which the Celts would throw at opposing forces to knock down some of the enemies. The range was greater than an arrow, so they had more of an advantage over the enemy. The common warriors would wear leather helmets that provided little to no protection, but wealthy warriors could afford bronze helmets that very protective. During the Bronze Age, they carried a sword that was only designed for thrusting, not cutting. Eventually, the Celts developed a 'Cut - Thrust' Sword which was a long iron double-edged sword. In the Iron Age, they developed their most popular sword, which was the double-edged Broad sword. It was made of iron and bronze, and it was one of the heaviest swords ever created. It had a wooden scabbard covered with leather and was lined with fur, with bronze chaps, and an iron or bronze blade.
The Celts used only a few battle tactics to overcome their enemies, but they were still very successful in battle. Chariots were an important part of Celtic warfare, a method that was very effective against the Romans. Warrior and driver were a strong team. The driver would bring the chariot to the point of battle, at which the warrior would leap from the chariot and engage the enemy, the driver would then wheel off to one side, ready to come sweeping in to retrieve the warrior when needed. Psychological warfare was used quite often by the Celts. They would paint their faces to look like demonic creatures to scare the enemies to get the first hit against the enemy. They would also scream while attacking enemies which also brought fear into their enemies which usually made them hesitate, which allowed them to get the first hit. The last psychological technique used by the Celts was attacking their enemies naked, which made the enemy either run away or hesitate, so they could get the first hit on their enemies. Fighting was very religious in the Celtic culture, which is why most of them went into battle with almost no fear at all. The Druids also sometimes raised their spirits or encouraged them before the battles. The other battle tactic the Celts used was guerilla warfare, which enabled them to ambush the enemy. They were the first people to use guerilla warfare; other civilizations were still using formation tactics to attack the enemy. This gave them the advantage of surprise against their enemies, which is very useful, especially went outnumbered.
As you can see, the Celts were a culture that thrived and were able to dominate almost all of Europe, from the Bronze Age well into the early Christian period. The areas that remained Celtic after the Romans took over were the Isle of Man, Ireland, Wales, Scotland, Brittany and Cornwall. The Celts were excellent artisans and warriors who were very creative. They invented the chariot and the idea of chariot warfare long before the Romans did. They were one of the first people to use the horse as a beast of burden and they also used the horse in warfare. They were inventive storytellers and poets. They combined their religious beliefs with almost everything they did, which is what gave them their bravery, perseverance and strength to overcome and defeat their enemies. Finally, their ancient wisdom and understanding is thought, by many to be beyond other cultures. | <urn:uuid:7c625d8d-43d9-4de1-bba8-8e248c7d2138> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.123helpme.com/view.asp?id=23421 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00113.warc.gz | en | 0.983145 | 3,448 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
-0.23365318775177002,
0.5113437175750732,
0.12886983156204224,
0.009741607122123241,
-0.5159545540809631,
-0.2587612271308899,
-0.11221648752689362,
0.46723484992980957,
-0.1312181055545807,
-0.032710086554288864,
-0.1892881840467453,
-0.46254026889801025,
0.2884771227836609,
0.06022972986... | 1 | Essay PreviewMore ↓
During the period when the Celts existed, which is approximately 800 BC - 400 AD, they were just a little tribe compared to other large civilizations such as the Romans and Greeks. They still managed to conquer many regions and prove victorious in most of their battles. Who were these Celts that survived numerous struggles? Where did they originate? What kind of social structure did they have? What kinds of beliefs did they have? What sort of weapons and armor did they use in battle? What were some of their military tactics? These are some of the questions that will be evaluated in the following paragraphs.
The Celts were tall, fair-skinned warriors who were well built, had blond hair and blue eyes. Some of them washed their hair in lime water to increase the hue of it. Some of them shaved their beards, but others let them grow long. Some also shaved their cheeks and let their moustaches grow so long that they would cover their mouth. While eating, they sat on wolves or dog skins. They ate at low tables, like the Chinese, and were served by young boys and girls. They cooked big quarters, usually from a pig or calf over a fire on a spit and the hero was served the biggest portion. Seeing as how the they were so aggressive and easy to anger, they often fought during meals or challenged each other to fights.
The Celts lived in the Western region of Europe called the Normandy region. Normandy is a small region in the north of France, but they spread out from that region through all of France and Belgium. They also conquered areas in the western part of Germany, through the Black Forest region, along the Jura Mountains of Switzerland, along the Alps and to the upper part of Spain in the Pyrenees Mountains. They expanded their region to Spain and Portugal in 600 BC and through Italy, beyond the Alps in 386 BC. In 325 BC - 279 BC, they conquered areas throughout Greece, and in 278 BC they expanded into Asia Minor. But around 250 BC, the Romans regained their power in Italy and pushed the Celts back towards Gaul (modern day France) until 52 BC when the Romans, under command of Julius Caesar finally pushed them out of main land Europe and into England and then into Ireland, where the Celts fended themselves from any further attack from their southern and eastern neighbors.
How to Cite this Page
"Celtic Lifestyle." 123HelpMe.com. 20 Jan 2020
Need Writing Help?
Get feedback on grammar, clarity, concision and logic instantly.Check your paper »
- Celtic Culture and the Arts The legacy the Celts and their culture have bestowed upon the face of civilization is powerful and enduring. With their rich and intriguing history, and their complex and beautiful beliefs, they have been a great influence in many aspects of present day life, from their art and innovations, to deeply rooted traditions modern humanity still continues to preserve. It is through the examination of the Celtic culture as a whole, from their origins, tool usage and inventions, social systems, judicial systems, to their intricate spiritual beliefs that one is able to draw a strong sense of unity and connection to these mysterious people from whom most every Indo-Europe... [tags: Celtic Traditions Cultural Artists Essays]
4015 words (11.5 pages)
- The aim of this essay is to investigate the contributions of Cuthbert to the Celtic traditions and his subsequent roles and lessons that the modern day Christian can learn from his life and actions. Apparently Cuthbert had a rich and a more comprehensive background that provides an in depth analysis of the traditions and the way of life of the Celtics. To achieve the objective of this essay, an argumentative approach would be advanced to ascertain the roles that Cuthbert played in the Celtic traditions.... [tags: Celtic Traditions, Cuthbert]
2252 words (6.4 pages)
- Most readers of the famed Irish and Welsh tales focus on the male characters and their great feats. Celtic literature, however, features a full complement of female characters that deserve recognition; from warriors and rulers, to helpmates and daughters. These women function as either their own entity, or extensions of their male relations. All play crucial roles in their perspective texts, essentially driving the action of the plot and setting into motion a series of events that affect the male characters.... [tags: Celtic Literature]
842 words (2.4 pages)
- For this essay I would like to compare and contrast the past and present, in regards to what was once known as the Celtic celebration of Samhain and its present day—somewhat—equivalent, that which is embraced now-a-days in the United States, Halloween. Halloween takes its roots from\the Celtic-pagan celebration called Samhain; although it has also been sculpted by other cultures in the centuries that have past, the Celts are the foundation of the ideas of such a celebration. I would like to establish more of a contrast between the two celebrations: what exists now and here versus what existed then and there.... [tags: Celtic People, Present Holiday]
900 words (2.6 pages)
- I had a dream that I was in the time period when there was only swords and shields, (but none of those advanced automatic weapons that we have now). In that time period, I woke up in my bunk remembering that I am an active duty Major in King Ajihad's Army known as the Celtic Army. I also remembered that I was the only person who was half-human and half-elf except my brother, which was the same as me, but was two years younger than me. In the army I commanded a six-person unit; three men and three women (seven people in all if you include me).... [tags: blue celtic dragons, china]
857 words (2.4 pages)
- Heroes of Celtic and Germanic Mythology Throughout the myths of the Celtic and Germanic peoples of northern Europe tales of epic heroes and their extraordinary deeds abound. These tales depict heroes performing a variety of incredible feats; many of which appear to be magical, superhuman, and, quite honestly, utterly impossible (e.g., wading across oceans, defeating armies virtually single-handedly, and other astounding exploits). Since the Celtic and Germanic tribes of antiquity inhabited neighboring lands and lived in close proximity to one another (as many of their modern descendants continue to do: i.e., in Great Britain), it is not surprising that they often established intimate rela... [tags: Celtic Germanic Mythology Beowulf Essays]
3690 words (10.5 pages)
- Living a healthy lifestyle is a melting pot of several factors. One is not able to live a healthy lifestyle without a solid diet and workout foundation. The harmful side effects of processed food, drugs, alcohol, and sleep deprivation trump one’s life while mental and emotional stability aids in a healthy lifestyle. According to Jillian Michaels, “The right diet will regulate your blood sugar, balance your hormones, and maximize your energy, all of which promote optimal fat burning and muscle development.” None the less, one must form a platform based on healthy morals and principles in order to live life to its fullest potential.... [tags: Healthy Lifestyle Essay]
2055 words (5.9 pages)
- Happy, confident, energetic, strong and healthy are all qualities an individual wants. The real question is, how bad do they want it. It is really not as hard as it seems. Gradually changing your life into a well balanced, healthy lifestyle can be done. It may be hard getting rid of old habits, but it is well worth it. Start with little changes and less excuses. Living a healthy lifestyle is not a diet or some ridiculous weight loss challenge. A healthy lifestyle is about moderation, balance and simple substitutions.... [tags: Healthy Lifestyle Essays]
2350 words (6.7 pages)
- The Germanic and Celtic Tradition by George MacDonald One of the most interesting things about fairytales is how the author has borrowed ideas from ancient myths and legends and kept them alive in their writings. The Princess and the Goblin is one of these fairytales. In writing this novel, George MacDonald has incorporated much of the folk tradition in his characters and plot. Specifically, his concept of goblins seem to be drawn from the tradition of dwarfs, gnomes, and kobolds of Germanic myth and the fairies, or elves, of Celtic myth.... [tags: Germanic Celtin Macdonald Fairytales Essays]
954 words (2.7 pages)
- The components of a healthy lifestyle include many things. A few examples of these components are eating right, exercising regularly, and keeping your mind calm and content. Eating right means staying on a healthy diet. This does not mean that you cannot eat sweets or fatty foods, it just means that you should constantly keep in mind how a certain food will affect your body. One wants to always remain in control, do not gorge yourself and then skip a few meals to make up for it. Always keep things in proportion, such as maybe eating a light healthy breakfast and lunch and then allowing yourself a slightly heavier food for dinner or for snack.... [tags: components of a healthy lifestyle]
668 words (1.9 pages)
Celtic society was basically divided into three classes, the Nobility, the Aes Dana and the Commoners or Churls. The Nobility, or warrior class, were the landowners who were in control of the land, herds and most of the physical wealth. They spent their time conducting business, playing board games and watching youths at field games. The Aes Dana were men of art and learning and included many skilled craftsmen. The Commoners owned no land, but were free, not slaves. These three groups made up the major clan which was called the Tuath. The Tuath was ruled by the Ri. His role was primarily in dealings outside the Tuath and was a war leader. His authority was held up and carried out by a council of Nobles.
The Celtic tribes had many religious beliefs and were also very superstitious. They believed certain animals represented different omens or messages. For example, the fish symbolized clairvoyance; the serpent was divine wisdom; the hare was good fortune; the birds were spirits of prophecy; the horse represented sovereignty; the dragon was a guardian spirit. Gods played very important roles in people's daily routines. Not a single job could be done without having the gods involved somehow. They were responsible for the seasons and they controlled the natural world of which man was a part: they therefore had to be placated through intermediaries-the druids-who knew the ancient wisdom and could ensure that the correct procedures were at all times followed. There were three religious occupations that were exempted from taxes and military service. They were the Bards, the Augurers and the Druids. The Bards, who were scholars, were responsible for recording poetry and traditions of the tribes. Augurers oversaw sacrifices and foretold the future, like the prophets of ancient times. The Druids, meaning "knowledge of the oak" or alternatively "profound knowledge" were trained in law and philosophy, they were considered "conceivers of wisdom" like Socrates, Aristotle or Hippocrates of Greece. They studied the movements of the heavenly bodies, gave instruction to young men in astronomy, the size of the universe and of the earth, and the power and abilities of the gods. They also taught about the afterlife; they believed that the soul does not perish, it just passes from the earthly body to the heavenly body. It is said that this belief in the afterlife is what gave them their extreme bravery in battle. The Druids were not only teachers, but priests, magicians and judges too. They were highly respected by all of the Celtic tribes and other cultures as well. Some of the Celtic gods were Lugh, De Dagda and Oghma. Lugh was like Ra in the Egyptian culture, he was the Sun god, but he was also the god of war, like Mars of the Roman culture. De Dagda was the high king of the Tuatha de Dannan (Folk of the goddess Dana). His name meant 'The Good god'. He was the Celtic god of the earth, heavens, and magic amongst others. He had a harp made of oak which, and when he played it, it put the seasons in their order, so that spring came after winter, summer after spring and autumn followed summer. He had a wife named Boand, who gave birth to nine children, the most important being Angus, Brigid, Oghma, Midir and Bodb the Red. Oghma was the Irish god of literature and eloquence, one of the sons of De Dagda and the champion of the Tuatha de Dannan. He invented the Ogham Script, which was originally intended to be carved upon the edges of standing stones. Each Tuath would had a divine father or tribal god, who was linked to the welfare of the Tuath and the power and authority of the Ri.
Celtic warriors were well equipped with an arsenal of weapons and armor, and were always ready to fight. During battles, they dressed in long oval shields that covered most of their body. These oval shields were usually made of wicker or wood and might have been covered with leather. Some warriors carried spears, which looked like javelins. These spears were made of wood, which the Celts would throw at opposing forces to knock down some of the enemies. The range was greater than an arrow, so they had more of an advantage over the enemy. The common warriors would wear leather helmets that provided little to no protection, but wealthy warriors could afford bronze helmets that very protective. During the Bronze Age, they carried a sword that was only designed for thrusting, not cutting. Eventually, the Celts developed a 'Cut - Thrust' Sword which was a long iron double-edged sword. In the Iron Age, they developed their most popular sword, which was the double-edged Broad sword. It was made of iron and bronze, and it was one of the heaviest swords ever created. It had a wooden scabbard covered with leather and was lined with fur, with bronze chaps, and an iron or bronze blade.
The Celts used only a few battle tactics to overcome their enemies, but they were still very successful in battle. Chariots were an important part of Celtic warfare, a method that was very effective against the Romans. Warrior and driver were a strong team. The driver would bring the chariot to the point of battle, at which the warrior would leap from the chariot and engage the enemy, the driver would then wheel off to one side, ready to come sweeping in to retrieve the warrior when needed. Psychological warfare was used quite often by the Celts. They would paint their faces to look like demonic creatures to scare the enemies to get the first hit against the enemy. They would also scream while attacking enemies which also brought fear into their enemies which usually made them hesitate, which allowed them to get the first hit. The last psychological technique used by the Celts was attacking their enemies naked, which made the enemy either run away or hesitate, so they could get the first hit on their enemies. Fighting was very religious in the Celtic culture, which is why most of them went into battle with almost no fear at all. The Druids also sometimes raised their spirits or encouraged them before the battles. The other battle tactic the Celts used was guerilla warfare, which enabled them to ambush the enemy. They were the first people to use guerilla warfare; other civilizations were still using formation tactics to attack the enemy. This gave them the advantage of surprise against their enemies, which is very useful, especially went outnumbered.
As you can see, the Celts were a culture that thrived and were able to dominate almost all of Europe, from the Bronze Age well into the early Christian period. The areas that remained Celtic after the Romans took over were the Isle of Man, Ireland, Wales, Scotland, Brittany and Cornwall. The Celts were excellent artisans and warriors who were very creative. They invented the chariot and the idea of chariot warfare long before the Romans did. They were one of the first people to use the horse as a beast of burden and they also used the horse in warfare. They were inventive storytellers and poets. They combined their religious beliefs with almost everything they did, which is what gave them their bravery, perseverance and strength to overcome and defeat their enemies. Finally, their ancient wisdom and understanding is thought, by many to be beyond other cultures. | 3,459 | ENGLISH | 1 |
“Travel Toward a Happy Future!”
The 1938/39 Kindertransporte (children’s transports) in our family collections
The Kindertransporte were able to save 10,000 children from the National Socialist reign of violence in the German Reich. For all of these children, however, this meant being separated from their parents – sometimes for months, sometimes years, and often forever. The Jewish Museum archive contains documents from children who were brought to safety in this way. These documents often leave a deep impression of the children’s zest for life and curiosity, as well as their worries about the fate of those left behind and the fears and hardships of their parents; impressions of parting and loss.
An Arduous Separation
One of these children was Erika Freundlich from Hamburg. She was 16 years old when she traveled with a Kindertransport to England. Her father wrote about their farewell in a letter to his elder daughter:
“I still can’t quite imagine that Erika shouldn’t be here anymore. […] You cannot imagine the way the parents and children said farewell to each other. I saw three small children there, the youngest may have been 5 years old, her little hand holding her sister’s, who was maybe one or two years older. The littlest one refused to leave their mother. The entire scene of the emigrating children was wretched.”
For 20 May 1939
You’re setting out, we’re staying home,
Seasons turn, flowers climb.
You’re so young, and we are old
Make use of your time.
Your life is open and new,
No envy, no hate, no grief.
We want to do everything for you,
But our arms are weak.
If the new world seems curious,
Be strong and try to puzzle through.
The old world disappointed us.
Your life will be new!
As painful as it was to let the children leave, it was often the only hope that at least they would have a secure future. Max Heymann from Berlin wrote a poem for his 14-year-old daughter Eva on the occasion of her departure on 20 May 1939. It ended with lines of encouragement:
“If the new world seems curious, be strong and try to puzzle through. The old world disappointed us. Your life will be new!” Eva Heyman would start a new life in England, but she would never see her father again. He died in the Theresienstadt ghetto in 1944.
The lucky ones followed
Alfred Dienemann of Berlin also fearfully awaited the separation from his 14 and 9-year-old children, Ursula and Wolfgang. In mid-December—he had just been released from the Sachsenhausen concentration camp—he wrote to his siblings in Palestine:
“We hope that we can send both children to schools in England in the coming weeks. Later they are supposed to go to the USA, to schools or elsewhere. The endless negotiations are still up in the air. Then we have ‘seen children off.’ I can’t bring myself to tell you the meaning that lies behind these words. At the same time, the struggle is for ourselves.”
A few months after their children were saved, Dienemann and his wife were able to follow them to England.
Brothers Kurt und Günter Treitel, aged 16 and 11, left Berlin in March 1939 with a farewell letter from their mother in their bag:
“My thoughts, my wishes, and my affections will forever follow and reach you. Travel toward a happy future, our blessing accompanies you!”
Hanna Lilly Treitel wrote these lines not knowing if she would ever see her sons again. At that point she didn’t know that she, her husband, and her younger daughter would be able to emigrate to England in July 1939. The oldest son, Kurt, who together with his brother had been living with an uncle for some months, had already begun to follow the advice of the refugee organization on how to adapt to British customs as quickly as possible. He wrote a postcard in English to his parents and sister for their arrival in Southampton: “Parents, dear Sis, A hearty welcome in England. Hope to see you soon” and signed with “Yours Kenneth (Kurt).”
…but luck was rare
Letters were generally the only way for parents and children to stay in contact. With the outbreak of war, for censorship reasons it was difficult for the children to continue writing in German. Letters often took weeks or months to arrive, and often they didn’t arrive at all, if the parents had been deported.
For siblings Stefan und Carola Prager from Berlin, who were 14 and 11 years old when they left Germany, the separation from their parents was permanent. On 26 October 1941, just before their deportation, their parents sent a final letter to Sweden. After their father, Wolfgang Prager, announced that they
“would soon go on a big journey,” he added:
“Never forget your parents, who always only wanted everything good for you. Stay true to each other and support each other in times of crisis.”
Their mother Ruth wrote below:
“I hardly know what I should say to you because my heart is so full, and words are so small and say so little. I have always only hoped for a reunion with you, but likely we are now standing before a twist of fate.”
Joy and crisis
Herta Silzer of Vienna emigrated to England in February 1939. When the 11-year-old reached British soil, the fear of the preceding days and weeks was outweighed by the euphoria of the new. She wrote to her parents:
“Today I arrived at 2pm in London. […] It is fantastic. […] The city makes an overwhelming impression.”
Herta went to relatives in Glasgow and sent her parents letters and postcards from there nearly every day. She was very worried about her parents, and on 23 March 1939, she asked:
“Since your last letter I haven’t gotten any mail for you, hopefully I will get some soon. – How are you? Are you healthy? Isn’t there any news? I would be so interested to know what’s going on.”
Eventually, her parents had the opportunity to emigrate to Cuba on the passenger ship St. Louis, but they weren’t allowed to disembark there and had to return to Europe. Herta’s parents were, however, allowed to enter England. On 21 June 1939 they arrived there and finally saw their daughter again, and in fall they were able to emigrate together to the United States.
A new life
Annemarie Fleck from Danzig went to England with a Kindertransport at age 13. She lived with a foster family and wrote to her parents on 28 October 1939:
“I’m so happy that you’re healthy. Everything here is just as usual, you can’t tell there’s a war. Everyone has enough and I eat a ghastly amount. I help out a lot more at home, and except for cooking I can do almost everything. My foster-mama says she doesn’t know how she’ll get along without me.”
For Annemarie a new life began in England. In her weekly letters to her parents, who were often traveling for months at a time following their emigration to Shanghai in 1941, she wrote extensively of her daily life, experiences with friends, her first love, and school. In Shanghai, her parents were distraught. It seemed to them that their daughter had become estranged to them, to which Annemarie answered in English on 20 July 1940:
“I’m sorry […], that you seem to know me so little as to have any doubt about my feelings.”
And she assured them that she only wrote about these
“little, stupid events” to stay optimistic and to enjoy life, which she also hoped her parents would do, since
“Who knows what may happen in the Future?”
Today, only a few of the now elderly “Kinder” are still alive. That makes it all the more important that we preserve their stories in the archive, so that they are not forgotten. | <urn:uuid:242f68c1-1f59-4fa6-9588-174a225f7f7d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.jmberlin.de/en/kindertransporte-1938-in-our-family-collections | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00443.warc.gz | en | 0.985482 | 1,786 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
-0.23440870642662048,
0.03875732421875,
0.054157502949237823,
-0.0390811488032341,
0.060984909534454346,
0.3738974630832672,
-0.18422652781009674,
-0.11261211335659027,
-0.14155562222003937,
-0.1090405136346817,
0.2835833728313446,
0.14503155648708344,
0.1054774820804596,
0.342676728963851... | 1 | “Travel Toward a Happy Future!”
The 1938/39 Kindertransporte (children’s transports) in our family collections
The Kindertransporte were able to save 10,000 children from the National Socialist reign of violence in the German Reich. For all of these children, however, this meant being separated from their parents – sometimes for months, sometimes years, and often forever. The Jewish Museum archive contains documents from children who were brought to safety in this way. These documents often leave a deep impression of the children’s zest for life and curiosity, as well as their worries about the fate of those left behind and the fears and hardships of their parents; impressions of parting and loss.
An Arduous Separation
One of these children was Erika Freundlich from Hamburg. She was 16 years old when she traveled with a Kindertransport to England. Her father wrote about their farewell in a letter to his elder daughter:
“I still can’t quite imagine that Erika shouldn’t be here anymore. […] You cannot imagine the way the parents and children said farewell to each other. I saw three small children there, the youngest may have been 5 years old, her little hand holding her sister’s, who was maybe one or two years older. The littlest one refused to leave their mother. The entire scene of the emigrating children was wretched.”
For 20 May 1939
You’re setting out, we’re staying home,
Seasons turn, flowers climb.
You’re so young, and we are old
Make use of your time.
Your life is open and new,
No envy, no hate, no grief.
We want to do everything for you,
But our arms are weak.
If the new world seems curious,
Be strong and try to puzzle through.
The old world disappointed us.
Your life will be new!
As painful as it was to let the children leave, it was often the only hope that at least they would have a secure future. Max Heymann from Berlin wrote a poem for his 14-year-old daughter Eva on the occasion of her departure on 20 May 1939. It ended with lines of encouragement:
“If the new world seems curious, be strong and try to puzzle through. The old world disappointed us. Your life will be new!” Eva Heyman would start a new life in England, but she would never see her father again. He died in the Theresienstadt ghetto in 1944.
The lucky ones followed
Alfred Dienemann of Berlin also fearfully awaited the separation from his 14 and 9-year-old children, Ursula and Wolfgang. In mid-December—he had just been released from the Sachsenhausen concentration camp—he wrote to his siblings in Palestine:
“We hope that we can send both children to schools in England in the coming weeks. Later they are supposed to go to the USA, to schools or elsewhere. The endless negotiations are still up in the air. Then we have ‘seen children off.’ I can’t bring myself to tell you the meaning that lies behind these words. At the same time, the struggle is for ourselves.”
A few months after their children were saved, Dienemann and his wife were able to follow them to England.
Brothers Kurt und Günter Treitel, aged 16 and 11, left Berlin in March 1939 with a farewell letter from their mother in their bag:
“My thoughts, my wishes, and my affections will forever follow and reach you. Travel toward a happy future, our blessing accompanies you!”
Hanna Lilly Treitel wrote these lines not knowing if she would ever see her sons again. At that point she didn’t know that she, her husband, and her younger daughter would be able to emigrate to England in July 1939. The oldest son, Kurt, who together with his brother had been living with an uncle for some months, had already begun to follow the advice of the refugee organization on how to adapt to British customs as quickly as possible. He wrote a postcard in English to his parents and sister for their arrival in Southampton: “Parents, dear Sis, A hearty welcome in England. Hope to see you soon” and signed with “Yours Kenneth (Kurt).”
…but luck was rare
Letters were generally the only way for parents and children to stay in contact. With the outbreak of war, for censorship reasons it was difficult for the children to continue writing in German. Letters often took weeks or months to arrive, and often they didn’t arrive at all, if the parents had been deported.
For siblings Stefan und Carola Prager from Berlin, who were 14 and 11 years old when they left Germany, the separation from their parents was permanent. On 26 October 1941, just before their deportation, their parents sent a final letter to Sweden. After their father, Wolfgang Prager, announced that they
“would soon go on a big journey,” he added:
“Never forget your parents, who always only wanted everything good for you. Stay true to each other and support each other in times of crisis.”
Their mother Ruth wrote below:
“I hardly know what I should say to you because my heart is so full, and words are so small and say so little. I have always only hoped for a reunion with you, but likely we are now standing before a twist of fate.”
Joy and crisis
Herta Silzer of Vienna emigrated to England in February 1939. When the 11-year-old reached British soil, the fear of the preceding days and weeks was outweighed by the euphoria of the new. She wrote to her parents:
“Today I arrived at 2pm in London. […] It is fantastic. […] The city makes an overwhelming impression.”
Herta went to relatives in Glasgow and sent her parents letters and postcards from there nearly every day. She was very worried about her parents, and on 23 March 1939, she asked:
“Since your last letter I haven’t gotten any mail for you, hopefully I will get some soon. – How are you? Are you healthy? Isn’t there any news? I would be so interested to know what’s going on.”
Eventually, her parents had the opportunity to emigrate to Cuba on the passenger ship St. Louis, but they weren’t allowed to disembark there and had to return to Europe. Herta’s parents were, however, allowed to enter England. On 21 June 1939 they arrived there and finally saw their daughter again, and in fall they were able to emigrate together to the United States.
A new life
Annemarie Fleck from Danzig went to England with a Kindertransport at age 13. She lived with a foster family and wrote to her parents on 28 October 1939:
“I’m so happy that you’re healthy. Everything here is just as usual, you can’t tell there’s a war. Everyone has enough and I eat a ghastly amount. I help out a lot more at home, and except for cooking I can do almost everything. My foster-mama says she doesn’t know how she’ll get along without me.”
For Annemarie a new life began in England. In her weekly letters to her parents, who were often traveling for months at a time following their emigration to Shanghai in 1941, she wrote extensively of her daily life, experiences with friends, her first love, and school. In Shanghai, her parents were distraught. It seemed to them that their daughter had become estranged to them, to which Annemarie answered in English on 20 July 1940:
“I’m sorry […], that you seem to know me so little as to have any doubt about my feelings.”
And she assured them that she only wrote about these
“little, stupid events” to stay optimistic and to enjoy life, which she also hoped her parents would do, since
“Who knows what may happen in the Future?”
Today, only a few of the now elderly “Kinder” are still alive. That makes it all the more important that we preserve their stories in the archive, so that they are not forgotten. | 1,711 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the second period, he had a negative vision of life, because his only son Hammet died. In this period he wrote his important tragedies:
Shakespeare was born in Stratford on Avon in 1564, he attended the local grammar, school and married Anne Hathway; they had three children the moved to London and started to be an actor and then he because a dramatist. He was one of the share holders in the building of the Globe Elizabeth I and King James I. he went back to his hometown where he died in 1616. His works can be divided into three periods. In the first, he had a positive vision of life and he wrote “Romeo and Juliet”, “the Merchant of Venice” “a Midsummer Night’s Dream”, “Julius Caesar”. | <urn:uuid:7b3c4eb0-e447-4258-bab8-cd5e01667d15> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.skuola.net/letteratura-inglese-1700/will-shakespeare-pensiero-in-breve-inglese.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00420.warc.gz | en | 0.991922 | 177 | 3.375 | 3 | [
-0.08857357501983643,
-0.005057140253484249,
0.3053435683250427,
-0.21675990521907806,
-0.7071820497512817,
0.2611415386199951,
0.3456932008266449,
0.39352506399154663,
-0.2278943657875061,
-0.10369353741407394,
-0.07086972892284393,
-0.5230274796485901,
0.09960925579071045,
0.363104522228... | 1 | In the second period, he had a negative vision of life, because his only son Hammet died. In this period he wrote his important tragedies:
Shakespeare was born in Stratford on Avon in 1564, he attended the local grammar, school and married Anne Hathway; they had three children the moved to London and started to be an actor and then he because a dramatist. He was one of the share holders in the building of the Globe Elizabeth I and King James I. he went back to his hometown where he died in 1616. His works can be divided into three periods. In the first, he had a positive vision of life and he wrote “Romeo and Juliet”, “the Merchant of Venice” “a Midsummer Night’s Dream”, “Julius Caesar”. | 168 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What did the clergy do during the plague
The Black Death consisted mainly of one disease, the bubonic plague, but pneumonic plague was also present during the epidemic. The pneumonic plague was even more fatal, but it was not as predominant as the bubonic plague. Symptoms of the bubonic plagueThe Effect on Clergy and the Catholic Church during the Black Death. It is known that some family members would leave their own loved ones who had contracted the plague and venture to clean areas. Doctors would refuse treatment on the sick in hopes that they could what did the clergy do during the plague
The clergy in the Middle Ages were exempted from paying taxes because they were giving services to their parishioners and also provided spiritual satisfaction and care. They were the mediators between God and men. In the Middle Ages the Pope was powerful and influential.
Plague that first struck Europe in 1347 and killed perhaps onethird of population Black death Revolt by English peasants in 1381 in response to changing economic conditions The highly infectious nature of the plague was enhanced by urban congestion and lack of sanitation During the Hundred Years' War, the English kings were supported by some French barons what did the clergy do during the plague In general, during the plague, the clergy A) cared for the sick and buried the dead. B) fled to monasteries in the countryside. C) were relatively untouched by the epidemic. D) refused to administer sacraments to plague victims. E) let nuns take care of the sick.
In the autumn of 1347, the disease was brought by sailors returning from the Black Sea in the East. Italy was the first hit and the front line for the disease. At first, the citizens had no idea of the horror that would affect every part of their lives. When one person contracted the disease, what did the clergy do during the plague This thesis concerns the religious impact of the Black Death, the plague that devastated Europe during the middle of the fourteenth century. It explores the effect of the Black Death on the Catholic Church and the religious movements that emerged in response to it. Pope Clement VI (Latin: Clemens VI; 1291 6 December 1352), born Pierre Roger, was Pope from 7 May 1342 to his death in 1352. He was the fourth Avignon pope. Clement reigned during the first visitation of the Black Death ( ), during which he granted remission of sins to all who died of the plague What was the first symptom of the bubonic plague? A boil the size of a nut or apple in the armpit, groin, or neck. In general, what did the clergy do during the plague? A deadly epidemic known as the SixthCentury Plague or Justinian's plague struck Constantinople and parts of southern Europe 800 years earlier, but it did not spread as far as the Black Death, nor did it take nearly as many lives.Rating: 4.48 / Views: 509 | <urn:uuid:ef48f469-f549-4ae2-8c7a-f816bd6f3037> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://hugesoft.tk/63910-what-did-the-clergy-do-during-the-plague.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00060.warc.gz | en | 0.985977 | 597 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
-0.05090848356485367,
0.5129382014274597,
0.09563235938549042,
-0.16593822836875916,
0.09664802253246307,
-0.2887309491634369,
0.2700088620185852,
0.33067160844802856,
0.38416898250579834,
-0.26751863956451416,
-0.2744026184082031,
-0.2384168654680252,
-0.0026437602937221527,
0.10690619051... | 1 | What did the clergy do during the plague
The Black Death consisted mainly of one disease, the bubonic plague, but pneumonic plague was also present during the epidemic. The pneumonic plague was even more fatal, but it was not as predominant as the bubonic plague. Symptoms of the bubonic plagueThe Effect on Clergy and the Catholic Church during the Black Death. It is known that some family members would leave their own loved ones who had contracted the plague and venture to clean areas. Doctors would refuse treatment on the sick in hopes that they could what did the clergy do during the plague
The clergy in the Middle Ages were exempted from paying taxes because they were giving services to their parishioners and also provided spiritual satisfaction and care. They were the mediators between God and men. In the Middle Ages the Pope was powerful and influential.
Plague that first struck Europe in 1347 and killed perhaps onethird of population Black death Revolt by English peasants in 1381 in response to changing economic conditions The highly infectious nature of the plague was enhanced by urban congestion and lack of sanitation During the Hundred Years' War, the English kings were supported by some French barons what did the clergy do during the plague In general, during the plague, the clergy A) cared for the sick and buried the dead. B) fled to monasteries in the countryside. C) were relatively untouched by the epidemic. D) refused to administer sacraments to plague victims. E) let nuns take care of the sick.
In the autumn of 1347, the disease was brought by sailors returning from the Black Sea in the East. Italy was the first hit and the front line for the disease. At first, the citizens had no idea of the horror that would affect every part of their lives. When one person contracted the disease, what did the clergy do during the plague This thesis concerns the religious impact of the Black Death, the plague that devastated Europe during the middle of the fourteenth century. It explores the effect of the Black Death on the Catholic Church and the religious movements that emerged in response to it. Pope Clement VI (Latin: Clemens VI; 1291 6 December 1352), born Pierre Roger, was Pope from 7 May 1342 to his death in 1352. He was the fourth Avignon pope. Clement reigned during the first visitation of the Black Death ( ), during which he granted remission of sins to all who died of the plague What was the first symptom of the bubonic plague? A boil the size of a nut or apple in the armpit, groin, or neck. In general, what did the clergy do during the plague? A deadly epidemic known as the SixthCentury Plague or Justinian's plague struck Constantinople and parts of southern Europe 800 years earlier, but it did not spread as far as the Black Death, nor did it take nearly as many lives.Rating: 4.48 / Views: 509 | 628 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Pope Gregory X
Election to the papacy
After the ministry of the Bishop of Rome had been almost three years vacant after the death of Pope Clement IV - it was the longest since Sedisvakanz Marcellinus - the archdeacon of Liege Tebaldo Visconti was elected in absentia on September 1, 1271 to the Pope, to have been a priest without ever. Blame for these states was Charles of Anjou, King of Sicily, who set his dependent Cardinals him against the Cardinals, wanted to crown him as a counterweight to a new Roman-German king emperor. During this time, Charles consolidated his tyrannical regime, but lost his main goal, the conquest of Byzantium, not out of sight.
At the time of his election Gregory X was still in the army of Edward I of England on the Seventh Crusade in Palestine. There he instructed allegedly as the newly elected Pope at Acre, the three already located on their way to the Mongol chief commercial traveler Niccolò, Maffeo and Marco Polo officially to continue their journey to the Great Khan to this to convert to Christianity and to win as allies against Islam.
On March 13, 1272 Tebaldo Visconti then met in Rome, where he was ordained a priest on March 19 and used on March 27, when Pope Gregory X..
Gregory called the second Council of Lyons, in order to organize a new crusade, however, despite the commitments of the Kings of England, France and Sicily neither enough enthusiasm kindle still gain sufficient money for it, so this crusade did not materialize. On the other hand, it came to this Council at the instigation of Michael VIII, the Emperor of Byzantium, to reunite the Eastern to the Western Church. Emperor Michael wanted by the Union against the expansionist desires of King Charles, who was of course against the Union, protect. Charles, meanwhile, called King of Albania and continued his policy of conquest in Greece continued. This union came about despite the resistance of the Byzantine clergy and the Byzantine people. But the hatred of the Byzantines on Latinism and the West, especially because of the crimes committed in the Fourth Crusade crime was too great. That is why Emperor Michael could not prevail despite repressive measures at the end. His son and successor Andronikos II Palaiologos eventually recanted after he took office in 1282 the Union. The Pope could give at the end of a short truce between the Emperor Michael and King Charles.
However, the best known of today's viewpoint result of the synod was probably the decree Ubi periculum in which recognized the papal election, ten days after the that of the old Pope died and the conclave has been introduced to shorten the time until the election of a new pope. Thus, it was the Cardinals no longer allowed to the successful election of a pope to leave the premises where they met for this project.
As for the secular politics, Gregor sat for the settlement of disputes among the princes in Italy and Germany. He wrote himself a script to reconcile the Guelphs and Ghibellines, and also worked towards ending the interregnum in Germany. The new French king Philip III. France wanted the imperial dignity for themselves. However, the Pope rejected this requirement strictly. Also Ottokar II of Bohemia he refused to support for the German crown. Instead, he announced to the Elector that he would appoint a German king, they should not be able to decide - with the decisive reason for the insistence of Gregory must be seen in its search for support for his planned crusade. Then, in 1273, Count Rudolf of Habsburg was elected on 1 October in Frankfurt and crowned in Aachen on 24 October. After long negotiations, the Pope reached the waiver of Alfonso the German crown. Gregor tried in vain an alliance between King Rudolf and King Charles convey. He met with King Rudolf on October 20, 1275 in Lausanne, to appeal to him for the February 2, 1276 the imperial coronation to it but did not come because of the death of Gregory.
Gregory X died on January 10, 1276 in Arezzo, and was buried in the cathedral there.
He is revered in the Catholic Church as Seliger. His feast day is day of his death on January 10. | <urn:uuid:cf444458-aa64-4b42-864a-6008ea584ddf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://memim.com/pope-gregory-x.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00363.warc.gz | en | 0.980117 | 899 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
-0.33873140811920166,
0.28690454363822937,
0.11602722108364105,
0.12939023971557617,
-0.16959063708782196,
-0.07139173150062561,
-0.21019144356250763,
0.1812325417995453,
0.4367419481277466,
-0.05495605990290642,
-0.36968326568603516,
-0.22024181485176086,
0.05771469324827194,
0.2741248011... | 2 | Pope Gregory X
Election to the papacy
After the ministry of the Bishop of Rome had been almost three years vacant after the death of Pope Clement IV - it was the longest since Sedisvakanz Marcellinus - the archdeacon of Liege Tebaldo Visconti was elected in absentia on September 1, 1271 to the Pope, to have been a priest without ever. Blame for these states was Charles of Anjou, King of Sicily, who set his dependent Cardinals him against the Cardinals, wanted to crown him as a counterweight to a new Roman-German king emperor. During this time, Charles consolidated his tyrannical regime, but lost his main goal, the conquest of Byzantium, not out of sight.
At the time of his election Gregory X was still in the army of Edward I of England on the Seventh Crusade in Palestine. There he instructed allegedly as the newly elected Pope at Acre, the three already located on their way to the Mongol chief commercial traveler Niccolò, Maffeo and Marco Polo officially to continue their journey to the Great Khan to this to convert to Christianity and to win as allies against Islam.
On March 13, 1272 Tebaldo Visconti then met in Rome, where he was ordained a priest on March 19 and used on March 27, when Pope Gregory X..
Gregory called the second Council of Lyons, in order to organize a new crusade, however, despite the commitments of the Kings of England, France and Sicily neither enough enthusiasm kindle still gain sufficient money for it, so this crusade did not materialize. On the other hand, it came to this Council at the instigation of Michael VIII, the Emperor of Byzantium, to reunite the Eastern to the Western Church. Emperor Michael wanted by the Union against the expansionist desires of King Charles, who was of course against the Union, protect. Charles, meanwhile, called King of Albania and continued his policy of conquest in Greece continued. This union came about despite the resistance of the Byzantine clergy and the Byzantine people. But the hatred of the Byzantines on Latinism and the West, especially because of the crimes committed in the Fourth Crusade crime was too great. That is why Emperor Michael could not prevail despite repressive measures at the end. His son and successor Andronikos II Palaiologos eventually recanted after he took office in 1282 the Union. The Pope could give at the end of a short truce between the Emperor Michael and King Charles.
However, the best known of today's viewpoint result of the synod was probably the decree Ubi periculum in which recognized the papal election, ten days after the that of the old Pope died and the conclave has been introduced to shorten the time until the election of a new pope. Thus, it was the Cardinals no longer allowed to the successful election of a pope to leave the premises where they met for this project.
As for the secular politics, Gregor sat for the settlement of disputes among the princes in Italy and Germany. He wrote himself a script to reconcile the Guelphs and Ghibellines, and also worked towards ending the interregnum in Germany. The new French king Philip III. France wanted the imperial dignity for themselves. However, the Pope rejected this requirement strictly. Also Ottokar II of Bohemia he refused to support for the German crown. Instead, he announced to the Elector that he would appoint a German king, they should not be able to decide - with the decisive reason for the insistence of Gregory must be seen in its search for support for his planned crusade. Then, in 1273, Count Rudolf of Habsburg was elected on 1 October in Frankfurt and crowned in Aachen on 24 October. After long negotiations, the Pope reached the waiver of Alfonso the German crown. Gregor tried in vain an alliance between King Rudolf and King Charles convey. He met with King Rudolf on October 20, 1275 in Lausanne, to appeal to him for the February 2, 1276 the imperial coronation to it but did not come because of the death of Gregory.
Gregory X died on January 10, 1276 in Arezzo, and was buried in the cathedral there.
He is revered in the Catholic Church as Seliger. His feast day is day of his death on January 10. | 936 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This half term Year 2 have explored the theme, animals and their young. In story time, Year 2 have read and enjoyed the book, 'The Owl Who Was Afraid of The Dark' by Jill Tomlinson. They have also used this as a core text in their whole class reading sessions as they have investigated vocabulary and sequenced events within the story. This has linked to their science curriculum theme, 'Animals and their young'. In science, children have investigated what animals need to survive and the similarities and differences between animals and their young. The children have thoroughly enjoyed researching owls and they have applied their research in the form of a non-chronological report that they will share with children from Early Years. As part of their curriculum, Year 2 were fortunate enough to meet some owls in school and learn about them in a tangible way.
Noticeably, this half term's learning has allowed our children to experience the awe and wonder of the natural world. As a result, our children have become passionate about the current situation regarding climate change and the affect that it is having on our planet and animal's habitats. This has led them to organise a campaign march to raise awareness of climate change within their community. The event will take place on Thursday 19th December from 1:45 to 2:15pm. As a year group, we are excited to demonstrate how our learning is impacting on real world issues and we hope that you can join us for the event. | <urn:uuid:7ee6260a-e066-4953-8542-f802e79a20bc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.highhazelsacademy.org.uk/learning/class-blogs/year-2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00221.warc.gz | en | 0.982396 | 297 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
0.18753337860107422,
0.031482063233852386,
0.166746586561203,
-0.019151559099555016,
-0.05043228343129158,
0.2572011351585388,
-0.33017072081565857,
0.31981393694877625,
0.021320682018995285,
-0.0187129657715559,
0.024021167308092117,
-0.4102553427219391,
0.18798339366912842,
0.42981454730... | 1 | This half term Year 2 have explored the theme, animals and their young. In story time, Year 2 have read and enjoyed the book, 'The Owl Who Was Afraid of The Dark' by Jill Tomlinson. They have also used this as a core text in their whole class reading sessions as they have investigated vocabulary and sequenced events within the story. This has linked to their science curriculum theme, 'Animals and their young'. In science, children have investigated what animals need to survive and the similarities and differences between animals and their young. The children have thoroughly enjoyed researching owls and they have applied their research in the form of a non-chronological report that they will share with children from Early Years. As part of their curriculum, Year 2 were fortunate enough to meet some owls in school and learn about them in a tangible way.
Noticeably, this half term's learning has allowed our children to experience the awe and wonder of the natural world. As a result, our children have become passionate about the current situation regarding climate change and the affect that it is having on our planet and animal's habitats. This has led them to organise a campaign march to raise awareness of climate change within their community. The event will take place on Thursday 19th December from 1:45 to 2:15pm. As a year group, we are excited to demonstrate how our learning is impacting on real world issues and we hope that you can join us for the event. | 305 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Memorial Day was originally called Decoration Day and started a few years after the bloodiest and costliest battle in US history ended. This war we know today as the Civil War. What many thought would be a quick war between the Northern states and the seceding Southern states, the Civil War lasted for four years and over 600,000 people died during the war’s tenure.
It is not known when Memorial Day began because many communities had some sort of remembrance service for the soldiers. However, in 1966, a town in New York State called Waterloo, was declared the first place in the United States to have officially started the holiday, by the US government. It was the first recorded place to have a big celebration and closed businesses and schools and the local residents went to the cemetery to adorn the graves of the fallen soldiers with flags and flowers. in remembrance of them. The date was May 5, 1866.
In 1868, General John A. Logan, a former general in the Civil War, was now a congressman, sponsored a piece of legislation called General Order #11. In it he proposed that May 30 be a special day of remembrance for the fallen soldiers. In the order, the general writes:
The 30th day of May, 1868, is designated for the purpose of strewing with flowers or otherwise decorating the graves of comrades who died in defense of their country during the late rebellion, and whose bodies now lie in almost every city, village, and hamlet church-yard in the land. In this observance no form of ceremony is prescribed, but posts and comrades will in their own way arrange such fitting services and testimonials of respect as circumstances may permit.
May 30th was chosen because there was no specific battle won or lost on that day in the Civil War. It would become to be known as Decoration Day. On the very first celebration of Decoration Day, President Garfield made a speech at Arlington National cemetery and there were about 5,000 participants there and they decorated the graves of 20,000 Civil War soldiers.
It wasn’t until after World War I that Decoration Day was celebrated to honor all soldiers from all wars that The US was involved in. Then in 1971, Decoration Day would become Memorial Day and was declared a national holiday, to fall on the last Monday in May, so Federal employees would have a three-day weekend to honor and celebrate those who fought for our freedoms.
Many cities and towns celebrate by decorating graves and visiting memorials. Parades were, and still are, were held by these cities and towns in remembrance. People have also held parties and cook-outs to celebrate Memorial Day and unofficially use the day as the start of the summer season.
As always, if you can read this article, thank a teacher. If you live in the US and can read it in American English, thank a soldier.
Editor's Picks Articles
Top Ten Articles
Content copyright © 2019 by Vance Rowe. All rights reserved.
This content was written by Vance Rowe. If you wish to use this content in any manner, you need written permission. Contact Clare Stubbs for details. | <urn:uuid:c5652fec-3422-448b-962f-96c1f4cf11f5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art181854.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00049.warc.gz | en | 0.981657 | 650 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
-0.20199909806251526,
0.45079439878463745,
0.7214206457138062,
0.14895561337471008,
-0.3778921961784363,
0.05781971290707588,
0.017445659264922142,
0.029410477727651596,
-0.05727778747677803,
0.11385582387447357,
0.09496608376502991,
0.46379101276397705,
-0.03214973211288452,
0.71288329362... | 2 | Memorial Day was originally called Decoration Day and started a few years after the bloodiest and costliest battle in US history ended. This war we know today as the Civil War. What many thought would be a quick war between the Northern states and the seceding Southern states, the Civil War lasted for four years and over 600,000 people died during the war’s tenure.
It is not known when Memorial Day began because many communities had some sort of remembrance service for the soldiers. However, in 1966, a town in New York State called Waterloo, was declared the first place in the United States to have officially started the holiday, by the US government. It was the first recorded place to have a big celebration and closed businesses and schools and the local residents went to the cemetery to adorn the graves of the fallen soldiers with flags and flowers. in remembrance of them. The date was May 5, 1866.
In 1868, General John A. Logan, a former general in the Civil War, was now a congressman, sponsored a piece of legislation called General Order #11. In it he proposed that May 30 be a special day of remembrance for the fallen soldiers. In the order, the general writes:
The 30th day of May, 1868, is designated for the purpose of strewing with flowers or otherwise decorating the graves of comrades who died in defense of their country during the late rebellion, and whose bodies now lie in almost every city, village, and hamlet church-yard in the land. In this observance no form of ceremony is prescribed, but posts and comrades will in their own way arrange such fitting services and testimonials of respect as circumstances may permit.
May 30th was chosen because there was no specific battle won or lost on that day in the Civil War. It would become to be known as Decoration Day. On the very first celebration of Decoration Day, President Garfield made a speech at Arlington National cemetery and there were about 5,000 participants there and they decorated the graves of 20,000 Civil War soldiers.
It wasn’t until after World War I that Decoration Day was celebrated to honor all soldiers from all wars that The US was involved in. Then in 1971, Decoration Day would become Memorial Day and was declared a national holiday, to fall on the last Monday in May, so Federal employees would have a three-day weekend to honor and celebrate those who fought for our freedoms.
Many cities and towns celebrate by decorating graves and visiting memorials. Parades were, and still are, were held by these cities and towns in remembrance. People have also held parties and cook-outs to celebrate Memorial Day and unofficially use the day as the start of the summer season.
As always, if you can read this article, thank a teacher. If you live in the US and can read it in American English, thank a soldier.
Editor's Picks Articles
Top Ten Articles
Content copyright © 2019 by Vance Rowe. All rights reserved.
This content was written by Vance Rowe. If you wish to use this content in any manner, you need written permission. Contact Clare Stubbs for details. | 669 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Civil War The war that changed America.The Civil War is the central event in America 's historical consciousness. While the Revolution of 1776-1783 created the United States, the Civil War of 1861-1865 determined what kind of nation it would be. The Civil War started because of uncompromising differences between the free and slave states over the power of the national government to prohibit slavery in the territories that had not yet become states.The Civil War took place in several different places they fought , from southern Pennsylvania to Texas; from New Mexico to the Florida coast. Most of the fighting took place in the states of Virginia and Tennessee. The war finally ended in Spring, 1865.The civil war was a defining moment in America. It finished servitude, prompted military advancements, and how the North won the war.
The civil war led to many military innovations. Some innovations that were developed were naval mines, torpedoes, gatline gun, long range weapons and the minie bullet. These innovations came in handy for the north and the south during the the war.
Naval mines were developed by the confederates in hopes of counteracting the Union’s blockades of Southern ports. Mies and later following torpedoes were very effective they sunk about 40 Union ships.These mines were so successful that it led to creation of landmines and grenades which were used in later wars.
The gatlin gun was amusing it was a machine gun made by Richard Gatling.He invented… | <urn:uuid:17c88023-3de2-4ae5-838e-4b237e3b5d40> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.cram.com/essay/Civil-War-America-s-Historical-Consciousness/FKY2RR79J55Q | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00056.warc.gz | en | 0.980034 | 305 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
-0.2187604010105133,
0.1709565371274948,
0.3406107425689697,
0.038092516362667084,
-0.08899340778589249,
0.16458997130393982,
0.05885545164346695,
0.19161850214004517,
-0.5454749464988708,
0.11195708066225052,
0.1000172421336174,
0.14981549978256226,
-0.1556944102048874,
0.3022353649139404... | 1 | Civil War The war that changed America.The Civil War is the central event in America 's historical consciousness. While the Revolution of 1776-1783 created the United States, the Civil War of 1861-1865 determined what kind of nation it would be. The Civil War started because of uncompromising differences between the free and slave states over the power of the national government to prohibit slavery in the territories that had not yet become states.The Civil War took place in several different places they fought , from southern Pennsylvania to Texas; from New Mexico to the Florida coast. Most of the fighting took place in the states of Virginia and Tennessee. The war finally ended in Spring, 1865.The civil war was a defining moment in America. It finished servitude, prompted military advancements, and how the North won the war.
The civil war led to many military innovations. Some innovations that were developed were naval mines, torpedoes, gatline gun, long range weapons and the minie bullet. These innovations came in handy for the north and the south during the the war.
Naval mines were developed by the confederates in hopes of counteracting the Union’s blockades of Southern ports. Mies and later following torpedoes were very effective they sunk about 40 Union ships.These mines were so successful that it led to creation of landmines and grenades which were used in later wars.
The gatlin gun was amusing it was a machine gun made by Richard Gatling.He invented… | 316 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Aswan High Dam Overview
There are some truly extraordinary tourist attractions dotted around Aswan. Many tourists visiting Aswan come to marvel at the High Dam, which has become somewhat of a local attraction in its own right.
The Aswan Dam is an embankment dam situated across the Nile River in Aswan. The dam, known as Sad el Aali in Arabic. The world famous High Dam was an engineering miracle when it was built in the 1960s at a cost of about $1 billion but has had a significant impact on the economy and culture of Egypt.
The High dam was actually the second dam at Aswan, the first one having been built in 1889. At the time Egypt was controlled by the British and they were interested in increased irrigation capabilities for cash crops, such as cotton.
Due to the irregular flooding pattern of the Nile River and increased water demands, the dam had to be raised on 2 occasions (1912 and 1933) in order to ensure its continued usefulness and safety. When debates began again over raising the Aswan High Dam Attractions dam a third time, suggestions were made to possibly build a new super dam.
More than 35,000 people were involved in the construction of the High Dam, which has become a huge source of energy in Egypt, and before the floodwaters of Lake Nasser arrived, no less than 24 different major archeological sites and temples were successfully relocated, so that they would not be lost beneath the waters forever.
It provides Egypt with water and electricity, and secures the country from the risk of the destructive inundation of the River Nile. With the reservoir storage provided by the Aswan dams, the floods could be lessened and the water stored for later release.
The Aswan High Dam provides about a half of Egypt's power supply and has improved navigation along the river by keeping the water flow consistent. The Aswan High Dam has produced several negative side effects.
The world's largest man-made lake! This lake also has an immense fish population. The Nile River and now the Aswan High Dam is Egypt's lifeline. It was the world's largest artificial lake. | <urn:uuid:da2bbe68-87cc-4ff5-ba16-a00dfc9d346c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.privatetoursinegypt.com/High-Dam-attraction32 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00153.warc.gz | en | 0.981509 | 435 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
-0.33311042189598083,
0.7676931023597717,
0.24617019295692444,
0.049146052449941635,
-0.3248900771141052,
-0.2216450572013855,
0.740232527256012,
-0.3108518421649933,
-0.5057112574577332,
-0.05747317522764206,
0.47469738125801086,
-0.608618438243866,
0.2043212652206421,
0.3900231719017029,... | 2 | Aswan High Dam Overview
There are some truly extraordinary tourist attractions dotted around Aswan. Many tourists visiting Aswan come to marvel at the High Dam, which has become somewhat of a local attraction in its own right.
The Aswan Dam is an embankment dam situated across the Nile River in Aswan. The dam, known as Sad el Aali in Arabic. The world famous High Dam was an engineering miracle when it was built in the 1960s at a cost of about $1 billion but has had a significant impact on the economy and culture of Egypt.
The High dam was actually the second dam at Aswan, the first one having been built in 1889. At the time Egypt was controlled by the British and they were interested in increased irrigation capabilities for cash crops, such as cotton.
Due to the irregular flooding pattern of the Nile River and increased water demands, the dam had to be raised on 2 occasions (1912 and 1933) in order to ensure its continued usefulness and safety. When debates began again over raising the Aswan High Dam Attractions dam a third time, suggestions were made to possibly build a new super dam.
More than 35,000 people were involved in the construction of the High Dam, which has become a huge source of energy in Egypt, and before the floodwaters of Lake Nasser arrived, no less than 24 different major archeological sites and temples were successfully relocated, so that they would not be lost beneath the waters forever.
It provides Egypt with water and electricity, and secures the country from the risk of the destructive inundation of the River Nile. With the reservoir storage provided by the Aswan dams, the floods could be lessened and the water stored for later release.
The Aswan High Dam provides about a half of Egypt's power supply and has improved navigation along the river by keeping the water flow consistent. The Aswan High Dam has produced several negative side effects.
The world's largest man-made lake! This lake also has an immense fish population. The Nile River and now the Aswan High Dam is Egypt's lifeline. It was the world's largest artificial lake. | 449 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Twelfth Century?How Well Did the English Exchequer Function in the Twelfth Century?
The English exchequer was the central board responsible for all in
comings and out goings into the royal treasury. It arrived with the Normans and
was the first system of centralized revenue extraction to appear that although
crude was adirect predecessor to the modern one.
The information on how the Exchequer functioned as a method of
institutionalised revenue extraction is from the ‘The course of the Exchequer’
written by Richard son of Nigel. The text provides a one sided argument into
the merits of the Exchequer as Richard himself is the treasurer. The text is
written in a typically classical dialogue style with a ‘master’ dictating to his
‘scholar’. Richard also presents himself as a well educated and intelligent man
through his grasp of Latin and his quotations from Biblical and classical texts
as well as alluding to philosophy through his talk of logic.
The interesting proposition therefore is who was interested in such a
complicated text and why was it produced. The system of the Exchequer was a
complex one that would have been understood by few at the time. By attempting
to describe this system in a way that presents it as equitable, it could have
convinced the Barons and others paying taxes of the validity and fairness of a
system of which they would have had little comprehension. This would also be
helped by Richards apparently good grasp of the area.
The Exchequer board was the highest office that could be obtained in the
royal circle and was the most powerful and prestigious as it presided over all
financial matters. It allowed records to be formed and general standards to be
maintained. The ultimate power of the exchequer is aptly put in the text…”
where your treasure is, there will your heart be also.
The Exchequer had a greater role than just recording revenue as it
provided a forum where judgments could be made and disputes about financial
matters could be settled. It also saw commands depersonalized through the use
of writs which can be described as the routinization of charisma’ (Clanchy,
1979). The King no longer had to have any direct influence over a command and
some form of general standard could be applied.
In command of the Exchequer was the Kings Chief Justiciar who was
effectively second in command from the King. He presided over the whole board
and was the only one besides the king himself who could reverse decisions once
they had been made. Any writs from the treasury for payment and expenditure had
to be authorized by him.
The exchequer was structured into a lower and higher board which
contained various officials, Kings dignitaries, clerks and scribes to ensure
that any decisions that were reached were recorded accurately. The members who
played an active role in the exchequer were the tallies clerk who held all the
counter tallies of receipt, an accountant who used the actual exchequer board
and counters to record all financial in comings and out goings and the treasurer
who recorded all goings on. Above all these men were scribes who recorded again
precisely what was written down and to ensure that this was correct they
checked it against each other at the conclusion of the session.
Other important officials that sat on the exchequer board were the
chancellor who was the keeper of the kings official signature, his seal.
Another was the constable who had to witness all writs as well as sort out
payment to the kings various mercenaries and wage earners. Chamberlains
performed the task of collating the account into a forel and then presenting
them to the treasury on behalf of the sheriff of a particular county. There was
a Marshall responsible for arresting any debtor who had failed to pay.
A significant part of the system were the tally sticks that were given
as receipts for any payment. The sticks were notched in different ways
according to the amount being recorded. This stick was then split in two with
the debtor receiving half and the other portion tied together to form totals.
Receipts were probably given in this way as they were more likely to survive and
in a time of relatively widespread illiteracy easier to understand. This
simplistic method was very precise as can be seen by its continual use up until
the nineteenth century.
The accounts were formed by a clerk who made out the account using coins
for counters on the exchequer board which was essentially like an abacus. This
appears to have been a very complicated process. The counters are placed in the
desired position and then the figures were called out and recorded by a scribe
which must have been extremely hard work. The treasury received all account
from the sheriffs of different counties and were written onto a role. In all
three separate roles were kept.
Being on the board of the exchequer appears to have involved long hours
and a high degree of pressure. In the course of the exchequer it is stated
that…”the treasurer, indeed, is beset by so many constant great cares and
anxieties, that he cannot be blamed if sleep sometimes over takes him in the
middle of it all.”
The general problems faced by the exchequer would best be summed up by
the text…”Moreover, in human affairs scarcely anything is absolutely perfect.”
The exchequer even if limited by technology capable of adding the figures was
ultimately aided by its reliance on human endeavor. It appears that it
functioned by accountability, that is each members accountability to another.
This occurred from the scribes and the clerks right up to the chief justiciar
and ultimately the King. TheExchequer functioned as a bureaucratic
organization with records being written and taxes collected in an organised,
literate way and was not only a sign of the development of a feudal system in
England but as a precursor to the modern state.
Clanchy M. T, From Memory to Written Record, 2nd ed. Cambridge 1989
Richard son of Nigel, The Course of the Exchequer, trans. C. Johnson, London | <urn:uuid:cec91411-76de-48b0-ae26-03dd6a2cc751> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://aero-net.org/how-well-did-the-english-exchequer-function-in-the/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00305.warc.gz | en | 0.981658 | 1,322 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
-0.20445804297924042,
0.010597286745905876,
0.07415316998958588,
-0.25470563769340515,
-0.10100208222866058,
-0.20255279541015625,
0.20402586460113525,
0.29551076889038086,
-0.15861445665359497,
-0.0015286467969417572,
-0.2703801989555359,
-0.2391325682401657,
0.39733025431632996,
0.140579... | 1 | Twelfth Century?How Well Did the English Exchequer Function in the Twelfth Century?
The English exchequer was the central board responsible for all in
comings and out goings into the royal treasury. It arrived with the Normans and
was the first system of centralized revenue extraction to appear that although
crude was adirect predecessor to the modern one.
The information on how the Exchequer functioned as a method of
institutionalised revenue extraction is from the ‘The course of the Exchequer’
written by Richard son of Nigel. The text provides a one sided argument into
the merits of the Exchequer as Richard himself is the treasurer. The text is
written in a typically classical dialogue style with a ‘master’ dictating to his
‘scholar’. Richard also presents himself as a well educated and intelligent man
through his grasp of Latin and his quotations from Biblical and classical texts
as well as alluding to philosophy through his talk of logic.
The interesting proposition therefore is who was interested in such a
complicated text and why was it produced. The system of the Exchequer was a
complex one that would have been understood by few at the time. By attempting
to describe this system in a way that presents it as equitable, it could have
convinced the Barons and others paying taxes of the validity and fairness of a
system of which they would have had little comprehension. This would also be
helped by Richards apparently good grasp of the area.
The Exchequer board was the highest office that could be obtained in the
royal circle and was the most powerful and prestigious as it presided over all
financial matters. It allowed records to be formed and general standards to be
maintained. The ultimate power of the exchequer is aptly put in the text…”
where your treasure is, there will your heart be also.
The Exchequer had a greater role than just recording revenue as it
provided a forum where judgments could be made and disputes about financial
matters could be settled. It also saw commands depersonalized through the use
of writs which can be described as the routinization of charisma’ (Clanchy,
1979). The King no longer had to have any direct influence over a command and
some form of general standard could be applied.
In command of the Exchequer was the Kings Chief Justiciar who was
effectively second in command from the King. He presided over the whole board
and was the only one besides the king himself who could reverse decisions once
they had been made. Any writs from the treasury for payment and expenditure had
to be authorized by him.
The exchequer was structured into a lower and higher board which
contained various officials, Kings dignitaries, clerks and scribes to ensure
that any decisions that were reached were recorded accurately. The members who
played an active role in the exchequer were the tallies clerk who held all the
counter tallies of receipt, an accountant who used the actual exchequer board
and counters to record all financial in comings and out goings and the treasurer
who recorded all goings on. Above all these men were scribes who recorded again
precisely what was written down and to ensure that this was correct they
checked it against each other at the conclusion of the session.
Other important officials that sat on the exchequer board were the
chancellor who was the keeper of the kings official signature, his seal.
Another was the constable who had to witness all writs as well as sort out
payment to the kings various mercenaries and wage earners. Chamberlains
performed the task of collating the account into a forel and then presenting
them to the treasury on behalf of the sheriff of a particular county. There was
a Marshall responsible for arresting any debtor who had failed to pay.
A significant part of the system were the tally sticks that were given
as receipts for any payment. The sticks were notched in different ways
according to the amount being recorded. This stick was then split in two with
the debtor receiving half and the other portion tied together to form totals.
Receipts were probably given in this way as they were more likely to survive and
in a time of relatively widespread illiteracy easier to understand. This
simplistic method was very precise as can be seen by its continual use up until
the nineteenth century.
The accounts were formed by a clerk who made out the account using coins
for counters on the exchequer board which was essentially like an abacus. This
appears to have been a very complicated process. The counters are placed in the
desired position and then the figures were called out and recorded by a scribe
which must have been extremely hard work. The treasury received all account
from the sheriffs of different counties and were written onto a role. In all
three separate roles were kept.
Being on the board of the exchequer appears to have involved long hours
and a high degree of pressure. In the course of the exchequer it is stated
that…”the treasurer, indeed, is beset by so many constant great cares and
anxieties, that he cannot be blamed if sleep sometimes over takes him in the
middle of it all.”
The general problems faced by the exchequer would best be summed up by
the text…”Moreover, in human affairs scarcely anything is absolutely perfect.”
The exchequer even if limited by technology capable of adding the figures was
ultimately aided by its reliance on human endeavor. It appears that it
functioned by accountability, that is each members accountability to another.
This occurred from the scribes and the clerks right up to the chief justiciar
and ultimately the King. TheExchequer functioned as a bureaucratic
organization with records being written and taxes collected in an organised,
literate way and was not only a sign of the development of a feudal system in
England but as a precursor to the modern state.
Clanchy M. T, From Memory to Written Record, 2nd ed. Cambridge 1989
Richard son of Nigel, The Course of the Exchequer, trans. C. Johnson, London | 1,292 | ENGLISH | 1 |
6.2 How Divided Attention Affects Multitasking
Meet John. He is a teenager going to high school. When he gets home every day, he turns on the television to his favorite after school program ,and then he takes out his homework. He wants to do both at the same time so that when he finishes his television program, he will also be done with his homework. Then he can go and play with his friends. When he is watching his television program and doing his homework, he has what is called divided attention. He is giving attention to two or more tasks at the same time.
By doing two tasks at once, John is trying to multitask. To multitask means to do two or more tasks at the same time. When John is multitasking, he has divided attention. John is not able to give either activity his complete and undivided attention. He cannot fully watch his program, and he cannot fully pay attention to his homework. How does this affect John? Let’s find out.
At the end of week, John’s teacher gives him an unexpected pop quiz. How does John do? John finds himself staring blankly at some of the test questions. He can’t remember what he learned this past week. He remembers part of the television program he watched, but he is having trouble remembering what he did with his homework.
The teacher told him that all of the questions on this quiz are coming from the homework this past week. John is getting upset with himself because he knows he did all his homework, but he just can’t remember how he solved the problems. John wishes he wouldn’t have tried to watch the television program and do his homework at the same time. He looks back and realizes that because he is not giving full attention to his homework, his brain isn’t able to process what he is learning. As a result, John’s grades suffer.
Ah yes, by giving divided attention to his multitasking, John has learned a lesson the hard way. Divided attention while multitasking is negatively affecting his learning. He doesn’t remember much, and he isn’t able to build on what he already knows.
John decides that from now on, when he is doing homework, he won’t be anything else. He will give his undivided attention to doing his homework. He doesn’t want to feel like he did on the day of the pop quiz. To help him succeed, he plans on working only on homework for 15 minutes, then taking a minute or two to do something else, and then going back to the homework for another 15 minutes. He will repeat this work, break, work cycle until he finished his homework. The breaks in between will give John the motivation he needs to stay on task for those 15 minutes.
We have just seen how John performs while multitasking. This topic of divided attention while multitasking is of great interest to scientists. Some people think that they can get more accomplished while multitasking, but what scientists have found is that almost no one can truly multitask. You are either working on the one task or the other.
In fact, when most people try to multitask, the tasks that they are working on suffer. In one study, scientists found that when people listen to music while driving, it decreases their focus on driving by 37 percent. That’s quite a decrease. You can see how much easier it is for the driver to get into an accident.
Researchers have conducted many variations of tests on multitasking ability, requiring people to attend to a primary task and a secondary task, then testing for memory on the first task. These tests affirm that learning is affected by multitasking.
Let’s review what we’ve learned from John. Divided attention is giving attention to two or more tasks at the same time. To multitask means to do two or more tasks at the same time. You have divided attention when you are multitasking. Unfortunately, divided attention while multitasking negatively affects memory and learning. Less information is retained and processed when multitasking. | <urn:uuid:249f4a7c-b76f-48d7-a520-c88560d846be> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://eugeniesantiago.com/me/2020/01/13/6-2-how-divided-attention-affects-multitasking/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00229.warc.gz | en | 0.985702 | 849 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
-0.23684310913085938,
0.17109936475753784,
0.3378521203994751,
-0.11157945543527603,
-0.30140411853790283,
0.04862957447767258,
0.5208796262741089,
0.1186196357011795,
0.353889524936676,
-0.16639487445354462,
-0.006066012661904097,
-0.006181098520755768,
0.18670117855072021,
0.605937600135... | 1 | 6.2 How Divided Attention Affects Multitasking
Meet John. He is a teenager going to high school. When he gets home every day, he turns on the television to his favorite after school program ,and then he takes out his homework. He wants to do both at the same time so that when he finishes his television program, he will also be done with his homework. Then he can go and play with his friends. When he is watching his television program and doing his homework, he has what is called divided attention. He is giving attention to two or more tasks at the same time.
By doing two tasks at once, John is trying to multitask. To multitask means to do two or more tasks at the same time. When John is multitasking, he has divided attention. John is not able to give either activity his complete and undivided attention. He cannot fully watch his program, and he cannot fully pay attention to his homework. How does this affect John? Let’s find out.
At the end of week, John’s teacher gives him an unexpected pop quiz. How does John do? John finds himself staring blankly at some of the test questions. He can’t remember what he learned this past week. He remembers part of the television program he watched, but he is having trouble remembering what he did with his homework.
The teacher told him that all of the questions on this quiz are coming from the homework this past week. John is getting upset with himself because he knows he did all his homework, but he just can’t remember how he solved the problems. John wishes he wouldn’t have tried to watch the television program and do his homework at the same time. He looks back and realizes that because he is not giving full attention to his homework, his brain isn’t able to process what he is learning. As a result, John’s grades suffer.
Ah yes, by giving divided attention to his multitasking, John has learned a lesson the hard way. Divided attention while multitasking is negatively affecting his learning. He doesn’t remember much, and he isn’t able to build on what he already knows.
John decides that from now on, when he is doing homework, he won’t be anything else. He will give his undivided attention to doing his homework. He doesn’t want to feel like he did on the day of the pop quiz. To help him succeed, he plans on working only on homework for 15 minutes, then taking a minute or two to do something else, and then going back to the homework for another 15 minutes. He will repeat this work, break, work cycle until he finished his homework. The breaks in between will give John the motivation he needs to stay on task for those 15 minutes.
We have just seen how John performs while multitasking. This topic of divided attention while multitasking is of great interest to scientists. Some people think that they can get more accomplished while multitasking, but what scientists have found is that almost no one can truly multitask. You are either working on the one task or the other.
In fact, when most people try to multitask, the tasks that they are working on suffer. In one study, scientists found that when people listen to music while driving, it decreases their focus on driving by 37 percent. That’s quite a decrease. You can see how much easier it is for the driver to get into an accident.
Researchers have conducted many variations of tests on multitasking ability, requiring people to attend to a primary task and a secondary task, then testing for memory on the first task. These tests affirm that learning is affected by multitasking.
Let’s review what we’ve learned from John. Divided attention is giving attention to two or more tasks at the same time. To multitask means to do two or more tasks at the same time. You have divided attention when you are multitasking. Unfortunately, divided attention while multitasking negatively affects memory and learning. Less information is retained and processed when multitasking. | 820 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The story goes that when the fist class of Montessori Primary (age 3 – 6) opened in Rome, Italy, the children were not taught math until they asked if they could study it. It was when the 3 – 6 children asked to use the math materials from the elementary classes and where more successful at the learning these concept, that math began to be a important part of the Primary Level for children from the age of three to six.
Many people misunderstand, at first, what is means to learn math at this age. They remember how they learned the multiplication tables for example – tedious and boring, hours of painful repetition that was certainly not the first choice of their activities.
In the 3 -6 class, children love to learn the quantities and symbols for numbers in the thousands. What is in it? | <urn:uuid:84c3348f-5434-4124-a1e4-2ef80bf90014> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alefbetmontessori.org/directors-desk/is-it-too-early-for-math/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00412.warc.gz | en | 0.980804 | 165 | 3.5 | 4 | [
-0.09053996205329895,
-0.054413989186286926,
0.24373535811901093,
-0.3482774496078491,
-0.758466899394989,
0.1431271731853485,
0.03874676674604416,
0.15140734612941742,
0.031781770288944244,
0.09144054353237152,
0.4170948266983032,
-0.05357050150632858,
-0.004795404616743326,
0.38877868652... | 2 | The story goes that when the fist class of Montessori Primary (age 3 – 6) opened in Rome, Italy, the children were not taught math until they asked if they could study it. It was when the 3 – 6 children asked to use the math materials from the elementary classes and where more successful at the learning these concept, that math began to be a important part of the Primary Level for children from the age of three to six.
Many people misunderstand, at first, what is means to learn math at this age. They remember how they learned the multiplication tables for example – tedious and boring, hours of painful repetition that was certainly not the first choice of their activities.
In the 3 -6 class, children love to learn the quantities and symbols for numbers in the thousands. What is in it? | 168 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Collection Storage Facility
Purchase in 1972
The Peter Hamilton Manufacturing Company was established in Peterborough in 1848. It produced a range of agricultural implements, including cultivators, reapers, and threshers.
Threshing machines separate grain from the harvested plant, which is reduced to straw and chaff. The first threshing machines were stationary: powered by hand or treadmill, they increased the amount of grain a farmer could separate in a day. Wheeled threshing machines began to replace stationary threshers in the 1860s and further mechanized grain harvesting. Threshers were initially built of wood and powered by horse-powered windlasses; they were later built of steel and powered by steam traction engines and gas tractors. Threshers were in turn replaced through the twentieth century by combine harvesters, which merged harvesting and threshing operations in one machine.
The “Fenlon’s Smasher” is an excellent example of a late nineteenth century stationary thresher; in this period threshers were being mounted on wheels and were typically outfitted with such features that further sped the process of grain separation. With its high rear straw stacker and vibrating decks, the Smasher shares many of the features of wheeled threshers. Larger than earlier ground threshers, the Smasher would have been horse-powered or driven by a steam traction engine. | <urn:uuid:03f9765e-a023-4025-8d5a-ba70b5576708> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ingeniumcanada.org/artifact/hamilton-fenlons-smasher-stationary-thresher | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00239.warc.gz | en | 0.982519 | 288 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
-0.22990867495536804,
0.180430069565773,
0.14089544117450714,
0.2226359248161316,
-0.14662106335163116,
-0.16139031946659088,
-0.06867881864309311,
0.058578476309776306,
-0.4174264669418335,
0.08721176534891129,
-0.3795894384384155,
-0.9332712888717651,
-0.12013109773397446,
0.265743046998... | 5 | Collection Storage Facility
Purchase in 1972
The Peter Hamilton Manufacturing Company was established in Peterborough in 1848. It produced a range of agricultural implements, including cultivators, reapers, and threshers.
Threshing machines separate grain from the harvested plant, which is reduced to straw and chaff. The first threshing machines were stationary: powered by hand or treadmill, they increased the amount of grain a farmer could separate in a day. Wheeled threshing machines began to replace stationary threshers in the 1860s and further mechanized grain harvesting. Threshers were initially built of wood and powered by horse-powered windlasses; they were later built of steel and powered by steam traction engines and gas tractors. Threshers were in turn replaced through the twentieth century by combine harvesters, which merged harvesting and threshing operations in one machine.
The “Fenlon’s Smasher” is an excellent example of a late nineteenth century stationary thresher; in this period threshers were being mounted on wheels and were typically outfitted with such features that further sped the process of grain separation. With its high rear straw stacker and vibrating decks, the Smasher shares many of the features of wheeled threshers. Larger than earlier ground threshers, the Smasher would have been horse-powered or driven by a steam traction engine. | 279 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The cult and doctrine of Gautama, gathering corruptions and variations from Brahminism and Hellenism alike, was spread throughout India by an increasing multitude of teachers in the fourth and third centuries B.C. For some generations at least it retained much of the moral beauty and something of the simplicity of the opening phase. Many people who have no intellectual grasp upon the meaning of self-abnegation and disinterestedness have nevertheless the ability to appreciate a splendour in the reality of these qualities. Early Buddhism was certainly producing noble lives, and it is not only through reason that the latent response to nobility is aroused in our minds. It spread rather in spite of than because of the concessions that it made to vulgar imaginations. It spread because many of the early Buddhists were sweet and gentle, helpful and noble and admirable people, who compelled belief in their sustaining faith.
Quite early in its career Buddhism came into conflict with the growing pretensions of the Brahmins. As we have already noted, this priestly caste was still only struggling to dominate Indian life in the days of Gautama. They had already great advantages. They had the monopoly of tradition and religious sacrifices. But their power was being challenged by the development of kingship, for the men who became clanleaders and kings were usually not of the Brahminical caste.
Kingship received an impetus from the Persian and Greek invasions of the Punjab. We have already noted the name of King Porus whom, in spite of his elephants, Alexander defeated and turned into a satrap. There came also to the Greek camp upon the Indus a certain low-caste adventurer named Chandragupta Maurya, whom the Greeks called Sandracottus, with a scheme for conquering the Ganges country. The scheme was not welcome to the Macedonians, who were in revolt against marching any further into India, and he had to fly the camp. He wandered among the tribes upon the north-west frontier, secured their support, and after Alexander had departed, overran the Punjab, ousting the Macedonian representatives. He then conquered the Ganges country (321 B.C.), waged a successful war (303 B.C.) against Seleucus (Seleucus I) when the latter attempted to re-
- Rhys Davids. He was the son of a king by a low-caste mother. | <urn:uuid:837ca30f-82c5-4404-8215-a3cb9f049c58> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:The_Outline_of_History_Vol_1.djvu/454 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00533.warc.gz | en | 0.980385 | 490 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
0.3212909698486328,
0.44069597125053406,
-0.018263740465044975,
-0.41237273812294006,
-0.19865398108959198,
-0.05917830765247345,
0.23217518627643585,
-0.18839174509048462,
0.2127111256122589,
-0.0958484336733818,
-0.4126746952533722,
-0.051528725773096085,
0.2524126172065735,
0.1913018673... | 1 | The cult and doctrine of Gautama, gathering corruptions and variations from Brahminism and Hellenism alike, was spread throughout India by an increasing multitude of teachers in the fourth and third centuries B.C. For some generations at least it retained much of the moral beauty and something of the simplicity of the opening phase. Many people who have no intellectual grasp upon the meaning of self-abnegation and disinterestedness have nevertheless the ability to appreciate a splendour in the reality of these qualities. Early Buddhism was certainly producing noble lives, and it is not only through reason that the latent response to nobility is aroused in our minds. It spread rather in spite of than because of the concessions that it made to vulgar imaginations. It spread because many of the early Buddhists were sweet and gentle, helpful and noble and admirable people, who compelled belief in their sustaining faith.
Quite early in its career Buddhism came into conflict with the growing pretensions of the Brahmins. As we have already noted, this priestly caste was still only struggling to dominate Indian life in the days of Gautama. They had already great advantages. They had the monopoly of tradition and religious sacrifices. But their power was being challenged by the development of kingship, for the men who became clanleaders and kings were usually not of the Brahminical caste.
Kingship received an impetus from the Persian and Greek invasions of the Punjab. We have already noted the name of King Porus whom, in spite of his elephants, Alexander defeated and turned into a satrap. There came also to the Greek camp upon the Indus a certain low-caste adventurer named Chandragupta Maurya, whom the Greeks called Sandracottus, with a scheme for conquering the Ganges country. The scheme was not welcome to the Macedonians, who were in revolt against marching any further into India, and he had to fly the camp. He wandered among the tribes upon the north-west frontier, secured their support, and after Alexander had departed, overran the Punjab, ousting the Macedonian representatives. He then conquered the Ganges country (321 B.C.), waged a successful war (303 B.C.) against Seleucus (Seleucus I) when the latter attempted to re-
- Rhys Davids. He was the son of a king by a low-caste mother. | 483 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Sura was a city in the southern part of the area called by ancient Jewish sources Babylonia, located east of the Euphrates River. It was well known for its agricultural produce, which included grapes, wheat, and barley. It was also a major center of Torah scholarship and home of an important yeshiva – the Sura Yeshiva – which, together with the yeshivas in Pumbedita and Nehardea, gave rise to the Babylonian Talmud.
According to Rav Sherira Gaon, Sura was identical to the town of Mata Mehasya, which is also mentioned in the Talmud, but Mata Mehasya is cited in the Talmud many times, either as a nearby town or a suburb of Sura, and the Talmudist academy in Mata Mehasya served as a branch of the Sura Academy. Sura Academy was founded by Rav in the third century.
A contemporary Syriac source describes it as a town completely inhabited by Jews, situated between Māḥōzē and Al-Hira in southern Iraq. A responsum of Rabbi Natronai Gaon says that Sura was about 6 km from Al-Hira.
Roman and Sasanian rule
Sura was under Roman control in the time of Pliny the Elder (23-79 CE) and Ptolemy (c. 100-170 CE), but was conquered by the Sasanian king Shapur I in 253 CE.
It was a [Byzantine] garrison of some importance in the Persian campaigns of Belisarius; and a full account is given of the circumstances under which it was taken and burned by Chosroes I. (A.D. 532), who, having marched three long days’ journey from Circesium to Zenobia, along the course of the Euphrates, thence proceeded an equal distance up the river to Sura. Incidental mention of the bishop proves that it was then an episcopal see. (Procop. Bell. Pers. i. 18, ii. 5.) Its walls were so weak that it did not hold out more than half an hour; but it was afterwards more substantially fortified, by order of the emperor Justinian. (Id. de Aedificiis Justiniani, ii. 9.)” | <urn:uuid:66624b7a-9c09-4030-a05b-dd760bee662b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://michaelruark.blog/2019/12/27/sura/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00360.warc.gz | en | 0.982283 | 476 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
-0.1839018315076828,
0.524726152420044,
0.1786150187253952,
0.04720010235905647,
0.03759143128991127,
-0.29278525710105896,
-0.10586470365524292,
0.1008714810013771,
0.01684620976448059,
-0.25047916173934937,
-0.4549378454685211,
-0.518945038318634,
0.22698333859443665,
0.19040223956108093... | 6 | Sura was a city in the southern part of the area called by ancient Jewish sources Babylonia, located east of the Euphrates River. It was well known for its agricultural produce, which included grapes, wheat, and barley. It was also a major center of Torah scholarship and home of an important yeshiva – the Sura Yeshiva – which, together with the yeshivas in Pumbedita and Nehardea, gave rise to the Babylonian Talmud.
According to Rav Sherira Gaon, Sura was identical to the town of Mata Mehasya, which is also mentioned in the Talmud, but Mata Mehasya is cited in the Talmud many times, either as a nearby town or a suburb of Sura, and the Talmudist academy in Mata Mehasya served as a branch of the Sura Academy. Sura Academy was founded by Rav in the third century.
A contemporary Syriac source describes it as a town completely inhabited by Jews, situated between Māḥōzē and Al-Hira in southern Iraq. A responsum of Rabbi Natronai Gaon says that Sura was about 6 km from Al-Hira.
Roman and Sasanian rule
Sura was under Roman control in the time of Pliny the Elder (23-79 CE) and Ptolemy (c. 100-170 CE), but was conquered by the Sasanian king Shapur I in 253 CE.
It was a [Byzantine] garrison of some importance in the Persian campaigns of Belisarius; and a full account is given of the circumstances under which it was taken and burned by Chosroes I. (A.D. 532), who, having marched three long days’ journey from Circesium to Zenobia, along the course of the Euphrates, thence proceeded an equal distance up the river to Sura. Incidental mention of the bishop proves that it was then an episcopal see. (Procop. Bell. Pers. i. 18, ii. 5.) Its walls were so weak that it did not hold out more than half an hour; but it was afterwards more substantially fortified, by order of the emperor Justinian. (Id. de Aedificiis Justiniani, ii. 9.)” | 496 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In modern American mythology, the Puritans were characterized, by many Americans, as being nothing more than an extreme group of dour religious ascetics who abhorred anything that had to do with humor or sex. This image is fallacious. Furthermore, the Puritans were nothing more than another group of humans who defined their own world with their cultural norms, and values. To better understand the Puritans we have to expunge any mythology surrounding these people, and we have to study them on their own terms through their eyes if at all possible through the written record.
The first major myth that must be deconstructed is that the Puritans were sexual prudes. Americans believed that the Puritans considered marriage as nothing more than a necessary evil that was used for only sexual reproduction. Moreover, many Americans believe that the Puritans tried to hide the physical aspect of a relationship as much as possible. This stereotype is false. The Puritans held a very different perspective about marriage and sex. John Cotton, a Puritan minister, stated “Women are creatures without which there is no comfortable living for man: it is true of them what is wont to be said of Governments, That bad ones are better than none… for they are a necessary good.” The Puritans believed that marriage was a fundamental part of human life and that sexual intercourse was a fundamental part of marriage. Another Minister stated that ‘the use of the marriage bed is founded in man’s nature and | <urn:uuid:70537a06-1030-4f18-9418-06fc2f66bfe7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bartleby.com/essay/The-Mythology-of-Puritains-PKBZL8EC8MRS | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00134.warc.gz | en | 0.981502 | 298 | 3.375 | 3 | [
0.20611672103405,
0.5779815912246704,
-0.09382808208465576,
-0.19547711312770844,
0.06437800079584122,
0.33847323060035706,
0.3744948208332062,
0.001766939414665103,
0.24270284175872803,
0.5548380613327026,
0.06878188252449036,
-0.1999754011631012,
0.237384632229805,
0.17674727737903595,
... | 1 | In modern American mythology, the Puritans were characterized, by many Americans, as being nothing more than an extreme group of dour religious ascetics who abhorred anything that had to do with humor or sex. This image is fallacious. Furthermore, the Puritans were nothing more than another group of humans who defined their own world with their cultural norms, and values. To better understand the Puritans we have to expunge any mythology surrounding these people, and we have to study them on their own terms through their eyes if at all possible through the written record.
The first major myth that must be deconstructed is that the Puritans were sexual prudes. Americans believed that the Puritans considered marriage as nothing more than a necessary evil that was used for only sexual reproduction. Moreover, many Americans believe that the Puritans tried to hide the physical aspect of a relationship as much as possible. This stereotype is false. The Puritans held a very different perspective about marriage and sex. John Cotton, a Puritan minister, stated “Women are creatures without which there is no comfortable living for man: it is true of them what is wont to be said of Governments, That bad ones are better than none… for they are a necessary good.” The Puritans believed that marriage was a fundamental part of human life and that sexual intercourse was a fundamental part of marriage. Another Minister stated that ‘the use of the marriage bed is founded in man’s nature and | 299 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Chapter 11 of the wonderful book, “Kids, Parents, and Power Struggles: Winning For A Lifetime” by Mary Sheedy Kurcinka is about how we make decisions. Sometimes we can trigger the other people in our household without even meaning to simply because some of us have a response to things that is feeling, and some of us have a response to things that are analytical.
Thinking means we are guided by facts, information received, and respond to that. Feeling means we often make decision guided by “what feels right.” This doesn’t mean that those guided by thinking are insensitive or unfeeling, or that those guided by feelings are too sensitive. There is a great checklist on page 179 regarding “if your child is a thinker”, and includes such things as does logic guide your child’s decisions, they need to know “why” things are done and loves a good debate, values justice and fairness, doesn’t enjoy talking about their feelings, and much more. Page 180 hold the checklist for children who are feelers and includes such things as needing to work through emotions before being ready to problem solve, highly valuing harmony and avoiding conflict, being deeply concerned with how decisions affect others. It is very illuminating!
So, if your child is a thinker, you need to deal with facts first and deal with emotion coaching later! This child may need help to understand other people’s point of view. Another suggestion by the author is to let these children feel competent because they highly value acheivement and are often their own toughest critic. You can help them set goals that include dealing with outcomes and how those outcomes affect others. You may have to teach them to be tactful and how being tactful is different than lying. Validating their competence is also really important. It is also important that if this child has siblings, the rules are fairly applied. You may also need to explain “why”‘s more frequently, but it is important NOT to get pulled into intellectual traps.
The feeling child needs their feelings validated, and they need solutions that “feel right” for all the parties involved. They may need reassurance that they are liked – so for these children, it is really important you have a relationship with this child so you can work cooperatively. Yelling and criticizing doesn’t work work with any child, but a feeling child needs that cooperative feeling in order to focus and do what needs to happen. They may also need to learn how to be assertive and how they don’t have to and can’t please everyone, and they need to learn how to consider both feelings and facts.
The last few pages are broken down into categories for us as parents – are we extroverted feeling parents? Extroverted factual parents? Introverted feeling parents? Introverted factual parents?
This is a great chapter for all of us who want to bring balance to our children, and give them tools that will help them so much in the future!
I would love to hear what you thought about this chapter! | <urn:uuid:027e10ad-0f36-477a-af80-1c7a9267ac1e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://theparentingpassageway.com/author/altcarrie/page/2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00529.warc.gz | en | 0.980059 | 642 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
-0.04542722553014755,
-0.157161682844162,
0.36366361379623413,
-0.144873708486557,
-0.4651728868484497,
0.45312875509262085,
0.46704912185668945,
-0.11846086382865906,
-0.031824856996536255,
-0.034025076776742935,
0.4291134476661682,
0.06778836995363235,
0.014919763430953026,
0.42758399248... | 14 | Chapter 11 of the wonderful book, “Kids, Parents, and Power Struggles: Winning For A Lifetime” by Mary Sheedy Kurcinka is about how we make decisions. Sometimes we can trigger the other people in our household without even meaning to simply because some of us have a response to things that is feeling, and some of us have a response to things that are analytical.
Thinking means we are guided by facts, information received, and respond to that. Feeling means we often make decision guided by “what feels right.” This doesn’t mean that those guided by thinking are insensitive or unfeeling, or that those guided by feelings are too sensitive. There is a great checklist on page 179 regarding “if your child is a thinker”, and includes such things as does logic guide your child’s decisions, they need to know “why” things are done and loves a good debate, values justice and fairness, doesn’t enjoy talking about their feelings, and much more. Page 180 hold the checklist for children who are feelers and includes such things as needing to work through emotions before being ready to problem solve, highly valuing harmony and avoiding conflict, being deeply concerned with how decisions affect others. It is very illuminating!
So, if your child is a thinker, you need to deal with facts first and deal with emotion coaching later! This child may need help to understand other people’s point of view. Another suggestion by the author is to let these children feel competent because they highly value acheivement and are often their own toughest critic. You can help them set goals that include dealing with outcomes and how those outcomes affect others. You may have to teach them to be tactful and how being tactful is different than lying. Validating their competence is also really important. It is also important that if this child has siblings, the rules are fairly applied. You may also need to explain “why”‘s more frequently, but it is important NOT to get pulled into intellectual traps.
The feeling child needs their feelings validated, and they need solutions that “feel right” for all the parties involved. They may need reassurance that they are liked – so for these children, it is really important you have a relationship with this child so you can work cooperatively. Yelling and criticizing doesn’t work work with any child, but a feeling child needs that cooperative feeling in order to focus and do what needs to happen. They may also need to learn how to be assertive and how they don’t have to and can’t please everyone, and they need to learn how to consider both feelings and facts.
The last few pages are broken down into categories for us as parents – are we extroverted feeling parents? Extroverted factual parents? Introverted feeling parents? Introverted factual parents?
This is a great chapter for all of us who want to bring balance to our children, and give them tools that will help them so much in the future!
I would love to hear what you thought about this chapter! | 614 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Bagan stands, in many aspects, as not only one of the most remarkable religious sites in the world but also a genuine wonder of the world. The remains and the temple ruins highlight the glory days of ancient Bagan. Bagan empire was founded by a Burmese King Anawrahtta from 1044 with a succession of eleven kings throughout the dynasty. The conquest over Mon kingdom in the south in 1057AD was a turning point in Bagan’s history as the southern school of Buddhism was introduced by the Mon people. Many skilled artists and architects were also brought to Bagan for temple building. Although Bagan was invaded by Kublai Khan’s forces, it still remains as an important centre of Buddhist religion and culture of Burmese people well until the mid of 14th century before it was left deserted over centuries.
entering into the temple building era as the southern school of Buddhism was introduced by the Mon people and many of the skilled artists & architects were imported from India. In 1287, Kublai Khan’s forces invaded Bagan but it’s continued as an important centre of Buddhist faith and the culture of Burmese people well into mid 14th century, and then left deserted over centuries. | <urn:uuid:6e4b2c05-315a-4c43-b6b9-f0d65c712548> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.myanmarallure.com/bagan.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00315.warc.gz | en | 0.982995 | 256 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
0.055733226239681244,
0.39571958780288696,
0.36854785680770874,
-0.401695191860199,
-0.37849166989326477,
-0.024653689935803413,
0.41792967915534973,
-0.09376336634159088,
-0.47757208347320557,
-0.02733016386628151,
-0.16168077290058136,
-0.4167441725730896,
0.40166258811950684,
0.62518745... | 3 | Bagan stands, in many aspects, as not only one of the most remarkable religious sites in the world but also a genuine wonder of the world. The remains and the temple ruins highlight the glory days of ancient Bagan. Bagan empire was founded by a Burmese King Anawrahtta from 1044 with a succession of eleven kings throughout the dynasty. The conquest over Mon kingdom in the south in 1057AD was a turning point in Bagan’s history as the southern school of Buddhism was introduced by the Mon people. Many skilled artists and architects were also brought to Bagan for temple building. Although Bagan was invaded by Kublai Khan’s forces, it still remains as an important centre of Buddhist religion and culture of Burmese people well until the mid of 14th century before it was left deserted over centuries.
entering into the temple building era as the southern school of Buddhism was introduced by the Mon people and many of the skilled artists & architects were imported from India. In 1287, Kublai Khan’s forces invaded Bagan but it’s continued as an important centre of Buddhist faith and the culture of Burmese people well into mid 14th century, and then left deserted over centuries. | 260 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Realism and Attention to Detail in Edward Hopper's Night Hawks
In the following essay the painting Nighthawks by Edward Hopper will be analyzed to determine what messages the artist was trying to convey to the viewer, and the significance of the very detailed depiction of the figures occupying the diner. The realism style of the painting that contributes greatly to the intense effect on the viewer, chosen for this reason, will be explored as well. The somber and lonely mood of the painting will be analyzed as well as the aspects of the empty street and the sparsely populated diner. I will discuss how the painting accurately represents the Great Depression era it was painted to portray, why this specific medium was chosen and how it affects the painting itself.
“There is a sort of elation about sunlight on the upper part of a house. ” Edward Hopper, a classic realist painter of the twentieth century, had a fascination for light. His plays on the mood of light stretch as a major theme throughout his works, and contribute to the intensifying effect he could inject into seemingly every day scenes. His works took a dramatic appeal through the “eerie stillness's” and lone figures sprinkled throughout his paintings. Although influenced by Edgar Degas and Edouard Maent, Edward Hopper easily added his own personal touches to the beautiful style of realism.1
Born in July of 1882 in New York, Hopper grew up interested in art and encouraged by his parents. After attending both the Correspondence School of Illustrating in New York City and the New York School of Art, Hopper experienced a shift in interest from illustrations to the fine arts1. While studying with the impressionist artist William Merritt Chase and the realistic painter Robert Henri, young Hopper traveled several times to Europe, especially France.
Edward Hopper's career took time to gain momentum, although he did have early success with his etchings. Focusing on oil paintings and some watercolor as he became increasingly independent, Edward steered away from the illustrations he had relied on in the earliest phases of his career, acquiring his first one person exhibition.1 During his second one person exhibition in New York all of his works sold; the success of his career was steadily increasing. Perhaps the pinnacle of his career occurred in 1952 when Hopper was asked to represent the United States in the Venice Biennale.1
In 1924 Edward Hopper married Josephine Nivison, whom he had studied art with under... | <urn:uuid:0cf1428c-c3ae-4287-ac4f-f74be0c91801> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/realism-44 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00325.warc.gz | en | 0.982218 | 505 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
-0.038686878979206085,
0.0921543762087822,
0.18549354374408722,
0.045297782868146896,
-0.005776585079729557,
0.2822311520576477,
0.6536356210708618,
-0.10350871831178665,
-0.0282451119273901,
-0.0934969037771225,
0.17858751118183136,
0.08581617474555969,
-0.4220716655254364,
0.374126493930... | 1 | Realism and Attention to Detail in Edward Hopper's Night Hawks
In the following essay the painting Nighthawks by Edward Hopper will be analyzed to determine what messages the artist was trying to convey to the viewer, and the significance of the very detailed depiction of the figures occupying the diner. The realism style of the painting that contributes greatly to the intense effect on the viewer, chosen for this reason, will be explored as well. The somber and lonely mood of the painting will be analyzed as well as the aspects of the empty street and the sparsely populated diner. I will discuss how the painting accurately represents the Great Depression era it was painted to portray, why this specific medium was chosen and how it affects the painting itself.
“There is a sort of elation about sunlight on the upper part of a house. ” Edward Hopper, a classic realist painter of the twentieth century, had a fascination for light. His plays on the mood of light stretch as a major theme throughout his works, and contribute to the intensifying effect he could inject into seemingly every day scenes. His works took a dramatic appeal through the “eerie stillness's” and lone figures sprinkled throughout his paintings. Although influenced by Edgar Degas and Edouard Maent, Edward Hopper easily added his own personal touches to the beautiful style of realism.1
Born in July of 1882 in New York, Hopper grew up interested in art and encouraged by his parents. After attending both the Correspondence School of Illustrating in New York City and the New York School of Art, Hopper experienced a shift in interest from illustrations to the fine arts1. While studying with the impressionist artist William Merritt Chase and the realistic painter Robert Henri, young Hopper traveled several times to Europe, especially France.
Edward Hopper's career took time to gain momentum, although he did have early success with his etchings. Focusing on oil paintings and some watercolor as he became increasingly independent, Edward steered away from the illustrations he had relied on in the earliest phases of his career, acquiring his first one person exhibition.1 During his second one person exhibition in New York all of his works sold; the success of his career was steadily increasing. Perhaps the pinnacle of his career occurred in 1952 when Hopper was asked to represent the United States in the Venice Biennale.1
In 1924 Edward Hopper married Josephine Nivison, whom he had studied art with under... | 511 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.