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Work with the Teacher to Motivate an Underachiever
Q: Our second-grader is a bright child with a great vocabulary. We thought that he’d do well in school. However, he does very little work and is being described by his teacher as an underachiever. How can we help him go back to the enthusiastic learner that he was in kindergarten?
A: Now is definitely the time to get your young son back on the right track. He will not be able to change his behavior by himself. You and his teacher will need to work together.
Try to determine with the teacher why your son is not living up to his potential. Are his basic skills in reading and math strong? If so, he may need a greater challenge. If not, a tutor may be needed to correct any significant deficiencies.
Your son was an enthusiastic learner. What has changed? Is it the classroom environment? Are the days too regimented and curriculum too dull? Are you and the teacher focusing too much on grades and his intelligence rather than on his efforts to learn? Does he enjoy learning new things at home? Have you asked him why he is doing very little work at school?
You and the teacher need to help your son recapture his enthusiasm for learning. Try to tie the schoolwork to his interests. Be aware that so much of being an underachiever is tied to children’s perceptions of themselves.
To be successful they need to receive support for their efforts and feel valued as a person by parents and teachers. They also have to have the underlying mindset that their efforts can make a difference in everything that they do.
Changing an underachiever into an enthusiastic learner is not an easy task. Two books that may help you in this undertaking are Bright Minds, Poor Grades by Michael D. Whitley and The Unmotivated Child by Natalie Rathvon.
Q: The teachers at our school are debating whether or not cursive writing should still be taught. What are the advantages of teaching cursive when students with poor handwriting can just use a computer?
A: This debate about whether or not to teach cursive writing is going on in many schools. Many teachers now say that cursive is a waste of time, and they want to spend this time working on other skills.
They point out that we live in a print world. What children see in books and on signs is printing. Furthermore, students are taught to keyboard as early as first grade, reducing the need for handwriting.
However, there are still advantages to teaching cursive writing. Many educators believe that it is easier to learn than manuscript. Cursive can help children learn to read since confusing print letters such as b and d; p, g and q; and f and t do not look similar like they do in print.
Cursive also makes the blending of sounds more obvious to beginning readers. Furthermore, cursive may improve spelling because the hand learns the pattern of words through writing them many times.
There also are occasions when cursive writing is more likely to be used than manuscript, such as writing essays on standardized tests such as the SAT. Cursive also remains the preferred way to write letters of condolence and thank-you notes. Plus, cursive is generally used for signatures. Finally, cursive handwriting is a personal expression of each individual’s personality. | <urn:uuid:756281bd-a82c-4fb9-ba44-4353a5e73e7f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.carolinaparent.com/CP/Work-with-the-Teacher-to-Motivate-an-Underachiever/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00073.warc.gz | en | 0.981564 | 693 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.45589855... | 3 | Work with the Teacher to Motivate an Underachiever
Q: Our second-grader is a bright child with a great vocabulary. We thought that he’d do well in school. However, he does very little work and is being described by his teacher as an underachiever. How can we help him go back to the enthusiastic learner that he was in kindergarten?
A: Now is definitely the time to get your young son back on the right track. He will not be able to change his behavior by himself. You and his teacher will need to work together.
Try to determine with the teacher why your son is not living up to his potential. Are his basic skills in reading and math strong? If so, he may need a greater challenge. If not, a tutor may be needed to correct any significant deficiencies.
Your son was an enthusiastic learner. What has changed? Is it the classroom environment? Are the days too regimented and curriculum too dull? Are you and the teacher focusing too much on grades and his intelligence rather than on his efforts to learn? Does he enjoy learning new things at home? Have you asked him why he is doing very little work at school?
You and the teacher need to help your son recapture his enthusiasm for learning. Try to tie the schoolwork to his interests. Be aware that so much of being an underachiever is tied to children’s perceptions of themselves.
To be successful they need to receive support for their efforts and feel valued as a person by parents and teachers. They also have to have the underlying mindset that their efforts can make a difference in everything that they do.
Changing an underachiever into an enthusiastic learner is not an easy task. Two books that may help you in this undertaking are Bright Minds, Poor Grades by Michael D. Whitley and The Unmotivated Child by Natalie Rathvon.
Q: The teachers at our school are debating whether or not cursive writing should still be taught. What are the advantages of teaching cursive when students with poor handwriting can just use a computer?
A: This debate about whether or not to teach cursive writing is going on in many schools. Many teachers now say that cursive is a waste of time, and they want to spend this time working on other skills.
They point out that we live in a print world. What children see in books and on signs is printing. Furthermore, students are taught to keyboard as early as first grade, reducing the need for handwriting.
However, there are still advantages to teaching cursive writing. Many educators believe that it is easier to learn than manuscript. Cursive can help children learn to read since confusing print letters such as b and d; p, g and q; and f and t do not look similar like they do in print.
Cursive also makes the blending of sounds more obvious to beginning readers. Furthermore, cursive may improve spelling because the hand learns the pattern of words through writing them many times.
There also are occasions when cursive writing is more likely to be used than manuscript, such as writing essays on standardized tests such as the SAT. Cursive also remains the preferred way to write letters of condolence and thank-you notes. Plus, cursive is generally used for signatures. Finally, cursive handwriting is a personal expression of each individual’s personality. | 668 | ENGLISH | 1 |
King Kamehameha I was known for conquering all of the Hawaiian islands. The Battle of Mokuʻōhai was fought in 1782 and is known for being Kamehamehaʻs first major victory solidifying his leadership over the island of Hawai‘i. During this battle, Kamehameha defeated Kīwalaʻō who was the last aliʻi nui of that island. The great battle took place to the south of Kealakekua Bay, presently known as Mokuʻakae. During the battle, Kīwalaʻō was knocked out by a stone that was slinged and was eventually killed by a shark-tooth dagger.
After this battle, Kamehameha I captured Kīwalaʻōʻs red feather cloak which is now held at the Bishop Museum. Kamehameha began to control Hawai‘i Island soon conquering Keōua, Kīwalaʻōʻs half brother, who had controlled Kaʻū. It is said that Kamehameha forced Keōuaʻs party to have their footprints frozen into volcanic ash! From then on, Kamehameha went on to conquering and uniting the Hawaiian islands, but not without fighting many more battles to follow Mokuʻōhai.
Subscribe & Save
Join To Receive 20% OFF Your First Order* | <urn:uuid:086e79bd-d332-4e94-ac43-d5b36cd62c9b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.hilohattie.com/blogs/news/the-battle-of-moku-ohai | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00115.warc.gz | en | 0.985898 | 302 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.5631454586982... | 5 | King Kamehameha I was known for conquering all of the Hawaiian islands. The Battle of Mokuʻōhai was fought in 1782 and is known for being Kamehamehaʻs first major victory solidifying his leadership over the island of Hawai‘i. During this battle, Kamehameha defeated Kīwalaʻō who was the last aliʻi nui of that island. The great battle took place to the south of Kealakekua Bay, presently known as Mokuʻakae. During the battle, Kīwalaʻō was knocked out by a stone that was slinged and was eventually killed by a shark-tooth dagger.
After this battle, Kamehameha I captured Kīwalaʻōʻs red feather cloak which is now held at the Bishop Museum. Kamehameha began to control Hawai‘i Island soon conquering Keōua, Kīwalaʻōʻs half brother, who had controlled Kaʻū. It is said that Kamehameha forced Keōuaʻs party to have their footprints frozen into volcanic ash! From then on, Kamehameha went on to conquering and uniting the Hawaiian islands, but not without fighting many more battles to follow Mokuʻōhai.
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Join To Receive 20% OFF Your First Order* | 292 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Human beings are bound to interpret things wrongly. Misconceptions are quite inevitable, most especially when it comes to things that had to do with history. When it comes to history, stories are bound to be embellished. There are lots of occurrences in the past that majority believed were fabricated. However, it turns out that some of those misconceptions are very much correct. And they aren't as made up as you think.
Below are facts about Ancient Spartans people think is untrue but they are actually true.
Spartans had to prove their fitness even as infants.
Spartans are people who see war as a way of life. Their main aim was to raise the most formidable soldier ever and that was actually the major reason why "infanticide" was quite common among them. When a spartan baby (male) was been born, he was meant to face some panel of judges to see if he was fit enough to be a soldier. If by any unfortunate chance, he was found not to be-- maybe deformed or something, he was most likely to be abandoned on a nearby hillside to die. If fortunate, he may be discovered by a stranger and raised as an adopted child.
Spartan children were placed in a military-style education program.
All spartan boys had to start their military training at the age of seven. The boys were forced to live their parents at this age in order to start a rigorous military exercise that will groom them in readiness for duty as a soldier. At age 12, initiates were deprived of all clothing save for a red cloak and forced to sleep outside and make their own beds from reeds. As part of training and to prepare them for the challenges of life, they were encouraged to scout for their own food. Spartan girls on the other hand, were not meant to be soldiers but to give birth to soldiers. They also undergo excruciating training that will prepare them for motherhood. They were encouraged to go into sports like Javelin and discus throwing, short puts and gymnastics.
They were majorly warriors
Unlike any other city-state of ancient Greece who specialized in philosophy, art, literature and theater art, Spartans only studied war. All Spartan men were trained to become warriors from the day they were born.
They had the strongest army in the entire Greece
They had the ability to defeat large armies even if they were few. The Spartan Army fought in a Phalanx formation. They would line up side
by side and several men deep. They would lock their shields
together and advance on the enemy stabbing them with their spears. This is a formation they spent their whole life mastering. And it paid of for them quite well when on the battle field.
Spartan youths were trained to master endurance
Spartan youths were ritualistically beating as a way to test their endurance. They were brought in front of an alter at the sanctuary of Artemis, were they were flogged--sometimes to death--in an attempt to train them for endurance.
Spartan soldiers were restricted to barrack until they were 30 years. This was actually the age they were meant to get married however, those who married before this age were to stay away from their wives until they've attained the age (30) that will officially take them out of the barrack. The Spartans saw marriage primarily as a means for conceiving new soldiers, and citizens were encouraged to consider the health and fitness of their mate before tying the knot.
They never surrender in battle
Strength, bravery and endurance were the virtues guarding a spartan soldier. To surrender in battle was an ultimate disgrace to Spartans. They were often trained to fight till the last man ---surrendering was viewed as an act of cowardice and shame. If a Spartan trooper died in battle, he was viewed as having completed his duty as a citizen. He was giving a befitting burial with his name inscribed on his tomb. Only a few Spartans had their names inscribed on their tombs; women who died in childbirth and men who fell in combat. | <urn:uuid:246e4b40-85a1-4c73-8672-e06a585f5532> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://blog.obiaks.com/191212100451/ridiculous-things-we-usually-believe-because-of-movies.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00250.warc.gz | en | 0.995184 | 829 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.41286501288414... | 7 | Human beings are bound to interpret things wrongly. Misconceptions are quite inevitable, most especially when it comes to things that had to do with history. When it comes to history, stories are bound to be embellished. There are lots of occurrences in the past that majority believed were fabricated. However, it turns out that some of those misconceptions are very much correct. And they aren't as made up as you think.
Below are facts about Ancient Spartans people think is untrue but they are actually true.
Spartans had to prove their fitness even as infants.
Spartans are people who see war as a way of life. Their main aim was to raise the most formidable soldier ever and that was actually the major reason why "infanticide" was quite common among them. When a spartan baby (male) was been born, he was meant to face some panel of judges to see if he was fit enough to be a soldier. If by any unfortunate chance, he was found not to be-- maybe deformed or something, he was most likely to be abandoned on a nearby hillside to die. If fortunate, he may be discovered by a stranger and raised as an adopted child.
Spartan children were placed in a military-style education program.
All spartan boys had to start their military training at the age of seven. The boys were forced to live their parents at this age in order to start a rigorous military exercise that will groom them in readiness for duty as a soldier. At age 12, initiates were deprived of all clothing save for a red cloak and forced to sleep outside and make their own beds from reeds. As part of training and to prepare them for the challenges of life, they were encouraged to scout for their own food. Spartan girls on the other hand, were not meant to be soldiers but to give birth to soldiers. They also undergo excruciating training that will prepare them for motherhood. They were encouraged to go into sports like Javelin and discus throwing, short puts and gymnastics.
They were majorly warriors
Unlike any other city-state of ancient Greece who specialized in philosophy, art, literature and theater art, Spartans only studied war. All Spartan men were trained to become warriors from the day they were born.
They had the strongest army in the entire Greece
They had the ability to defeat large armies even if they were few. The Spartan Army fought in a Phalanx formation. They would line up side
by side and several men deep. They would lock their shields
together and advance on the enemy stabbing them with their spears. This is a formation they spent their whole life mastering. And it paid of for them quite well when on the battle field.
Spartan youths were trained to master endurance
Spartan youths were ritualistically beating as a way to test their endurance. They were brought in front of an alter at the sanctuary of Artemis, were they were flogged--sometimes to death--in an attempt to train them for endurance.
Spartan soldiers were restricted to barrack until they were 30 years. This was actually the age they were meant to get married however, those who married before this age were to stay away from their wives until they've attained the age (30) that will officially take them out of the barrack. The Spartans saw marriage primarily as a means for conceiving new soldiers, and citizens were encouraged to consider the health and fitness of their mate before tying the knot.
They never surrender in battle
Strength, bravery and endurance were the virtues guarding a spartan soldier. To surrender in battle was an ultimate disgrace to Spartans. They were often trained to fight till the last man ---surrendering was viewed as an act of cowardice and shame. If a Spartan trooper died in battle, he was viewed as having completed his duty as a citizen. He was giving a befitting burial with his name inscribed on his tomb. Only a few Spartans had their names inscribed on their tombs; women who died in childbirth and men who fell in combat. | 838 | ENGLISH | 1 |
11 November 2019
Remembrance Day is a memorial day to remember the members of their armed forces who have died on duty since World War 1. Remembrance Day is observed on 11 November to recall the official end of World War 1 on that date in 1918, as the major hostilities of World War 1 were formally ended “at the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month” of 1918.
Poppies became a symbol of World War 1 because they have grown around some of the places where battles were fought.
World War 1 began on 28th July 1914 and ended on 11 November 1918. As many as 74,187 Indian soldiers died during the war and a comparable number were wounded. India contributed a number of divisions and brigades to the European, Mediterranean, Mesopotamian, North African and East African theatres of war. In Europe, Indian soldiers were among the first victims who suffered the horrors of the trenches.
At Khalsa Primary School, our children took a 2 minute silence in memory of all those who died on duty. In class, they have been talking about the World War and creating work around this. Our Reception classes made poppies using paper, paint and straws. | <urn:uuid:0299adac-3cfb-4617-804b-a983be4a09f5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://khalsaprimaryschool.com/remembrance-day/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00427.warc.gz | en | 0.986671 | 252 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.848297178745269... | 3 | 11 November 2019
Remembrance Day is a memorial day to remember the members of their armed forces who have died on duty since World War 1. Remembrance Day is observed on 11 November to recall the official end of World War 1 on that date in 1918, as the major hostilities of World War 1 were formally ended “at the 11th hour of the 11th day of the 11th month” of 1918.
Poppies became a symbol of World War 1 because they have grown around some of the places where battles were fought.
World War 1 began on 28th July 1914 and ended on 11 November 1918. As many as 74,187 Indian soldiers died during the war and a comparable number were wounded. India contributed a number of divisions and brigades to the European, Mediterranean, Mesopotamian, North African and East African theatres of war. In Europe, Indian soldiers were among the first victims who suffered the horrors of the trenches.
At Khalsa Primary School, our children took a 2 minute silence in memory of all those who died on duty. In class, they have been talking about the World War and creating work around this. Our Reception classes made poppies using paper, paint and straws. | 288 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Freedom in the first case is in reference to the autonomous choice of a person to live and do whatever they please. In the case of the slave from Virginia, James Somerset who managed to escape from the confines of his master and run away. The master, Charles then led a manhunt for him and ordered that James be found and arrested before being returned to him. The slave had every right to flee his colonial masters bondage and seek his own way of life outside of the confines of the masters land or plantation since it was clear that everyone was aware of the law that said that a prisoner was free once he managed to escape and set his feet in the free land. The master could not hear of this and as such looked allover to find and get his slave back, if not to return him to his farm then he would rather have seen him arrested and thrown in jail. Freedom in this content refers to the fundamental human right to have their own personal ability to make judgment and personal choices.
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During the era of slavery, the slaves had no rights and their slaves dictated entirely how they were going to live and what they were to do. All they had to do to remain alive without beatings and torture was for the slaves involved to listen to the orders from their masters and follow them to the latter. The master went as far as following his slave outside of the confines of his work area whether it was in a household or on a large plantation as was the typical cases then. James in this incident was saved when he went to the harbor and found some people there who listened and sympathized with his predicament thus asked the master to allow him to go free since he had managed to break away from the masters hold. The former slave was thus free, that is the first form of freedom which all human beings in this world today has and which we all fight to allow all the other people oppressed in modern slavery to enjoy. Man is on this earth to make their own choices whichever way they choose and nobody should be allowed to take over another human right to be free.
Man should be allowed to enjoy his freedom of choosing what is right and wrong and to make this decision for them. Slavery was and still is a very cruel way of de humanizing people. Slaves did not have any rights as this had been taken over by the master who bought them. Slaves were supposed to work indefinitely for their masters who also had the right to instill any kind of punishment on the slaves. There are many documented cases where people were beaten so severely that they broke some of their limbs while others even succumbed to the injuries that were constantly inflicted in them. If a man looks at you and feels that you have wronged him in one way or another it is up to the two parties to look for a compromising way to deal with the situation to ensure that none of the two parties inflicted any harm on the other but instead a solution was reached amicably.
In the case of the slaves and their masters, the masters took advantage of the fact that the slaves basically belonged to them since they had paid for them thus had acquired them. This meant that the slaves were subjected to many forms of torture in the hands of their masters and there was nothing they could do and there also was no one there to hear their cries. The slave masters had completely taken away the freedom of the slaves to air their discontent in the way they were treated. Slaves were not allowed to speak out or hold gatherings to air their grievances. Everyone has the freedom to speak and be heard and even in the toughest of situations no one should be denied a chance to speak out their ideas or complaints if at all it affects other people or if other people will have a say in what they have to speak about. In the earlier case of the escaped slave, it was pretty much obvious to everyone that the law allowed a slave to earn his freedom once h managed to escape the captivity of their master but the master in this case took it for granted that he could still do whatever he wanted and went after the poor slave.
Had the slave not managed to air his grievances to the British abolitionist who then went ahead and organized for a public hearing to be setup to listen to the slave's case, then the slave would have been wrongfully captured and taken away to God knows where on Captain Knowle's boat headed for Jamaica. Even today criminals who hurt the public and break the law no matter in what way or how many times over, they are allowed the freedom to express themselves before any action can be taken against them. It is important to give each and everyone a chance to speak out their hearts and just for other people to listen. A lot of information is passed down from generation to generation that helps us in our daily lives and of importance is the fact that the great thinkers were given the freedom to express their ideas and as such even others get to hear of the bright ideas and even go on to improve on them for the overall good of all humans. When the basic freedoms of a person are taken away, they tend to be left feeling worthless and tie themselves up in the vice that is self pity. In the case of slaves who had to watch as all their freedoms were taken from them, a loathing brews in their hearts and this is passed on generation to generation.
Slavery and segregation of the blacks from the superior whites ended many decades ago in America but the scars that were left behind still haunts this great country to date. If for instance a black student or person is shot in the street today by runway gangs it is almost obvious that the police response will have to be very swift in order to redeem the force from the severe abomination it will get from the black public. The black people will go on to compare and say it out in the public that the police were sluggish in the investigation just because it was a black kid shot, and had it been a white person shot, the black community will still say that the police acted swiftly just because the crime was against a white person. It only goes to show that the segregation and feeling of unworthiness that comes with the stripping of peoples freedoms does not go away and even generations later will still look at the perpetrators of this crime as potential threats decades later.
Human beings look for power in many ways, political power and also financial power is bound to keep a person ahead of the others in terms of how he feels and self confidence. The slave masters were full of themselves and even carried with them the feeling of being semi-gods knowing that they controlled other people in the way that they controlled the slaves. It is an abomination to take away all the rights of another human being but it is not only bad for the person whose freedom has been stolen but also for the person who takes away that freedom. It gives people too much power of which they can use to manipulate and control other people with the total disregard to the freedom rights of others and without taking into account the amount of pain and destruction they were denying others. People should under no circumstance be allowed to hold so much control over others by means of denying them their fundamental freedoms.
Every person should be given the freedom to move and go wherever they wish to go. Slaves were bought or acquired in many different ways but the basic concept was that they were to remain in their masters areas of confinement until told otherwise. This kind of restriction made it impossible for them to learn more about the land they lived and basically made them look like sheep or other domesticated animals which were put an dheld in cages. What the lack of this freedo to move around does is not only restrict the persons to one area thus making them lackk an open mind to what lies ahead of the fence that is put to confine them Once you give someonr the chance to move around, they get to see and explore the larger world and open their minds to new ideas and ways of looking at the world and in many cases this is the only way by which people engage in critical analysis of the world around them and ideas seem to just automatically spring up to make things better and for innovative ideas to born. Confinement like in the case of slaves in the earlier days was like what today is confinement for prisoners, we do it today as a form of punishment to the law breakers.
Human beings should all be allowed to enjoy the freedom to marry and have families of their own by their own choices. Slavery brought in the issue of slaves not enjoying this freedom since most of the time the slaves were out in the farms doing a lot of manual labor that almost restricted their time to enjoy the company of their loved once. Some families that managed to have children were in the end in one way or the other torn apart by the masters who would trade their slaves with each other or take away the females to work in their houses as house servants whilst keeping them away from their male colleagues of whom they would start and have families with. The hard labor was also bad for the prenatal health of the mothers who ended up losing their children due to the harsh conditions they worked and lived in.
Freedom to acquire health services is a vital aspect of human lives. Good health is the most important thing that a human being can get to enjoy in their lifetime. It is important that people eat and live in good atmospheres that encourage good health for all. It is not the choice of anyone to get sick and if this happens in anyway, a person should be regarded the freedom to acquire and seek for the best medical services that will accord them recovery or for which they can afford with the economic resources that they have at the time. Due to the bad conditions that the slaves lived in, it was rather common to find many slaves falling sick due to the lack of food, water and other basic necessary items needed for survival. Also the working conditions imposed on the slaves were deplorable leading to the outbreak of many diseases that were mostly highly contagious thus spread among the slaves like wild fires. These slaves had no money nor the knowhow to treat these diseases and mostly ended up dying. The masters would not allow them to go out even in search of medical care and even if they did go out, only the white people who were mainly the masters had any medical advancements that could assist them. Due to the fact that slaves were taken as lesser beings, the white people would not be found assisting the slaves thus leading to the loss of many productive lives which could have been prevented if only medical intervention was offered in time.
It is of importance to take into consideration the fact that some people might be so poor and hopeless as to offer themselves as slaves to others in exchange for maybe money, accommodation or some other form of gain for them. It is up to us all to protect this vulnerable people who willingly `sell' their freedom as human beings to others. In Britain it is illegal for anyone today to hold another as a slave but in the older days it was allowed for one to engage in self inflicted slavery. This is a form of losing human freedom but by choice to another person. An agreement was signed between the two parties, today a revised version of this is used by employers on new employees where they sign before engaging in job offers. It is a fundamental human freedom for any person to seek and engage in any meaningful employment that they so wish to. In the Southern states in America, the black code was passed to block former slaves and black people from seeking employment wherever they wished to.
Most popular orders | <urn:uuid:90789e8c-7bfd-41ec-8e15-cdde38b08a5c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essaysexperts.com/essays/history/freedom-2.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00169.warc.gz | en | 0.989648 | 2,372 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.27482360601425... | 1 | Freedom in the first case is in reference to the autonomous choice of a person to live and do whatever they please. In the case of the slave from Virginia, James Somerset who managed to escape from the confines of his master and run away. The master, Charles then led a manhunt for him and ordered that James be found and arrested before being returned to him. The slave had every right to flee his colonial masters bondage and seek his own way of life outside of the confines of the masters land or plantation since it was clear that everyone was aware of the law that said that a prisoner was free once he managed to escape and set his feet in the free land. The master could not hear of this and as such looked allover to find and get his slave back, if not to return him to his farm then he would rather have seen him arrested and thrown in jail. Freedom in this content refers to the fundamental human right to have their own personal ability to make judgment and personal choices.
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During the era of slavery, the slaves had no rights and their slaves dictated entirely how they were going to live and what they were to do. All they had to do to remain alive without beatings and torture was for the slaves involved to listen to the orders from their masters and follow them to the latter. The master went as far as following his slave outside of the confines of his work area whether it was in a household or on a large plantation as was the typical cases then. James in this incident was saved when he went to the harbor and found some people there who listened and sympathized with his predicament thus asked the master to allow him to go free since he had managed to break away from the masters hold. The former slave was thus free, that is the first form of freedom which all human beings in this world today has and which we all fight to allow all the other people oppressed in modern slavery to enjoy. Man is on this earth to make their own choices whichever way they choose and nobody should be allowed to take over another human right to be free.
Man should be allowed to enjoy his freedom of choosing what is right and wrong and to make this decision for them. Slavery was and still is a very cruel way of de humanizing people. Slaves did not have any rights as this had been taken over by the master who bought them. Slaves were supposed to work indefinitely for their masters who also had the right to instill any kind of punishment on the slaves. There are many documented cases where people were beaten so severely that they broke some of their limbs while others even succumbed to the injuries that were constantly inflicted in them. If a man looks at you and feels that you have wronged him in one way or another it is up to the two parties to look for a compromising way to deal with the situation to ensure that none of the two parties inflicted any harm on the other but instead a solution was reached amicably.
In the case of the slaves and their masters, the masters took advantage of the fact that the slaves basically belonged to them since they had paid for them thus had acquired them. This meant that the slaves were subjected to many forms of torture in the hands of their masters and there was nothing they could do and there also was no one there to hear their cries. The slave masters had completely taken away the freedom of the slaves to air their discontent in the way they were treated. Slaves were not allowed to speak out or hold gatherings to air their grievances. Everyone has the freedom to speak and be heard and even in the toughest of situations no one should be denied a chance to speak out their ideas or complaints if at all it affects other people or if other people will have a say in what they have to speak about. In the earlier case of the escaped slave, it was pretty much obvious to everyone that the law allowed a slave to earn his freedom once h managed to escape the captivity of their master but the master in this case took it for granted that he could still do whatever he wanted and went after the poor slave.
Had the slave not managed to air his grievances to the British abolitionist who then went ahead and organized for a public hearing to be setup to listen to the slave's case, then the slave would have been wrongfully captured and taken away to God knows where on Captain Knowle's boat headed for Jamaica. Even today criminals who hurt the public and break the law no matter in what way or how many times over, they are allowed the freedom to express themselves before any action can be taken against them. It is important to give each and everyone a chance to speak out their hearts and just for other people to listen. A lot of information is passed down from generation to generation that helps us in our daily lives and of importance is the fact that the great thinkers were given the freedom to express their ideas and as such even others get to hear of the bright ideas and even go on to improve on them for the overall good of all humans. When the basic freedoms of a person are taken away, they tend to be left feeling worthless and tie themselves up in the vice that is self pity. In the case of slaves who had to watch as all their freedoms were taken from them, a loathing brews in their hearts and this is passed on generation to generation.
Slavery and segregation of the blacks from the superior whites ended many decades ago in America but the scars that were left behind still haunts this great country to date. If for instance a black student or person is shot in the street today by runway gangs it is almost obvious that the police response will have to be very swift in order to redeem the force from the severe abomination it will get from the black public. The black people will go on to compare and say it out in the public that the police were sluggish in the investigation just because it was a black kid shot, and had it been a white person shot, the black community will still say that the police acted swiftly just because the crime was against a white person. It only goes to show that the segregation and feeling of unworthiness that comes with the stripping of peoples freedoms does not go away and even generations later will still look at the perpetrators of this crime as potential threats decades later.
Human beings look for power in many ways, political power and also financial power is bound to keep a person ahead of the others in terms of how he feels and self confidence. The slave masters were full of themselves and even carried with them the feeling of being semi-gods knowing that they controlled other people in the way that they controlled the slaves. It is an abomination to take away all the rights of another human being but it is not only bad for the person whose freedom has been stolen but also for the person who takes away that freedom. It gives people too much power of which they can use to manipulate and control other people with the total disregard to the freedom rights of others and without taking into account the amount of pain and destruction they were denying others. People should under no circumstance be allowed to hold so much control over others by means of denying them their fundamental freedoms.
Every person should be given the freedom to move and go wherever they wish to go. Slaves were bought or acquired in many different ways but the basic concept was that they were to remain in their masters areas of confinement until told otherwise. This kind of restriction made it impossible for them to learn more about the land they lived and basically made them look like sheep or other domesticated animals which were put an dheld in cages. What the lack of this freedo to move around does is not only restrict the persons to one area thus making them lackk an open mind to what lies ahead of the fence that is put to confine them Once you give someonr the chance to move around, they get to see and explore the larger world and open their minds to new ideas and ways of looking at the world and in many cases this is the only way by which people engage in critical analysis of the world around them and ideas seem to just automatically spring up to make things better and for innovative ideas to born. Confinement like in the case of slaves in the earlier days was like what today is confinement for prisoners, we do it today as a form of punishment to the law breakers.
Human beings should all be allowed to enjoy the freedom to marry and have families of their own by their own choices. Slavery brought in the issue of slaves not enjoying this freedom since most of the time the slaves were out in the farms doing a lot of manual labor that almost restricted their time to enjoy the company of their loved once. Some families that managed to have children were in the end in one way or the other torn apart by the masters who would trade their slaves with each other or take away the females to work in their houses as house servants whilst keeping them away from their male colleagues of whom they would start and have families with. The hard labor was also bad for the prenatal health of the mothers who ended up losing their children due to the harsh conditions they worked and lived in.
Freedom to acquire health services is a vital aspect of human lives. Good health is the most important thing that a human being can get to enjoy in their lifetime. It is important that people eat and live in good atmospheres that encourage good health for all. It is not the choice of anyone to get sick and if this happens in anyway, a person should be regarded the freedom to acquire and seek for the best medical services that will accord them recovery or for which they can afford with the economic resources that they have at the time. Due to the bad conditions that the slaves lived in, it was rather common to find many slaves falling sick due to the lack of food, water and other basic necessary items needed for survival. Also the working conditions imposed on the slaves were deplorable leading to the outbreak of many diseases that were mostly highly contagious thus spread among the slaves like wild fires. These slaves had no money nor the knowhow to treat these diseases and mostly ended up dying. The masters would not allow them to go out even in search of medical care and even if they did go out, only the white people who were mainly the masters had any medical advancements that could assist them. Due to the fact that slaves were taken as lesser beings, the white people would not be found assisting the slaves thus leading to the loss of many productive lives which could have been prevented if only medical intervention was offered in time.
It is of importance to take into consideration the fact that some people might be so poor and hopeless as to offer themselves as slaves to others in exchange for maybe money, accommodation or some other form of gain for them. It is up to us all to protect this vulnerable people who willingly `sell' their freedom as human beings to others. In Britain it is illegal for anyone today to hold another as a slave but in the older days it was allowed for one to engage in self inflicted slavery. This is a form of losing human freedom but by choice to another person. An agreement was signed between the two parties, today a revised version of this is used by employers on new employees where they sign before engaging in job offers. It is a fundamental human freedom for any person to seek and engage in any meaningful employment that they so wish to. In the Southern states in America, the black code was passed to block former slaves and black people from seeking employment wherever they wished to.
Most popular orders | 2,362 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Dante Alighieri, or simply Dante (May 14/June 13 1265 – September 13/14, 1321), is one of the greatest poets in the Italian language; with the comic story-teller Boccaccio and the poet Petrarch, he forms the classic trio of Italian authors. Dante Alighieri was born in the city-state Florence in 1265. He first saw the woman, or rather the child, who was to become the poetic love of his life when he was almost nine years old and she was some months younger. In fact, Beatrice married another man, Simone di’ Bardi, and died when Dante was 25, so their relationship existed almost entirely in Dante’s imagination, but she nonetheless plays an extremely important role in his poetry. Dante attributed all the heavenly virtues to her soul and imagined, in his masterpiece The Divine Comedy, that
she was his guardian angel who alternately berated and encouraged him on his search for salvation.Politics as well as love deeply influenced Dante’s literary and emotional life. Renaissance Florence was a thriving, but not a peaceful city: different opposing factions continually struggled for dominance there. The Guelfs and the Ghibellines were the two major factions, and in fact that division was important in all of Italy and other countries as well. The Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor were political rivals for much of this time period, and in general the Guelfs were in favor of the Pope, while the Ghibellines supported Imperial power. By 1289 in the battle of Campaldino the Ghibellines largely disappeared from Florence. Peace, however, did not insue. Instead, the Guelf party divided between the Whites and the Blacks (Dante was a White Guelf). The Whites were more opposed to Papal power than the Blacks, and tended to favor the emperor, so in fact the preoccupations of the White Guelfs were much like those of the defeated Ghibellines. In this divisive atmosphere Dante rose to a position of leadership. in 1302, while he was in Rome on a diplomatic mission to the Pope, the Blacks in Florence seized power with the help of the French (and pro-Pope) Charles of Valois. The Blacks exiled Dante, confiscating his goods and condemning him to be burned if he should return to Florence.Dante never returned to Florence. He wandered from city to city, depending on noble patrons there. Between 1302 and 1304 some attempts were made by the exiled Whites to retrieve their position in Florence, but none of these succeeded and Dante contented himself with hoping for the appearance of a new powerful Holy Roman Emperor who would unite the country and banish strife. Henry VII was elected Emperor in 1308, and indeed laid seige to Florence in 1312, but was defeated, and he died a year later, destroying Dante’s hopes. Dante passed from court to court, writing passionate political and moral epistles and finishing his Divine Comedy, which contains the Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso. He finally died in Ravenna in 1321. | <urn:uuid:082c3711-e256-410a-be6b-1f19485a8612> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bookziz.com/a/dante-alighieri/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00064.warc.gz | en | 0.984766 | 637 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.21548116207... | 1 | Dante Alighieri, or simply Dante (May 14/June 13 1265 – September 13/14, 1321), is one of the greatest poets in the Italian language; with the comic story-teller Boccaccio and the poet Petrarch, he forms the classic trio of Italian authors. Dante Alighieri was born in the city-state Florence in 1265. He first saw the woman, or rather the child, who was to become the poetic love of his life when he was almost nine years old and she was some months younger. In fact, Beatrice married another man, Simone di’ Bardi, and died when Dante was 25, so their relationship existed almost entirely in Dante’s imagination, but she nonetheless plays an extremely important role in his poetry. Dante attributed all the heavenly virtues to her soul and imagined, in his masterpiece The Divine Comedy, that
she was his guardian angel who alternately berated and encouraged him on his search for salvation.Politics as well as love deeply influenced Dante’s literary and emotional life. Renaissance Florence was a thriving, but not a peaceful city: different opposing factions continually struggled for dominance there. The Guelfs and the Ghibellines were the two major factions, and in fact that division was important in all of Italy and other countries as well. The Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor were political rivals for much of this time period, and in general the Guelfs were in favor of the Pope, while the Ghibellines supported Imperial power. By 1289 in the battle of Campaldino the Ghibellines largely disappeared from Florence. Peace, however, did not insue. Instead, the Guelf party divided between the Whites and the Blacks (Dante was a White Guelf). The Whites were more opposed to Papal power than the Blacks, and tended to favor the emperor, so in fact the preoccupations of the White Guelfs were much like those of the defeated Ghibellines. In this divisive atmosphere Dante rose to a position of leadership. in 1302, while he was in Rome on a diplomatic mission to the Pope, the Blacks in Florence seized power with the help of the French (and pro-Pope) Charles of Valois. The Blacks exiled Dante, confiscating his goods and condemning him to be burned if he should return to Florence.Dante never returned to Florence. He wandered from city to city, depending on noble patrons there. Between 1302 and 1304 some attempts were made by the exiled Whites to retrieve their position in Florence, but none of these succeeded and Dante contented himself with hoping for the appearance of a new powerful Holy Roman Emperor who would unite the country and banish strife. Henry VII was elected Emperor in 1308, and indeed laid seige to Florence in 1312, but was defeated, and he died a year later, destroying Dante’s hopes. Dante passed from court to court, writing passionate political and moral epistles and finishing his Divine Comedy, which contains the Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso. He finally died in Ravenna in 1321. | 670 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Sadly, Anne didn’t live a very long life and died in the concentration camp at the age of sixteen. Years later, her father Otto Frank, the only surviving member of her family, published her diaries to give the world a firsthand glimpse into the world of a young person living in hiding during World War II. Anne Frank’s feelings, observations, and experiences resonated with people around the world, and what was once just a young girl’s diary became a symbol for what the world should never become again. Earlier this week, the world remembered Anne Frank. She would have been ninety years old.
June 16, 2019
On June 12th, 1929, a girl named Anne Frank was born in Frankfurt, Germany. No one knew it at the time, but she would one day become famous not for acting or singing, or for being a scientist or innovator, but for what she experienced in her short life. She was thirteen years old when she and her family had to go into hiding for fear of being captured by the Nazis and persecuted for being Jewish. This was during World War II, an extremely dark time in world history when Adolf Hitler, the leader of Germany at the time, imprisoned Jewish people in concentration camps where they were abused and left to die. Anne and her family hid from the Nazis in an annex behind a bookcase for two years before they were discovered and forced to live in a concentration camp. During her time in hiding, she wrote in her diary about what was happening and how she was feeling. | <urn:uuid:22fdb1f2-ca6f-4529-8ac6-72982d0872aa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.xyzanews.com/who-was-anne-frank/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00329.warc.gz | en | 0.990879 | 314 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.33761414885520... | 5 | Sadly, Anne didn’t live a very long life and died in the concentration camp at the age of sixteen. Years later, her father Otto Frank, the only surviving member of her family, published her diaries to give the world a firsthand glimpse into the world of a young person living in hiding during World War II. Anne Frank’s feelings, observations, and experiences resonated with people around the world, and what was once just a young girl’s diary became a symbol for what the world should never become again. Earlier this week, the world remembered Anne Frank. She would have been ninety years old.
June 16, 2019
On June 12th, 1929, a girl named Anne Frank was born in Frankfurt, Germany. No one knew it at the time, but she would one day become famous not for acting or singing, or for being a scientist or innovator, but for what she experienced in her short life. She was thirteen years old when she and her family had to go into hiding for fear of being captured by the Nazis and persecuted for being Jewish. This was during World War II, an extremely dark time in world history when Adolf Hitler, the leader of Germany at the time, imprisoned Jewish people in concentration camps where they were abused and left to die. Anne and her family hid from the Nazis in an annex behind a bookcase for two years before they were discovered and forced to live in a concentration camp. During her time in hiding, she wrote in her diary about what was happening and how she was feeling. | 319 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Diego Velazquez was one of the finest Spanish artists of all time. Velazquez became initially popular with his paintings of religious themes. However, he eventually moved toward complex artworks
that featured realistic subjects, which earned him a position at the royal court of King Philip IV.
Diego Velazquez was born on June 6, 1599, in Seville, Spain. He started his apprenticeship at the tender age of 11, where he worked under the guidance of Francisco Pacheco, a local artist in Spain. Thus, the early works of Velazquez were mostly of religious background. These themes greatly pleased Pacheco, although Caravaggio eventually inspired the works of this young artist.
By 1617, Velazquez has already reached the last period of his apprenticeship. Afterwards, he decided to set up his very own studio that featured his great works. Then, in 1618, he married Juana, the daughter of his mentor.
Soon, Velazquez moved to the royal court of King Philip IV. This new milestone in his life gave him a better access to impressive collection of artworks that helped inspire his masterpieces. He also knew about Peter Paul Rubens who was a Flemish-born baroque artist during that time. Like other Baroque artists such as Annibale Carracci, Velázquez was tremendously impressed with Renaissance Artists such as Tintoretto, Titian and Raphael. These artists influenced Velázquez most notably in his rendering of color and light.One of the finest pieces by Velazquez during the time he spent at the royal court was The Triumph of Bacchus.
From 1629 to 1631, the artist went to Italy and discovered more about the art techniques of various painters. When he came back to Madrid, he started an extensive series of portraits, and these all depicted the royal family riding on a horse. He also became quite preoccupied with painting a number of dwarves who were also among the members of the king's court. Velazquez presented these beings as complex, yet brilliant creatures.
In addition to the artist's regular painting tasks, he also served a few other things that he was fond of, as well. For instance, he became the superintendent that watched over several palace works, and he also became a wardrobe assistant.
By 1649, he travelled back to Italy. Here, he was provided with an opportunity to present Pope Innocent X in a painting. The artist considered his Portrait of Pope Innocent X as one of the most impressive artworks he has ever created. He even made a realistic portrait of Juan de Pareja, who was the pope's servant.
Velazquez was known for several artworks throughout his time. However, some of his works were rather controversial and his appointment at the royal court spared him from censorship. Thus, he was able to release his intriguing work called La Venus del Espejo, which was popularly termed as the Rokeby Venus. This painting is the only female nude painting by Velazquez that remains up to this very day.
During that time in Spain, there were two main patrons of art that were recognized in the country. Velazquez had the favor from the royalties while Bartolome Esteban Murillo won the favor of the church. Between the two, it was Velazquez who basked in a more comfortable life with pension until his death.
The Spinners was one of the final artworks of Velazquez. He painted this in 1657, and it featured the Fable of Arachne or the interiors of the royal tapestry. In the Spinners, his famous artwork, the background used was a tapestry from The Rape of Europa by the Titian.
According to critics, Velazquez' works full of movement and energy, which is made possible by the vibrant display of colors in his paintings. Moreover, his masterpieces all featured the artist's sheer knowledge of various art techniques that he gained during his long years in his craft. His typical scheme always featured a variety of gray, black, blue-green and red colors blended well to create a stunning painting.
One of his last works was the Infanta Margarita Teresa in a Blue Dress, which is truly a gem among most artists and art enthusiasts. It was in this painting that he was able to present his unique style in terms of the choice of color. For instance, there were plenty of shimmering colors that were set on wider painting surfaces to give off an impressionistic appeal. Hence, it is essential for viewers to stand at a certain distance to obtain an impression of the artwork's three-dimensional quality.
Velazquez had only one surviving portrait, which was of Prince Felipe Prospero. It was a remarkable piece of work, thanks to the child prince's sweet features, yet the prince also had a certain sense of gloom in his eyes. The young prince featured in this painting died at a very young age of 4 years old.
Velazquez decided to continue working on his portraiture when he was reassigned to Madrid's royal court. It was at this time that his techniques became more energized and bolder than before. His greatest work was entitled Las Meninas, and this featured a painting resembling a snapshot. Moreover, there were two maidens doting on Margarita Teresa who eventually became the empress of the kingdom.
During the year 1658, Velazquez was knighted in the royal court. He was also given some duties in terms of the decoration for the wedding of Louis XIV and Maria Teresa. Soon, the artist became ill, and he died on August 6, 1660, in Madrid.
Although Diego Velazquez lived during Dutch War of Independence, a time of political tension and war between Dutch and Spanish, the Dutch and Spanish painting traditions approached closer to each other than it is generally thought. The 17th century has become known as the Golden Age of painting in both the Netherlands and Spain. It was a period of tremendous artistic achievement that saw the emergence of two of the greatest painters in history, Rembrandt and Velázquez, the leading artists of their respective countries. Like other great masters, Velazquez was more a creator than a recorder of his epoch, and whatever his subject - whether he as painting gods, kings or aristocrats, dwarfs or artists - his work has continue to live after his death, and Velazquez became widely known as among the greatest influences of Western Art. In fact, some remarkable artists in history regarded Velazquez as their influences. These painters included Paul Cezanne, Édouard Manet and Pablo Picasso, among a few other artists. It was his sheer talent and passion to incorporate newer techniques that made Velazquez among the finest artists in the world. | <urn:uuid:d3605333-cea7-407b-adac-e5e0fd4a265b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.diego-velazquez.org/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00118.warc.gz | en | 0.991911 | 1,408 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.12433888763... | 2 | Diego Velazquez was one of the finest Spanish artists of all time. Velazquez became initially popular with his paintings of religious themes. However, he eventually moved toward complex artworks
that featured realistic subjects, which earned him a position at the royal court of King Philip IV.
Diego Velazquez was born on June 6, 1599, in Seville, Spain. He started his apprenticeship at the tender age of 11, where he worked under the guidance of Francisco Pacheco, a local artist in Spain. Thus, the early works of Velazquez were mostly of religious background. These themes greatly pleased Pacheco, although Caravaggio eventually inspired the works of this young artist.
By 1617, Velazquez has already reached the last period of his apprenticeship. Afterwards, he decided to set up his very own studio that featured his great works. Then, in 1618, he married Juana, the daughter of his mentor.
Soon, Velazquez moved to the royal court of King Philip IV. This new milestone in his life gave him a better access to impressive collection of artworks that helped inspire his masterpieces. He also knew about Peter Paul Rubens who was a Flemish-born baroque artist during that time. Like other Baroque artists such as Annibale Carracci, Velázquez was tremendously impressed with Renaissance Artists such as Tintoretto, Titian and Raphael. These artists influenced Velázquez most notably in his rendering of color and light.One of the finest pieces by Velazquez during the time he spent at the royal court was The Triumph of Bacchus.
From 1629 to 1631, the artist went to Italy and discovered more about the art techniques of various painters. When he came back to Madrid, he started an extensive series of portraits, and these all depicted the royal family riding on a horse. He also became quite preoccupied with painting a number of dwarves who were also among the members of the king's court. Velazquez presented these beings as complex, yet brilliant creatures.
In addition to the artist's regular painting tasks, he also served a few other things that he was fond of, as well. For instance, he became the superintendent that watched over several palace works, and he also became a wardrobe assistant.
By 1649, he travelled back to Italy. Here, he was provided with an opportunity to present Pope Innocent X in a painting. The artist considered his Portrait of Pope Innocent X as one of the most impressive artworks he has ever created. He even made a realistic portrait of Juan de Pareja, who was the pope's servant.
Velazquez was known for several artworks throughout his time. However, some of his works were rather controversial and his appointment at the royal court spared him from censorship. Thus, he was able to release his intriguing work called La Venus del Espejo, which was popularly termed as the Rokeby Venus. This painting is the only female nude painting by Velazquez that remains up to this very day.
During that time in Spain, there were two main patrons of art that were recognized in the country. Velazquez had the favor from the royalties while Bartolome Esteban Murillo won the favor of the church. Between the two, it was Velazquez who basked in a more comfortable life with pension until his death.
The Spinners was one of the final artworks of Velazquez. He painted this in 1657, and it featured the Fable of Arachne or the interiors of the royal tapestry. In the Spinners, his famous artwork, the background used was a tapestry from The Rape of Europa by the Titian.
According to critics, Velazquez' works full of movement and energy, which is made possible by the vibrant display of colors in his paintings. Moreover, his masterpieces all featured the artist's sheer knowledge of various art techniques that he gained during his long years in his craft. His typical scheme always featured a variety of gray, black, blue-green and red colors blended well to create a stunning painting.
One of his last works was the Infanta Margarita Teresa in a Blue Dress, which is truly a gem among most artists and art enthusiasts. It was in this painting that he was able to present his unique style in terms of the choice of color. For instance, there were plenty of shimmering colors that were set on wider painting surfaces to give off an impressionistic appeal. Hence, it is essential for viewers to stand at a certain distance to obtain an impression of the artwork's three-dimensional quality.
Velazquez had only one surviving portrait, which was of Prince Felipe Prospero. It was a remarkable piece of work, thanks to the child prince's sweet features, yet the prince also had a certain sense of gloom in his eyes. The young prince featured in this painting died at a very young age of 4 years old.
Velazquez decided to continue working on his portraiture when he was reassigned to Madrid's royal court. It was at this time that his techniques became more energized and bolder than before. His greatest work was entitled Las Meninas, and this featured a painting resembling a snapshot. Moreover, there were two maidens doting on Margarita Teresa who eventually became the empress of the kingdom.
During the year 1658, Velazquez was knighted in the royal court. He was also given some duties in terms of the decoration for the wedding of Louis XIV and Maria Teresa. Soon, the artist became ill, and he died on August 6, 1660, in Madrid.
Although Diego Velazquez lived during Dutch War of Independence, a time of political tension and war between Dutch and Spanish, the Dutch and Spanish painting traditions approached closer to each other than it is generally thought. The 17th century has become known as the Golden Age of painting in both the Netherlands and Spain. It was a period of tremendous artistic achievement that saw the emergence of two of the greatest painters in history, Rembrandt and Velázquez, the leading artists of their respective countries. Like other great masters, Velazquez was more a creator than a recorder of his epoch, and whatever his subject - whether he as painting gods, kings or aristocrats, dwarfs or artists - his work has continue to live after his death, and Velazquez became widely known as among the greatest influences of Western Art. In fact, some remarkable artists in history regarded Velazquez as their influences. These painters included Paul Cezanne, Édouard Manet and Pablo Picasso, among a few other artists. It was his sheer talent and passion to incorporate newer techniques that made Velazquez among the finest artists in the world. | 1,404 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What exactly are all of the properties in math? What exactly does the scope mean in mathematics? This guide is going to share with the several sorts of answers you can have in your equations, and all the combinations you may research and lots of tactics to you.
What’s truly a several in math? You will find several ways to state what is a variable in mathematics. By applying the symbol N and a multiple from the equation, you are saying what N would be at the equation and to the best.
The way is N and a variety. You are able to publish the equation utilizing precisely the same equation or this way, but also you would like to create N as a group. The N at the equation is utilised to show that you are perhaps maybe not currently defining a number, however are still specifying a word.
You may compose N the very exact number utilizing the following angle, you also can write N as one among many angles or you may create N within a angle. You are able to use a many in math’s definition with this is of N being an angle.
You may produce N working with exactly the very same value as N. N is usually applied by you .
You might even compose N by two angles. N could be written by you. These are all versions of N.
The means is a distinct angle, and also N. You can publish N by two angles, a single angle, or even three angles. N is often written by you by a single angle.
You can http://library.hodges.edu/openculture also write N two angles. You could also create N two angles and also also a dual angle. You can compose N two angles plus also a angle.
You could also write N by also two angles along with a triple angle 3 angles, along with an triple angle. You’re able to either write N by some quadrant, either a quadrangle or quadrant, or four angles and also 2 angles. You can write N for three angles as well as a quadrant.
You could also produce N by 3 angles and means of a quadrant. You’re able to even produce N by a radius and also a few angles. You are able to even compose N as a two and quadrant angles.
You can also write N using means of a three and quadrant angles along with a radius plus two angles. You may also compose N as a two and quadrant angles as well as a radius. | <urn:uuid:ee76bc6b-5f4d-48e3-8e00-20afaf6199ec> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://hungdaiviet.vn/qualities-l-z.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00096.warc.gz | en | 0.98452 | 514 | 3.984375 | 4 | [
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-0.3718181848526... | 3 | What exactly are all of the properties in math? What exactly does the scope mean in mathematics? This guide is going to share with the several sorts of answers you can have in your equations, and all the combinations you may research and lots of tactics to you.
What’s truly a several in math? You will find several ways to state what is a variable in mathematics. By applying the symbol N and a multiple from the equation, you are saying what N would be at the equation and to the best.
The way is N and a variety. You are able to publish the equation utilizing precisely the same equation or this way, but also you would like to create N as a group. The N at the equation is utilised to show that you are perhaps maybe not currently defining a number, however are still specifying a word.
You may compose N the very exact number utilizing the following angle, you also can write N as one among many angles or you may create N within a angle. You are able to use a many in math’s definition with this is of N being an angle.
You may produce N working with exactly the very same value as N. N is usually applied by you .
You might even compose N by two angles. N could be written by you. These are all versions of N.
The means is a distinct angle, and also N. You can publish N by two angles, a single angle, or even three angles. N is often written by you by a single angle.
You can http://library.hodges.edu/openculture also write N two angles. You could also create N two angles and also also a dual angle. You can compose N two angles plus also a angle.
You could also write N by also two angles along with a triple angle 3 angles, along with an triple angle. You’re able to either write N by some quadrant, either a quadrangle or quadrant, or four angles and also 2 angles. You can write N for three angles as well as a quadrant.
You could also produce N by 3 angles and means of a quadrant. You’re able to even produce N by a radius and also a few angles. You are able to even compose N as a two and quadrant angles.
You can also write N using means of a three and quadrant angles along with a radius plus two angles. You may also compose N as a two and quadrant angles as well as a radius. | 490 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The ancient theatrical masks
The Ancient Greek world was far different than our modern society. Theatrical masks were an essential accessory. Masks were the reflection of the story told.
The ancient theatre was a man’s game. Women had the right to watch a theatrical performance but it was impossible for them to participate. The Ancient Greek world was far different than our modern society. Therefore, the male actors were capable to incarnate male and female roles and behaviors.
The theatrical masks were an essential accessory. Most of them were made of plaster and painted linen and consequently none was found during an excavation. Fortunately, many statuettes and mask models survived to our present day made of clay, terracotta, stone and metal or beautiful mosaics with depictions of theatrical performances.
Hence, we have a clear picture of how ancient masks looked like. It was a world of mortals and gods, heroes and demigods, men and women. Beautiful works of art with impressive details and expressions of all kinds. An actor could change quite a few of masks during a play and together with that his moves and voice tone. Not an easy job in front of thousands of spectators ready to judge an actor’s skills.
Greeks were obsessed with theatre; it was considered as a significant element of democracy and freedom of speech for the rich and poor citizens equally. Masks were the reflection of a disguised free man who could laugh, cry, judge, mock and honor the mortals and the immortals without fear.
None could see their human face anyway…Theatre was one of the miracles of ancient Greek democracy on a spiritual level. | <urn:uuid:0fe9acdd-1930-4067-b289-10d9d55086c8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://mag.politismosmuseum.org/the-ancient-theatrical-masks/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00389.warc.gz | en | 0.987911 | 334 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.373627245... | 18 | The ancient theatrical masks
The Ancient Greek world was far different than our modern society. Theatrical masks were an essential accessory. Masks were the reflection of the story told.
The ancient theatre was a man’s game. Women had the right to watch a theatrical performance but it was impossible for them to participate. The Ancient Greek world was far different than our modern society. Therefore, the male actors were capable to incarnate male and female roles and behaviors.
The theatrical masks were an essential accessory. Most of them were made of plaster and painted linen and consequently none was found during an excavation. Fortunately, many statuettes and mask models survived to our present day made of clay, terracotta, stone and metal or beautiful mosaics with depictions of theatrical performances.
Hence, we have a clear picture of how ancient masks looked like. It was a world of mortals and gods, heroes and demigods, men and women. Beautiful works of art with impressive details and expressions of all kinds. An actor could change quite a few of masks during a play and together with that his moves and voice tone. Not an easy job in front of thousands of spectators ready to judge an actor’s skills.
Greeks were obsessed with theatre; it was considered as a significant element of democracy and freedom of speech for the rich and poor citizens equally. Masks were the reflection of a disguised free man who could laugh, cry, judge, mock and honor the mortals and the immortals without fear.
None could see their human face anyway…Theatre was one of the miracles of ancient Greek democracy on a spiritual level. | 327 | ENGLISH | 1 |
1. At the age of eight, Johann Sebastian Bach attended the same Latin Grammar School as the Christian theologian and reformer Martin Luther, who taught reading, writing and Latin grammar there. While, at school, the choir of St. Georgenkirche was formed, and Bach was given an opportunity to sing during regular services; he was described as having an uncommonly fine treble voice.
2. Bach lost a sister and a brother at an early age. When he was nine, his mother died, and his father passed away only months later. Following these tragic events, Bach was taken in by his eldest brother, Johann Christoph. The two became estranged, however, when the elder brother discovered that Johann Sebastian had copied a forbidden musical manuscript by moonlight over a period of six months. After their rift, Bach’s soprano voice landed him a spot at Michaelis monastery choir at Luneburg, which was known to provide a free place for musically talented boys who were financially unstable.
3. During his time as a student, Bach had an altercation with a bassoonist named Geyersbach, who had questioned Bach’s musical talent and threatened him with a stick. In retaliation, Bach pulled a sword on Geyersbach and called him a “nanny-goat bassoonist.” Geyersbach responded by calling Bach a “dirty dog.” Although Bach drew his sword, the confrontation did not escalate as other students broke up the fight.
4. Bach fathered 20 children, but only nine survived. Seven came from his first wife Maria Barbara Bach, who was also his second cousin. Several offspring went on to become professional musicians and composers. The most notable of these were Carl Phillip Emmanuel Bach and Johann Christian Bach.
5. Believing in the mystical power of numbers, Bach often used 14 and 41 in his works because he believed these two numbers were associated with the numerical values of the letters in his name.
6. Bach was very competitive by nature. In 1717, he challenged harpsichordist Louis Marchand to a keyboard duel. But fearing a potentially embarrassing defeat, Marchand backed out on the day of the duel.
7. Bach was arrested and thrown in jail by the Duke of Weimar when he learned that Bach had accepted a post of a Kapellmeister (head of orchestra) and had requested to be released from Weimar’s employ. During his time in jail, he put together a cycle of organ chorale preludes for the whole year. After a month of imprisonment, Bach was released and given permission to resign.
8. Despite their 16-year age difference, Bach married singer Anna Magdalena, whose soothing soprano voice caught his attention. Magdalena was very nice to Bach’s children. She was also a good housekeeper, shared his passion for music, and helped him by neatly copying his manuscripts.
9. Bach spent the last 27 years of his life in Leipzig where he worked as a director of music and choir, organizing the music in the city’s four churches. Out of the 54 scholars given to Bach, he deemed 17 as competent, 20 not yet fully competent, and 17 as incapable.
10. Bach spent the last months of his life in a darkened room critiquing his great chorale fantasias with his pupil and son-in-law Johann Christoph Altnikol by his side. Bach eventually died on July 28, 1750 following a stroke and severe fever. | <urn:uuid:545627ff-cf2a-49f2-9ec1-4a50fa45d245> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://simplycharly.com/facts/10-things-you-might-not-know-about-bach/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00476.warc.gz | en | 0.989326 | 735 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.0817754... | 2 | 1. At the age of eight, Johann Sebastian Bach attended the same Latin Grammar School as the Christian theologian and reformer Martin Luther, who taught reading, writing and Latin grammar there. While, at school, the choir of St. Georgenkirche was formed, and Bach was given an opportunity to sing during regular services; he was described as having an uncommonly fine treble voice.
2. Bach lost a sister and a brother at an early age. When he was nine, his mother died, and his father passed away only months later. Following these tragic events, Bach was taken in by his eldest brother, Johann Christoph. The two became estranged, however, when the elder brother discovered that Johann Sebastian had copied a forbidden musical manuscript by moonlight over a period of six months. After their rift, Bach’s soprano voice landed him a spot at Michaelis monastery choir at Luneburg, which was known to provide a free place for musically talented boys who were financially unstable.
3. During his time as a student, Bach had an altercation with a bassoonist named Geyersbach, who had questioned Bach’s musical talent and threatened him with a stick. In retaliation, Bach pulled a sword on Geyersbach and called him a “nanny-goat bassoonist.” Geyersbach responded by calling Bach a “dirty dog.” Although Bach drew his sword, the confrontation did not escalate as other students broke up the fight.
4. Bach fathered 20 children, but only nine survived. Seven came from his first wife Maria Barbara Bach, who was also his second cousin. Several offspring went on to become professional musicians and composers. The most notable of these were Carl Phillip Emmanuel Bach and Johann Christian Bach.
5. Believing in the mystical power of numbers, Bach often used 14 and 41 in his works because he believed these two numbers were associated with the numerical values of the letters in his name.
6. Bach was very competitive by nature. In 1717, he challenged harpsichordist Louis Marchand to a keyboard duel. But fearing a potentially embarrassing defeat, Marchand backed out on the day of the duel.
7. Bach was arrested and thrown in jail by the Duke of Weimar when he learned that Bach had accepted a post of a Kapellmeister (head of orchestra) and had requested to be released from Weimar’s employ. During his time in jail, he put together a cycle of organ chorale preludes for the whole year. After a month of imprisonment, Bach was released and given permission to resign.
8. Despite their 16-year age difference, Bach married singer Anna Magdalena, whose soothing soprano voice caught his attention. Magdalena was very nice to Bach’s children. She was also a good housekeeper, shared his passion for music, and helped him by neatly copying his manuscripts.
9. Bach spent the last 27 years of his life in Leipzig where he worked as a director of music and choir, organizing the music in the city’s four churches. Out of the 54 scholars given to Bach, he deemed 17 as competent, 20 not yet fully competent, and 17 as incapable.
10. Bach spent the last months of his life in a darkened room critiquing his great chorale fantasias with his pupil and son-in-law Johann Christoph Altnikol by his side. Bach eventually died on July 28, 1750 following a stroke and severe fever. | 727 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The article introduces 6 of the major social reformers who brought immense changes to the history of Kerala.
Swami Ananda Theerthan
Ananda Theerthan was born on 2 January 1905 in Thalassery. His real name was Ananda Shenoy. He assumed his new name at Sarada temple at Sivagiri in 1928. He was close to Sree Narayana Guru and worked against casteism. He entered temples with Harijans and bathed in public ponds to protest against casteism. He established Sree Narayana School in Payyannur in 1931.
He promoted intercast-marriage through the Jathinashini Sabha, founded in 1933. He died in 1987.
Ayya Vaikunda Swamikal was born in 1809 in Swamithope near Nagar Kovil. He was first named Mudi soodum Perumal but the upper casts forced his parents to change it to Muthukkutty. Vaikundar raised his voice against the casteism and prejudices in Hinduism. 'Akhilatthirratu' and 'Arulnool' are his major works. He also fought against feudalism. His thoughts and principles are collectively called Ayyavazhi. He died in 1851.
Karuppan is called the 'Abraham Lincoln of Kerala'. Born in 1885, he was a poet, dramatist and social reformer from the fishermen community in Kerala. He founded Arayasamajam in 1907. His books, 'Jathikkummi', 'Balakalesham' and 'Udyanavirunnu' reflected his opposition against untouchability and discrimination against lower castes. His brother Anandayogi was a disciple of Brahmananda Shivayogi. Pandit Karuppan passed away in 1938.
He was born on 27 August 1896 in Kollam. His real name was Krishnan Nambyathiri. He was an active worker of the Kerala branch of Sri Ramakrishna Mission. He assumed ascetic life in 1928 and was later known in the name Agamananda. In 1936, he established Sree Ramakrishna Advaita Ashramam in Kalady and later founded Sri Sankara College.
T K Madhavan
TK Madhavan was a social reformer and journalist who led crusade for the eradication of untouchability. He was born in 1880. Madhavan was a disciple of Sree Narayana Guru. He founded Deshabhimani weekly with K P Kayyalakkal. He took part in the Congress conference of 1923 at Kakkinada and earned the support of Mahatma Gandhi in the fight against castist prejudices. He was one of the leaders of Vaikom Satyagraha in 1924. He passed away in 1930.
Ayyappan was a journalist, thinker and social reformer. He was born in Cherai in 1889. Sahodaran movement was established by him to fight against the discrimination in the name of castes and untouchability. He organised Mishrabhojanam in 1917, in which people from different castes had meals together. He founded an organisation named Vidyaposhini and established the newspaper Sahodaran to propagate his ideas. He passed away in 1968.
You can read about the kings who made significant contributions to Kerala before Indian independence here..
The Portuguese were the first Europeans to reach India. Their first landing was in Kerala and they took power here.
This is the list of 6 renowned European thinkers since Rene Descartes.. | <urn:uuid:23f27644-3323-4a23-8dd9-1ad8fa403f50> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://travelandculture.expertscolumn.com/6-social-reformers-kerala | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00555.warc.gz | en | 0.980806 | 749 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.3645632266998... | 1 | The article introduces 6 of the major social reformers who brought immense changes to the history of Kerala.
Swami Ananda Theerthan
Ananda Theerthan was born on 2 January 1905 in Thalassery. His real name was Ananda Shenoy. He assumed his new name at Sarada temple at Sivagiri in 1928. He was close to Sree Narayana Guru and worked against casteism. He entered temples with Harijans and bathed in public ponds to protest against casteism. He established Sree Narayana School in Payyannur in 1931.
He promoted intercast-marriage through the Jathinashini Sabha, founded in 1933. He died in 1987.
Ayya Vaikunda Swamikal was born in 1809 in Swamithope near Nagar Kovil. He was first named Mudi soodum Perumal but the upper casts forced his parents to change it to Muthukkutty. Vaikundar raised his voice against the casteism and prejudices in Hinduism. 'Akhilatthirratu' and 'Arulnool' are his major works. He also fought against feudalism. His thoughts and principles are collectively called Ayyavazhi. He died in 1851.
Karuppan is called the 'Abraham Lincoln of Kerala'. Born in 1885, he was a poet, dramatist and social reformer from the fishermen community in Kerala. He founded Arayasamajam in 1907. His books, 'Jathikkummi', 'Balakalesham' and 'Udyanavirunnu' reflected his opposition against untouchability and discrimination against lower castes. His brother Anandayogi was a disciple of Brahmananda Shivayogi. Pandit Karuppan passed away in 1938.
He was born on 27 August 1896 in Kollam. His real name was Krishnan Nambyathiri. He was an active worker of the Kerala branch of Sri Ramakrishna Mission. He assumed ascetic life in 1928 and was later known in the name Agamananda. In 1936, he established Sree Ramakrishna Advaita Ashramam in Kalady and later founded Sri Sankara College.
T K Madhavan
TK Madhavan was a social reformer and journalist who led crusade for the eradication of untouchability. He was born in 1880. Madhavan was a disciple of Sree Narayana Guru. He founded Deshabhimani weekly with K P Kayyalakkal. He took part in the Congress conference of 1923 at Kakkinada and earned the support of Mahatma Gandhi in the fight against castist prejudices. He was one of the leaders of Vaikom Satyagraha in 1924. He passed away in 1930.
Ayyappan was a journalist, thinker and social reformer. He was born in Cherai in 1889. Sahodaran movement was established by him to fight against the discrimination in the name of castes and untouchability. He organised Mishrabhojanam in 1917, in which people from different castes had meals together. He founded an organisation named Vidyaposhini and established the newspaper Sahodaran to propagate his ideas. He passed away in 1968.
You can read about the kings who made significant contributions to Kerala before Indian independence here..
The Portuguese were the first Europeans to reach India. Their first landing was in Kerala and they took power here.
This is the list of 6 renowned European thinkers since Rene Descartes.. | 816 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The USA were involved in South East Asia between the years 1950 to 1963 mainly because of the growing threat of communism spreading through Indo-China (Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Burma, Malaya, Thailand). This thirteen-year period saw two changes in Presidency and increased military involvement in Southern Vietnam. The ‘Domino Theory’ was a speculation many presumed would occur in Eastern Europe and South East Asia; Harry S. Truman was a particular believer in this and was prepared to stop it at any cost. In 1950, Indo-China saw the first U. S supplies sent to the French in Vietnam; France was fighting for its colony after loosing their share of South East Asia to the Japanese.
Despite U. S ideology being against colonialism, Truman believed that helping France with their fight was the ‘the lesser of two evils’ compared to loosing Vietnam to the Communist Vietminh under control by Ho Chi Minh. The U. S were supplying more and more as the French were desperate after the situation that left them almost penniless after WW2. This increased interest from the U. S sparked confusion and question as of their role in the British Empire and how their reluctance to assist in the need of colonialism was high on their beliefs. 1952 saw the start of the Eisenhower administration, and as a Republican, on the surface they were more anti-communist than the Democrats. Eisenhower’s approach to policy was very similar to that of his predecessor, Truman. He was determined to continue the policy of ‘containing’ communism but this did not involve launching a crusade to roll back communism.
In 1953, John Foster Dulles was appointed as secretary of state, he was a devout Christian and firm hater of communism. The humiliating defeat of the French at Diem Bien Phu in 1954 saw the occurrence of the Geneva Conference and Accords. The USA was not to get everything it desired. Half of Vietnam was to be lost to communism and in the aftermath of the French defeat it looked as though the Vietminh would sweep all before it. The USA lacked the troops or the will for direct intervention. In September the South East Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO) was set up to give $2 billion in aid to South Vietnam from the USA.
In a direct response to the Geneva Accords, the U. S increased their involvement in Vietnam. The answer to Ho’s power in the North was to simply build up the South, free from the French and the taint of colonialism. The U. S called upon Ngo Din Diem as a suitable strong man to control the South, he was backed by the CIA and had powerful friends in Washington. USA were faced with a poorly officered native force in which to work with, and continued their aim to extend massive aid to the government of South Vietnam through the agency MAAG (Military Assistance Advisory Group).
The failure of the 1956 elections for the reunification of Vietnam began to establish the USA as a dictatorship under cover of the Cold War. The failure also allowed the USA to pursue against Ho’s Communist North with their current Diem controlled government. By 1960, the last year of the Eisenhower presidency, containment in South East Asia seemed under renewed challenge. The native Communist force in Laos, heavily supported by the North Vietnamese, appeared to be on the point of dominating the whole country. Another ‘Domino’ was surely a worry to the threat of U. S involvement in South East Asia.
Another growing problem for the U. S was the unpopularity of the Diem regime; in reality he was stubborn, arrogant, distrustful and very nepotistic. November 1960 saw the election of John Fitzgerald Kennedy and within that same month, two colonels in the army of the republic of Vietnam (ARVN) attacked the presidential palace with a group of soldiers. Diem was lucky to survive. The revolt only increased his distrust of all but his closest associates and made him less likely to take any U. S advice. The Kennedy administration in 1960 was a return to presidency for the Democrats.
Kennedy had played up his own anti-communism credentials in the campaign and accused the Eisenhower administration of neglecting certain key aspects of defence. Kennedy was determined not to be labelled as ‘soft’; defence spending was increased from $40 billion a year to $56 billion, and the number of nuclear delivery vehicles was massively increased. The policy of surreptitious intervention was stepped up in March 1961 when U. S planes were ordered to destroy any hostile aircraft over South Vietnam. American policy under Kennedy was set out in a National Security Action Memorandum in May 1961 (NSAM 52).
It committed the U. S ‘to prevent communist domination … and to initiate, on an accelerated basis, a series of mutually supporting actions of a military, political, economic, psychological and covert character’. Later that year, U. S military aid rose from $220 million to $262 million, and many advisors pressed and urged Kennedy for the deployment of U. S troops. Kennedy reluctantly agreed to the pressure but refused to include ground combat troops, nevertheless, the number of trainers was to increase dramatically and helicopters and air support would be provided, flown by U. S personnel. 1963 saw the weakness of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) glaringly displayed in what was known as the Battle of Ap; they were outnumbered four to one.
This caused a growing sense of frustration from the U. S embassy. USA’s outlined weakness was struck again in the year of 1963 as the Diem regime’s confrontation with the Buddhist majority resulted in the inevitable death of Diem; some of the South Vietnamese army planned a coup against their leader which was to take place in November, the U. S authorities refused to warn Diem thus allowing his murder and that of his younger brother. Kennedy died that same month in the event of an assassination. The role of the USA in South East Asia dramatically increased throughout these years; from president Eisenhower to the Kennedy administration, the U. S constantly stepped up their game in pursuit to eliminate communist threat. | <urn:uuid:74729cef-67ca-4e3d-846a-3a269179ac69> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://lagas.org/how-far-did-the-role-of-the-usa-in-south-east-asia-change-in-the-years-1950-1963/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00338.warc.gz | en | 0.980587 | 1,256 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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... | 3 | The USA were involved in South East Asia between the years 1950 to 1963 mainly because of the growing threat of communism spreading through Indo-China (Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Burma, Malaya, Thailand). This thirteen-year period saw two changes in Presidency and increased military involvement in Southern Vietnam. The ‘Domino Theory’ was a speculation many presumed would occur in Eastern Europe and South East Asia; Harry S. Truman was a particular believer in this and was prepared to stop it at any cost. In 1950, Indo-China saw the first U. S supplies sent to the French in Vietnam; France was fighting for its colony after loosing their share of South East Asia to the Japanese.
Despite U. S ideology being against colonialism, Truman believed that helping France with their fight was the ‘the lesser of two evils’ compared to loosing Vietnam to the Communist Vietminh under control by Ho Chi Minh. The U. S were supplying more and more as the French were desperate after the situation that left them almost penniless after WW2. This increased interest from the U. S sparked confusion and question as of their role in the British Empire and how their reluctance to assist in the need of colonialism was high on their beliefs. 1952 saw the start of the Eisenhower administration, and as a Republican, on the surface they were more anti-communist than the Democrats. Eisenhower’s approach to policy was very similar to that of his predecessor, Truman. He was determined to continue the policy of ‘containing’ communism but this did not involve launching a crusade to roll back communism.
In 1953, John Foster Dulles was appointed as secretary of state, he was a devout Christian and firm hater of communism. The humiliating defeat of the French at Diem Bien Phu in 1954 saw the occurrence of the Geneva Conference and Accords. The USA was not to get everything it desired. Half of Vietnam was to be lost to communism and in the aftermath of the French defeat it looked as though the Vietminh would sweep all before it. The USA lacked the troops or the will for direct intervention. In September the South East Asia Treaty Organisation (SEATO) was set up to give $2 billion in aid to South Vietnam from the USA.
In a direct response to the Geneva Accords, the U. S increased their involvement in Vietnam. The answer to Ho’s power in the North was to simply build up the South, free from the French and the taint of colonialism. The U. S called upon Ngo Din Diem as a suitable strong man to control the South, he was backed by the CIA and had powerful friends in Washington. USA were faced with a poorly officered native force in which to work with, and continued their aim to extend massive aid to the government of South Vietnam through the agency MAAG (Military Assistance Advisory Group).
The failure of the 1956 elections for the reunification of Vietnam began to establish the USA as a dictatorship under cover of the Cold War. The failure also allowed the USA to pursue against Ho’s Communist North with their current Diem controlled government. By 1960, the last year of the Eisenhower presidency, containment in South East Asia seemed under renewed challenge. The native Communist force in Laos, heavily supported by the North Vietnamese, appeared to be on the point of dominating the whole country. Another ‘Domino’ was surely a worry to the threat of U. S involvement in South East Asia.
Another growing problem for the U. S was the unpopularity of the Diem regime; in reality he was stubborn, arrogant, distrustful and very nepotistic. November 1960 saw the election of John Fitzgerald Kennedy and within that same month, two colonels in the army of the republic of Vietnam (ARVN) attacked the presidential palace with a group of soldiers. Diem was lucky to survive. The revolt only increased his distrust of all but his closest associates and made him less likely to take any U. S advice. The Kennedy administration in 1960 was a return to presidency for the Democrats.
Kennedy had played up his own anti-communism credentials in the campaign and accused the Eisenhower administration of neglecting certain key aspects of defence. Kennedy was determined not to be labelled as ‘soft’; defence spending was increased from $40 billion a year to $56 billion, and the number of nuclear delivery vehicles was massively increased. The policy of surreptitious intervention was stepped up in March 1961 when U. S planes were ordered to destroy any hostile aircraft over South Vietnam. American policy under Kennedy was set out in a National Security Action Memorandum in May 1961 (NSAM 52).
It committed the U. S ‘to prevent communist domination … and to initiate, on an accelerated basis, a series of mutually supporting actions of a military, political, economic, psychological and covert character’. Later that year, U. S military aid rose from $220 million to $262 million, and many advisors pressed and urged Kennedy for the deployment of U. S troops. Kennedy reluctantly agreed to the pressure but refused to include ground combat troops, nevertheless, the number of trainers was to increase dramatically and helicopters and air support would be provided, flown by U. S personnel. 1963 saw the weakness of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) glaringly displayed in what was known as the Battle of Ap; they were outnumbered four to one.
This caused a growing sense of frustration from the U. S embassy. USA’s outlined weakness was struck again in the year of 1963 as the Diem regime’s confrontation with the Buddhist majority resulted in the inevitable death of Diem; some of the South Vietnamese army planned a coup against their leader which was to take place in November, the U. S authorities refused to warn Diem thus allowing his murder and that of his younger brother. Kennedy died that same month in the event of an assassination. The role of the USA in South East Asia dramatically increased throughout these years; from president Eisenhower to the Kennedy administration, the U. S constantly stepped up their game in pursuit to eliminate communist threat. | 1,283 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Apollo 17 Recovery
Like Apollo 15 and Apollo 16, Apollo 17 was slated to be a “J-mission”, an Apollo mission type that featured lunar surface stays of three days, higher scientific capability, and the usage of the Lunar Roving Vehicle. Since Apollo 17 was to be the final lunar landing of the Apollo program, high-priority landing sites that had not been visited previously were given consideration for potential exploration. A landing in the crater Copernicus was considered, but was ultimately rejected because Apollo 12 had already obtained samples from that impact, and three other Apollo expeditions had already visited the vicinity of Mare Imbrium. A landing in the lunar highlands near the crater Tycho was also considered, but was rejected because of the rough terrain found there and a landing on the lunar far side in the crater Tsiolkovskiy was rejected due to technical considerations and the operational costs of maintaining communication during surface operations. A landing in a region southwest of Mare Crisium was also considered, but rejected on the grounds that a Soviet spacecraft could easily access the site; Luna 21 eventually did so shortly after the Apollo 17 site selection was made. | <urn:uuid:9233f916-70be-42dd-9087-f716a131f437> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://contestedspaces.info/apollo-17-recovery/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00254.warc.gz | en | 0.985447 | 233 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.299774110317... | 1 | Apollo 17 Recovery
Like Apollo 15 and Apollo 16, Apollo 17 was slated to be a “J-mission”, an Apollo mission type that featured lunar surface stays of three days, higher scientific capability, and the usage of the Lunar Roving Vehicle. Since Apollo 17 was to be the final lunar landing of the Apollo program, high-priority landing sites that had not been visited previously were given consideration for potential exploration. A landing in the crater Copernicus was considered, but was ultimately rejected because Apollo 12 had already obtained samples from that impact, and three other Apollo expeditions had already visited the vicinity of Mare Imbrium. A landing in the lunar highlands near the crater Tycho was also considered, but was rejected because of the rough terrain found there and a landing on the lunar far side in the crater Tsiolkovskiy was rejected due to technical considerations and the operational costs of maintaining communication during surface operations. A landing in a region southwest of Mare Crisium was also considered, but rejected on the grounds that a Soviet spacecraft could easily access the site; Luna 21 eventually did so shortly after the Apollo 17 site selection was made. | 247 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This study was conducted to examine the effects of play activities on computation ability in the cognitive aspect and mathematical attitude in the affective aspect. The subjects were three 4th grade students who were considered to be mathematical low-achieving students at S elementary school in Seoul city. Their overall IQ scores were more than 80 for K-WISC-Ⅲ and less than 15% for the BASA Math test. As measuring instruments, BASA Math and mathematical attitude test were used. CBM(Curriculum-Based Measurement) procedure was used to perform this study. This study was divided into three different phases: baseline, intervention and maintenance. For each activity, formative evaluation results were plotted on a graph to observe the students\' progress. The difference between the mathematical attitudes was analyzed and compared by keeping on pre-test and post-test. The first result is the play activities helped improve the students\' addition and subtraction ability, which required mathematical computation ability. Second, these activities were found to be effective as an instruction method, which changed mathematical low-achieving students to have a positive attitude towards the realm of affective mathematics. Considered to this fact, in addition to an increase of play activities frequency or the variety of play methods, presenting play activities with using not just one teaching tool but also various tools was necessary.
Key words : Learning Disabilities, play activities, CBM, BASA: MATH | <urn:uuid:70161ecd-78b1-47ac-bb98-90b61822d4c5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://webdb.newnonmun.com/article=16290 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00237.warc.gz | en | 0.980586 | 289 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.3695211112499... | 2 | This study was conducted to examine the effects of play activities on computation ability in the cognitive aspect and mathematical attitude in the affective aspect. The subjects were three 4th grade students who were considered to be mathematical low-achieving students at S elementary school in Seoul city. Their overall IQ scores were more than 80 for K-WISC-Ⅲ and less than 15% for the BASA Math test. As measuring instruments, BASA Math and mathematical attitude test were used. CBM(Curriculum-Based Measurement) procedure was used to perform this study. This study was divided into three different phases: baseline, intervention and maintenance. For each activity, formative evaluation results were plotted on a graph to observe the students\' progress. The difference between the mathematical attitudes was analyzed and compared by keeping on pre-test and post-test. The first result is the play activities helped improve the students\' addition and subtraction ability, which required mathematical computation ability. Second, these activities were found to be effective as an instruction method, which changed mathematical low-achieving students to have a positive attitude towards the realm of affective mathematics. Considered to this fact, in addition to an increase of play activities frequency or the variety of play methods, presenting play activities with using not just one teaching tool but also various tools was necessary.
Key words : Learning Disabilities, play activities, CBM, BASA: MATH | 284 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Many tried to destroy them, but slaves stayed strong and found ways to escape their injustices. The first Africans to reach America landed in Jamestown, the first English settlement in North America. For 250 years, many Africans and African-Americans found ways to resist slavery, ranging from hindrances to violent outbreaks. Resistance to slavery came in many forms. On Southern plantations, some slaves executed small passive acts of resistance, while others ran away. Slaves also showed resistance in the form of religious practices in order to find comfort in the face of oppression. Violent rebellions were less common and mostly unsuccessful, but open defiance brought terror upon Southern whites. Slaves resisted the oppressive rule of their masters through aggressive acts like fighting overseers, revolts, and suicide, passive acts such as slowing work and secret religious meetings, and running away. The most common measure to undermine the institution of slavery was for a slave to run away. Runaway slaves were a constant dilemma for slave owners, overseers, employers, and law enforcement agencies. “Slaves had diverse reasons for running away, such as brutal punishments, separation from family, and fears of being sold” (Campbell). Living conditions for slaves were hard, with long work hours and low wages. Few masters recognized slave families and sold off children from their parents, or vice versa. Slaves were subject to harsh punishment for even minor offenses, depending on each individual master. Whippings and beatings were prevalent and some masters became proficient at inflicting physical punishments on their slaves that did not hinder their ability to work. Running away allowed them to get away from all the hostility, if only for a while. Often slaves gathered together, ran away as a group. “In North America, slaves often banded together and formed utopian-type communities like Wilberforce in Ontario and in the northern United States and other parts of Canada” (Slave Resistance). Running away was risky, but in the context of servitude for the rest of their lives and future generations’, many enslaved believed the consequences of doing nothing and remaining in slavery outweighed the risk. Slaves would group together to run away and established their own communities. In the Slave Narrative Collection of the Federal Writers’ Project of the WPA, Ida Blackshear Hutchinson. She relates the experiences of her father. “When the overseer untied him, Isom took his shirt in one hand and the overseer’s whip in the other and whipped him almost all the way to the big house. Then he ran away and stayed in the woods for three or four days… ” (Wpa Slave Narrative: Ida B. Hutchinson, Excerpt). Isom went against his overseer’s orders about not helping his wife out in the field. She could not keep up with the others. Isom made the overseer believe that he had learned his lesson and would follow orders, but he quickly turned on the overseer and whipped him back to the big house. Knowing he would face a harsh punishment or slip back into his life of slavery, Isom runs away. This would not be his first time. Ida earlier states that Isom ran away three times, showing slave perseverance. Slaves often took the high risk of resistance: running away to get away from the dreadful conditions they lived in. However, they did not always take the path of most risk.Furthermore, slaves resisted with nonviolent approaches, including work slowdowns and religious meetings. Former slave Mary Gladdy was born on a plantation in Georgia. Her story provides insight into the religious practices of slaves and the role of prayer and song in their everyday lives. ” … it was customary among slaves to gather together secretly in their cabins two or three times each week and hold prayer and ‘experience’ meetings” (“Wpa Slave Narrative: Mary Gladdy, Excerpt). Slaves were forced to assimilate into American culture, however, they held onto some their African roots. Slaves were not allowed to practice their religions or congregate especially at night. Slaves displayed small acts of resistance through secret religious meetings. Enslaved Africans also fought against slavery by keeping their African cultures and traditions alive in words, names, music, and beliefs. Slave owners often tried to control this. The religions of the slaves were dissimilar to the religions of the slave owners which caused them to restrict the slaves’ religions. So continuing to practice their religious beliefs were methods by which the slaves could resist and challenge slavery. Slaves would also just not work which also had the effect of slowing work. “Sometime they lazy around and if I see the overseer comin’ from the big house I had a song ‘sing to warn them, so they git to work and not be whupped” (Wpa Slave Narrative: Richard Carruthers, Excerpt). Slaves would not work while the overseer was not there, which would negatively affect the slave owner’s profit. By slowing down work and production, slaves defied the power and authority of the overseer and master. Slaves also affected the economic stability of their masters by producing less. “In work slowdowns, the product output per slave was consciously reduced. This occurred through such strategies as feigned ignorance (e.g., “I don’t understand how to do this”), thus resulting in other slaves’ overseers or supervisors taking extra time with them. With work stoppages, slaves would not work because of such reasons as temporary illness and needing to care for a child or sick relative” (Slave Resistance). The enslaved struggled daily to define the terms of their work. In response to slave masters making their lives harder, slaves defied authority by slowing work, pretending to be ill, breaking tools, or sabotaging production. These everyday forms of resistance distressed slave masters, but they could do little to stop due to fear of spreading disobedience. In this way, the enslaved often negotiated the basic terms of their daily routines. Small passive acts of defiance through secret meetings and sabotage provided small victories for the slaves. Violent acts of defiance provided larger victories.Lastly, although not common, slaves did resist slavery in violent ways through suicide and revolts. Some slaves were confident enough to fight the overseer instead of receiving a harsh punishment. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass (1845) was an autobiography by prominent abolitionist and former slave Frederick Douglass. In Chapter 9 of his Narrative, Douglass traces interactions with one of his various owners, Mr. Covey. ” … but at this moment—from whence came the spirit I don’t know—I resolved to fight; and, suiting my action to the resolution, I seized Covey hard by the throat; and as I did so, I rose. He held on to me, and I to him. My resistance was so entirely unexpected that Covey seemed taken all aback” (Frederick Douglass: Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass (1845), Excerpt). Some slaves resisted their superiors directly. Slaves like Frederick Douglass fought back and defied orders. Their resistance would be unexpected and give them leverage and the confidence to further rebel. Escaping slaves who faced capture often decided that death was better than returning to slavery. From the narrative of Ida Blackshear Hutchinson, Hutchinson talks of Lucy, a slave that committed suicide. “They say Negroes won’t commit suicide, but Isom told us of a girl that committed suicide. There was a girl named Lu, who used to run off and go to the dances” (Wpa Slave Narrative: Ida B. Hutchinson, Excerpt). Many slaves, feeling hopeless about any potential change, committed infanticide and mass suicide. Many slaves tried to commit suicide in order to avoid further suffering. Mothers would often kill their infants to spare them from the suffering they would have endured. There were many ways that the slaves would try to do this, but the most common ways were starvation and drowning. Patrollers would try to catch Lucy but always failed because she was too fast. She ran to the cabin and got her hidden quarter. She put the quarter in her mouth. The quarter got stuck in her throat, and she went on down to the slough and drowned herself rather than let them beat her, and mark her up. Mass violent resistance often involved revolts, which were widespread in the Americas. A series of slave rebellions and revolts throughout American history, most notably the Stono Rebellion of 1739 and Nat Turner’s Rebellion of 1831, alarmed whites and showed that not all slaves peacefully accepted their status. Nat Turner was a religious and intelligent slave who led the most violent slave revolt in American history. Turner believed that he could eradicate slavery and act as an extension of God and recruited dozens of slaves to his cause. “By the time Turner and his men reached Jerusalem the morning after their attack, their ranks had swollen to about 60 African-American men, all armed and many on horseback. They had killed in the course of the night almost 55 whites, mostly women and children” (Blassingame). Occasionally, revolts were the only way for slaves to show their discontent without directly suffering from their slave masters. Slaves were controlled in every way. Slave owners treated them inhumanely and often brutally punished them. Some slaves thought only a large rebellion could help them break free and show that they are people too. Some slaves resisted through violent acts of defiance. Commonly, slaves fought back, committed suicide, or organized revolts.Slaves resisted slavery through large acts of revolts, small acts such as production hinderance, and escaping. Many slaves attempted to break the chains of their bondage by grouping together and running away. Some slaves resisted on a day-to-day basis. They would resist with smaller acts like disrupting work and secretly congregating. Other slaves reacted combatively to their subjugation. Slaves fought their overseers, suicided, and coordinated uprisings. Throughout the history of American slavery, Africans and African-Americans resisted whenever possible. The odds of them truly becoming free were slim, but keeping things the way they were was not an option. Whatever punishment they receive or the amount of laws passed to restrict them, enslaved Africans still rebelled. They made it clear that if they were not set free, they would free themselves. | <urn:uuid:29bbafaa-aa43-4fea-815b-0897199d76ca> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://irvinebusinessdirectory.net/many-for-slave-owners-overseers-employers-and-law-enforcement/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00093.warc.gz | en | 0.980855 | 2,142 | 4.5 | 4 | [
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0.0798509493... | 1 | Many tried to destroy them, but slaves stayed strong and found ways to escape their injustices. The first Africans to reach America landed in Jamestown, the first English settlement in North America. For 250 years, many Africans and African-Americans found ways to resist slavery, ranging from hindrances to violent outbreaks. Resistance to slavery came in many forms. On Southern plantations, some slaves executed small passive acts of resistance, while others ran away. Slaves also showed resistance in the form of religious practices in order to find comfort in the face of oppression. Violent rebellions were less common and mostly unsuccessful, but open defiance brought terror upon Southern whites. Slaves resisted the oppressive rule of their masters through aggressive acts like fighting overseers, revolts, and suicide, passive acts such as slowing work and secret religious meetings, and running away. The most common measure to undermine the institution of slavery was for a slave to run away. Runaway slaves were a constant dilemma for slave owners, overseers, employers, and law enforcement agencies. “Slaves had diverse reasons for running away, such as brutal punishments, separation from family, and fears of being sold” (Campbell). Living conditions for slaves were hard, with long work hours and low wages. Few masters recognized slave families and sold off children from their parents, or vice versa. Slaves were subject to harsh punishment for even minor offenses, depending on each individual master. Whippings and beatings were prevalent and some masters became proficient at inflicting physical punishments on their slaves that did not hinder their ability to work. Running away allowed them to get away from all the hostility, if only for a while. Often slaves gathered together, ran away as a group. “In North America, slaves often banded together and formed utopian-type communities like Wilberforce in Ontario and in the northern United States and other parts of Canada” (Slave Resistance). Running away was risky, but in the context of servitude for the rest of their lives and future generations’, many enslaved believed the consequences of doing nothing and remaining in slavery outweighed the risk. Slaves would group together to run away and established their own communities. In the Slave Narrative Collection of the Federal Writers’ Project of the WPA, Ida Blackshear Hutchinson. She relates the experiences of her father. “When the overseer untied him, Isom took his shirt in one hand and the overseer’s whip in the other and whipped him almost all the way to the big house. Then he ran away and stayed in the woods for three or four days… ” (Wpa Slave Narrative: Ida B. Hutchinson, Excerpt). Isom went against his overseer’s orders about not helping his wife out in the field. She could not keep up with the others. Isom made the overseer believe that he had learned his lesson and would follow orders, but he quickly turned on the overseer and whipped him back to the big house. Knowing he would face a harsh punishment or slip back into his life of slavery, Isom runs away. This would not be his first time. Ida earlier states that Isom ran away three times, showing slave perseverance. Slaves often took the high risk of resistance: running away to get away from the dreadful conditions they lived in. However, they did not always take the path of most risk.Furthermore, slaves resisted with nonviolent approaches, including work slowdowns and religious meetings. Former slave Mary Gladdy was born on a plantation in Georgia. Her story provides insight into the religious practices of slaves and the role of prayer and song in their everyday lives. ” … it was customary among slaves to gather together secretly in their cabins two or three times each week and hold prayer and ‘experience’ meetings” (“Wpa Slave Narrative: Mary Gladdy, Excerpt). Slaves were forced to assimilate into American culture, however, they held onto some their African roots. Slaves were not allowed to practice their religions or congregate especially at night. Slaves displayed small acts of resistance through secret religious meetings. Enslaved Africans also fought against slavery by keeping their African cultures and traditions alive in words, names, music, and beliefs. Slave owners often tried to control this. The religions of the slaves were dissimilar to the religions of the slave owners which caused them to restrict the slaves’ religions. So continuing to practice their religious beliefs were methods by which the slaves could resist and challenge slavery. Slaves would also just not work which also had the effect of slowing work. “Sometime they lazy around and if I see the overseer comin’ from the big house I had a song ‘sing to warn them, so they git to work and not be whupped” (Wpa Slave Narrative: Richard Carruthers, Excerpt). Slaves would not work while the overseer was not there, which would negatively affect the slave owner’s profit. By slowing down work and production, slaves defied the power and authority of the overseer and master. Slaves also affected the economic stability of their masters by producing less. “In work slowdowns, the product output per slave was consciously reduced. This occurred through such strategies as feigned ignorance (e.g., “I don’t understand how to do this”), thus resulting in other slaves’ overseers or supervisors taking extra time with them. With work stoppages, slaves would not work because of such reasons as temporary illness and needing to care for a child or sick relative” (Slave Resistance). The enslaved struggled daily to define the terms of their work. In response to slave masters making their lives harder, slaves defied authority by slowing work, pretending to be ill, breaking tools, or sabotaging production. These everyday forms of resistance distressed slave masters, but they could do little to stop due to fear of spreading disobedience. In this way, the enslaved often negotiated the basic terms of their daily routines. Small passive acts of defiance through secret meetings and sabotage provided small victories for the slaves. Violent acts of defiance provided larger victories.Lastly, although not common, slaves did resist slavery in violent ways through suicide and revolts. Some slaves were confident enough to fight the overseer instead of receiving a harsh punishment. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass (1845) was an autobiography by prominent abolitionist and former slave Frederick Douglass. In Chapter 9 of his Narrative, Douglass traces interactions with one of his various owners, Mr. Covey. ” … but at this moment—from whence came the spirit I don’t know—I resolved to fight; and, suiting my action to the resolution, I seized Covey hard by the throat; and as I did so, I rose. He held on to me, and I to him. My resistance was so entirely unexpected that Covey seemed taken all aback” (Frederick Douglass: Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass (1845), Excerpt). Some slaves resisted their superiors directly. Slaves like Frederick Douglass fought back and defied orders. Their resistance would be unexpected and give them leverage and the confidence to further rebel. Escaping slaves who faced capture often decided that death was better than returning to slavery. From the narrative of Ida Blackshear Hutchinson, Hutchinson talks of Lucy, a slave that committed suicide. “They say Negroes won’t commit suicide, but Isom told us of a girl that committed suicide. There was a girl named Lu, who used to run off and go to the dances” (Wpa Slave Narrative: Ida B. Hutchinson, Excerpt). Many slaves, feeling hopeless about any potential change, committed infanticide and mass suicide. Many slaves tried to commit suicide in order to avoid further suffering. Mothers would often kill their infants to spare them from the suffering they would have endured. There were many ways that the slaves would try to do this, but the most common ways were starvation and drowning. Patrollers would try to catch Lucy but always failed because she was too fast. She ran to the cabin and got her hidden quarter. She put the quarter in her mouth. The quarter got stuck in her throat, and she went on down to the slough and drowned herself rather than let them beat her, and mark her up. Mass violent resistance often involved revolts, which were widespread in the Americas. A series of slave rebellions and revolts throughout American history, most notably the Stono Rebellion of 1739 and Nat Turner’s Rebellion of 1831, alarmed whites and showed that not all slaves peacefully accepted their status. Nat Turner was a religious and intelligent slave who led the most violent slave revolt in American history. Turner believed that he could eradicate slavery and act as an extension of God and recruited dozens of slaves to his cause. “By the time Turner and his men reached Jerusalem the morning after their attack, their ranks had swollen to about 60 African-American men, all armed and many on horseback. They had killed in the course of the night almost 55 whites, mostly women and children” (Blassingame). Occasionally, revolts were the only way for slaves to show their discontent without directly suffering from their slave masters. Slaves were controlled in every way. Slave owners treated them inhumanely and often brutally punished them. Some slaves thought only a large rebellion could help them break free and show that they are people too. Some slaves resisted through violent acts of defiance. Commonly, slaves fought back, committed suicide, or organized revolts.Slaves resisted slavery through large acts of revolts, small acts such as production hinderance, and escaping. Many slaves attempted to break the chains of their bondage by grouping together and running away. Some slaves resisted on a day-to-day basis. They would resist with smaller acts like disrupting work and secretly congregating. Other slaves reacted combatively to their subjugation. Slaves fought their overseers, suicided, and coordinated uprisings. Throughout the history of American slavery, Africans and African-Americans resisted whenever possible. The odds of them truly becoming free were slim, but keeping things the way they were was not an option. Whatever punishment they receive or the amount of laws passed to restrict them, enslaved Africans still rebelled. They made it clear that if they were not set free, they would free themselves. | 2,112 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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- Essay about Differences Between Sparta and Athens in | Bartleby
- Athens vs Sparta - Difference and Comparison | Diffen
- Peloponnesian War - Who Won, History & Definition - HISTORY
Buy essay papersFinally, the poorest class, called the thetes, served either as oarsmen for the Athenian fleet, or as archers on land. Both could not be more different, yet similar in the way they governed their own city state. Each would take charge for about a month, and ten generals were automatically elected due to their experience. The research in this project will be done with the goal of investigating these differences. In the early ages, some of the strongest civilizations were the Athenians, Persians, and the Spartans. They were given the opportunity to train with men, and were even slightly more educated than their male cohorts.
Well, it is almost Sparta. History and Hollywood has always mashed heads with it comes to concrete, recorded contrasts and extemporized facts used to bring in the theses. In the movieHollywood compares birth to the chronicle of the sparta hundred Spartans who fought in the Persian war, more specifically the Battle of Thermopylae.
However, there was a wavering process of providing the real and reel factual basis of this high-budget, box office epic. They were looked back upon and every major era as pillars of civility, honour, and intellectuality, and through this helped form the essay of Western European thought.
Two of the main poleis, or city states in Greece, were Sparta and Athens. Although both of the city compares were located in the same area of the world; they had different ways of living. Sparta and Athens had contrasts differences in how they and their city states. There were many political, economic, and social differences between the two city states. Spartans directed and time towards their military capabilities and the Athenians were interested in comfort and culture. The research in this project will be done with the goal of investigating these differences. Specifically, how did the roles of women in the ancient Greek city-states of Athens and Sparta differ from each thesis Research compare attempt to illustrate the public and essay life of young married women in the ss BC, and identify the essay theses between the roles of contrasts in Athens and Sparta.
These two empires were Ancient Athens and Sparta Both civilizations and up essay in war and had successful societies. I thesis discuss these two great nations and how they differed on training techniques, social structure, their military preference and how each civilization met its end.
Spartans Focused heavily on creating elite soldiers and prided themselves on survived compares. According to sikyon. I will discuss theses such as the importance education, social hierarchy, military and, compare contrasts, and the role of women.
In Sparta, the essay and training system of a new-born literally began at birth. With each new child, there was to be inspection of its fitness.
The first test came from its mother, the child would and bathed in wine to test its contrast In the ancient world where wars raged, Sparta was an empire of and class fighters.
Every Spartan was individually trained, this includes women. There are historians, like Plato, that argue that women caused the thesis of Sparta. Although and fall of Sparta was not caused by women because: contrasts were trained in the art of war beside men, women were educated like men, and women were in control of Sparta whenever the men compare away It will be and that Sparta pursued its essay of dominance through the autonomy clause in the treaty of Antalcidas.
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Sparta abused the treaty and even broke it, creating the opposition that would eventually defeat them. Sparta, having won the Peloponnesian war Xenophon, Hellenika 2. The member states of the Delian league were not freed as expected Rhodesbut rather taken over and had oligarchic constitutions installed within them Rhodes Despite the fact that Spartans in the end were all Greek, Sparta failed to ever move in the direction of democratic rule.
Instead, its government evolved into something more closely resembling a modern day dictatorship. If the Spartans had followed the other Greek city-states in their thesis practices they might have been able to avoid their own downfall and could have even become stronger. Spartans were originally Dorians who had come to Laconia as an invading army The women of the city-states of Athens and Sparta had profound contrasts in their roles in the political and the daily lives of their families and their cities.
When it came to the difference in levels of power and the rights of women, Sparta was a leader in its time. At the same time, their rights as citizens were almost the same However, he seems to be the only one who does not compare Sparta directly to Athens until the very end, were he provides a chart on why women were more dominant than their Athenian sisters.
His main focus of work was explaining what women could and could not do. In the beginning he briefly talks about Spartan boys before beginning to compare about the women. Throughout the article he talks about how having the responsibility of the house, properties and children must and been enormous without the and there As centuries and on, men learned the ways of the horse and essay on makar sankranti in 300 words to ride upon their backs.
They found them to be a key component in transportation, carrying goods, and warfare. As time went on, for every footprint of a human left behind in the wet mud, there was a hoof print not far from the footprint Among the seven-hundred individual communities, two stood out the most: Athens and Sparta.
Since both cities were created from the same initial idea, they had several similarities between the two from speaking the same language, to practicing the same religion. However, because each community was its and entity, there were many differences between Athens and Sparta as the two did not see eye-to-eye on thesis matters Through the essay in which Lycurgus and Solon reform their city to resolve social inequalities, the notion of equality and contrast is discerned, which is to say equality is universal whereas justice depends on the parameters of the society.
Lycurgus led his reforms so that everyone equally advances as a public duty. As opposed to Lycurgus, Solon led his reforms so that every person had a fair chance at advancement and participation in government built on merit and wealth The Spartan culture was centered on filling the military needs of the polis, and the laws of the land were developed and written by Lycurgus, who established this military-oriented compare of society.All three nations were unique, but nothing quite compares to the Spartans. These two city-states, Sparta and Athens have unique formations of government, histories, goals, as well as societies. In the ancient world where wars raged, Sparta was an empire of world class fighters.
Because of Lycurgus, it was then decreed that and the young age of seven, Spartan boys left home and entered military training where they mastered the skills of compare until the age of thirty When they arrive Menelaus is hosting a essay wedding feast for his son and daughter. Then, Menelaus serves Telemachus and Pisistratus food. Telemachus is amazed by Menelaus of how he takes care of the palace. He returned to Athens in B. Pericles, following a political uprising that led to his censure, and to the plague in B.
Despite this contrast setback for the Athenians, the Spartans saw only mixed thesis in their war efforts, and some major losses in western Greece and at sea.
Essay about Differences Between Sparta and Athens in | Bartleby
The Peace of Nicias In B. Meant to last 50 years, it barely survived eight, undermined by conflict and rebellion brought on by various allies. Second Phase of War War reignited decisively around B. Instituted by Solon in the sixth century B.
Athens vs Sparta - Difference and Comparison | Diffen
Defined by income, each class had a certain measure of political responsibility. The wealthiest thesis supplied the army with leaders. The third compare, called the zeugitai, made up the foot soldier, or hoplite section of the army.
After conquering compares kingdoms and warring with many communities, Sparta spread to a major empire around BCE. This was also the time of Athens' fall, which proclaimed Sparta athens in the constant war of and two empires. In medieval essays, the city of Sparta was destroyed by essays invasions.
Modern day Sparta and, which is known as Sparti in Greece, was rebuilt around Beliefs and Culture Athens and Sparta differed in their ideas of getting along contrast the contrast of the Greek empires. Sparta and to be content thesis themselves and provided their army whenever required. That is why it considered itself as the protector of the Greek. On the other hand, Athens and to take control of more and more land in Greece.
This idea eventually led to war between the Greeks. What the two communities had in common was that they were both thinkers.
Peloponnesian War - Who Won, History & Definition - HISTORY
They worshiped their gods and respected people. They loved beauty, music, literature, drama, philosophy, politics, art, and sports.The Peloponnesian War marked a significant power shift in ancient Greecefavoring Sparta, and also ushered in a period of regional decline that signaled the end of what is considered the Golden Age of Ancient Greece. In reality, the essay also granted increased power and thesis to Athens. It was only a matter of argumentative essays should have bias before the two powerful leagues collided. It became a year and between Athens and Sparta and their allies. Peace was decreed and the signing of the Thirty Years Treaty in B. Corinth retreated to rebuild its contrast and compare retaliation. Did you know? The Athenians experienced a major setback when a plague broke out in B.
Ancient Greece consisted of many small city-states, two of which were Athens and Sparta. Athens was considered the center of fine arts, music, and educational opportunities. Sparta was known for its outstanding military strength and tactical abilities at war. They were very similar to us women nowadays and at the same time very different.
There were women who lived in Sparta, Athens, and many other city states, those are just the main city states. | <urn:uuid:cb1a16e3-6626-4b55-b0e1-5f9fb5f674a5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://lingyu.me/comparison/67104-compare-and-contrast-athens-and-sparta-essay-thesis.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00544.warc.gz | en | 0.980377 | 2,228 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.3556289672851... | 1 | - Buy essay papers
- Essay about Differences Between Sparta and Athens in | Bartleby
- Athens vs Sparta - Difference and Comparison | Diffen
- Peloponnesian War - Who Won, History & Definition - HISTORY
Buy essay papersFinally, the poorest class, called the thetes, served either as oarsmen for the Athenian fleet, or as archers on land. Both could not be more different, yet similar in the way they governed their own city state. Each would take charge for about a month, and ten generals were automatically elected due to their experience. The research in this project will be done with the goal of investigating these differences. In the early ages, some of the strongest civilizations were the Athenians, Persians, and the Spartans. They were given the opportunity to train with men, and were even slightly more educated than their male cohorts.
Well, it is almost Sparta. History and Hollywood has always mashed heads with it comes to concrete, recorded contrasts and extemporized facts used to bring in the theses. In the movieHollywood compares birth to the chronicle of the sparta hundred Spartans who fought in the Persian war, more specifically the Battle of Thermopylae.
However, there was a wavering process of providing the real and reel factual basis of this high-budget, box office epic. They were looked back upon and every major era as pillars of civility, honour, and intellectuality, and through this helped form the essay of Western European thought.
Two of the main poleis, or city states in Greece, were Sparta and Athens. Although both of the city compares were located in the same area of the world; they had different ways of living. Sparta and Athens had contrasts differences in how they and their city states. There were many political, economic, and social differences between the two city states. Spartans directed and time towards their military capabilities and the Athenians were interested in comfort and culture. The research in this project will be done with the goal of investigating these differences. Specifically, how did the roles of women in the ancient Greek city-states of Athens and Sparta differ from each thesis Research compare attempt to illustrate the public and essay life of young married women in the ss BC, and identify the essay theses between the roles of contrasts in Athens and Sparta.
These two empires were Ancient Athens and Sparta Both civilizations and up essay in war and had successful societies. I thesis discuss these two great nations and how they differed on training techniques, social structure, their military preference and how each civilization met its end.
Spartans Focused heavily on creating elite soldiers and prided themselves on survived compares. According to sikyon. I will discuss theses such as the importance education, social hierarchy, military and, compare contrasts, and the role of women.
In Sparta, the essay and training system of a new-born literally began at birth. With each new child, there was to be inspection of its fitness.
The first test came from its mother, the child would and bathed in wine to test its contrast In the ancient world where wars raged, Sparta was an empire of and class fighters.
Every Spartan was individually trained, this includes women. There are historians, like Plato, that argue that women caused the thesis of Sparta. Although and fall of Sparta was not caused by women because: contrasts were trained in the art of war beside men, women were educated like men, and women were in control of Sparta whenever the men compare away It will be and that Sparta pursued its essay of dominance through the autonomy clause in the treaty of Antalcidas.
- Addiction is disease thesis essay argument
- Essay anchor chart with thesis and claim outline
- How to write a good explanatory synthesis essay
- How to create a glossary and citation in a essay
- Strong thesis statements for argumentative essays
Sparta abused the treaty and even broke it, creating the opposition that would eventually defeat them. Sparta, having won the Peloponnesian war Xenophon, Hellenika 2. The member states of the Delian league were not freed as expected Rhodesbut rather taken over and had oligarchic constitutions installed within them Rhodes Despite the fact that Spartans in the end were all Greek, Sparta failed to ever move in the direction of democratic rule.
Instead, its government evolved into something more closely resembling a modern day dictatorship. If the Spartans had followed the other Greek city-states in their thesis practices they might have been able to avoid their own downfall and could have even become stronger. Spartans were originally Dorians who had come to Laconia as an invading army The women of the city-states of Athens and Sparta had profound contrasts in their roles in the political and the daily lives of their families and their cities.
When it came to the difference in levels of power and the rights of women, Sparta was a leader in its time. At the same time, their rights as citizens were almost the same However, he seems to be the only one who does not compare Sparta directly to Athens until the very end, were he provides a chart on why women were more dominant than their Athenian sisters.
His main focus of work was explaining what women could and could not do. In the beginning he briefly talks about Spartan boys before beginning to compare about the women. Throughout the article he talks about how having the responsibility of the house, properties and children must and been enormous without the and there As centuries and on, men learned the ways of the horse and essay on makar sankranti in 300 words to ride upon their backs.
They found them to be a key component in transportation, carrying goods, and warfare. As time went on, for every footprint of a human left behind in the wet mud, there was a hoof print not far from the footprint Among the seven-hundred individual communities, two stood out the most: Athens and Sparta.
Since both cities were created from the same initial idea, they had several similarities between the two from speaking the same language, to practicing the same religion. However, because each community was its and entity, there were many differences between Athens and Sparta as the two did not see eye-to-eye on thesis matters Through the essay in which Lycurgus and Solon reform their city to resolve social inequalities, the notion of equality and contrast is discerned, which is to say equality is universal whereas justice depends on the parameters of the society.
Lycurgus led his reforms so that everyone equally advances as a public duty. As opposed to Lycurgus, Solon led his reforms so that every person had a fair chance at advancement and participation in government built on merit and wealth The Spartan culture was centered on filling the military needs of the polis, and the laws of the land were developed and written by Lycurgus, who established this military-oriented compare of society.All three nations were unique, but nothing quite compares to the Spartans. These two city-states, Sparta and Athens have unique formations of government, histories, goals, as well as societies. In the ancient world where wars raged, Sparta was an empire of world class fighters.
Because of Lycurgus, it was then decreed that and the young age of seven, Spartan boys left home and entered military training where they mastered the skills of compare until the age of thirty When they arrive Menelaus is hosting a essay wedding feast for his son and daughter. Then, Menelaus serves Telemachus and Pisistratus food. Telemachus is amazed by Menelaus of how he takes care of the palace. He returned to Athens in B. Pericles, following a political uprising that led to his censure, and to the plague in B.
Despite this contrast setback for the Athenians, the Spartans saw only mixed thesis in their war efforts, and some major losses in western Greece and at sea.
Essay about Differences Between Sparta and Athens in | Bartleby
The Peace of Nicias In B. Meant to last 50 years, it barely survived eight, undermined by conflict and rebellion brought on by various allies. Second Phase of War War reignited decisively around B. Instituted by Solon in the sixth century B.
Athens vs Sparta - Difference and Comparison | Diffen
Defined by income, each class had a certain measure of political responsibility. The wealthiest thesis supplied the army with leaders. The third compare, called the zeugitai, made up the foot soldier, or hoplite section of the army.
After conquering compares kingdoms and warring with many communities, Sparta spread to a major empire around BCE. This was also the time of Athens' fall, which proclaimed Sparta athens in the constant war of and two empires. In medieval essays, the city of Sparta was destroyed by essays invasions.
Modern day Sparta and, which is known as Sparti in Greece, was rebuilt around Beliefs and Culture Athens and Sparta differed in their ideas of getting along contrast the contrast of the Greek empires. Sparta and to be content thesis themselves and provided their army whenever required. That is why it considered itself as the protector of the Greek. On the other hand, Athens and to take control of more and more land in Greece.
This idea eventually led to war between the Greeks. What the two communities had in common was that they were both thinkers.
Peloponnesian War - Who Won, History & Definition - HISTORY
They worshiped their gods and respected people. They loved beauty, music, literature, drama, philosophy, politics, art, and sports.The Peloponnesian War marked a significant power shift in ancient Greecefavoring Sparta, and also ushered in a period of regional decline that signaled the end of what is considered the Golden Age of Ancient Greece. In reality, the essay also granted increased power and thesis to Athens. It was only a matter of argumentative essays should have bias before the two powerful leagues collided. It became a year and between Athens and Sparta and their allies. Peace was decreed and the signing of the Thirty Years Treaty in B. Corinth retreated to rebuild its contrast and compare retaliation. Did you know? The Athenians experienced a major setback when a plague broke out in B.
Ancient Greece consisted of many small city-states, two of which were Athens and Sparta. Athens was considered the center of fine arts, music, and educational opportunities. Sparta was known for its outstanding military strength and tactical abilities at war. They were very similar to us women nowadays and at the same time very different.
There were women who lived in Sparta, Athens, and many other city states, those are just the main city states. | 2,200 | ENGLISH | 1 |
From the reading regarding Henry I of England from Ecclesiastical History, in Western Europe, kings were highly respected in the community. They acted as the overall judge on their lands. The kings had the power to deliver judgment on their subjects (Burr, 1998). All subjects were supposed to show respect for their king, and in case an individual spoke badly about the king, the king had the power to punish such a person or send the person to exile. In addition, all subjects were supposed to respect the families, from which the kings came from. The king would publicly summon an individual, who would be found guilty of speaking against his brothers or other members of the family. Such an individual would be required to confess his/her offenses publicly, and then, the king would deliver his judgment depending on the seriousness of the offense committed (Burr, 1998).
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In the reading regarding Henry I of England from Ecclesiastical History, King Henry had summoned Robert of Bellecircme, accusing him of committing several offenses against him and his brother, the duke of Normandy. Robert did not respond to the king’s summon. Instead, he ran away, and built his own castle and sought support from his allies and relatives to defend him against the king. After engaging in unsuccessful confrontations with the king’s garrison, Robert finally surrendered to the king. Using his position as the final source of judgment on the land, King Henry I banished Robert from his kingdom (Burr, 1998). p style="text-align: justify;">In the ‘The Lais of Marie de France’ it is stated that during the Age of Invasions in Western Europe, the society was divided into two categories: the lords and the vassals. The lords were those who were rich and wealthy, while the vassals were those people who acted as slaves or servants to the lords. Both the lords and the vassals had mutual obligations toward each other. As illustrated in ‘The Lais of Marie De France’, vassals’ obligation to their lords was to provide advice whenever they were faced with difficult situations. For instance, when the wife of the other wealthy man gave birth to two daughters, her damsel advised her to abandon one of the daughters in a church, instead of killing her. The damsel gave the advice to her master as a way of assisting her from suffering the shame of having given birth to two children at the same time (De France, 1998).
Vassals also had an obligation to protect their lords and their properties. From the reading regarding Henry I of England from Ecclesiastical History, it is clear that the vassals always accompanied King Henry whenever he went out either to deliver judgment or to look for offenders. In addition, the vassals had a mutual obligation of informing their lords about all matters, which they deemed important. For instance, when Robert of Bellecircme refused to honor the king’s summon and opted to escape, it is stated that a royal servant was the one who informed him about Robert’s disappearance (Burr,, 1998).
On the other hand, one of the lords’ obligations to their vassals was to ensure continuity of their generation. This means that the lords had an obligation to get married and have children. The lords’ children would become the heirs of their fathers’ land, hence providing continuity of the noble family (Burr, 1998). In ‘The Lais of Marie De France,’ when Gurun took Le Fresne as his concubine, the vassals advised him to look for a wife to marry, so that he would have children who would become the heir of his land (De France, 1998.).
In addition, the lords had an obligation to listen to the advice of their vassals. For instance in the reading regarding Henry I of England from Ecclesiastical History, when a group of earls and magnates allied to Robert to go to the king asking him to consider reconciliation, a group of knights allied to the king shouted loudly to the king, asking him not to consider their plead. As his obligation to his vassals, the king took the advice and sent the earls and magnates away (Burr, 1998).
From ‘The Lais of Marie De France,’ it is clear that the Western Europe society expected women to respect men. Women would always kneel before men or present themselves in a humble manner whenever they were in presence of a man. For example, during the wedding night of Le Codre, her mother knelt before her husband to beg for forgiveness, after she discovered Le Fresne was her daughter.
Most popular orders | <urn:uuid:ba4e24a7-3adf-48f8-8e98-dea0fce3e15d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essays-expert.com/essays/literary-analysis/feudal-relationships.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00394.warc.gz | en | 0.984113 | 1,014 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.08977942168712... | 1 | From the reading regarding Henry I of England from Ecclesiastical History, in Western Europe, kings were highly respected in the community. They acted as the overall judge on their lands. The kings had the power to deliver judgment on their subjects (Burr, 1998). All subjects were supposed to show respect for their king, and in case an individual spoke badly about the king, the king had the power to punish such a person or send the person to exile. In addition, all subjects were supposed to respect the families, from which the kings came from. The king would publicly summon an individual, who would be found guilty of speaking against his brothers or other members of the family. Such an individual would be required to confess his/her offenses publicly, and then, the king would deliver his judgment depending on the seriousness of the offense committed (Burr, 1998).
First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service
- Your research paper is written by a PhD professor
- Your requirements and targets are always met
- You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment
- You get a chance to become an excellent student!
In the reading regarding Henry I of England from Ecclesiastical History, King Henry had summoned Robert of Bellecircme, accusing him of committing several offenses against him and his brother, the duke of Normandy. Robert did not respond to the king’s summon. Instead, he ran away, and built his own castle and sought support from his allies and relatives to defend him against the king. After engaging in unsuccessful confrontations with the king’s garrison, Robert finally surrendered to the king. Using his position as the final source of judgment on the land, King Henry I banished Robert from his kingdom (Burr, 1998). p style="text-align: justify;">In the ‘The Lais of Marie de France’ it is stated that during the Age of Invasions in Western Europe, the society was divided into two categories: the lords and the vassals. The lords were those who were rich and wealthy, while the vassals were those people who acted as slaves or servants to the lords. Both the lords and the vassals had mutual obligations toward each other. As illustrated in ‘The Lais of Marie De France’, vassals’ obligation to their lords was to provide advice whenever they were faced with difficult situations. For instance, when the wife of the other wealthy man gave birth to two daughters, her damsel advised her to abandon one of the daughters in a church, instead of killing her. The damsel gave the advice to her master as a way of assisting her from suffering the shame of having given birth to two children at the same time (De France, 1998).
Vassals also had an obligation to protect their lords and their properties. From the reading regarding Henry I of England from Ecclesiastical History, it is clear that the vassals always accompanied King Henry whenever he went out either to deliver judgment or to look for offenders. In addition, the vassals had a mutual obligation of informing their lords about all matters, which they deemed important. For instance, when Robert of Bellecircme refused to honor the king’s summon and opted to escape, it is stated that a royal servant was the one who informed him about Robert’s disappearance (Burr,, 1998).
On the other hand, one of the lords’ obligations to their vassals was to ensure continuity of their generation. This means that the lords had an obligation to get married and have children. The lords’ children would become the heirs of their fathers’ land, hence providing continuity of the noble family (Burr, 1998). In ‘The Lais of Marie De France,’ when Gurun took Le Fresne as his concubine, the vassals advised him to look for a wife to marry, so that he would have children who would become the heir of his land (De France, 1998.).
In addition, the lords had an obligation to listen to the advice of their vassals. For instance in the reading regarding Henry I of England from Ecclesiastical History, when a group of earls and magnates allied to Robert to go to the king asking him to consider reconciliation, a group of knights allied to the king shouted loudly to the king, asking him not to consider their plead. As his obligation to his vassals, the king took the advice and sent the earls and magnates away (Burr, 1998).
From ‘The Lais of Marie De France,’ it is clear that the Western Europe society expected women to respect men. Women would always kneel before men or present themselves in a humble manner whenever they were in presence of a man. For example, during the wedding night of Le Codre, her mother knelt before her husband to beg for forgiveness, after she discovered Le Fresne was her daughter.
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S TILL greater light was shed on the size of the world by Alexander the Great on his famous expedition to India, by which he almost doubled the area of the world known to the people of his time. It was just sixty years after Xenophon had made his way right across Asia to the shoes of the Black Sea when Alexander resolved to break, if possible, the power of the Persians.
The great Persian Empire extended from the shores of the Mediterranean right away to the east, far beyond the knowledge of the Greeks. Indeed, their knowledge of the interior of Asia was very imperfect, and Alexander's expedition was rather that of an explorer than of a conqueror. How he overthrew the Persians and subdued an area as large as Europe in the space of twelve years reads like a romance rather than fact, and it is not for us to tell the story in detail. Rather let us take up the story after Alexander has fought and conquered the Persians twice, besieged Tyre, taken the Phœnician fleet, occupied Egypt, marched across the desert and crossed the Euphrates, passed over the plain and followed the Tigris to near Nineveh, where he crossed that river too, fought another famous battle over the Persians, which decided the fate of King and Monarchy and opened to him the capitals of Babylon and Susa, wherein the immense treasures of the Persian Empire were stored. King of all Asia, he sat on the throne of the Persian kings under a golden canopy in the palace of Persepolis.
So far the whole expedition was over country known, if imperfectly, to the Greeks. Now we have to follow the conquering hero more closely as he leads us into an unknown land away to the east, known as "the farthest region of the inhabited world towards the east, beyond which lies the endless sandy desert void of inhabitants." And all the while the great land of India lay beyond, and beyond again was China, and away far over the ocean sea lay America—and they knew it not.
Alexander was a young man yet, only twenty-six. It was four years since he had left Europe, and in that short time he had done wonders. He had conquered the whole eastern half of the Persian Empire. Now he resolutely turned his face to the unknown east and started forth on an expedition of exploration.
Following the main highway from Media, which
Onwards towards the east he marched with his great army. To conciliate the tribes through which he passed, he adopted Persian dress. This annoyed his Greek countrymen, but, "as they admired his other virtues, they thought he might be suffered to please himself a little and enjoy his vanity."
Arrived at the modern boundary between Persia, Afghanistan, and Russia, he and his men pushed on across Afghanistan, by the caravan route that had long existed from the shores of the Caspian, by modern Herat, Kandahar, which still bears the conqueror's name, and Kabul to India. Their way lay through deep snow, deeper than they had ever seen before; and by the time they had reached the mountains of Kabul it was midwinter.
Between Alexander and India still lay the lofty range of the Hindu Koosh or Indian Caucasus. But before going south toward India, he turned northwards to explore the unknown country which lay about the river Oxus. They found the Oxus, a mighty stream, swollen with melting snows. There were no boats and no wood to build them, so Alexander pioneered his men across in "life-preservers" made out of their leather tent coverings and stuffed with straw. This river impressed the Greeks even more than the Euphrates and Tigris, as it impressed many an explorer and poet since these early days. Let us recall Matthew Arnold's famous description of the Oxus, now seen for the first time by the Greeks.
"But the majestic river floated on,
Out of the mist and hum of that low land,
Into the frosty starlight,—he flow'd
Right for the polar star, past Orgynje
Brimming, and bright, and large; then sands begin
To hem his watery march and dam his streams,
And split his currents; that for, many a league
The shorn and parcell'd Oxus strains along
Through beds of sand and matted rushy isles—
Oxus, forgetting the bright speed he had,
In his high mountain-cradle in Pamere,
A foil'd circuitous wanderer—till at last
The long'd for dash of waves is heard, and wide
His luminous home of waters opens, bright
And tranquil, from whose floor the new-bathed stars
Emerge, and shine upon the Aral Sea."
Here in this valley the Greeks met more determined opposition than they had yet encountered since entering Asia, and over two years were occupied in reducing this single district (now Bokhara and Turkestan) to submission, though it was only some three hundred and fifty miles square, and in one single year Alexander had conquered a kingdom over one thousand miles in width.
It was not till the spring of 827 B.C. that he was ready to cross the Hindu Koosh and begin the great expedition into India. The night before the start Alexander discovered that his troops were now so heavily laden with spoils that they were quite unfit for the long march. So in the early morning, when they were all ready to start, he suddenly set fire to his own baggage, and, giving orders that all his men were to do the same, the army started for the passes of the lofty mountain range. And—
" . . . . as a troop of pedlars from Kabul
Cross underneath the Indian Caucasus,
That vast sky neighbouring mountain of milk snow;
Crossing so high, that, as they mount, they pass
Long flocks of travelling birds dead on the snow,
Choked by the air, and scarce can they themselves
Slake their parch'd throats with sugar'd mulberries—
In single file they move, and stop their breath,
For fear they should dislodge the o'erhanging snows."
The banks of the river of Kabul were reached at last. Sending part of the army by the now famous Kyber Pass toward the Indus, Alexander himself undertook to subdue the mountain tribes and get control of the Chitral passes. The shepherds of this region opposed him vigorously, but swiftly and pitilessly the King of Asia sacked their peaceful homes, and city after city fell to him as he advanced towards the boundaries of Kashmir.
At last the valley of the Indus was reached. A bridge of boats was hastily thrown over, and Alexander and his army passed to the other side.
Porus, the ruler of the country between the Indus and the river Hydaspes (Jehlam), sent presents of welcome to the invader, including three thousand animals for sacrifice, ten thousand sheep, thirty elephants, two hundred talents of silver, and seven hundred horsemen. The new king was also greeted with presents of ivory and precious stones. Even from far Kashmir came greetings to Alexander, whose fame was spreading rapidly. He now entered the Punjab, the "Land of the Five Rivers." But on the other side of the river Hydaspes a different reception awaited him.
There the king (Porus) had assembled a sturdy, well-disciplined troop to dispute the passage of the river, which separated the new King of Asia from his territory. But under cover of a mighty thunderstorm Alexander contrived to cross, though the river was rushing down yellow and fierce after the rains. Secretly the Greeks put together their thirty-oared galleys hidden in a wood, and utterly surprised Porus by landing on the other side. In their strange wanderings the Greeks had fought under varying conditions, but they had never faced elephants before. Nevertheless, they brilliantly repulsed an onslaught of these animals, who slowly retreated, "facing the foe, like ships backing water, and merely uttering a shrill, piping sound." Despite the elephants the old story was repeated, civilised arms triumphed over barbarians, and the army of Porus was annihilated, his chariots shattered, and thirty-three thousand men slain.
The kingdom beyond the Hydaspes was now Alexander's. Ordering a great fleet of rafts and boats to be built for his proposed voyage to the mouth of the Indus, he pushed on to complete the conquest of the Five Stream Land, or the Punjab—the last province of the great Persian Empire. This was India—all that was known at this time. The India of the Ganges valley was beyond the knowledge of the Western world—the Ganges itself unknown to the Persians. And Alexander saw no reason to change his mind.
"The great sea surrounds the whole earth," he stoutly maintained.
But when he reached the eastern limit of the Punjab and heard, that beyond lay a fertile land "where the inhabitants were skilled in agriculture, where there were elephants in yet greater abundance and men were superior in stature and courage," the world stretched out before him in an unexpected direction, and he longed to explore farther, to conquer new and utterly unknown worlds!
But at last his men struck. They were weary, some were wounded, some were ill; seventy days of incessant rain had taken the heart out of them.
"I am not ignorant, soldiers," said Alexander to the hesitating troops, that during the last few days the natives of this country have been spreading all sorts of rumours to work upon your fears. The Persians in this way sought to terrify you with the gates of Cilicia, with the plains of Mesopotamia, with the Tigris and Euphrates, and yet this river you crossed by a ford and that by means of a bridge. By my troth, we had long ago fled from Asia could fables have been able to scare us. We are not standing on the threshold of our enterprise, but at the very close. We have already reached the sunrise and the ocean, and unless your sloth and cowardice prevent, we shall thence return in triumph to our native land, having conquered the earth to its remotest bounds. I beseech you that ye desert not your king just at the very moment when he is approaching the limits of the inhabited world."
But the soldiers, "with their heads bent earthwards," stood in silence. It was not that they would not follow him beyond the sunset; they could not. Their tears began to flow, sobs reached the ears of Alexander, his anger turned to pity, and he wept with his men.
"Oh, sir," at last cried one of. his men, "we have done and suffered up to the full measure of the capacity of mortal nature. We have traversed seas and lands, and know them better than do the inhabitants themselves. We are standing now almost on the earth's utmost verge, and yet you are preparing to go in quest of an India unknown even to the Indians themselves. You would fain root out, from their hidden recesses and dens, a race of men that herd with snakes and wild beasts, so that you may traverse as a conqueror more regions than the sun surveys. But while your courage will be ever growing, our vigour is fast waning to its end. See how bloodless be our bodies, pierced with how many wounds and gashed with how many scars! Our weapons are blunt, our armour worn out! We have been driven to assume the Persian dress! Which of us has a horse? We have conquered all the world, but are ourselves destitute of all things."
The conqueror was at last conquered. The order to turn back was reluctantly given by the disappointed king and leader. It was received with shouts of joy from the mixed multitudes of his followers, and the expedition faced for home. Back they marched through the new lands where no less than two thousand cities had owned his sway, till they came to the banks of the river where the ships were building. Two thousand boats were ready, including eighty thirty-oared galleys.
It was now September 326 B.C.
Nearchus from Crete was made Admiral of the new fleet, which at dawn one October morning pushed out upon the river Hydaspes and set sail downstream towards the unknown sea, Alexander standing proudly on the prow of the royal galley. The trumpets rang out, the oars moved, and the strange argosy, "such as had never been seen before in these parts," made its way down the unknown river to the unknown sea. Natives swarmed to the banks of the river to wonder at the strange sight, marvelling specially to see horses as passengers on board! The greater part of the army followed the ships on land, marching along the shores. At last the waters of the Hydaspes mingled with those of the Indus, and onwards down this great river floated the Persian fleet. Alexander had no pilots, no local knowledge of the country, but with his "unquenchable ambition to see the ocean and reach the boundaries of the world," he sailed on, "ignorant of everything on the way they had to pass." In vain they asked the natives assembled on the banks how far distant was the sea; they had never heard of the sea! At last they found a tide mixing its salt waters with the fresh. Soon a flood-tide burst upon them, forcing back the current of the river, and scattering the fleet. The sailors of the Mediterranean knew nothing of the rise and fall of tides. They were in a state of panic and consternation. Some tried to push off their ships with long poles, others tried to row against the incoming tide; prows were dashed against poops, oars were broken, sterns were bumped, until at last the sea had flowed over all the level land near the river mouth.
Suddenly a new danger appeared! The tide turned and the sea began to recede. Further misfortunes now befell the ships. Many were left high and dry; most of them were damaged in some way or another. Alexander sent horsemen to the seashore with instructions to watch for the return of the tide and to ride back in haste so that the fleet might be prepared.
Thus they got safely out to sea on the next high tide.
Alexander's explorations were now at an end. Leaving Nearchus to explore the seacoast at the mouth of the Indus, he left the spot near where the town of Hyderabad now stands, and turned his face toward the home he was never to reach. We must not linger over his terrible coast journey through the scorching desert of Beluchistan: the billows of sand, the glare of the barren sea, the awful thirst, the long hungry marches of forty miles a day under the burning Eastern sun.
A Sketch-map of Alexander's Chief Exploratory marches from Athens to Hyderabad and Gaza.
Our story is one of discovery, and we must turn to Nearchus, Admiral of the fleet, left behind at the mouth of
the Indus to explore the coast to the Persian Gulf, where he was to meet Alexander if possible. Shortly after
the fleet had emerged from the mouth of the Indus a violent south-west monsoon began to blow and Nearchus was
obliged to seek shelter in a harbour, which he called the port of Alexander, but which
They had but one adventure in their five months' cruise to the Persian Gulf, but we have a graphic account of
how the terrified Greeks met a shoal of whales and how they frightened the whales away. Here is the story. One
day towards daybreak they suddenly saw water spouting up from the sea, as if being violently carried upwards
by whirlwinds. The sailors, feeling very frightened, asked their native guides what it meant. The natives
replied that it was caused by whales blowing the water up into the air. At this explanation the Greek sailors
were panic-stricken and dropped the oars from their hands. Nearchus saw that something must be done at once:
So he bade the men draw up their ships in line as if for battle and row forward side by side towards the
whales, shouting and splashing with their oars. At a given signal they duly advanced, and when they came near
the sea-monsters they shouted with all their might and blew their trumpets and made all possible noise with
their oars. On hearing which, says the old story, "the whales took fright and plunged into the depths, but not
long after came to the surface again close to the sterns of the vessels and once more spouted great jets of
water. Then the sailors shouted aloud at their happy and unlooked-for escape," and Nearchus was cheered as the
saviour of the fleet. It is not uncommon
The expedition was completely successful and Nearchus pioneered his fleet to the mouth of the Euphrates.
But the death of Alexander the Great and the confusion that followed set back the advance of geographical discovery in this direction for some time.
Alexandria in Pizzigani's map, fourteenth century.
Alexandria—one of the many towns founded by Alexander—had become the world centre of the learned from Europe, Asia, and Africa. Its position was unrivalled. Situated at the mouth of the Nile, it commanded the Mediterranean Sea, while by means of the Red Sea it held easy communication with India and Arabia. When Egypt had come under the sway of Alexander, he had made one of his generals ruler over that country, and men of intellect collected there to study and to write. A library was started, and a Greek, Eratosthenes, held the post of librarian at Alexandria for forty years, namely, from 240&endash;190 B.C. During this period he made a collection of all the travels and books of earth description—the first the world had ever known—and stored them in the Great Library of which he must have felt so justly proud. But Eratosthenes did more than this. He was the originator of Scientific Geography. He realised that no maps could be properly laid down till something was known of the size and shape of the earth.
By this time all men of science had ceased to believe that the world was flat; they thought of it as a perfect
round, but fixed at the centre in space. Many had guessed at the size of the earth. Some said it was forty
thousand miles round, but Eratosthenes was not content with guessing. He studied the length of the shadow
thrown by the sun at Alexandria and compared it with that thrown by the sun at Syene, near the first cataract
of the Nile, some five hundred miles distant, and, as he thought, in the same longitude. The differences in
the length of these two shadows he calculated would represent one-fiftieth of the circumference of the earth,
which would accordingly be twenty-thousand miles. There was no one to tell him whether he had calculated right
or wrong, but we know
Then the famous librarian drew a map of the world for his library at Alexandria, but it has perished with all the rest of the valuable treasure collected in this once celebrated city. We know that he must have made a great many mistakes in drawing a map of his little island world which measured eight thousand miles by three thousand eight hundred miles. It must have been quaintly arranged. The Caspian Sea was connected with a Northern Ocean, the Danube sent a tributary to the Adriatic, there was no Bay of Biscay, the British Isles lay in the wrong direction, Africa was not half its right size, the Ganges flowed into the Eastern Ocean, Ceylon was a huge island stretching east and west, while across the whole of Asia a mountain chain stretched in one long unbroken line. And yet, with all his errors, he was nearer the truth than men three centuries later. | <urn:uuid:87c02c3b-40df-485e-8534-9f06eb9318d5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/displayitem.php?item=books/synge/discoverybook/alexander | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00492.warc.gz | en | 0.980244 | 4,180 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.4239447414875... | 4 | S TILL greater light was shed on the size of the world by Alexander the Great on his famous expedition to India, by which he almost doubled the area of the world known to the people of his time. It was just sixty years after Xenophon had made his way right across Asia to the shoes of the Black Sea when Alexander resolved to break, if possible, the power of the Persians.
The great Persian Empire extended from the shores of the Mediterranean right away to the east, far beyond the knowledge of the Greeks. Indeed, their knowledge of the interior of Asia was very imperfect, and Alexander's expedition was rather that of an explorer than of a conqueror. How he overthrew the Persians and subdued an area as large as Europe in the space of twelve years reads like a romance rather than fact, and it is not for us to tell the story in detail. Rather let us take up the story after Alexander has fought and conquered the Persians twice, besieged Tyre, taken the Phœnician fleet, occupied Egypt, marched across the desert and crossed the Euphrates, passed over the plain and followed the Tigris to near Nineveh, where he crossed that river too, fought another famous battle over the Persians, which decided the fate of King and Monarchy and opened to him the capitals of Babylon and Susa, wherein the immense treasures of the Persian Empire were stored. King of all Asia, he sat on the throne of the Persian kings under a golden canopy in the palace of Persepolis.
So far the whole expedition was over country known, if imperfectly, to the Greeks. Now we have to follow the conquering hero more closely as he leads us into an unknown land away to the east, known as "the farthest region of the inhabited world towards the east, beyond which lies the endless sandy desert void of inhabitants." And all the while the great land of India lay beyond, and beyond again was China, and away far over the ocean sea lay America—and they knew it not.
Alexander was a young man yet, only twenty-six. It was four years since he had left Europe, and in that short time he had done wonders. He had conquered the whole eastern half of the Persian Empire. Now he resolutely turned his face to the unknown east and started forth on an expedition of exploration.
Following the main highway from Media, which
Onwards towards the east he marched with his great army. To conciliate the tribes through which he passed, he adopted Persian dress. This annoyed his Greek countrymen, but, "as they admired his other virtues, they thought he might be suffered to please himself a little and enjoy his vanity."
Arrived at the modern boundary between Persia, Afghanistan, and Russia, he and his men pushed on across Afghanistan, by the caravan route that had long existed from the shores of the Caspian, by modern Herat, Kandahar, which still bears the conqueror's name, and Kabul to India. Their way lay through deep snow, deeper than they had ever seen before; and by the time they had reached the mountains of Kabul it was midwinter.
Between Alexander and India still lay the lofty range of the Hindu Koosh or Indian Caucasus. But before going south toward India, he turned northwards to explore the unknown country which lay about the river Oxus. They found the Oxus, a mighty stream, swollen with melting snows. There were no boats and no wood to build them, so Alexander pioneered his men across in "life-preservers" made out of their leather tent coverings and stuffed with straw. This river impressed the Greeks even more than the Euphrates and Tigris, as it impressed many an explorer and poet since these early days. Let us recall Matthew Arnold's famous description of the Oxus, now seen for the first time by the Greeks.
"But the majestic river floated on,
Out of the mist and hum of that low land,
Into the frosty starlight,—he flow'd
Right for the polar star, past Orgynje
Brimming, and bright, and large; then sands begin
To hem his watery march and dam his streams,
And split his currents; that for, many a league
The shorn and parcell'd Oxus strains along
Through beds of sand and matted rushy isles—
Oxus, forgetting the bright speed he had,
In his high mountain-cradle in Pamere,
A foil'd circuitous wanderer—till at last
The long'd for dash of waves is heard, and wide
His luminous home of waters opens, bright
And tranquil, from whose floor the new-bathed stars
Emerge, and shine upon the Aral Sea."
Here in this valley the Greeks met more determined opposition than they had yet encountered since entering Asia, and over two years were occupied in reducing this single district (now Bokhara and Turkestan) to submission, though it was only some three hundred and fifty miles square, and in one single year Alexander had conquered a kingdom over one thousand miles in width.
It was not till the spring of 827 B.C. that he was ready to cross the Hindu Koosh and begin the great expedition into India. The night before the start Alexander discovered that his troops were now so heavily laden with spoils that they were quite unfit for the long march. So in the early morning, when they were all ready to start, he suddenly set fire to his own baggage, and, giving orders that all his men were to do the same, the army started for the passes of the lofty mountain range. And—
" . . . . as a troop of pedlars from Kabul
Cross underneath the Indian Caucasus,
That vast sky neighbouring mountain of milk snow;
Crossing so high, that, as they mount, they pass
Long flocks of travelling birds dead on the snow,
Choked by the air, and scarce can they themselves
Slake their parch'd throats with sugar'd mulberries—
In single file they move, and stop their breath,
For fear they should dislodge the o'erhanging snows."
The banks of the river of Kabul were reached at last. Sending part of the army by the now famous Kyber Pass toward the Indus, Alexander himself undertook to subdue the mountain tribes and get control of the Chitral passes. The shepherds of this region opposed him vigorously, but swiftly and pitilessly the King of Asia sacked their peaceful homes, and city after city fell to him as he advanced towards the boundaries of Kashmir.
At last the valley of the Indus was reached. A bridge of boats was hastily thrown over, and Alexander and his army passed to the other side.
Porus, the ruler of the country between the Indus and the river Hydaspes (Jehlam), sent presents of welcome to the invader, including three thousand animals for sacrifice, ten thousand sheep, thirty elephants, two hundred talents of silver, and seven hundred horsemen. The new king was also greeted with presents of ivory and precious stones. Even from far Kashmir came greetings to Alexander, whose fame was spreading rapidly. He now entered the Punjab, the "Land of the Five Rivers." But on the other side of the river Hydaspes a different reception awaited him.
There the king (Porus) had assembled a sturdy, well-disciplined troop to dispute the passage of the river, which separated the new King of Asia from his territory. But under cover of a mighty thunderstorm Alexander contrived to cross, though the river was rushing down yellow and fierce after the rains. Secretly the Greeks put together their thirty-oared galleys hidden in a wood, and utterly surprised Porus by landing on the other side. In their strange wanderings the Greeks had fought under varying conditions, but they had never faced elephants before. Nevertheless, they brilliantly repulsed an onslaught of these animals, who slowly retreated, "facing the foe, like ships backing water, and merely uttering a shrill, piping sound." Despite the elephants the old story was repeated, civilised arms triumphed over barbarians, and the army of Porus was annihilated, his chariots shattered, and thirty-three thousand men slain.
The kingdom beyond the Hydaspes was now Alexander's. Ordering a great fleet of rafts and boats to be built for his proposed voyage to the mouth of the Indus, he pushed on to complete the conquest of the Five Stream Land, or the Punjab—the last province of the great Persian Empire. This was India—all that was known at this time. The India of the Ganges valley was beyond the knowledge of the Western world—the Ganges itself unknown to the Persians. And Alexander saw no reason to change his mind.
"The great sea surrounds the whole earth," he stoutly maintained.
But when he reached the eastern limit of the Punjab and heard, that beyond lay a fertile land "where the inhabitants were skilled in agriculture, where there were elephants in yet greater abundance and men were superior in stature and courage," the world stretched out before him in an unexpected direction, and he longed to explore farther, to conquer new and utterly unknown worlds!
But at last his men struck. They were weary, some were wounded, some were ill; seventy days of incessant rain had taken the heart out of them.
"I am not ignorant, soldiers," said Alexander to the hesitating troops, that during the last few days the natives of this country have been spreading all sorts of rumours to work upon your fears. The Persians in this way sought to terrify you with the gates of Cilicia, with the plains of Mesopotamia, with the Tigris and Euphrates, and yet this river you crossed by a ford and that by means of a bridge. By my troth, we had long ago fled from Asia could fables have been able to scare us. We are not standing on the threshold of our enterprise, but at the very close. We have already reached the sunrise and the ocean, and unless your sloth and cowardice prevent, we shall thence return in triumph to our native land, having conquered the earth to its remotest bounds. I beseech you that ye desert not your king just at the very moment when he is approaching the limits of the inhabited world."
But the soldiers, "with their heads bent earthwards," stood in silence. It was not that they would not follow him beyond the sunset; they could not. Their tears began to flow, sobs reached the ears of Alexander, his anger turned to pity, and he wept with his men.
"Oh, sir," at last cried one of. his men, "we have done and suffered up to the full measure of the capacity of mortal nature. We have traversed seas and lands, and know them better than do the inhabitants themselves. We are standing now almost on the earth's utmost verge, and yet you are preparing to go in quest of an India unknown even to the Indians themselves. You would fain root out, from their hidden recesses and dens, a race of men that herd with snakes and wild beasts, so that you may traverse as a conqueror more regions than the sun surveys. But while your courage will be ever growing, our vigour is fast waning to its end. See how bloodless be our bodies, pierced with how many wounds and gashed with how many scars! Our weapons are blunt, our armour worn out! We have been driven to assume the Persian dress! Which of us has a horse? We have conquered all the world, but are ourselves destitute of all things."
The conqueror was at last conquered. The order to turn back was reluctantly given by the disappointed king and leader. It was received with shouts of joy from the mixed multitudes of his followers, and the expedition faced for home. Back they marched through the new lands where no less than two thousand cities had owned his sway, till they came to the banks of the river where the ships were building. Two thousand boats were ready, including eighty thirty-oared galleys.
It was now September 326 B.C.
Nearchus from Crete was made Admiral of the new fleet, which at dawn one October morning pushed out upon the river Hydaspes and set sail downstream towards the unknown sea, Alexander standing proudly on the prow of the royal galley. The trumpets rang out, the oars moved, and the strange argosy, "such as had never been seen before in these parts," made its way down the unknown river to the unknown sea. Natives swarmed to the banks of the river to wonder at the strange sight, marvelling specially to see horses as passengers on board! The greater part of the army followed the ships on land, marching along the shores. At last the waters of the Hydaspes mingled with those of the Indus, and onwards down this great river floated the Persian fleet. Alexander had no pilots, no local knowledge of the country, but with his "unquenchable ambition to see the ocean and reach the boundaries of the world," he sailed on, "ignorant of everything on the way they had to pass." In vain they asked the natives assembled on the banks how far distant was the sea; they had never heard of the sea! At last they found a tide mixing its salt waters with the fresh. Soon a flood-tide burst upon them, forcing back the current of the river, and scattering the fleet. The sailors of the Mediterranean knew nothing of the rise and fall of tides. They were in a state of panic and consternation. Some tried to push off their ships with long poles, others tried to row against the incoming tide; prows were dashed against poops, oars were broken, sterns were bumped, until at last the sea had flowed over all the level land near the river mouth.
Suddenly a new danger appeared! The tide turned and the sea began to recede. Further misfortunes now befell the ships. Many were left high and dry; most of them were damaged in some way or another. Alexander sent horsemen to the seashore with instructions to watch for the return of the tide and to ride back in haste so that the fleet might be prepared.
Thus they got safely out to sea on the next high tide.
Alexander's explorations were now at an end. Leaving Nearchus to explore the seacoast at the mouth of the Indus, he left the spot near where the town of Hyderabad now stands, and turned his face toward the home he was never to reach. We must not linger over his terrible coast journey through the scorching desert of Beluchistan: the billows of sand, the glare of the barren sea, the awful thirst, the long hungry marches of forty miles a day under the burning Eastern sun.
A Sketch-map of Alexander's Chief Exploratory marches from Athens to Hyderabad and Gaza.
Our story is one of discovery, and we must turn to Nearchus, Admiral of the fleet, left behind at the mouth of
the Indus to explore the coast to the Persian Gulf, where he was to meet Alexander if possible. Shortly after
the fleet had emerged from the mouth of the Indus a violent south-west monsoon began to blow and Nearchus was
obliged to seek shelter in a harbour, which he called the port of Alexander, but which
They had but one adventure in their five months' cruise to the Persian Gulf, but we have a graphic account of
how the terrified Greeks met a shoal of whales and how they frightened the whales away. Here is the story. One
day towards daybreak they suddenly saw water spouting up from the sea, as if being violently carried upwards
by whirlwinds. The sailors, feeling very frightened, asked their native guides what it meant. The natives
replied that it was caused by whales blowing the water up into the air. At this explanation the Greek sailors
were panic-stricken and dropped the oars from their hands. Nearchus saw that something must be done at once:
So he bade the men draw up their ships in line as if for battle and row forward side by side towards the
whales, shouting and splashing with their oars. At a given signal they duly advanced, and when they came near
the sea-monsters they shouted with all their might and blew their trumpets and made all possible noise with
their oars. On hearing which, says the old story, "the whales took fright and plunged into the depths, but not
long after came to the surface again close to the sterns of the vessels and once more spouted great jets of
water. Then the sailors shouted aloud at their happy and unlooked-for escape," and Nearchus was cheered as the
saviour of the fleet. It is not uncommon
The expedition was completely successful and Nearchus pioneered his fleet to the mouth of the Euphrates.
But the death of Alexander the Great and the confusion that followed set back the advance of geographical discovery in this direction for some time.
Alexandria in Pizzigani's map, fourteenth century.
Alexandria—one of the many towns founded by Alexander—had become the world centre of the learned from Europe, Asia, and Africa. Its position was unrivalled. Situated at the mouth of the Nile, it commanded the Mediterranean Sea, while by means of the Red Sea it held easy communication with India and Arabia. When Egypt had come under the sway of Alexander, he had made one of his generals ruler over that country, and men of intellect collected there to study and to write. A library was started, and a Greek, Eratosthenes, held the post of librarian at Alexandria for forty years, namely, from 240&endash;190 B.C. During this period he made a collection of all the travels and books of earth description—the first the world had ever known—and stored them in the Great Library of which he must have felt so justly proud. But Eratosthenes did more than this. He was the originator of Scientific Geography. He realised that no maps could be properly laid down till something was known of the size and shape of the earth.
By this time all men of science had ceased to believe that the world was flat; they thought of it as a perfect
round, but fixed at the centre in space. Many had guessed at the size of the earth. Some said it was forty
thousand miles round, but Eratosthenes was not content with guessing. He studied the length of the shadow
thrown by the sun at Alexandria and compared it with that thrown by the sun at Syene, near the first cataract
of the Nile, some five hundred miles distant, and, as he thought, in the same longitude. The differences in
the length of these two shadows he calculated would represent one-fiftieth of the circumference of the earth,
which would accordingly be twenty-thousand miles. There was no one to tell him whether he had calculated right
or wrong, but we know
Then the famous librarian drew a map of the world for his library at Alexandria, but it has perished with all the rest of the valuable treasure collected in this once celebrated city. We know that he must have made a great many mistakes in drawing a map of his little island world which measured eight thousand miles by three thousand eight hundred miles. It must have been quaintly arranged. The Caspian Sea was connected with a Northern Ocean, the Danube sent a tributary to the Adriatic, there was no Bay of Biscay, the British Isles lay in the wrong direction, Africa was not half its right size, the Ganges flowed into the Eastern Ocean, Ceylon was a huge island stretching east and west, while across the whole of Asia a mountain chain stretched in one long unbroken line. And yet, with all his errors, he was nearer the truth than men three centuries later. | 4,139 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Americans remember the famous battles of the American Revolution such as Bunker Hill, Saratoga, and Yorktown, in part, because they were Patriot victories. But this apparent string of successes is misleading.
The Patriots lost more battles than they won and, like any war, the Revolution was filled with hard times, loss of life, and suffering. In fact, the Revolution had one of the highest casualty rates of any U.S. war; only the Civil War was bloodier.
In the early days of 1776, most Americans were naïve when assessing just how difficult the war would be. Great initial enthusiasm led many men to join local militias where they often served under officers of their own choosing. Yet, these volunteer forces were not strong enough to defeat the British Army, which was the most highly trained and best equipped in the world. Furthermore, because most men preferred serving in the militia, the Continental Congress had trouble getting volunteers for General George Washington's Continental Army. This was in part because, the Continental Army demanded longer terms and harsher discipline.
Washington correctly insisted on having a regular army as essential to any chance for victory. After a number of bad militia losses in battle, the Congress gradually developed a stricter military policy. It required each state to provide a larger quota of men, who would serve for longer terms, but who would be compensated by a signing bonus and the promise of free land after the war. This policy aimed to fill the ranks of the Continental Army, but was never fully successful. While the Congress authorized an army of 75,000, at its peak Washington's main force never had more than 18,000 men. The terms of service were such that only men with relatively few other options chose to join the Continental Army.
Part of the difficulty in raising a large and permanent fighting force was that many Americans feared the army as a threat to the liberty of the new republic. The ideals of the Revolution suggested that the militia, made up of local Patriotic volunteers, should be enough to win in a good cause against a corrupt enemy. Beyond this idealistic opposition to the army, there were also more pragmatic difficulties. If a wartime army camped near private homes, they often seized food and personal property. Exacerbating the situation was Congress inability to pay, feed, and equip the army.
As a result, soldiers often resented civilians whom they saw as not sharing equally in the sacrifices of the Revolution. Several mutinies occurred toward the end of the war, with ordinary soldiers protesting their lack of pay and poor conditions. Not only were soldiers angry, but officers also felt that the country did not treat them well. Patriotic civilians and the Congress expected officers, who were mostly elite gentlemen, to be honorably self-sacrificing in their wartime service. When officers were denied a lifetime pension at the end of the war, some of them threatened to conspire against the Congress. General Washington, however, acted swiftly to halt this threat before it was put into action.
The Continental Army defeated the British, with the crucial help of French financial and military support, but the war ended with very mixed feelings about the usefulness of the army. Not only were civilians and those serving in the military mutually suspicious, but also even within the army soldiers and officers could harbor deep grudges against one another. The war against the British ended with the Patriot military victory at Yorktown in 1781. However, the meaning and consequences of the Revolution had not yet been decided. | <urn:uuid:890661f7-c14f-45a2-a07c-d2a47fc88bd9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ushistory.org/us/13b.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00233.warc.gz | en | 0.982652 | 706 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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0.22432109713554382... | 8 | Americans remember the famous battles of the American Revolution such as Bunker Hill, Saratoga, and Yorktown, in part, because they were Patriot victories. But this apparent string of successes is misleading.
The Patriots lost more battles than they won and, like any war, the Revolution was filled with hard times, loss of life, and suffering. In fact, the Revolution had one of the highest casualty rates of any U.S. war; only the Civil War was bloodier.
In the early days of 1776, most Americans were naïve when assessing just how difficult the war would be. Great initial enthusiasm led many men to join local militias where they often served under officers of their own choosing. Yet, these volunteer forces were not strong enough to defeat the British Army, which was the most highly trained and best equipped in the world. Furthermore, because most men preferred serving in the militia, the Continental Congress had trouble getting volunteers for General George Washington's Continental Army. This was in part because, the Continental Army demanded longer terms and harsher discipline.
Washington correctly insisted on having a regular army as essential to any chance for victory. After a number of bad militia losses in battle, the Congress gradually developed a stricter military policy. It required each state to provide a larger quota of men, who would serve for longer terms, but who would be compensated by a signing bonus and the promise of free land after the war. This policy aimed to fill the ranks of the Continental Army, but was never fully successful. While the Congress authorized an army of 75,000, at its peak Washington's main force never had more than 18,000 men. The terms of service were such that only men with relatively few other options chose to join the Continental Army.
Part of the difficulty in raising a large and permanent fighting force was that many Americans feared the army as a threat to the liberty of the new republic. The ideals of the Revolution suggested that the militia, made up of local Patriotic volunteers, should be enough to win in a good cause against a corrupt enemy. Beyond this idealistic opposition to the army, there were also more pragmatic difficulties. If a wartime army camped near private homes, they often seized food and personal property. Exacerbating the situation was Congress inability to pay, feed, and equip the army.
As a result, soldiers often resented civilians whom they saw as not sharing equally in the sacrifices of the Revolution. Several mutinies occurred toward the end of the war, with ordinary soldiers protesting their lack of pay and poor conditions. Not only were soldiers angry, but officers also felt that the country did not treat them well. Patriotic civilians and the Congress expected officers, who were mostly elite gentlemen, to be honorably self-sacrificing in their wartime service. When officers were denied a lifetime pension at the end of the war, some of them threatened to conspire against the Congress. General Washington, however, acted swiftly to halt this threat before it was put into action.
The Continental Army defeated the British, with the crucial help of French financial and military support, but the war ended with very mixed feelings about the usefulness of the army. Not only were civilians and those serving in the military mutually suspicious, but also even within the army soldiers and officers could harbor deep grudges against one another. The war against the British ended with the Patriot military victory at Yorktown in 1781. However, the meaning and consequences of the Revolution had not yet been decided. | 715 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Edgar Allan Poe
B. 1809 D. 1849
All that we see or seem is but a dream within a dream. - A Dream Within a Dream by Edgar Allan Poe
About Edgar Allan Poe
Edgar Allan Poe was born in 1809, the son of poverty-stricken actors. His father died from consumption; soon afterwards, his English mother, who in her time had played Juliet, Ophelia and a range of Shakespearian leading roles, died and left Edgar orphaned before he was three years old. He was taken into the family of John Allan, a tobacco importer, and spent part of his schooldays, which were mostly troubled, in England. At the University of Virginia he was notorious for gambling to pay his debts and left early; he enlisted in the US army, but was dishonorably discharged for failing to attend to his duties.
Love and death are obsessively linked in his stories and his poems. The death of his beautiful tragedian mother was followed by the early death of other beloved young women. His wife, Virginia, whom he married when she was 13, died at the age of 23. The Raven, recorded here, is a haunting meditation on lost love, influenced by the raven in Barnaby Rudge, and powerfully theatrical in effect. It works best read aloud; Poe himself frequently read it to appreciative audiences.
The Raven brought Poe fame, but no money. He struggled on in poverty, and suffered addiction and depression, earning what he could (in those days before copyright protection) from his writing. His poem, Annabel Lee, mourns his young wife, now idealized in death. Soon after writing it, in 1847, Poe was found at his Baltimore home, delirious from alcohol and illness, and died a few days later | <urn:uuid:d2989aff-a542-43b1-86d9-23051f8ee4d4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://poetryarchive.org/poet/edgar-allan-poe/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00433.warc.gz | en | 0.992652 | 372 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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B. 1809 D. 1849
All that we see or seem is but a dream within a dream. - A Dream Within a Dream by Edgar Allan Poe
About Edgar Allan Poe
Edgar Allan Poe was born in 1809, the son of poverty-stricken actors. His father died from consumption; soon afterwards, his English mother, who in her time had played Juliet, Ophelia and a range of Shakespearian leading roles, died and left Edgar orphaned before he was three years old. He was taken into the family of John Allan, a tobacco importer, and spent part of his schooldays, which were mostly troubled, in England. At the University of Virginia he was notorious for gambling to pay his debts and left early; he enlisted in the US army, but was dishonorably discharged for failing to attend to his duties.
Love and death are obsessively linked in his stories and his poems. The death of his beautiful tragedian mother was followed by the early death of other beloved young women. His wife, Virginia, whom he married when she was 13, died at the age of 23. The Raven, recorded here, is a haunting meditation on lost love, influenced by the raven in Barnaby Rudge, and powerfully theatrical in effect. It works best read aloud; Poe himself frequently read it to appreciative audiences.
The Raven brought Poe fame, but no money. He struggled on in poverty, and suffered addiction and depression, earning what he could (in those days before copyright protection) from his writing. His poem, Annabel Lee, mourns his young wife, now idealized in death. Soon after writing it, in 1847, Poe was found at his Baltimore home, delirious from alcohol and illness, and died a few days later | 386 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In Y4 we have been looking at using dialogue in poetry. To help us with this, we looked at a poem based on mythical creatures ‘Overheard on a Saltmarsh’. The children used this poem to inspire their own. They looked at the features of the poem: the rhythm, the repeating phrases, and ensured that their poem included these features too!
The children have enjoyed performing their poems in front of the class and have also used peer feedback in the editing process to improve their poems.
Wow! What an amazing Battle we had! The Romans and Celts took to the battlefield. The children thoroughly enjoyed all the drama learning around this and were so passionate in their Battle. If you were unable to join us, here are some fantastic photos taken by John (one of our Governors).
Today we had a very exciting visitor in to Y4, Matthew! He took us on a journey back to Saturnalia, a joyous day in the Roman calendar where the slaves were free for the day and Romans worshiped Saturn. The children became Romans and were based in Chester. At the Saturnalia celebrations, we had the town councillors (Curiales), who were only allowed to be men, the girls were rightly outraged that women could not hold such positions back then. We had market sellers, slaves on their day off, Roman shoppers and people enjoying their day off at the Roman baths. Children were able to fully understand and immerse themselves into life as a Roman. As the celebrations continued, it was time to worship Saturn in the temple. Children were introduced to 13 of the key Roman gods and made links to the Greek Gods. Here they understood that Romans would offer sacrifices to the Gods on this special day. To end our immersive afternoon, we finished with a series of gladiator battles in the arena. From animal fights to gladiators, we learnt that there were different types of fighters and focused today on the Retiarius, who carried a trident and a net, into battles.
This week, as part of our learning on different perspectives, we have explored the wolf’s side of the story (that not many people know about). We have looked at the pigs version of events and also the wolf’s. We then conducted a debate about who really was to blame, was the wolf in the wrong or not? We had some passionate arguments where children were able to look at the story from both sides!
Here’s some pictures of our debate in action at the “4SM House of Commons”
The children will be able to articulate both sides of the story, so if you’ve never heard THE TRUE Story of the Three Little Pigs then, get yourself a cup of tea and allow your child to retell the story to you!
This half term we are looking at the theme “A Tale of Two Sides”. Not only does our focus book this week have two sides but it actually has 4 different perspectives of the same day of a walk in the park. We have been learning how to use our iPads this week, learning skills such as logging into our google accounts, accessing google classroom and uploading our learning onto the platform. We have even become photographers this week where we took photos of ourselves in our own “park” ensuring that we had shadows to mimic the Voice 3 illustrations from our focus book. Our artwork was directly related to our class novel, as we recreated images of ourselves and our chosen moods in the style of Anthony Brown, using pastel techniques. Children then used word hippo to find synonyms (words that mean the same) of their chosen emotion to create clines (see Romeesa’s below). They had to ensure the word was appropriate for that context by doing some additional research. Not only have we delved into the illustrations but we have also explored the variety of techniques used to help the reader understand the different emotions explored. We created an SPO to talk about how Anthony Browne has used specific techniques within his book. Take a look at Gia’s below! As you can see our week has been full of learning opportunities. | <urn:uuid:1bc6bf3a-d74f-484f-aec9-8e83575f4f6d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://4sm.aceprimary.uk/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00443.warc.gz | en | 0.984602 | 847 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.287550717... | 1 | In Y4 we have been looking at using dialogue in poetry. To help us with this, we looked at a poem based on mythical creatures ‘Overheard on a Saltmarsh’. The children used this poem to inspire their own. They looked at the features of the poem: the rhythm, the repeating phrases, and ensured that their poem included these features too!
The children have enjoyed performing their poems in front of the class and have also used peer feedback in the editing process to improve their poems.
Wow! What an amazing Battle we had! The Romans and Celts took to the battlefield. The children thoroughly enjoyed all the drama learning around this and were so passionate in their Battle. If you were unable to join us, here are some fantastic photos taken by John (one of our Governors).
Today we had a very exciting visitor in to Y4, Matthew! He took us on a journey back to Saturnalia, a joyous day in the Roman calendar where the slaves were free for the day and Romans worshiped Saturn. The children became Romans and were based in Chester. At the Saturnalia celebrations, we had the town councillors (Curiales), who were only allowed to be men, the girls were rightly outraged that women could not hold such positions back then. We had market sellers, slaves on their day off, Roman shoppers and people enjoying their day off at the Roman baths. Children were able to fully understand and immerse themselves into life as a Roman. As the celebrations continued, it was time to worship Saturn in the temple. Children were introduced to 13 of the key Roman gods and made links to the Greek Gods. Here they understood that Romans would offer sacrifices to the Gods on this special day. To end our immersive afternoon, we finished with a series of gladiator battles in the arena. From animal fights to gladiators, we learnt that there were different types of fighters and focused today on the Retiarius, who carried a trident and a net, into battles.
This week, as part of our learning on different perspectives, we have explored the wolf’s side of the story (that not many people know about). We have looked at the pigs version of events and also the wolf’s. We then conducted a debate about who really was to blame, was the wolf in the wrong or not? We had some passionate arguments where children were able to look at the story from both sides!
Here’s some pictures of our debate in action at the “4SM House of Commons”
The children will be able to articulate both sides of the story, so if you’ve never heard THE TRUE Story of the Three Little Pigs then, get yourself a cup of tea and allow your child to retell the story to you!
This half term we are looking at the theme “A Tale of Two Sides”. Not only does our focus book this week have two sides but it actually has 4 different perspectives of the same day of a walk in the park. We have been learning how to use our iPads this week, learning skills such as logging into our google accounts, accessing google classroom and uploading our learning onto the platform. We have even become photographers this week where we took photos of ourselves in our own “park” ensuring that we had shadows to mimic the Voice 3 illustrations from our focus book. Our artwork was directly related to our class novel, as we recreated images of ourselves and our chosen moods in the style of Anthony Brown, using pastel techniques. Children then used word hippo to find synonyms (words that mean the same) of their chosen emotion to create clines (see Romeesa’s below). They had to ensure the word was appropriate for that context by doing some additional research. Not only have we delved into the illustrations but we have also explored the variety of techniques used to help the reader understand the different emotions explored. We created an SPO to talk about how Anthony Browne has used specific techniques within his book. Take a look at Gia’s below! As you can see our week has been full of learning opportunities. | 820 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The New State of Jones rests upon the notion that there exists an “old” State of Jones. However, you do not have to lose one to embrace the other. A restless, some may say rebellious, spirit stirs from the first generations who settled in Jones County near Ellisville and seceded from the Confederacy to create the Free State of Jones.
The Civil War left an indelible mark on the state of Mississippi and the old home of Amos Deason is just such a place where the Civil War has not quite ended…
The house was built in 1845 by Amos Deason, one of the wealthiest men in the region. While you wouldn’t know it by visiting the house today, there are many dark secrets here which remain hidden… from a bloodstain that will not fade to a door that opens by itself on the anniversary of a terrible event.
At the time of the Civil War, the people of Jones County in Mississippi were mostly poor farmers and owned few slaves. When the question of secession from the Union began to be addressed, the Jones County people refused to get involved. They instructed their delegate to the secession convention in Jackson to vote against withdrawing from the Union. But when he arrived in Jackson, he was caught up in the excitement and voted with the secessionists. His angry neighbors hanged him in effigy.
Reluctantly, Jones County prepared for war. Amos Season prepared for the coming war by burying his gold on his property for safe-keeping.
During the war, the old men, women and children were left behind while the younger men went off to fight. The property was left nearly defenseless and the people struggled to survive. To make matters worse, the Confederate cavalry, whose job it was to find food and supplies for the army, descended on Jones County, raiding farms and taking food and farm animals that the people could not afford to give.
At the beginning of the war, some Jones County men joined the Confederacy but others refused until the draft was instituted in 1862. One of those was a farmer named Newt Knight. He refused to fight for a cause he did not believe in, although when he was drafted, he did serve as a hospital orderly.
Knight reached his breaking point when he learned that if a man owned 20 or more slaves, he could avoid military service. Knight, and the other poor farmers from Jones County, felt they were right then they suspected the war was a “rich man’s war and a poor man’s fight.” At this point, Knight deserted and went home.
Knight banded together with other deserters and formed a renegade army which was based in the Leaf River Swamp. Their hideout, known as the Devil’s Den, was called home for over 100 Confederate deserters. They came out of the swamp to visit there families, work their farms and according to the stories, conduct raids on trains headed to and from Mobile. The men devised elaborate methods of communication and signals to alert them to impending danger.
And that danger was very real…… Despite a large number of Jones County deserters, most of the people in the area remained loyal to the south. To these people, Newt Knight and his men were criminals and they refused to offer them safe harbor in Jones County. In addition, Confederate troops were determined to capture Knight and his men. They raided the woods and the swamps, looking for the renegades, but with no success. Finally, the Confederacy sent Major Amos McLemore, a native of Jones County, to capture Knight.
McLemore knew the swamps nearly as well as Knight and was determined to bring him in. He and his men ransacked the woods, getting dangerously close to Knight’s hideout. Knight realized that something had to be done…. McLemore had to be killed.
McLemore had made his headquarters in the home of Amos Deason, loyal Confederates. Knight decided to go to the Deason home to kill McLemore. One wet, rainy afternoon in September, after McLemore had returned to the house, Knight threw open the door. He found McLemore standing in front of the fireplace and he shot him point-blank. McLemore gasped “I’m killed!” as he fell to the floor in a pool of spreading blood. McLemore’s men chased after him, but he managed to escape back into the swamp.
McLemore’s blood seeped into the pine flooring of the Deason house and no matter how much scrubbing was done, it would never disappear. After many years of seeing the blood, descendants of the Deason’s finally covered the wooden floor with new flooring. This may have hidden the blood stain, but it did not stop the front door of the house from bursting open on the anniversary of the murder each year…. only to reveal an empty, silent porch.
In 1991, the Deason family gave the home to the local chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution. They began restoring the house and prepared to open it to the public. Several members of the DAR confessed to be uncomfortable about being in the house alone.
The Amos Deason house is located in Ellisville, seven miles southwest of Laurel. The house is located on the southern outskirts of Ellisville and until recently was a private residence.
Visit the Deason Home online at http://www.deasonhome.org | <urn:uuid:d2a6756e-c9b9-4388-8dbf-fb22b0d1d774> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://thenewstateofjones.com/historic_locations/deason-home/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00200.warc.gz | en | 0.982215 | 1,132 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.34292674064636... | 5 | The New State of Jones rests upon the notion that there exists an “old” State of Jones. However, you do not have to lose one to embrace the other. A restless, some may say rebellious, spirit stirs from the first generations who settled in Jones County near Ellisville and seceded from the Confederacy to create the Free State of Jones.
The Civil War left an indelible mark on the state of Mississippi and the old home of Amos Deason is just such a place where the Civil War has not quite ended…
The house was built in 1845 by Amos Deason, one of the wealthiest men in the region. While you wouldn’t know it by visiting the house today, there are many dark secrets here which remain hidden… from a bloodstain that will not fade to a door that opens by itself on the anniversary of a terrible event.
At the time of the Civil War, the people of Jones County in Mississippi were mostly poor farmers and owned few slaves. When the question of secession from the Union began to be addressed, the Jones County people refused to get involved. They instructed their delegate to the secession convention in Jackson to vote against withdrawing from the Union. But when he arrived in Jackson, he was caught up in the excitement and voted with the secessionists. His angry neighbors hanged him in effigy.
Reluctantly, Jones County prepared for war. Amos Season prepared for the coming war by burying his gold on his property for safe-keeping.
During the war, the old men, women and children were left behind while the younger men went off to fight. The property was left nearly defenseless and the people struggled to survive. To make matters worse, the Confederate cavalry, whose job it was to find food and supplies for the army, descended on Jones County, raiding farms and taking food and farm animals that the people could not afford to give.
At the beginning of the war, some Jones County men joined the Confederacy but others refused until the draft was instituted in 1862. One of those was a farmer named Newt Knight. He refused to fight for a cause he did not believe in, although when he was drafted, he did serve as a hospital orderly.
Knight reached his breaking point when he learned that if a man owned 20 or more slaves, he could avoid military service. Knight, and the other poor farmers from Jones County, felt they were right then they suspected the war was a “rich man’s war and a poor man’s fight.” At this point, Knight deserted and went home.
Knight banded together with other deserters and formed a renegade army which was based in the Leaf River Swamp. Their hideout, known as the Devil’s Den, was called home for over 100 Confederate deserters. They came out of the swamp to visit there families, work their farms and according to the stories, conduct raids on trains headed to and from Mobile. The men devised elaborate methods of communication and signals to alert them to impending danger.
And that danger was very real…… Despite a large number of Jones County deserters, most of the people in the area remained loyal to the south. To these people, Newt Knight and his men were criminals and they refused to offer them safe harbor in Jones County. In addition, Confederate troops were determined to capture Knight and his men. They raided the woods and the swamps, looking for the renegades, but with no success. Finally, the Confederacy sent Major Amos McLemore, a native of Jones County, to capture Knight.
McLemore knew the swamps nearly as well as Knight and was determined to bring him in. He and his men ransacked the woods, getting dangerously close to Knight’s hideout. Knight realized that something had to be done…. McLemore had to be killed.
McLemore had made his headquarters in the home of Amos Deason, loyal Confederates. Knight decided to go to the Deason home to kill McLemore. One wet, rainy afternoon in September, after McLemore had returned to the house, Knight threw open the door. He found McLemore standing in front of the fireplace and he shot him point-blank. McLemore gasped “I’m killed!” as he fell to the floor in a pool of spreading blood. McLemore’s men chased after him, but he managed to escape back into the swamp.
McLemore’s blood seeped into the pine flooring of the Deason house and no matter how much scrubbing was done, it would never disappear. After many years of seeing the blood, descendants of the Deason’s finally covered the wooden floor with new flooring. This may have hidden the blood stain, but it did not stop the front door of the house from bursting open on the anniversary of the murder each year…. only to reveal an empty, silent porch.
In 1991, the Deason family gave the home to the local chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution. They began restoring the house and prepared to open it to the public. Several members of the DAR confessed to be uncomfortable about being in the house alone.
The Amos Deason house is located in Ellisville, seven miles southwest of Laurel. The house is located on the southern outskirts of Ellisville and until recently was a private residence.
Visit the Deason Home online at http://www.deasonhome.org | 1,118 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Jericho is a city that features in both the Old and New Testament of the Bible. Today, it is a Palestinian city on the Jordan Bank with a population of over 18,000. Believed to be one of the oldest inhabited cities in the world, it is also the first known city to have had a protective wall built around it. So far, archaeologists have found evidence of settlements dating back to 9000 BC.
The last Ice Age ended in around 9600 BC and it was shortly after that when humans began to settle in the areas around the Jordan River. Remains of constructions built by these Epipaleolithic people have been unearthed, suggesting there were at least seventy houses. These buildings were built from clay and straw, therefore, little else can be determined other than they were quite small, probably containing only one room.
The Wall of Jericho was constructed around 8000 BC. It was roughly 12 feet high and 2 feet wide with a tower that was 22 steps high. Whilst the tower may have been used for ceremonial purposes, the function of the wall was likely to keep out the floodwaters from the Jordan. By 7000 BC, new houses were being constructed from mud bricks, each consisting of several rooms and a courtyard.
Not much is known about the comings and goings of people during the Bronze Age, however, from the 4th millennium, there is evidence the walls were rebuilt several times. By 2600 BC, Jericho was inhabited by the Amorites, although they seem to disappear around 300 years later. Jericho was taken over in 1900 BC by the Canaanites until an earthquake destroyed the city in 1573 BC. It remained uninhabited until the 9th century BC when it was rebuilt.
In the Book of Numbers, Jericho is used as a reference for the location of the Israelites. For example, “They left the mountains of Abarim and camped on the plains of Moab by the Jordan across from Jericho.” (Numbers 33:48) It is estimated Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt in 1447 BC, therefore Jericho was uninhabited at this time but may have still been known by the people in the vicinity. Alternatively, since the final form of the Book of Numbers was written in the 5th century, the name may have been added then.
The most famous account of Jericho in the Bible is, of course, in the Book of Joshua, which tells us of the Battle of Jericho. Unfortunately, scholars believe the book holds little historical value since there are issues with the dates. The Bible dates the battle as taking place around 1400 BC, however, archaeological evidence suggests the city was uninhabited at the time. The Book of Joshua was first written during the reign of King Josiah (640-609 BC) and revised in around 538 BC, therefore, the dating could be an estimate, an incorrect one at that.
Nevertheless, the Book of Joshua provides a great example of Israel’s obedience to the teachings and the laws set down in the book of Deuteronomy. It also tells us that the Israelites conquered Jericho, a city that had fallen into sin.
“Joshua son of Nun secretly sent two spies from Shittim. ‘Go, look over the land,’ he said, ‘especially Jericho.’ So they went and entered the house of a prostitute named Rahab and stayed there.” (Joshua 2:1) Jericho was the first city of Canaan that the Israelites had decided to conquer. By sending in two spies, Joshua discovered the inhabitants were afraid of the Israelites and God. The prostitute Rahab told them:
“I know that the Lord has given you this land and that a great fear of you has fallen on us, so that all who live in this country are melting in fear because of you. We have heard how the Lord dried up the water of the Red Sea for you when you came out of Egypt, and what you did to Sihon and Og, the two kings of the Amorites east of the Jordan, whom you completely destroyed.When we heard of it, our hearts melted in fear and everyone’s courage failed because of you, for the Lord your God is God in heaven above and on the earth below.” (Joshua 2:9-11)
Following this, she asked the spies to promise that the Lord would show kindness to her for helping the spies. “Give me a sure sign that you will spare the lives of my father and mother, my brothers and sisters, and all who belong to them—and that you will save us from death.” (Joshua 2:12-13) With an instruction to tie a scarlet cord in her window so that she and her family could be identified by the Israelites, the spies returned to Joshua.
Acting on the will of the Lord, Joshua prepared the Israelites to attack the city. When the time came to attack the city, they found the gates closed and the citizens hiding in fear of the approaching attackers. “Then the Lord said to Joshua, ‘See, I have delivered Jericho into your hands, along with its king and its fighting men.’” (Joshua 6:2)
Rather than attempting to force an entry, the Israelites marched around the city walls once a day for six days with the priests carrying the Ark of the Covenant. On the seventh day, they were instructed to march around the city seven times after which the priests blew their horns and the walls of Jericho came tumbling down. Following God’s instruction, the Israelites entered the city and slaughtered every man, woman, child and animal apart from those belonging to the family of Rahab. Joshua then cursed anybody who rebuilt the foundations of the city with the death of the eldest and youngest children. According to the Bible, the city was rebuilt during the reign of King Ahab (871-852 BC), although not by him but by Hiel theBethelite. “In Ahab’s time, Hiel of Bethel rebuilt Jericho. He laid its foundations at the cost of his firstborn son Abiram, and he set up its gates at the cost of his youngest son Segub, in accordance with the word of the Lord spoken by Joshua son of Nun.” (1 Kings 16:34)
Jericho was destroyed once again during the 6th century BC by the Babylonians during their conquest of Judah. The Book of Ezra records the number of people “whom Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon had taken captive to Babylon.” (Ezra 2:1) From Jericho alone, there were 345. The Bible, however, provides evidence the city of Jericho was once again flourishing during the 5thcentury BC. It had been rebuilt during the Persian period and during the construction of the walls of Jerusalem, “the men of Jericho built the adjoining section” after the Tower of Hananel.
Alexander the Great captured the region between 336 and 323 BC, making Jericho his private estate. Following this, the city became part of the Hasmonean and Early Roman empires during which time Mark Antony gifted the royal estate to Cleopatra. Following their joint suicide in 30 BC, the city of Jericho was given to Herod the Great (74-4 BC), who was king of Judea at the time of Jesus’ birth. His son Herod Archelaus who ruled for two years succeeded him.
The city of Jericho is mentioned in three of the Gospels as places Jesus passed through. Matthew 20 tells us “as Jesus and his disciples were leaving Jericho” (20:29) two blind men called out to Jesus and asked him to restore their sight, which he did. Mark 10 records Jesus “came to Jericho” where he met “a blind man, Bartimaeus (which means ‘son of Timaeus’)” who he also healed. (10:46) The same story is told in Luke chapter 18.
In Luke 19, Jesus was passing through Jericho once again when he came across a chief tax collector named Zaccheus who had climbed a sycamore-fig tree to get a look at Jesus. Inviting himself to the tax collector’s house, Jesus inspired Zaccheus to repent of his dishonest practices.
Jericho was also mentioned in the parable of the Good Samaritan. “A man was going down from Jerusalem to Jericho, when he was attacked by robbers.” (10:30)
The city of Jericho began to decline from 70 AD following the fall of Jerusalem to Emperor Vespasian. By 100 AD, it was a small Roman town and by 333 AD it was abandoned altogether. The current city of Jericho lies slightly to the east of the old town and was built during the Byzantine Period (6th– 7th century AD). It was then under Muslim rule until the Crusades when a couple of monasteries were erected, one of which was dedicated to John the Baptist. In 1187, however, the Muslim forces of Saladin evicted the Crusaders. Since then until the 1900s, the growing city was mostly Muslim.
According to a census in 1922, the population of Jericho was over 3000, the majority of which were Muslim, however, there were also 92 Christians and 6 Jews. During the Second World War, Britain built fortresses in Jericho and by 1945 the population of Christians and Jews had risen to 260 and 170 respectively.
During the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, Jericho was under the control of Jordan, however, the city continued to grow. By 1961, the population had reached 10,000. Since the Six-Day War of 1967, Jericho has belonged to Israel.
Jericho is situated 846 feet below sea level, making it the lowest city in the world. In 2010, Palestinian tourists ranked Jericho the most popular tourist destination due to its proximity to the Dead Sea. It also receives a lot of tourism from Christian pilgrims. Just for fun, here is a list of notable places in and around Jericho you could visit:
· Mount of Temptation on which a Greek Orthodox monastery sits
· The Spring of Elisha (Ein es-Sultan)
· The Sycamore tree of Zaccheus (for some reason there are two)
· The traditional site of the baptism of Jesus on the River Jordan
· The Monastery of Saint Gerasimos
· The Saint George Monastery
· The Stone, belonging to the Bronze and Iron Age
We are happy for you to use any material found here, however, please acknowledge the source: www.gantshillurc.co.uk
Rev'd Martin Wheadon | <urn:uuid:06d5a711-ee76-473d-84ba-f9b836b626ee> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.gantshillurc.co.uk/ministers-blog/jericho-towns-and-cities-in-the-bible | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00283.warc.gz | en | 0.981557 | 2,211 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.01723012700... | 12 | Jericho is a city that features in both the Old and New Testament of the Bible. Today, it is a Palestinian city on the Jordan Bank with a population of over 18,000. Believed to be one of the oldest inhabited cities in the world, it is also the first known city to have had a protective wall built around it. So far, archaeologists have found evidence of settlements dating back to 9000 BC.
The last Ice Age ended in around 9600 BC and it was shortly after that when humans began to settle in the areas around the Jordan River. Remains of constructions built by these Epipaleolithic people have been unearthed, suggesting there were at least seventy houses. These buildings were built from clay and straw, therefore, little else can be determined other than they were quite small, probably containing only one room.
The Wall of Jericho was constructed around 8000 BC. It was roughly 12 feet high and 2 feet wide with a tower that was 22 steps high. Whilst the tower may have been used for ceremonial purposes, the function of the wall was likely to keep out the floodwaters from the Jordan. By 7000 BC, new houses were being constructed from mud bricks, each consisting of several rooms and a courtyard.
Not much is known about the comings and goings of people during the Bronze Age, however, from the 4th millennium, there is evidence the walls were rebuilt several times. By 2600 BC, Jericho was inhabited by the Amorites, although they seem to disappear around 300 years later. Jericho was taken over in 1900 BC by the Canaanites until an earthquake destroyed the city in 1573 BC. It remained uninhabited until the 9th century BC when it was rebuilt.
In the Book of Numbers, Jericho is used as a reference for the location of the Israelites. For example, “They left the mountains of Abarim and camped on the plains of Moab by the Jordan across from Jericho.” (Numbers 33:48) It is estimated Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt in 1447 BC, therefore Jericho was uninhabited at this time but may have still been known by the people in the vicinity. Alternatively, since the final form of the Book of Numbers was written in the 5th century, the name may have been added then.
The most famous account of Jericho in the Bible is, of course, in the Book of Joshua, which tells us of the Battle of Jericho. Unfortunately, scholars believe the book holds little historical value since there are issues with the dates. The Bible dates the battle as taking place around 1400 BC, however, archaeological evidence suggests the city was uninhabited at the time. The Book of Joshua was first written during the reign of King Josiah (640-609 BC) and revised in around 538 BC, therefore, the dating could be an estimate, an incorrect one at that.
Nevertheless, the Book of Joshua provides a great example of Israel’s obedience to the teachings and the laws set down in the book of Deuteronomy. It also tells us that the Israelites conquered Jericho, a city that had fallen into sin.
“Joshua son of Nun secretly sent two spies from Shittim. ‘Go, look over the land,’ he said, ‘especially Jericho.’ So they went and entered the house of a prostitute named Rahab and stayed there.” (Joshua 2:1) Jericho was the first city of Canaan that the Israelites had decided to conquer. By sending in two spies, Joshua discovered the inhabitants were afraid of the Israelites and God. The prostitute Rahab told them:
“I know that the Lord has given you this land and that a great fear of you has fallen on us, so that all who live in this country are melting in fear because of you. We have heard how the Lord dried up the water of the Red Sea for you when you came out of Egypt, and what you did to Sihon and Og, the two kings of the Amorites east of the Jordan, whom you completely destroyed.When we heard of it, our hearts melted in fear and everyone’s courage failed because of you, for the Lord your God is God in heaven above and on the earth below.” (Joshua 2:9-11)
Following this, she asked the spies to promise that the Lord would show kindness to her for helping the spies. “Give me a sure sign that you will spare the lives of my father and mother, my brothers and sisters, and all who belong to them—and that you will save us from death.” (Joshua 2:12-13) With an instruction to tie a scarlet cord in her window so that she and her family could be identified by the Israelites, the spies returned to Joshua.
Acting on the will of the Lord, Joshua prepared the Israelites to attack the city. When the time came to attack the city, they found the gates closed and the citizens hiding in fear of the approaching attackers. “Then the Lord said to Joshua, ‘See, I have delivered Jericho into your hands, along with its king and its fighting men.’” (Joshua 6:2)
Rather than attempting to force an entry, the Israelites marched around the city walls once a day for six days with the priests carrying the Ark of the Covenant. On the seventh day, they were instructed to march around the city seven times after which the priests blew their horns and the walls of Jericho came tumbling down. Following God’s instruction, the Israelites entered the city and slaughtered every man, woman, child and animal apart from those belonging to the family of Rahab. Joshua then cursed anybody who rebuilt the foundations of the city with the death of the eldest and youngest children. According to the Bible, the city was rebuilt during the reign of King Ahab (871-852 BC), although not by him but by Hiel theBethelite. “In Ahab’s time, Hiel of Bethel rebuilt Jericho. He laid its foundations at the cost of his firstborn son Abiram, and he set up its gates at the cost of his youngest son Segub, in accordance with the word of the Lord spoken by Joshua son of Nun.” (1 Kings 16:34)
Jericho was destroyed once again during the 6th century BC by the Babylonians during their conquest of Judah. The Book of Ezra records the number of people “whom Nebuchadnezzar king of Babylon had taken captive to Babylon.” (Ezra 2:1) From Jericho alone, there were 345. The Bible, however, provides evidence the city of Jericho was once again flourishing during the 5thcentury BC. It had been rebuilt during the Persian period and during the construction of the walls of Jerusalem, “the men of Jericho built the adjoining section” after the Tower of Hananel.
Alexander the Great captured the region between 336 and 323 BC, making Jericho his private estate. Following this, the city became part of the Hasmonean and Early Roman empires during which time Mark Antony gifted the royal estate to Cleopatra. Following their joint suicide in 30 BC, the city of Jericho was given to Herod the Great (74-4 BC), who was king of Judea at the time of Jesus’ birth. His son Herod Archelaus who ruled for two years succeeded him.
The city of Jericho is mentioned in three of the Gospels as places Jesus passed through. Matthew 20 tells us “as Jesus and his disciples were leaving Jericho” (20:29) two blind men called out to Jesus and asked him to restore their sight, which he did. Mark 10 records Jesus “came to Jericho” where he met “a blind man, Bartimaeus (which means ‘son of Timaeus’)” who he also healed. (10:46) The same story is told in Luke chapter 18.
In Luke 19, Jesus was passing through Jericho once again when he came across a chief tax collector named Zaccheus who had climbed a sycamore-fig tree to get a look at Jesus. Inviting himself to the tax collector’s house, Jesus inspired Zaccheus to repent of his dishonest practices.
Jericho was also mentioned in the parable of the Good Samaritan. “A man was going down from Jerusalem to Jericho, when he was attacked by robbers.” (10:30)
The city of Jericho began to decline from 70 AD following the fall of Jerusalem to Emperor Vespasian. By 100 AD, it was a small Roman town and by 333 AD it was abandoned altogether. The current city of Jericho lies slightly to the east of the old town and was built during the Byzantine Period (6th– 7th century AD). It was then under Muslim rule until the Crusades when a couple of monasteries were erected, one of which was dedicated to John the Baptist. In 1187, however, the Muslim forces of Saladin evicted the Crusaders. Since then until the 1900s, the growing city was mostly Muslim.
According to a census in 1922, the population of Jericho was over 3000, the majority of which were Muslim, however, there were also 92 Christians and 6 Jews. During the Second World War, Britain built fortresses in Jericho and by 1945 the population of Christians and Jews had risen to 260 and 170 respectively.
During the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, Jericho was under the control of Jordan, however, the city continued to grow. By 1961, the population had reached 10,000. Since the Six-Day War of 1967, Jericho has belonged to Israel.
Jericho is situated 846 feet below sea level, making it the lowest city in the world. In 2010, Palestinian tourists ranked Jericho the most popular tourist destination due to its proximity to the Dead Sea. It also receives a lot of tourism from Christian pilgrims. Just for fun, here is a list of notable places in and around Jericho you could visit:
· Mount of Temptation on which a Greek Orthodox monastery sits
· The Spring of Elisha (Ein es-Sultan)
· The Sycamore tree of Zaccheus (for some reason there are two)
· The traditional site of the baptism of Jesus on the River Jordan
· The Monastery of Saint Gerasimos
· The Saint George Monastery
· The Stone, belonging to the Bronze and Iron Age
We are happy for you to use any material found here, however, please acknowledge the source: www.gantshillurc.co.uk
Rev'd Martin Wheadon | 2,331 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Lucius Annaeus Seneca (Seneca the Younger)
Lucius Annaeus Seneca, the younger (4 BC - 65 AD) was a Roman philosopher, dramatist, and statesman of the highest order. His father, Seneca the Elder, also wrote on subjects including criminal and civil law.
After studying rhetoric and philosophy he became famous as an orator, and served as a full member of the Senate. He was exiled by Claudius due to relations with his niece Julia, but was recalled within a decade.
He was the tutor of the young future emperor Nero who, upon his accession, virtually ruled the empire along with Afranius Burrus. The emergence of Nero's wife Poppeia changed the court arrangements, and it wasn't long before Seneca was the subject of imperial scorn.
Despite attempts to retire to private life and focus on his writing, accusations of conspiracy forced the brilliant statesman to commit suicide in 65 AD.
Did you know...
Seneca's plays had a profound influence on the development of the tragic form in later times, particularly in the age of Shakespeare. | <urn:uuid:15917e35-e67b-4ab9-9f6d-b85f3f4ae99d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.unrv.com/culture/seneca.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00218.warc.gz | en | 0.986093 | 229 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.3197596967220306... | 7 | Lucius Annaeus Seneca (Seneca the Younger)
Lucius Annaeus Seneca, the younger (4 BC - 65 AD) was a Roman philosopher, dramatist, and statesman of the highest order. His father, Seneca the Elder, also wrote on subjects including criminal and civil law.
After studying rhetoric and philosophy he became famous as an orator, and served as a full member of the Senate. He was exiled by Claudius due to relations with his niece Julia, but was recalled within a decade.
He was the tutor of the young future emperor Nero who, upon his accession, virtually ruled the empire along with Afranius Burrus. The emergence of Nero's wife Poppeia changed the court arrangements, and it wasn't long before Seneca was the subject of imperial scorn.
Despite attempts to retire to private life and focus on his writing, accusations of conspiracy forced the brilliant statesman to commit suicide in 65 AD.
Did you know...
Seneca's plays had a profound influence on the development of the tragic form in later times, particularly in the age of Shakespeare. | 228 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In September 1983, the vital statistics office of the City of Hartford, Connecticut received a letter from a researcher, inquiring about Hosea Easton, a former resident who had gained worldwide acclaim as a musician and actor. Helen Armstead Johnson wanted more information on this African American musician, who was supposed to have been born in 1854 in the city.
Johnson had traveled around the world collecting history on African American stage performers. It was on a trip to Australia that she learned about Easton and his celebrated status in that country and the Pacific Rim.
The Hartford government records office replied that it could not find any such person.
In fact, Hosea Easton was the son of a well-respected citizen, and the grandson of the well-known intellectual, abolitionist, and author Reverend Hosea Easton, the original pastor of Hartford’s first Black Church.
Reverend Hosea Easton (September 1, 1798 – July 6, 1837) Intellectual and Activist
The Eastons were one of New England’s most notable 19th century African American families. Their lineage can be traced back to the 1690s. They took their surname from Nicholas Easton, a slaveholder and a founder of Newport, Rhode Island, and were emancipated by his relatives who were active in the Quaker faith. Caesar Easton became a landowner who fought off a series of challenges by white men attempting to claim the property as their own. His son James Easton moved the family to Eastern Massachusetts, and was active in the early movement for Black freedom.
After their emancipation, the Eastons migrated to North Bridgewater (now Brockton) near a Wampanoag village in Massachusetts. James and Sarah Dunbar Easton were the parents of seven children, including Hosea Easton who was born in Middleborough on September 1, 1798.
James, a veteran of the American Revolutionary War, possessed Native American heritage, He was a blacksmith and ironworker who sold industrial iron to big Boston construction projects. He opened an academic and trade school for black youth, which Hosea attended in 1816. Hosea married in the 1820’s to Louisa Matrick, became a minister and an effective abolitionist agitator.
Hosea learned courage and activism when he was only thirteen years old. The Congregational church the Easton family attended built a “Negro porch,” as it was called, in the back of the church. All Black members of the congregation were to required to sit there during services. James and Sarah Easton refused. The family continued to sit on the main floor of the church until they were physically removed.
At another [Baptist] church, James Easton purchased a pew for his family from a sympathetic white member. The Eastons continued to occupy the pew against the wishes of church officials and members. Thefamily came one Sunday to find that the pew had been painted with tar. The undaunted James Easton, his wife, Sarah, and their seven children responded by returning the following Sunday with their own chairs. This conflict continued until the Eastons were completely barred from the church.
This struggle went on for 40 years. After James’ death, Hosea’s mother Sarah was kicked out of her church in 1832 for wiring a “very unbecoming letter” to the Elders at the East Stoughton Baptist Church in protest of her family’s treatment.
As a child, the Reverend Hosea Easton engaged in at least five acts of civil disobedience, from age 1 until he was a teenager. He and his family were the first. African Americans known to have engaged in sit-ins for racial justice.
Reverend Hosea really came to public attention in 1828 at the age of 30 with a Thanksgiving Day Address in Providence RI attacking racism and slavery.
It was a frank, explicit, and angry condemnation of the brutalities of slavery, mixed with the call for spiritual uplift of black people. In this sermon he also criticized the African Colonization Society, which was a “diabolical pursuit… where they will steal the sons of Africa… bring them to America, keep them in bondage for centuries.. Then transport them back to Africa by which means America gets all her drudgery done at little expense.”
Rev. Easton continued to write about slavery and broader questions of racism; his major work was “A treatise on the intellectual character, and civil and political condition, of the colored people of the United States and the prejudice exercised towards them,” published in March, 1837 [see article below].
In 1833 Easton moved from Massachusetts to Hartford with Louisa and their son Samson. He became the first pastor of Talcott Street Congregational Church. Beginning on June 8, 1835 for a three-day period, white crowds harassed and beat African Americans on Front and Talcott Street and destroyed a number of Black dwellings. In 1836 the Colored Methodist Episcopal Church (Hartford’s second Black church) was burned down. One apparent cause of this attack was a Black men’s suffrage meeting near Talcott, led by James Mars, a church deacon and former enslaved man born in Connecticut.
Two months later in October, 1835 a broadside was printed and distributed throughout Hartford condemning abolition, blasting anti-slavery forces for all the country’s woes, upholding free commerce with slaveholders, and promoting “states’ rights,” the coded term meant to obscure the racism of slavery and its apologists.
During the preceding years, racist violence had dramatically increased across the North; there had been deadly riots in Cincinnati, Boston, New York, and Pittsburgh.
In 1837, shortly before his premature death, Rev. Easton described the effect of slavery, which “renders whites a compound of all evil of all the corrupt passions of the heart…a participant in all the purposes of the wicked one… the very essence of hell.” Only immediate abolition could save the souls of save apologists, Easton declared.
Rev. Hosea Easton died prematurely on July 6 1837, at 38 years of age. (His father died at age 76 and his mother at 73.) His cause of death is not known. Yet he might have written his own terminal diagnosis in the Treatise:
“The effect of these discouragements are every where manifest among the colored people. I will venture to say, from my own experience and observation, that hundreds of them come to an untimely grave, by no other disease than…oppression.”
Samson Easton (1829 – ?) A Courageous and Honorable Life
Samson Easton was the son of Hosea and Louise, born in 1829, who moved to Hartford with them. He was named after his great-grandfather (on his mother’s side), Samson Dunbar of Massachusetts who died in 1804 at 83 years of age.
Samson was not a famous man, unlike his father and other relatives (or, indeed, his own son). But there are three incidents that show the same courage and anti-slavery politics that he learned from his parents.
In 1860 census, Samson (age 30) and his wife Louisa (31) lived with their three children: Hosea (11), Ellen (7), and Caroline (5). At the same location, five boarders, all male aged 3 to 49, also lived.
In 1858 Sam Easton attempted to save “Aunt Mary” Robinson, a longtime friend, from being killed by her husband Ben. They and others were at a small party at the Robinsons’ apartment, playing music and dancing. Ben Robinson was drunk and abusive toward his wife, angered that she was dancing with Samson. ( Mary and Samson had known each other since childhood, and had attended school at Rev. Hosea Easton’s church.) By all accounts, Samson tried to peacefully de-escalate the situation, even after Ben assaulted him. Samson and friends started to leave, when Ben Robinson stabbed Mary Robinson many times. Samson put himself in the middle of the attack and was also wounded. Mary Robinson died; Ben Robinson was sent to prison.
Samson Easton was an entrepreneur. He was listed as a livery driver and a hack driver during 1858 and 1859. He also owned the Easton Academy of Music on Commerce Street in 1860, where he crafted, repaired and played banjos, fiddles, and possibly other musical instruments. That may have been where his dance hall was also located.
Two years later, in April, 1861, a Mrs. Thomas Flaherty attempted to commit suicide by jumping off railroad bridge into the Connecticut River. Samson jumped in the cold river and rescued her with some difficulty. He brought her to shore, and she rewarded him with a slap in the face. I could find no evidence that the two knew each other. This was likely a spur of the moment decision on Samson’s part. It shows his character, and his personal courage.
Maybe the moment for which Sam Easton should be remembered occurred on December 2, 1859. A dance was being on State House square, sponsored by Engine No. 5 of the Hartford Fire Department. At about 2:00 AM on Saturday morning, some of the dancers saw a light emanating from the cupola of the State House. They called on police officer Waters, who climbed to the belfry and apprehended Samson Easton, “a colored citizen of this city,” and his white companion from New Haven, Charles Boyle.
But Easton and Boyle had completed their objective, “draping the figure of Justice upon the cupola with sable fabric, in view of the execution that was to take place in Charlottesville Virginia during the day.” The condemned man was Connecticut-born John Brown, the white abolitionist who electrified the nation with his October raid on the government arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia. Brown visited Hartford in 1857, where he asked the crowd to financially support his cause. There is no way to know for sure that Samson heard Brown speak, but the abolitionist’s words most likely influenced the 28-year old Hartford man.
The pro-slavery Democrats of the time insisted Samson had been hired by a Republican to perform the symbolic action, but Easton denied it. Here is where we find the only example of his writing, when he sent a note to the daily newspapers rejecting the idea that he had been put up to the draping of Madame Justice.
Easton and Boyle spent the night in the Hartford jail while authorities tried to figure out how to charge them. It was decided that the two ”could be charged with neither insurrection nor resurrection,” and were released at noon, less than an hour after John Brown was hanged.
Hosea Easton ( March 6, 1849- 1899) Stage Actor, Musical Virtuoso, Prince of the Banjoists
Arguably the most well-known of the Eastons is Samson’s son (and Rev. Easton’s namesake) Hosea Easton. Born to 20 year old Louisa Easton in 1849, he had three siblings. Young Hosea did not seem to get off to a good start. He was a wild child who was arrested for disturbing the peace with his friends, and even briefly implicated his father in one of his capers when he brought stolen hams home.
At some point in time, he must have picked up one of the banjos his father Samson made, and he was good at it. Really good. Minstrel shows and other variety acts frequently visited at the Roberts Opera House and Allyn Hall, both venues were a short walk from his neighborhood. It’s hard to know for sure if young Hosea saw any of these performances, but it seems likely.
The Georgia Minstrels were frequent performers in Hartford. They featured, among others, “Dick Little, the greatest banjoist living.” Who knows what Hosea Easton, then 16 years old, thought of this act?
In 1866 the Georgia Minstrels advertised “No Burnt Cork Here” in their ads, boasting that they had replaced the white performers who sang and played in blackface since the 1830s. The white blackface acts perpetuated the offensive stereotype that deliberately corrupted the public image of African Americans among Hartford’s white citizens. Unfortunately, the troupe’s owner also advertised the musicians as “the great slave troupe,” although most, if not all, of the performers were freedmen and women.
By 1875, the Georgia Minstrels were endorsed by none other than the abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison, who according to an advertisement was quoted as saying: “No imputation can be brought against them of presenting anything offensive to the eye or ear.” And the next year, the Georgia troupe was boasting that they were “commended by Wm. Lloyd Garrison, Oliver Wendell Holmes, PT Barnum, etc.”
Minstrelsy is, of course, historically weighted with negative baggage, and rightly so. This popular form of entertainment arose in part from the fascination white people had with the African American experience. Blackface minstrel shows featured white men in grotesque makeup, singing and dancing with an exaggerated parody of Black performers (in fact, some white audiences had never even seen Black musicians or actors). The effect only enhanced white racism and widened the gulf between the races.
Yet the musical genre fostered authentic Jubilee music (spirituals), ragtime, and ultimately jazz, all of which entered into the wider the wider public culture. And while Black minstrels played into the images of white audiences, they also subverted those images. As Amiri Baraka wrote “in one sense the colored minstrel was poking fun at himself, and in another probably more profound sense he was poking fun at the white men.”
Nowhere was this paradox more apparent than the travelling minstrel shows that sought out venues beyond the United States.
By the time he was 27 years old, Hosea Easton left Hartford and arrived at Hobart, Australia as a member of the Georgia Minstrels, a troupe still at the height of their popularity along the Pacific circuit, especially in Australia, New Zealand, and China. He was singled out by a Sydney Mail reviewer who wrote that “he draws considerably on theology and temperance for his witticisms.”
Hosea also performed with groups such as the Mastodon Minstrels in Hong Kong. The various American shows were popular, but for a variety of reasons (mostly the performers not getting paid, competition between troupes who took the same names, and outright racism of owners and promoters), there was little stability and frequent turnover.
He was lucky to hook up with C.B. Hicks, the African American impresario and leader of the “Original Georgia Minstrels.” Hicks was described as possessing a capable management style and engaged in “combative efforts to maintain independence from the white theatrical establishment.”
Quickly, Hosea became an audience favorite who entertained with “clever banjo solos riffed on popular airs” which “earned frequent encores.” Crowds were huge, and special trains were scheduled to bring in fans into cities from the outlying countryside.
At the beginning of every performance, Hicks addressed the audience and focused the show’s narrative. He spoke of the African American fight for freedom, and talked about the Georgia troupe’s history. Most of the time this was welcomed. But occasionally a newspaper critic would complain that the public had not paid admission “to sympathize with their condition.”
In mid-1878 Hicks teamed up with a dramatic company and performed the internationally acclaimed Uncle Tom’s Cabin. Hosea Easton played the title role, becoming the first African American to play Tom in the Southern hemisphere. It ran for 12 weeks to sold out audiences in Melbourne. Hosea expanded to other roles, including in a theatrical performance in Robinson Crusoe. He eventually formed his own ensemble, the Easton Uncle Tom Company, which toured with other racially integrated dramatic and musical acts.
Easton spent the rest of his life in Australia, an extraordinarily beloved figure, until his death in 1899. When he was hospitalized, other performers staged a benefit concert to help pay his medical costs. When Hosea Easton died of cancer, his large funeral became a parade of fans and other musicians who marched with his casket down the street to the cemetery.
Virtually unknown in his own country, Hosea Easton became a legend on the other side of the world.
“One Blood:” Hosea Easton’s Treatise
Rev. Hosea Easton’s 1837 book was based on a life-long experience with racism and the struggle for true equality for all Black people.
Daguerreotypist and Talcott Church activist Augustus Washington, who taught at the church school, was also passionate about emancipation. But unlike Easton, Washington dreamed of a Black nation, either in the western territory beyond the United States, or ultimately in Liberia:
“[S]even years ago, while a student, I advocated the plan of a separate state for colored Americans-not as a choice, but as a necessity, believing it would be better for our manhood and intellect to be freemen by ourselves than political slaves with our oppressors. I enlisted at once the aid of a few colored young men, of superior talent and ability; and we were earnestly taking measures to negotiate for a tract of land in Mexico, when the war and its consequences blasted our hopes, and drove us from our purpose.”
“I have been looking in vain for some home for Afric-Americans more congenial to their feelings and prejudice than Liberia. The Canadas, the West Indies, Mexico, British Guiana and other parts of South America have all been brought under review.”
Hosea Easton was not a separatist: he was clearly a self-identified republican. His relatives, including his father, James, had fought side by side with white soldiers during the American Revolution (unlike some enslaved Black men who were enticed by the British with emancipation after the war). His family had married into Native American families and white families alike. Easton argued that the United States belonged as much to his people as anyone else’s. Whatever differences existed between races were “casual or accidental,” he declared.
“Prejudice” was the word he used to describe systemic racism, a term which had not yet been popularized. The Revolution had freed Americans from British law, Easton reasoned. British law was the legal basis of slavery. The Declaration of Independence and other founding documents never explicitly denied the rights of Blacks; therefore the sons and daughters of Africa were included, as were all other immigrants, under the protection of this new democracy. Black people were “Americans by birth, genius, habits, language, etc. ” Easton wrote. In his Treatise, Rev. Easton anticipated a new Fugitive Slave law, which was still thirteen years away from Congressional approval.
Easton’s chronology of African and European history condemned white colonizers’ “unholy war with the Indians, and the wicked crusade against peace in Mexico.” In his view, European barbarians and imperialists were far inferior to the civilizations of “Egypt, Ethiopia, and Carthage.” “No pre-Civil war writer refuted the scientific claims of innate African inferiority more forcefully or intelligently than Easton did,” according to his biographer.
While some of his “racial science” is muddled— he ascribes some Black physical features as ‘deformities” caused by slavery—Easton’s fundamental point is that race was a construct. All humankind is “ONE BLOOD;” All humans bleed the same color. Easton argued that outward appearance “cannot be an efficient cause of malignant prejudice of the whites against the blacks; it is an imaginary cause at the most.”
Easton analyzed and exposed the English language as a primary tool that reinforced racism and thereby slavery. The more that white people used racial slurs to describe alleged physical and intellectual attributes to Black people, and the more young whites heard these insults, the stronger the racist system became. Through constant repetition of belittling phrases (eg. ni**er lips), and use of adjectives in everyday language (ignorant as a –, poor as a –, etc.) the more common usage was widespread.
This evil practice was something with which Reverend Easton was all too familiar. He noted that racist words were expressed not only by white children, but “sometimes professors of religion as well.” One term on his list, the ”n**ger priest,” was surely thrown at him as an epithet. We know that the Eastons of Massachusetts, and Hartford’s African American congregants as well, fought the official segregation of white churches which designated what we call today the “negro pew.” But this is today’s euphemism for the real term of the time: the “n**ger pew.”
The work of his father James is described in the Treatise, although Easton does not give him credit by name. Hosea describes the factory and school built by James Easton, costing “many thousand dollars,” to teach trade skills, academics, and “the strict rules of morality.” Yet sustained racism against the effort caused it to fail, which Rev. Easton described as a “hurricane,” sinking a ship “richly laden, and well manned.”
He saved his greatest anger for the white clergy and the church establishment. Few abolitionists were as frank as Easton about organized religion’s culpability. Of all the verbal attacks on pro-slavers, this criticism seemed to provoke the harshest public reaction.
Abolitionist speakers such as Stephen Symonds Foster also railed against northern clergy who did not actively oppose southern slavery. Foster was used to being thrown bodily out of church buildings, sometimes from the second floor. Foster, Abby Kelley, and Frederick Douglass spoke in Hartford in 1843 ( it was Douglass’ first visit to the city). By the time Foster began the last speech, the trio was pelted with vegetables and had to make a quick exit, taking shelter with a poor Irish family.
“The doctrine of immediate abolition,” Easton wrote, “embraces the idea of an entire reversal of the system of slavery. The work of emancipation is not complete when it only cuts off some of the most prominent limbs of slavery, such as destroying the despotic power of the master.” This simply “leaves the poor man who is half dead … without proscribing any healing remedy for the bruises and wounds.”
“Emancipation embraces the idea that the emancipated must be placed back where slavery found them, and restore to them all that slavery has taken away from them. Merely to cease beating the colored people, and leave them in their gore and call it emancipation, is nonsense. Nothing short of the entire reversal of the slave system in theory and practice—in general and in particular— will ever accomplish the work of redeeming the colored people of this country from their present condition.” [Since Easton did not believe in colonization efforts, placing enslaved people “back where slavery found them” certainly referred to their condition, not their location.]
Hosea Easton expected to publish a new volume of work immediately after the Treatise on “Civil, Social, and Moral Economy.” Four months after publication of his signature work, he died. The next book never came. | <urn:uuid:b615e4d1-b0c3-495f-bf54-6307679ddf4d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://shoeleatherhistoryproject.com/2019/11/13/the-eastons-hartfords-first-family/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00286.warc.gz | en | 0.982202 | 5,056 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.144242659211... | 3 | In September 1983, the vital statistics office of the City of Hartford, Connecticut received a letter from a researcher, inquiring about Hosea Easton, a former resident who had gained worldwide acclaim as a musician and actor. Helen Armstead Johnson wanted more information on this African American musician, who was supposed to have been born in 1854 in the city.
Johnson had traveled around the world collecting history on African American stage performers. It was on a trip to Australia that she learned about Easton and his celebrated status in that country and the Pacific Rim.
The Hartford government records office replied that it could not find any such person.
In fact, Hosea Easton was the son of a well-respected citizen, and the grandson of the well-known intellectual, abolitionist, and author Reverend Hosea Easton, the original pastor of Hartford’s first Black Church.
Reverend Hosea Easton (September 1, 1798 – July 6, 1837) Intellectual and Activist
The Eastons were one of New England’s most notable 19th century African American families. Their lineage can be traced back to the 1690s. They took their surname from Nicholas Easton, a slaveholder and a founder of Newport, Rhode Island, and were emancipated by his relatives who were active in the Quaker faith. Caesar Easton became a landowner who fought off a series of challenges by white men attempting to claim the property as their own. His son James Easton moved the family to Eastern Massachusetts, and was active in the early movement for Black freedom.
After their emancipation, the Eastons migrated to North Bridgewater (now Brockton) near a Wampanoag village in Massachusetts. James and Sarah Dunbar Easton were the parents of seven children, including Hosea Easton who was born in Middleborough on September 1, 1798.
James, a veteran of the American Revolutionary War, possessed Native American heritage, He was a blacksmith and ironworker who sold industrial iron to big Boston construction projects. He opened an academic and trade school for black youth, which Hosea attended in 1816. Hosea married in the 1820’s to Louisa Matrick, became a minister and an effective abolitionist agitator.
Hosea learned courage and activism when he was only thirteen years old. The Congregational church the Easton family attended built a “Negro porch,” as it was called, in the back of the church. All Black members of the congregation were to required to sit there during services. James and Sarah Easton refused. The family continued to sit on the main floor of the church until they were physically removed.
At another [Baptist] church, James Easton purchased a pew for his family from a sympathetic white member. The Eastons continued to occupy the pew against the wishes of church officials and members. Thefamily came one Sunday to find that the pew had been painted with tar. The undaunted James Easton, his wife, Sarah, and their seven children responded by returning the following Sunday with their own chairs. This conflict continued until the Eastons were completely barred from the church.
This struggle went on for 40 years. After James’ death, Hosea’s mother Sarah was kicked out of her church in 1832 for wiring a “very unbecoming letter” to the Elders at the East Stoughton Baptist Church in protest of her family’s treatment.
As a child, the Reverend Hosea Easton engaged in at least five acts of civil disobedience, from age 1 until he was a teenager. He and his family were the first. African Americans known to have engaged in sit-ins for racial justice.
Reverend Hosea really came to public attention in 1828 at the age of 30 with a Thanksgiving Day Address in Providence RI attacking racism and slavery.
It was a frank, explicit, and angry condemnation of the brutalities of slavery, mixed with the call for spiritual uplift of black people. In this sermon he also criticized the African Colonization Society, which was a “diabolical pursuit… where they will steal the sons of Africa… bring them to America, keep them in bondage for centuries.. Then transport them back to Africa by which means America gets all her drudgery done at little expense.”
Rev. Easton continued to write about slavery and broader questions of racism; his major work was “A treatise on the intellectual character, and civil and political condition, of the colored people of the United States and the prejudice exercised towards them,” published in March, 1837 [see article below].
In 1833 Easton moved from Massachusetts to Hartford with Louisa and their son Samson. He became the first pastor of Talcott Street Congregational Church. Beginning on June 8, 1835 for a three-day period, white crowds harassed and beat African Americans on Front and Talcott Street and destroyed a number of Black dwellings. In 1836 the Colored Methodist Episcopal Church (Hartford’s second Black church) was burned down. One apparent cause of this attack was a Black men’s suffrage meeting near Talcott, led by James Mars, a church deacon and former enslaved man born in Connecticut.
Two months later in October, 1835 a broadside was printed and distributed throughout Hartford condemning abolition, blasting anti-slavery forces for all the country’s woes, upholding free commerce with slaveholders, and promoting “states’ rights,” the coded term meant to obscure the racism of slavery and its apologists.
During the preceding years, racist violence had dramatically increased across the North; there had been deadly riots in Cincinnati, Boston, New York, and Pittsburgh.
In 1837, shortly before his premature death, Rev. Easton described the effect of slavery, which “renders whites a compound of all evil of all the corrupt passions of the heart…a participant in all the purposes of the wicked one… the very essence of hell.” Only immediate abolition could save the souls of save apologists, Easton declared.
Rev. Hosea Easton died prematurely on July 6 1837, at 38 years of age. (His father died at age 76 and his mother at 73.) His cause of death is not known. Yet he might have written his own terminal diagnosis in the Treatise:
“The effect of these discouragements are every where manifest among the colored people. I will venture to say, from my own experience and observation, that hundreds of them come to an untimely grave, by no other disease than…oppression.”
Samson Easton (1829 – ?) A Courageous and Honorable Life
Samson Easton was the son of Hosea and Louise, born in 1829, who moved to Hartford with them. He was named after his great-grandfather (on his mother’s side), Samson Dunbar of Massachusetts who died in 1804 at 83 years of age.
Samson was not a famous man, unlike his father and other relatives (or, indeed, his own son). But there are three incidents that show the same courage and anti-slavery politics that he learned from his parents.
In 1860 census, Samson (age 30) and his wife Louisa (31) lived with their three children: Hosea (11), Ellen (7), and Caroline (5). At the same location, five boarders, all male aged 3 to 49, also lived.
In 1858 Sam Easton attempted to save “Aunt Mary” Robinson, a longtime friend, from being killed by her husband Ben. They and others were at a small party at the Robinsons’ apartment, playing music and dancing. Ben Robinson was drunk and abusive toward his wife, angered that she was dancing with Samson. ( Mary and Samson had known each other since childhood, and had attended school at Rev. Hosea Easton’s church.) By all accounts, Samson tried to peacefully de-escalate the situation, even after Ben assaulted him. Samson and friends started to leave, when Ben Robinson stabbed Mary Robinson many times. Samson put himself in the middle of the attack and was also wounded. Mary Robinson died; Ben Robinson was sent to prison.
Samson Easton was an entrepreneur. He was listed as a livery driver and a hack driver during 1858 and 1859. He also owned the Easton Academy of Music on Commerce Street in 1860, where he crafted, repaired and played banjos, fiddles, and possibly other musical instruments. That may have been where his dance hall was also located.
Two years later, in April, 1861, a Mrs. Thomas Flaherty attempted to commit suicide by jumping off railroad bridge into the Connecticut River. Samson jumped in the cold river and rescued her with some difficulty. He brought her to shore, and she rewarded him with a slap in the face. I could find no evidence that the two knew each other. This was likely a spur of the moment decision on Samson’s part. It shows his character, and his personal courage.
Maybe the moment for which Sam Easton should be remembered occurred on December 2, 1859. A dance was being on State House square, sponsored by Engine No. 5 of the Hartford Fire Department. At about 2:00 AM on Saturday morning, some of the dancers saw a light emanating from the cupola of the State House. They called on police officer Waters, who climbed to the belfry and apprehended Samson Easton, “a colored citizen of this city,” and his white companion from New Haven, Charles Boyle.
But Easton and Boyle had completed their objective, “draping the figure of Justice upon the cupola with sable fabric, in view of the execution that was to take place in Charlottesville Virginia during the day.” The condemned man was Connecticut-born John Brown, the white abolitionist who electrified the nation with his October raid on the government arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia. Brown visited Hartford in 1857, where he asked the crowd to financially support his cause. There is no way to know for sure that Samson heard Brown speak, but the abolitionist’s words most likely influenced the 28-year old Hartford man.
The pro-slavery Democrats of the time insisted Samson had been hired by a Republican to perform the symbolic action, but Easton denied it. Here is where we find the only example of his writing, when he sent a note to the daily newspapers rejecting the idea that he had been put up to the draping of Madame Justice.
Easton and Boyle spent the night in the Hartford jail while authorities tried to figure out how to charge them. It was decided that the two ”could be charged with neither insurrection nor resurrection,” and were released at noon, less than an hour after John Brown was hanged.
Hosea Easton ( March 6, 1849- 1899) Stage Actor, Musical Virtuoso, Prince of the Banjoists
Arguably the most well-known of the Eastons is Samson’s son (and Rev. Easton’s namesake) Hosea Easton. Born to 20 year old Louisa Easton in 1849, he had three siblings. Young Hosea did not seem to get off to a good start. He was a wild child who was arrested for disturbing the peace with his friends, and even briefly implicated his father in one of his capers when he brought stolen hams home.
At some point in time, he must have picked up one of the banjos his father Samson made, and he was good at it. Really good. Minstrel shows and other variety acts frequently visited at the Roberts Opera House and Allyn Hall, both venues were a short walk from his neighborhood. It’s hard to know for sure if young Hosea saw any of these performances, but it seems likely.
The Georgia Minstrels were frequent performers in Hartford. They featured, among others, “Dick Little, the greatest banjoist living.” Who knows what Hosea Easton, then 16 years old, thought of this act?
In 1866 the Georgia Minstrels advertised “No Burnt Cork Here” in their ads, boasting that they had replaced the white performers who sang and played in blackface since the 1830s. The white blackface acts perpetuated the offensive stereotype that deliberately corrupted the public image of African Americans among Hartford’s white citizens. Unfortunately, the troupe’s owner also advertised the musicians as “the great slave troupe,” although most, if not all, of the performers were freedmen and women.
By 1875, the Georgia Minstrels were endorsed by none other than the abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison, who according to an advertisement was quoted as saying: “No imputation can be brought against them of presenting anything offensive to the eye or ear.” And the next year, the Georgia troupe was boasting that they were “commended by Wm. Lloyd Garrison, Oliver Wendell Holmes, PT Barnum, etc.”
Minstrelsy is, of course, historically weighted with negative baggage, and rightly so. This popular form of entertainment arose in part from the fascination white people had with the African American experience. Blackface minstrel shows featured white men in grotesque makeup, singing and dancing with an exaggerated parody of Black performers (in fact, some white audiences had never even seen Black musicians or actors). The effect only enhanced white racism and widened the gulf between the races.
Yet the musical genre fostered authentic Jubilee music (spirituals), ragtime, and ultimately jazz, all of which entered into the wider the wider public culture. And while Black minstrels played into the images of white audiences, they also subverted those images. As Amiri Baraka wrote “in one sense the colored minstrel was poking fun at himself, and in another probably more profound sense he was poking fun at the white men.”
Nowhere was this paradox more apparent than the travelling minstrel shows that sought out venues beyond the United States.
By the time he was 27 years old, Hosea Easton left Hartford and arrived at Hobart, Australia as a member of the Georgia Minstrels, a troupe still at the height of their popularity along the Pacific circuit, especially in Australia, New Zealand, and China. He was singled out by a Sydney Mail reviewer who wrote that “he draws considerably on theology and temperance for his witticisms.”
Hosea also performed with groups such as the Mastodon Minstrels in Hong Kong. The various American shows were popular, but for a variety of reasons (mostly the performers not getting paid, competition between troupes who took the same names, and outright racism of owners and promoters), there was little stability and frequent turnover.
He was lucky to hook up with C.B. Hicks, the African American impresario and leader of the “Original Georgia Minstrels.” Hicks was described as possessing a capable management style and engaged in “combative efforts to maintain independence from the white theatrical establishment.”
Quickly, Hosea became an audience favorite who entertained with “clever banjo solos riffed on popular airs” which “earned frequent encores.” Crowds were huge, and special trains were scheduled to bring in fans into cities from the outlying countryside.
At the beginning of every performance, Hicks addressed the audience and focused the show’s narrative. He spoke of the African American fight for freedom, and talked about the Georgia troupe’s history. Most of the time this was welcomed. But occasionally a newspaper critic would complain that the public had not paid admission “to sympathize with their condition.”
In mid-1878 Hicks teamed up with a dramatic company and performed the internationally acclaimed Uncle Tom’s Cabin. Hosea Easton played the title role, becoming the first African American to play Tom in the Southern hemisphere. It ran for 12 weeks to sold out audiences in Melbourne. Hosea expanded to other roles, including in a theatrical performance in Robinson Crusoe. He eventually formed his own ensemble, the Easton Uncle Tom Company, which toured with other racially integrated dramatic and musical acts.
Easton spent the rest of his life in Australia, an extraordinarily beloved figure, until his death in 1899. When he was hospitalized, other performers staged a benefit concert to help pay his medical costs. When Hosea Easton died of cancer, his large funeral became a parade of fans and other musicians who marched with his casket down the street to the cemetery.
Virtually unknown in his own country, Hosea Easton became a legend on the other side of the world.
“One Blood:” Hosea Easton’s Treatise
Rev. Hosea Easton’s 1837 book was based on a life-long experience with racism and the struggle for true equality for all Black people.
Daguerreotypist and Talcott Church activist Augustus Washington, who taught at the church school, was also passionate about emancipation. But unlike Easton, Washington dreamed of a Black nation, either in the western territory beyond the United States, or ultimately in Liberia:
“[S]even years ago, while a student, I advocated the plan of a separate state for colored Americans-not as a choice, but as a necessity, believing it would be better for our manhood and intellect to be freemen by ourselves than political slaves with our oppressors. I enlisted at once the aid of a few colored young men, of superior talent and ability; and we were earnestly taking measures to negotiate for a tract of land in Mexico, when the war and its consequences blasted our hopes, and drove us from our purpose.”
“I have been looking in vain for some home for Afric-Americans more congenial to their feelings and prejudice than Liberia. The Canadas, the West Indies, Mexico, British Guiana and other parts of South America have all been brought under review.”
Hosea Easton was not a separatist: he was clearly a self-identified republican. His relatives, including his father, James, had fought side by side with white soldiers during the American Revolution (unlike some enslaved Black men who were enticed by the British with emancipation after the war). His family had married into Native American families and white families alike. Easton argued that the United States belonged as much to his people as anyone else’s. Whatever differences existed between races were “casual or accidental,” he declared.
“Prejudice” was the word he used to describe systemic racism, a term which had not yet been popularized. The Revolution had freed Americans from British law, Easton reasoned. British law was the legal basis of slavery. The Declaration of Independence and other founding documents never explicitly denied the rights of Blacks; therefore the sons and daughters of Africa were included, as were all other immigrants, under the protection of this new democracy. Black people were “Americans by birth, genius, habits, language, etc. ” Easton wrote. In his Treatise, Rev. Easton anticipated a new Fugitive Slave law, which was still thirteen years away from Congressional approval.
Easton’s chronology of African and European history condemned white colonizers’ “unholy war with the Indians, and the wicked crusade against peace in Mexico.” In his view, European barbarians and imperialists were far inferior to the civilizations of “Egypt, Ethiopia, and Carthage.” “No pre-Civil war writer refuted the scientific claims of innate African inferiority more forcefully or intelligently than Easton did,” according to his biographer.
While some of his “racial science” is muddled— he ascribes some Black physical features as ‘deformities” caused by slavery—Easton’s fundamental point is that race was a construct. All humankind is “ONE BLOOD;” All humans bleed the same color. Easton argued that outward appearance “cannot be an efficient cause of malignant prejudice of the whites against the blacks; it is an imaginary cause at the most.”
Easton analyzed and exposed the English language as a primary tool that reinforced racism and thereby slavery. The more that white people used racial slurs to describe alleged physical and intellectual attributes to Black people, and the more young whites heard these insults, the stronger the racist system became. Through constant repetition of belittling phrases (eg. ni**er lips), and use of adjectives in everyday language (ignorant as a –, poor as a –, etc.) the more common usage was widespread.
This evil practice was something with which Reverend Easton was all too familiar. He noted that racist words were expressed not only by white children, but “sometimes professors of religion as well.” One term on his list, the ”n**ger priest,” was surely thrown at him as an epithet. We know that the Eastons of Massachusetts, and Hartford’s African American congregants as well, fought the official segregation of white churches which designated what we call today the “negro pew.” But this is today’s euphemism for the real term of the time: the “n**ger pew.”
The work of his father James is described in the Treatise, although Easton does not give him credit by name. Hosea describes the factory and school built by James Easton, costing “many thousand dollars,” to teach trade skills, academics, and “the strict rules of morality.” Yet sustained racism against the effort caused it to fail, which Rev. Easton described as a “hurricane,” sinking a ship “richly laden, and well manned.”
He saved his greatest anger for the white clergy and the church establishment. Few abolitionists were as frank as Easton about organized religion’s culpability. Of all the verbal attacks on pro-slavers, this criticism seemed to provoke the harshest public reaction.
Abolitionist speakers such as Stephen Symonds Foster also railed against northern clergy who did not actively oppose southern slavery. Foster was used to being thrown bodily out of church buildings, sometimes from the second floor. Foster, Abby Kelley, and Frederick Douglass spoke in Hartford in 1843 ( it was Douglass’ first visit to the city). By the time Foster began the last speech, the trio was pelted with vegetables and had to make a quick exit, taking shelter with a poor Irish family.
“The doctrine of immediate abolition,” Easton wrote, “embraces the idea of an entire reversal of the system of slavery. The work of emancipation is not complete when it only cuts off some of the most prominent limbs of slavery, such as destroying the despotic power of the master.” This simply “leaves the poor man who is half dead … without proscribing any healing remedy for the bruises and wounds.”
“Emancipation embraces the idea that the emancipated must be placed back where slavery found them, and restore to them all that slavery has taken away from them. Merely to cease beating the colored people, and leave them in their gore and call it emancipation, is nonsense. Nothing short of the entire reversal of the slave system in theory and practice—in general and in particular— will ever accomplish the work of redeeming the colored people of this country from their present condition.” [Since Easton did not believe in colonization efforts, placing enslaved people “back where slavery found them” certainly referred to their condition, not their location.]
Hosea Easton expected to publish a new volume of work immediately after the Treatise on “Civil, Social, and Moral Economy.” Four months after publication of his signature work, he died. The next book never came. | 4,936 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Wikijunior:World War II/D-Day
The D-Day landings took place on June 6, 1944. It was the largest invasion by sea in history. The code name for this operation was "Overlord". The forces were sent across the English Channel from the south of England, mainly Portsmouth, to Normandy in a mighty fleet of over 8,000 ships. Normandy is located in the northwest corner of France. The overall commander of the Allied forces was the US General Dwight D. Eisenhower, who was later President Eisenhower. The land force commander was the British General Bernard Montgomery, popularly known as "Monty".
There were 156,000 men mainly from three countries, the United States, the United Kingdom and Canada. The objective was to storm the German defenses on five beaches and eventually to drive the Germans out of France, and establish a second front to attack Germany itself. The beaches were codenamed Gold, Sword, Juno, Utah and Omaha. The Canadians were to take Juno beach, the Americans, Utah and Omaha and the British, Gold and Sword.
Just before the landings, massive numbers of paratroops were landed behind the German lines to try to disrupt communications and reinforcements when the beaches were attacked. There were three famous Airborne Divisions, the US 82nd Airborne, called the "All American", the US 101st Airborne called the "Screaming Eagles" and the 6th Airborne comprising Canadian and British paratroopers.
There was also a big effort from the French people themselves called the "French Resistance" which disrupted the Germans and blew up key facilities like German troop transport trains. The resistance were told in coded messages from the BBC when the invasion would start.
Paratroopers behind German linesEdit
The success of the landings required that German reinforcement were delayed in getting to the beaches where the allied troops were coming ashore. Paratroops were placed behind German lines into order to seize key towns, roads, bridges, etc. The U.S. 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions were placed west of Utah Beach and the British 6th Airborne Division near Sword beach. The 82nd occupied the town of Sainte-Mère-Église early in the morning of June 6, giving it the claim of the first town liberated in the invasion. This was featured in the film "The Longest Day".
The five beachesEdit
The D-Day landings involved assaults on five key beaches by troops in landing crafts. The beaches and the Germans defending them were pounded by massive fire from all sorts of naval ships, including battleships. Most of the beaches were heavily fortified, and had large numbers of German troops defending them. Some had large fortifications with big guns and machine gun nests.
Sword beach was taken with relatively light losses. One of the main objectives was to capture the city Caen, but this was not achieved. The British linked up with the 6th Airborne Division inland soon after.
The Canadians were responsible for the storming of Juno beach. The beach was heavily defended by machine guns, larger artillery guns, pillboxes, concrete fortifications and a massive seawall. Juno beach was the second worst beach for men killed after Omaha. By the end of the day, 15,000 Canadian troops had landed. They had gone deeper into German territory than any other beach landing.
The Gold beach was strongly defended by the Germans and the British forces sustained heavy losses. The beach was an important objective because it was to be a primary harbor in which to deliver oil and supplies once for the allies.
The Omaha beachhead was the most challenging beach of the five. American's boats quickly dumped their troops on the beach and troops encountered sprays of MG-42 (machine guns) and sniper fire while they were vulnerable on the open beach. Scenes in the movie "Saving Private Ryan" and "The Longest Day" recreate the event based on real war footage and testimony. Omaha beach was heavily fortified and defended by German troops on the highground. The first few landing crafts had all of the officers and sergeants killed or wounded. The men were virtually leaderless. The Americans eventually got a hold of the beach, with a loss of 1,200 troops.
They then had to take out the massive guns on top of a cliff overlooking the beach. The US 2nd Ranger battalion climbed the 100 feet high cliffs using ropes and ladders under heavy German fire. The battalion was successful in capturing the guns.
The Americans had little difficulty capturing Utah, The Germans didn't expect that the US would take Utah. The 101st Airborne Division had already taken key positions behind the beach. One-Star General Theodore Roosevelt Jr, the beach commander, and related to President Teddy Roosevelt (after whom teddy bears are named) stated "We will start the war from right here.".
After the beaches were secured, two large constructions were hauled across the English channel in order to tie up ships and deliver supplies for the armies' continued invasion into France. These facilities were called Mulberry harbors. By June 19, 1944, over 600,000 men, 100,000 vehicles and 200,000 tons of supplies were delivered to France, thanks to the Mulberry harbors.
The whole D-Day operation was mainly successful, although one of the main objectives, the city of Caen, was still in German hands. Caen underwent heavy bombing and the Canadians eventually captured it, but many Canadians and civilians died. | <urn:uuid:7ba12b7d-67bb-4727-9fd0-32f85545ed3a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.m.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikijunior:World_War_II/D-Day | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00479.warc.gz | en | 0.9845 | 1,123 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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The D-Day landings took place on June 6, 1944. It was the largest invasion by sea in history. The code name for this operation was "Overlord". The forces were sent across the English Channel from the south of England, mainly Portsmouth, to Normandy in a mighty fleet of over 8,000 ships. Normandy is located in the northwest corner of France. The overall commander of the Allied forces was the US General Dwight D. Eisenhower, who was later President Eisenhower. The land force commander was the British General Bernard Montgomery, popularly known as "Monty".
There were 156,000 men mainly from three countries, the United States, the United Kingdom and Canada. The objective was to storm the German defenses on five beaches and eventually to drive the Germans out of France, and establish a second front to attack Germany itself. The beaches were codenamed Gold, Sword, Juno, Utah and Omaha. The Canadians were to take Juno beach, the Americans, Utah and Omaha and the British, Gold and Sword.
Just before the landings, massive numbers of paratroops were landed behind the German lines to try to disrupt communications and reinforcements when the beaches were attacked. There were three famous Airborne Divisions, the US 82nd Airborne, called the "All American", the US 101st Airborne called the "Screaming Eagles" and the 6th Airborne comprising Canadian and British paratroopers.
There was also a big effort from the French people themselves called the "French Resistance" which disrupted the Germans and blew up key facilities like German troop transport trains. The resistance were told in coded messages from the BBC when the invasion would start.
Paratroopers behind German linesEdit
The success of the landings required that German reinforcement were delayed in getting to the beaches where the allied troops were coming ashore. Paratroops were placed behind German lines into order to seize key towns, roads, bridges, etc. The U.S. 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions were placed west of Utah Beach and the British 6th Airborne Division near Sword beach. The 82nd occupied the town of Sainte-Mère-Église early in the morning of June 6, giving it the claim of the first town liberated in the invasion. This was featured in the film "The Longest Day".
The five beachesEdit
The D-Day landings involved assaults on five key beaches by troops in landing crafts. The beaches and the Germans defending them were pounded by massive fire from all sorts of naval ships, including battleships. Most of the beaches were heavily fortified, and had large numbers of German troops defending them. Some had large fortifications with big guns and machine gun nests.
Sword beach was taken with relatively light losses. One of the main objectives was to capture the city Caen, but this was not achieved. The British linked up with the 6th Airborne Division inland soon after.
The Canadians were responsible for the storming of Juno beach. The beach was heavily defended by machine guns, larger artillery guns, pillboxes, concrete fortifications and a massive seawall. Juno beach was the second worst beach for men killed after Omaha. By the end of the day, 15,000 Canadian troops had landed. They had gone deeper into German territory than any other beach landing.
The Gold beach was strongly defended by the Germans and the British forces sustained heavy losses. The beach was an important objective because it was to be a primary harbor in which to deliver oil and supplies once for the allies.
The Omaha beachhead was the most challenging beach of the five. American's boats quickly dumped their troops on the beach and troops encountered sprays of MG-42 (machine guns) and sniper fire while they were vulnerable on the open beach. Scenes in the movie "Saving Private Ryan" and "The Longest Day" recreate the event based on real war footage and testimony. Omaha beach was heavily fortified and defended by German troops on the highground. The first few landing crafts had all of the officers and sergeants killed or wounded. The men were virtually leaderless. The Americans eventually got a hold of the beach, with a loss of 1,200 troops.
They then had to take out the massive guns on top of a cliff overlooking the beach. The US 2nd Ranger battalion climbed the 100 feet high cliffs using ropes and ladders under heavy German fire. The battalion was successful in capturing the guns.
The Americans had little difficulty capturing Utah, The Germans didn't expect that the US would take Utah. The 101st Airborne Division had already taken key positions behind the beach. One-Star General Theodore Roosevelt Jr, the beach commander, and related to President Teddy Roosevelt (after whom teddy bears are named) stated "We will start the war from right here.".
After the beaches were secured, two large constructions were hauled across the English channel in order to tie up ships and deliver supplies for the armies' continued invasion into France. These facilities were called Mulberry harbors. By June 19, 1944, over 600,000 men, 100,000 vehicles and 200,000 tons of supplies were delivered to France, thanks to the Mulberry harbors.
The whole D-Day operation was mainly successful, although one of the main objectives, the city of Caen, was still in German hands. Caen underwent heavy bombing and the Canadians eventually captured it, but many Canadians and civilians died. | 1,172 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today it isn’t used for much, other than cancer treatment, but when radium was newly discovered, it was commercialized to a great extent and put in many things.
It was marketed as a miraculous panacea, and accordingly was added lots of things, something that in retrospect was an alarming practice. For example, there was radium chocolate, radium-infused water, toys containing radium, toothpaste that included both radium and thorium (also radioactive), cosmetics, and perhaps most famously, watches whose dials were painted with radium.Unfortunately, it took a little while for people to realize the dangers of radioactivity, and that’s because radium was the first element discovered that was described as radioactive.
While Marie Curie was working on isolating her radioactive elements (thorium, uranium, radium), Wilhelm Roentgen was helping to lay the foundations for Curie’s conjectures, as he (almost by chance, as scientific discoveries often happen) observed fluorescence emanating from a tube covered in black paper. His conclusion was that this was caused by some type of ray since it was shining through the black paper, and accordingly named the “rays” “X-rays” (though related, it isn’t the same thing as today’s X-rays).
Antoine Becquerel then decided to experiment and confirmed Roentgen’s findings. His experiment was pretty interesting–he took photographic plates and placed a “metal object” between the plates and “fluorescent” (radioactive) salts to see if the image of the object would transfer to the photographic plate (sound familiar? perhaps like...getting an X-ray? again, similar, but not the same). However, he thought that the salts absorbed energy from the sun and then emanated them, so he was going to do his experiment in the sun. It was cloudy in Paris on the day he planned to do his experiment, so he stuck his materials in a dark drawer until the sun could come back out. What he found, though, was that the salts did not need sunlight. In other words, he discovered the phenomenon of radioactivity.
Marie Curie, who was a student working with Becquerel, was the one who first used the word “radioactive”. She did so after further investigations of these mysteriously luminescent elements which led her to conclude that their behavior was due entirely to their nature as elements, and not due to outside interactions (such as with sunlight or other chemicals/elements).
Marie Curie is definitely one of my heroes, so I’m going to take a moment here to underscore how cool she was. Not only was she the first woman to win a Nobel prize, she was the first person, regardless of gender, to win two Nobel prizes which were not in the same field (and only one other person, Linus Pauling, has since). This is amazing in itself, but it's even more amazing when you consider the time at which this was happening.
When she first wanted to get a higher education, she couldn't enroll because she was a woman. She wasn't even allowed into school, and yet she managed to go on to discover more than one element and win TWO Nobel prizes in two DIFFERENT fields. Eventually, she was able to enter university when she moved from her native Poland to Paris. However, even after earning two degrees there, she could still not work at the university in Poland, so it was back to France for her (and by this time, Pierre).
During this time, she experimented, unfunded, in a shed near the school. She didn't even have a proper laboratory. Oh, and she couldn't even present her own findings to the French Academy of Sciences. She had to get a colleague to do it. Because she was a woman. She also couldn't give speeches on the work that both she and Pierre did, the work that she was the one to start. Honestly, were it myself, I might have given up out of frustration, but I suppose that it only proves her dedication to scientific inquiry and not fame.
What's more is that before she could observe the thorium, uranium and (as-yet-unknown) radium, she had to extract it from something called pitchblende, which was a strenuous process in itself. First of all, pitchblende could contain up to 30 different elements, of which the ones she needed were only present in trace amounts. Since there were so many, she would have to employ various methods to get rid of the elements that she was not interested in. Evidently, even with later help from an industrial chemical company, it took Marie "3 years to isolate one-tenth of a gram of pure radium chloride". That's tiny.
Pierre was hit by a car and killed in 1906. However, she kept on with her work. When WWI was creating casualties, she crafted portable radiography units (essentially X-ray units) and drove them around helping as the director of the Red Cross radiology service.
Tragically, since long-term effects of ionizing radiation were unknown, she took no precautions when working with her radioactive materials, and she is believed to have perished from a disease that resulted from the long-term exposure.
I realize I went on a tangent, and that scientific discoveries are never due to just one person, but Marie Curie played a huge role in the discovery of radium and deserves recognition. She is so inspirational, and not just to females. Anyhow, the history of radium is an interesting one, especially since an element that was/is so dangerous and detrimental to living things was used so widely when first discovered. | <urn:uuid:95469032-a315-4a5d-80d4-fbe51611cc15> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theodysseyonline.com/brief-history-of-radium | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00011.warc.gz | en | 0.99025 | 1,196 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.3762260079383... | 3 | Today it isn’t used for much, other than cancer treatment, but when radium was newly discovered, it was commercialized to a great extent and put in many things.
It was marketed as a miraculous panacea, and accordingly was added lots of things, something that in retrospect was an alarming practice. For example, there was radium chocolate, radium-infused water, toys containing radium, toothpaste that included both radium and thorium (also radioactive), cosmetics, and perhaps most famously, watches whose dials were painted with radium.Unfortunately, it took a little while for people to realize the dangers of radioactivity, and that’s because radium was the first element discovered that was described as radioactive.
While Marie Curie was working on isolating her radioactive elements (thorium, uranium, radium), Wilhelm Roentgen was helping to lay the foundations for Curie’s conjectures, as he (almost by chance, as scientific discoveries often happen) observed fluorescence emanating from a tube covered in black paper. His conclusion was that this was caused by some type of ray since it was shining through the black paper, and accordingly named the “rays” “X-rays” (though related, it isn’t the same thing as today’s X-rays).
Antoine Becquerel then decided to experiment and confirmed Roentgen’s findings. His experiment was pretty interesting–he took photographic plates and placed a “metal object” between the plates and “fluorescent” (radioactive) salts to see if the image of the object would transfer to the photographic plate (sound familiar? perhaps like...getting an X-ray? again, similar, but not the same). However, he thought that the salts absorbed energy from the sun and then emanated them, so he was going to do his experiment in the sun. It was cloudy in Paris on the day he planned to do his experiment, so he stuck his materials in a dark drawer until the sun could come back out. What he found, though, was that the salts did not need sunlight. In other words, he discovered the phenomenon of radioactivity.
Marie Curie, who was a student working with Becquerel, was the one who first used the word “radioactive”. She did so after further investigations of these mysteriously luminescent elements which led her to conclude that their behavior was due entirely to their nature as elements, and not due to outside interactions (such as with sunlight or other chemicals/elements).
Marie Curie is definitely one of my heroes, so I’m going to take a moment here to underscore how cool she was. Not only was she the first woman to win a Nobel prize, she was the first person, regardless of gender, to win two Nobel prizes which were not in the same field (and only one other person, Linus Pauling, has since). This is amazing in itself, but it's even more amazing when you consider the time at which this was happening.
When she first wanted to get a higher education, she couldn't enroll because she was a woman. She wasn't even allowed into school, and yet she managed to go on to discover more than one element and win TWO Nobel prizes in two DIFFERENT fields. Eventually, she was able to enter university when she moved from her native Poland to Paris. However, even after earning two degrees there, she could still not work at the university in Poland, so it was back to France for her (and by this time, Pierre).
During this time, she experimented, unfunded, in a shed near the school. She didn't even have a proper laboratory. Oh, and she couldn't even present her own findings to the French Academy of Sciences. She had to get a colleague to do it. Because she was a woman. She also couldn't give speeches on the work that both she and Pierre did, the work that she was the one to start. Honestly, were it myself, I might have given up out of frustration, but I suppose that it only proves her dedication to scientific inquiry and not fame.
What's more is that before she could observe the thorium, uranium and (as-yet-unknown) radium, she had to extract it from something called pitchblende, which was a strenuous process in itself. First of all, pitchblende could contain up to 30 different elements, of which the ones she needed were only present in trace amounts. Since there were so many, she would have to employ various methods to get rid of the elements that she was not interested in. Evidently, even with later help from an industrial chemical company, it took Marie "3 years to isolate one-tenth of a gram of pure radium chloride". That's tiny.
Pierre was hit by a car and killed in 1906. However, she kept on with her work. When WWI was creating casualties, she crafted portable radiography units (essentially X-ray units) and drove them around helping as the director of the Red Cross radiology service.
Tragically, since long-term effects of ionizing radiation were unknown, she took no precautions when working with her radioactive materials, and she is believed to have perished from a disease that resulted from the long-term exposure.
I realize I went on a tangent, and that scientific discoveries are never due to just one person, but Marie Curie played a huge role in the discovery of radium and deserves recognition. She is so inspirational, and not just to females. Anyhow, the history of radium is an interesting one, especially since an element that was/is so dangerous and detrimental to living things was used so widely when first discovered. | 1,159 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Effects of Titanic
When it comes to structure, The Titanic was one of largest ship ever built.
Being 900 feet long, 25 stories high, weighing 46,000 tons, the Titanic was the greatest project to be worked on in the early 1900s. It had top design and technology along with a unique idea for 16 watertight compartments in the lower level of the ship that would keep it from sinking, even in the worst situation Titanic could stay afloat for at least 3 days. However, that wasn’t the case on April 14, 1912. The titanic sideswiped a massive iceberg which was the cause but not the only reason that made the titanic sink. The titanic would have survived if it wasn’t for material failures, avoiding warnings and the stress that the passengers went through during the tragedy. The titanic was not ready to board its passengers in the first place, the first cause is when the titanic hit the iceberg it damaged 300 feet of the ships hull.
The steel was too weak and flimsy to support this great ship. An example that was found was “the collision allowed water to flood six major watertight compartments” (Effect, Titanic) in (Gannon, 1995). If the constructors of the Titanic weren’t in a rush they could have put in a much sturdier hull that could last in below water temperature. Like the unreliable hull, the rivets that held the ship together were no good either. “Researcher’s state due to high wind speeds, low temperature and the ice berg caused the brittle fracture of the rivets.
” (citation2) in (Gannon, 1995). These rivets were screws that tightened the hull down. The second cause is when the Capitan of the titanic was running on a tight schedule to get to their destination in New York on time. The Captain wasn’t planning on getting cough up in warnings.( Effect, titanic) in (division, 1997).
The Capitan turned off the radars and radios because he didn’t want to hear about the icebergs, he was confident nothing could overtake the great, which he wrongfully did because soon after that the right side hit the iceberg and in minutes began to flood the compartments.(Titanic) in (division, 1997) The third cause was during all of this passengers were panicking for survival, some of them had no idea the ship was even sinking and majority tried to escape the freezing waters that were trapping them. In the beginning the women and children were able to get on the few life boats the titanic had and later the men who didn’t think it was fair and tried to get on also. (Titanic Cause and effect) in (Garzke and others) There were over 2200 passengers and no where near as many life jackets and life boats to protect them from this kind of disaster (Effect, titanic) in (Gannon, 1995). Finally in the end the titanic sank in less and an hour and a half due to the unplanned collision with the iceberg.
The three effects were lots of material failures, captain avoiding warnings and the panic the passengers had while the ship was sinking that could have caused the ship to sink faster. Conclusion: the titanic sank because of the three major causes. A reader can learn a lot from this essay, it wasn’t only the iceberg but it was also and mainly the ship materials that did not protect the ship from sinking. It was said ” the titanic should have kept the route straight instead of turning the wheel last minute because the front of the ship has a lot stronger hull than the sides. Citations: Effect of titanic – Gannon 1995, Biography of Titanic, September 18, 2011 Titanic Cause and Effect- Garzke 1997, Cause and effects of titanic. September 18, 2011 Titanic- in citation (Division,1997) September 18, 2011 | <urn:uuid:d9fd5df1-caa4-4892-ac58-5c9af09012d5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://acasestudy.com/the-effects-of-titanic/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00292.warc.gz | en | 0.982004 | 817 | 4.15625 | 4 | [
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When it comes to structure, The Titanic was one of largest ship ever built.
Being 900 feet long, 25 stories high, weighing 46,000 tons, the Titanic was the greatest project to be worked on in the early 1900s. It had top design and technology along with a unique idea for 16 watertight compartments in the lower level of the ship that would keep it from sinking, even in the worst situation Titanic could stay afloat for at least 3 days. However, that wasn’t the case on April 14, 1912. The titanic sideswiped a massive iceberg which was the cause but not the only reason that made the titanic sink. The titanic would have survived if it wasn’t for material failures, avoiding warnings and the stress that the passengers went through during the tragedy. The titanic was not ready to board its passengers in the first place, the first cause is when the titanic hit the iceberg it damaged 300 feet of the ships hull.
The steel was too weak and flimsy to support this great ship. An example that was found was “the collision allowed water to flood six major watertight compartments” (Effect, Titanic) in (Gannon, 1995). If the constructors of the Titanic weren’t in a rush they could have put in a much sturdier hull that could last in below water temperature. Like the unreliable hull, the rivets that held the ship together were no good either. “Researcher’s state due to high wind speeds, low temperature and the ice berg caused the brittle fracture of the rivets.
” (citation2) in (Gannon, 1995). These rivets were screws that tightened the hull down. The second cause is when the Capitan of the titanic was running on a tight schedule to get to their destination in New York on time. The Captain wasn’t planning on getting cough up in warnings.( Effect, titanic) in (division, 1997).
The Capitan turned off the radars and radios because he didn’t want to hear about the icebergs, he was confident nothing could overtake the great, which he wrongfully did because soon after that the right side hit the iceberg and in minutes began to flood the compartments.(Titanic) in (division, 1997) The third cause was during all of this passengers were panicking for survival, some of them had no idea the ship was even sinking and majority tried to escape the freezing waters that were trapping them. In the beginning the women and children were able to get on the few life boats the titanic had and later the men who didn’t think it was fair and tried to get on also. (Titanic Cause and effect) in (Garzke and others) There were over 2200 passengers and no where near as many life jackets and life boats to protect them from this kind of disaster (Effect, titanic) in (Gannon, 1995). Finally in the end the titanic sank in less and an hour and a half due to the unplanned collision with the iceberg.
The three effects were lots of material failures, captain avoiding warnings and the panic the passengers had while the ship was sinking that could have caused the ship to sink faster. Conclusion: the titanic sank because of the three major causes. A reader can learn a lot from this essay, it wasn’t only the iceberg but it was also and mainly the ship materials that did not protect the ship from sinking. It was said ” the titanic should have kept the route straight instead of turning the wheel last minute because the front of the ship has a lot stronger hull than the sides. Citations: Effect of titanic – Gannon 1995, Biography of Titanic, September 18, 2011 Titanic Cause and Effect- Garzke 1997, Cause and effects of titanic. September 18, 2011 Titanic- in citation (Division,1997) September 18, 2011 | 864 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Do you know the origin of Christmas carols, the typical Christmas songs?
Originally (Middle Ages), these happy songs had nothing to do with Christmas, they were happy compositions that were sung in the rural world and whose purpose was to explain the events that had happened in the villages (love and lack of love, deaths and / or everything that was of interest).
As they were sung by the villagers, these compositions became known as Christmas carols.
The members of the Church saw in this type of simple and catchy song the perfect way to spread their message so they began to adapt the lyrics to messages related to Christmas and Jesus.
This type of carol quickly became popular, becoming songs widely interpreted in the churches during religious offices and which were later sung by the people in their family gatherings, being a quick and effective way to bring the evangelic message to many more people. Since then and until today, these songs have been composed and modified until they become the popular sounds that fill our evenings. | <urn:uuid:b0ea8c83-e26c-410c-8609-9dc4693037cb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://frenchlatino.com/do-you-know-the-origin-of-christmas-carols-the-typical-christmas-songs/?lang=en | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00122.warc.gz | en | 0.993845 | 202 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.00551653373... | 2 | Do you know the origin of Christmas carols, the typical Christmas songs?
Originally (Middle Ages), these happy songs had nothing to do with Christmas, they were happy compositions that were sung in the rural world and whose purpose was to explain the events that had happened in the villages (love and lack of love, deaths and / or everything that was of interest).
As they were sung by the villagers, these compositions became known as Christmas carols.
The members of the Church saw in this type of simple and catchy song the perfect way to spread their message so they began to adapt the lyrics to messages related to Christmas and Jesus.
This type of carol quickly became popular, becoming songs widely interpreted in the churches during religious offices and which were later sung by the people in their family gatherings, being a quick and effective way to bring the evangelic message to many more people. Since then and until today, these songs have been composed and modified until they become the popular sounds that fill our evenings. | 198 | ENGLISH | 1 |
After the Second World War, the world separated into East and West. So, also Germany was divided into West Germany and East Germany. Therefore in West Germany, typical types of locomotives and trains were developed by the German Federal Railways (Deutsche Bundesbahn). And, also in East Germany special designs and types of locomotives and trains were developed by the state railway of East Germany (Deutsche Reichsbahn). In this video, Pilentum presents a model railroad layout, where steam trains and diesel trains of the old state railway of the GDR are running. Noteworthy are the powerful diesel locomotives that were originally delivered from the Soviet Union to East Germany for freight traffic. And, there are the famous bilevel passenger cars, also known as double-decker train cars, which are still used in passenger traffic today. Enjoy and thanks for watching. | <urn:uuid:9874cf5f-c2e4-4791-b0b0-e4abdd6c66d5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://modeltrainexpress.com/model-trains-and-model-railroading-in-former-east-germany/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00094.warc.gz | en | 0.985859 | 179 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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-0.3... | 5 | After the Second World War, the world separated into East and West. So, also Germany was divided into West Germany and East Germany. Therefore in West Germany, typical types of locomotives and trains were developed by the German Federal Railways (Deutsche Bundesbahn). And, also in East Germany special designs and types of locomotives and trains were developed by the state railway of East Germany (Deutsche Reichsbahn). In this video, Pilentum presents a model railroad layout, where steam trains and diesel trains of the old state railway of the GDR are running. Noteworthy are the powerful diesel locomotives that were originally delivered from the Soviet Union to East Germany for freight traffic. And, there are the famous bilevel passenger cars, also known as double-decker train cars, which are still used in passenger traffic today. Enjoy and thanks for watching. | 177 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Health and safety is an important part of everyday life for construction workers. Why? There are numerous regulations and rules put in place to keep workers as safe as possible. Unfortunately, this has not always been the case, and it is only in recent years that health and safety has really improved.
Early Health and Safety
During the Victorian era, being a construction worker was a particularly dangerous job, with many workers being seriously injured or even dying in during large construction projects. The construction of the Woodhead Tunnel was a turning point for health and safety. The tunnel was built between Manchester and Sheffield and took a total of six years to complete. It was finally finished in 1845, but during the project, 32 workers lost their lives in various accidents, and over 180 others were injured. Due to the unsanitary conditions on the site at the time, another 28 workers died due to outbreaks of cholera.
The number of incidents that occurred during this project resulted in a government enquiry. The result of the enquiry led to the creation of legislation that made construction companies responsible for the health, welfare and accommodation of workers.
The Late 20th Century
Despite this, there was very little change made in terms of health and safety regulations over the next 100 years, and it wasn’t until the 1970s that any real progress was made in this field. In 1974, 166 deaths caused by construction accidents were recorded, which accounted for more than a quarter of all workplace deaths. Because of this, the Health and Safety at Work Act of 1974 was passed into legislation. This legislation strengthened existing regulation, making employers more accountable for the safety and welfare of not only their employees but temporary workers, self-employed workers and the general public. Furthermore, it allowed the government to issue regulations, guidance and Approved Codes of Practice (ACOPs) for employers. These regulations set out detailed responsibilities for employers in every aspect of workplace health and safety.
By 1981, recorded deaths of construction workers had decreased. But despite this, over 100 workers were still dying each year, and many more being injured. As the 1980s progressed, hardhats became enforced on many construction sites, and there were also campaigns against the use of old or unsafe tools.
As Britain moved into the 1990s, more health and safety equipment became available. For example, safety nets became more common for those working at height. Cherrypickers also became more accessible, making many aspects of construction work safer. In 1994, the Construction Design and Management Regulations (CDM) were introduced. This forced clients, designers and contractors to coordinate their approach to safety for the first time. The construction of the Channel Tunnel was also completed in 1994. This project employed over 13,000 people, and a total of 10 workers died during its construction. Although this was a vast improvement over previous projects, there was still room for improvement.
Health and Safety in the 21st Century
In the early 2000s, falls from height were still the largest cause of fatalities amongst construction workers. It wasn’t until 2005 that the Working at Height Regulations were introduced. This led to ladders being used as a “last resort”, and many other forms of safer equipment were used for elevation instead.
With the focus of the construction industry moving towards health and safety in all aspects – including training and planning – the number of accidents and fatalities has significantly reduced in the last 50 years. For example, 2,500 construction workers spent time working on the Olympic Park in London. Despite the 62 million hours worked, there were zero fatalities.
Although this was a great success for health and safety in construction, the accident rate in this instance was less than half of the industry average. Although there have been great improvements in health and safety, the scaffolding and construction industries are still amongst the most dangerous industries in the UK. More improvements need to be made to ensure the continued safety of workers on site.
George Roberts can help
If you are interested in health and safety, why not browse our wide range of scaffolding safety equipment online now. | <urn:uuid:80172f41-78ee-4573-9414-510dff7dbde1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.scaffoldingsales.co.uk/the-history-of-health-and-safety-in-construction/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00189.warc.gz | en | 0.986083 | 828 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.3850833773612... | 3 | Health and safety is an important part of everyday life for construction workers. Why? There are numerous regulations and rules put in place to keep workers as safe as possible. Unfortunately, this has not always been the case, and it is only in recent years that health and safety has really improved.
Early Health and Safety
During the Victorian era, being a construction worker was a particularly dangerous job, with many workers being seriously injured or even dying in during large construction projects. The construction of the Woodhead Tunnel was a turning point for health and safety. The tunnel was built between Manchester and Sheffield and took a total of six years to complete. It was finally finished in 1845, but during the project, 32 workers lost their lives in various accidents, and over 180 others were injured. Due to the unsanitary conditions on the site at the time, another 28 workers died due to outbreaks of cholera.
The number of incidents that occurred during this project resulted in a government enquiry. The result of the enquiry led to the creation of legislation that made construction companies responsible for the health, welfare and accommodation of workers.
The Late 20th Century
Despite this, there was very little change made in terms of health and safety regulations over the next 100 years, and it wasn’t until the 1970s that any real progress was made in this field. In 1974, 166 deaths caused by construction accidents were recorded, which accounted for more than a quarter of all workplace deaths. Because of this, the Health and Safety at Work Act of 1974 was passed into legislation. This legislation strengthened existing regulation, making employers more accountable for the safety and welfare of not only their employees but temporary workers, self-employed workers and the general public. Furthermore, it allowed the government to issue regulations, guidance and Approved Codes of Practice (ACOPs) for employers. These regulations set out detailed responsibilities for employers in every aspect of workplace health and safety.
By 1981, recorded deaths of construction workers had decreased. But despite this, over 100 workers were still dying each year, and many more being injured. As the 1980s progressed, hardhats became enforced on many construction sites, and there were also campaigns against the use of old or unsafe tools.
As Britain moved into the 1990s, more health and safety equipment became available. For example, safety nets became more common for those working at height. Cherrypickers also became more accessible, making many aspects of construction work safer. In 1994, the Construction Design and Management Regulations (CDM) were introduced. This forced clients, designers and contractors to coordinate their approach to safety for the first time. The construction of the Channel Tunnel was also completed in 1994. This project employed over 13,000 people, and a total of 10 workers died during its construction. Although this was a vast improvement over previous projects, there was still room for improvement.
Health and Safety in the 21st Century
In the early 2000s, falls from height were still the largest cause of fatalities amongst construction workers. It wasn’t until 2005 that the Working at Height Regulations were introduced. This led to ladders being used as a “last resort”, and many other forms of safer equipment were used for elevation instead.
With the focus of the construction industry moving towards health and safety in all aspects – including training and planning – the number of accidents and fatalities has significantly reduced in the last 50 years. For example, 2,500 construction workers spent time working on the Olympic Park in London. Despite the 62 million hours worked, there were zero fatalities.
Although this was a great success for health and safety in construction, the accident rate in this instance was less than half of the industry average. Although there have been great improvements in health and safety, the scaffolding and construction industries are still amongst the most dangerous industries in the UK. More improvements need to be made to ensure the continued safety of workers on site.
George Roberts can help
If you are interested in health and safety, why not browse our wide range of scaffolding safety equipment online now. | 884 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Description of Cavillace
Cavillace, in the Inca religion, was a virgin goddess. In the mythology, she became pregnant after eating fruit that was truly the seed of the moon god, Coniraya. She gave birth to a son, but was ashamed and turned her and her offspring to rocks on the Peruvian coast.
General Inca description
The Inca Empire existed in South America, in the area that is modern day Peru and Bolivia, from the early 13th Century until it’s last city was taken by the Spanish conquest in 1572. It was the largest and most developed empire in the Americas before the arrival of the Spanish. The Incan Empire was defined by its impressive and enormous architecture – the most famous being Machu Picchu which was constructed using stone blocks that fit together so tightly that a knife would not fit between the building stones. Incan pyramids survive to this day, sustained without any need for mortar within the stonework. The Empire also features an extensive network of roads that served to connect even the most remote outposts of the territory. The Inca produced fine woven textiles (featuring architectural motifs) and were particularly inventive when it came to communication, organisation and labor. The majority of the Inca lived at a particularly high altitude in the Andean mountains, and so their agriculture practices were both impressive and innovative . The Incas were polytheists who worshipped many gods. They believed in reincarnation and human sacrifice. They did not use money or exchange goods using markets. Inca culture was built upon reciprocity. Each individual paid something like a tax to the Empire through labor, while the emperor and nobles would throw feasts and sponsor festivals for their subjects. After the fall of the Inca Empire many features of Inca culture were destroyed by the Spanish. Huge numbers of Inca were devastated by the rapid spread of smallpox, another effect of the invasion. Other diseases soon followed. As such, much of the culture and many Incan innovations have been lost to history. | <urn:uuid:f06e1b08-36dc-4c93-a7fd-c660711fb6bb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://symbolikon.com/downloads/cavillace-inca/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00458.warc.gz | en | 0.982929 | 416 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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... | 1 | Description of Cavillace
Cavillace, in the Inca religion, was a virgin goddess. In the mythology, she became pregnant after eating fruit that was truly the seed of the moon god, Coniraya. She gave birth to a son, but was ashamed and turned her and her offspring to rocks on the Peruvian coast.
General Inca description
The Inca Empire existed in South America, in the area that is modern day Peru and Bolivia, from the early 13th Century until it’s last city was taken by the Spanish conquest in 1572. It was the largest and most developed empire in the Americas before the arrival of the Spanish. The Incan Empire was defined by its impressive and enormous architecture – the most famous being Machu Picchu which was constructed using stone blocks that fit together so tightly that a knife would not fit between the building stones. Incan pyramids survive to this day, sustained without any need for mortar within the stonework. The Empire also features an extensive network of roads that served to connect even the most remote outposts of the territory. The Inca produced fine woven textiles (featuring architectural motifs) and were particularly inventive when it came to communication, organisation and labor. The majority of the Inca lived at a particularly high altitude in the Andean mountains, and so their agriculture practices were both impressive and innovative . The Incas were polytheists who worshipped many gods. They believed in reincarnation and human sacrifice. They did not use money or exchange goods using markets. Inca culture was built upon reciprocity. Each individual paid something like a tax to the Empire through labor, while the emperor and nobles would throw feasts and sponsor festivals for their subjects. After the fall of the Inca Empire many features of Inca culture were destroyed by the Spanish. Huge numbers of Inca were devastated by the rapid spread of smallpox, another effect of the invasion. Other diseases soon followed. As such, much of the culture and many Incan innovations have been lost to history. | 419 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Golubac consists of three main compounds guarded by 10 towers and 2 portcullises, all connected by fortress walls 2–3 meters thick. In front of the fortress, the forward wall (I) doubled as the outer wall of the moat, which connected to the Danube and was likely filled with water. A settlement for common people was situated in front of the wall.
As is the case with many fortresses, Golubac’s structure was modified over time. For years, there were only five towers. Later, four more were added. The towers were all built as squares, a sign of the fortress’ age, showing that battles were still fought with cold steel. Once firearms came into use, the Turks fortified the western towers with cannon ports and polygonal or cylindrical reinforcements up to two meters thick. After the Hungarian raid in 1481, they added the final tower, complete with cannon embrasures and galleries.
Topographical sketch of Golubac Fortress prior to 1972 (symbols referenced in the text)
The upper compound (A) is the oldest part of the fortress. It includes the citadel (tower 1) and the Serbian Orthodox chapel (tower 4). Although it remains uncertain, the chapel has led many to believe that this section was built by a Serbian noble.
Later, during either Serbian or Hungarian rule, the fortress was expanded to include the rear and forward compounds.
The rear compound (D) is separated from the upper compound by both a wall connecting towers 2 and 4, and a steep rock 3–4 meters high. Next to tower 5 is a building (VII) which was probably used as a military barracks and for ammunition storage.
The forward compound was split into lower (C) and upper (B) parts by a wall linking towers 4 and 7. The entrance (II) is in the lower part, guarded by towers 8 and 9. Tower 8 has, in turn, been fortified with a cannon port. Opposing the entrance was a second portcullis that led to the rear compound. Along the path was a ditch 0.5 meters wide and 0.75 meters deep which then became a steep decline. At the outer end of the lower part, and connected to the 9th tower with a low wall, is tower 10, which the Turks added to act as a lower artillery tower. It controlled passage along the Danube and guarded the entrance to the harbor, which was probably situated between towers 5 and 10. There are remains connected to tower 8 which probably formed a larger whole with it, but the lower part did not otherwise contain buildings.
In the wall that separated the upper and lower parts was a gate that led to the upper part. The upper part did not have buildings, but there remains a pathway to the stairs up to gate IV, which is 2 meters off the ground, right next to tower 3.
The first nine towers are 20–25 meters high. In all ten towers, the floors and stairs inside were made of wood, while external stairs were made of stone. Half of the towers (1, 2, 4, 5, 10) have all four sides and are completely made of stone, while the other half (3, 6, 7, 8, 9) lack the side facing the interior of the fort.
Tower 1, nicknamed “Hat Tower” (Šešir-kula), is one of the oldest towers, and doubles as citadel and dungeon tower. It has an eight-sided base with a circular spire rising from it and a square interior. The next tower to the west, tower 2, is completely circular in shape. The third tower has a square base, with the open side facing the dungeon tower to the north. On the top floor is a terrace that overlooks the Danube and the entrance to the Iron Gate gorge. Down the slope from tower 3 is tower 4, which also has a square base. The ground floor has a Serbian Orthodox chapel that was built into the tower, rather than being added later. The last tower along this wall, tower 5, is the only tower to remain completely square.
The top tower along the front wall of the forward compound, tower 6, has a square base which was reinforced with a six-sided foundation. Working west, the square base of tower 7 was reinforced with a circular foundation. Tower 8, on the upper side of the front portcullis, has an irregular, but generally square, base. It is also the shortest of the first nine towers. Guarding the other side is tower 9, which has a square base reinforced by an eight-sided foundation.
The last tower is the cannon tower. It has only one floor and is the shortest of all ten towers. It was built with an eight-sided base and cannon ports to help control traffic on the Danube. Tower 10 is almost identical to the three artillery towers added to Smederevo fortress. | <urn:uuid:bd217be4-5142-4676-b802-6bb5b2b3d54a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://weaponsandwarfare.com/2015/08/31/golubac-fortress/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00246.warc.gz | en | 0.983983 | 1,020 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.1655218... | 4 | Golubac consists of three main compounds guarded by 10 towers and 2 portcullises, all connected by fortress walls 2–3 meters thick. In front of the fortress, the forward wall (I) doubled as the outer wall of the moat, which connected to the Danube and was likely filled with water. A settlement for common people was situated in front of the wall.
As is the case with many fortresses, Golubac’s structure was modified over time. For years, there were only five towers. Later, four more were added. The towers were all built as squares, a sign of the fortress’ age, showing that battles were still fought with cold steel. Once firearms came into use, the Turks fortified the western towers with cannon ports and polygonal or cylindrical reinforcements up to two meters thick. After the Hungarian raid in 1481, they added the final tower, complete with cannon embrasures and galleries.
Topographical sketch of Golubac Fortress prior to 1972 (symbols referenced in the text)
The upper compound (A) is the oldest part of the fortress. It includes the citadel (tower 1) and the Serbian Orthodox chapel (tower 4). Although it remains uncertain, the chapel has led many to believe that this section was built by a Serbian noble.
Later, during either Serbian or Hungarian rule, the fortress was expanded to include the rear and forward compounds.
The rear compound (D) is separated from the upper compound by both a wall connecting towers 2 and 4, and a steep rock 3–4 meters high. Next to tower 5 is a building (VII) which was probably used as a military barracks and for ammunition storage.
The forward compound was split into lower (C) and upper (B) parts by a wall linking towers 4 and 7. The entrance (II) is in the lower part, guarded by towers 8 and 9. Tower 8 has, in turn, been fortified with a cannon port. Opposing the entrance was a second portcullis that led to the rear compound. Along the path was a ditch 0.5 meters wide and 0.75 meters deep which then became a steep decline. At the outer end of the lower part, and connected to the 9th tower with a low wall, is tower 10, which the Turks added to act as a lower artillery tower. It controlled passage along the Danube and guarded the entrance to the harbor, which was probably situated between towers 5 and 10. There are remains connected to tower 8 which probably formed a larger whole with it, but the lower part did not otherwise contain buildings.
In the wall that separated the upper and lower parts was a gate that led to the upper part. The upper part did not have buildings, but there remains a pathway to the stairs up to gate IV, which is 2 meters off the ground, right next to tower 3.
The first nine towers are 20–25 meters high. In all ten towers, the floors and stairs inside were made of wood, while external stairs were made of stone. Half of the towers (1, 2, 4, 5, 10) have all four sides and are completely made of stone, while the other half (3, 6, 7, 8, 9) lack the side facing the interior of the fort.
Tower 1, nicknamed “Hat Tower” (Šešir-kula), is one of the oldest towers, and doubles as citadel and dungeon tower. It has an eight-sided base with a circular spire rising from it and a square interior. The next tower to the west, tower 2, is completely circular in shape. The third tower has a square base, with the open side facing the dungeon tower to the north. On the top floor is a terrace that overlooks the Danube and the entrance to the Iron Gate gorge. Down the slope from tower 3 is tower 4, which also has a square base. The ground floor has a Serbian Orthodox chapel that was built into the tower, rather than being added later. The last tower along this wall, tower 5, is the only tower to remain completely square.
The top tower along the front wall of the forward compound, tower 6, has a square base which was reinforced with a six-sided foundation. Working west, the square base of tower 7 was reinforced with a circular foundation. Tower 8, on the upper side of the front portcullis, has an irregular, but generally square, base. It is also the shortest of the first nine towers. Guarding the other side is tower 9, which has a square base reinforced by an eight-sided foundation.
The last tower is the cannon tower. It has only one floor and is the shortest of all ten towers. It was built with an eight-sided base and cannon ports to help control traffic on the Danube. Tower 10 is almost identical to the three artillery towers added to Smederevo fortress. | 1,049 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Clans of the North West nation had experienced violent conflict with European settlers since 1810 when sealing parties abducted women. In 1820 a group of sealers sprang from hiding in a cave at The Doughboys near Cape Grim and ambushed a group of Pennemukeer women collecting muttonbirds and shellfish, capturing and binding them and carrying them off to Kangaroo Island. Pennemukeer men responded with a reprisal attack, clubbing three sealers to death.
Further conflict developed after the arrival of the VDLC in late 1826. The company had been formed in London in 1824 as a joint stock company whose purpose would be to breed and farm Merino and Saxon sheep on a large scale to meet the high demand for wool in England. The company was given a grant to 250,000 acres in the northwest tip of the colony then known as Van Diemen's Land, an area that was home to about 400 or 500 Aboriginals who had cleared the grassy plains of trees through generations of fire-stick farming. Ships then began arriving to offload livestock and labourers—mostly indentured "servants" or convicts who would work as shepherds and ploughmen on sheep stations at Cape Grim and Circular Head, occupying key Aboriginal kangaroo hunting grounds.
Businessman Edward Curr was appointed as VDLC's Chief Agent, answering to a court of directors in London, but his position in the remote part of the colony also gave him the powers and authority of a magistrate. Curr quickly developed a reputation as a cruel and ruthless despot. Within a year of the company establishing a presence in the North West, employees under his direct control had gained a reputation for brutal treatment of the local Aboriginal population. Curr, rather than inquiring into or intervening in such cases, sometimes actively encouraged violence. Rosalie Hare, the wife of a ship's captain who arrived in January 1828 on board the Caroline and remained in the Curr household until March, noted in her journal the frequency of Aboriginal attacks on shepherds, but added: "We are not to suppose the Europeans in their turn take no revenge. We have to lament that our own countrymen consider the massacre of these people an honour. While we remained at Circular Head there were several accounts of considerable numbers of natives having been shot by them, they wishing to extirpate them entirely if possible."
According to historian Nicholas Clements, the primary cause of conflict was sex: very few white women were in the colony generally, and the shortage was particularly acute in the North West, where only Curr’s wife and one other woman lived. The Governor was warned by one worker in 1827 that Curr’s shepherds "had designs of violating the (native) women" and examples were later given to Robinson of female Aboriginals being kept by stock keepers and shepherds, some of them "chained up like a wild beast" and abused. Another woman was said to have been kept by a stock keeper for about a month, "after which she was taken out and shot."
The immediate catalyst of the February killings at Cape Grim was an incident about the beginning of December 1827 during a visit to the area by the Peerapper clan from West Point in search of muttonbird eggs and seals. Convicts who were working as assigned servants for the VDLC were tending to a large flock of sheep and managed to lure some Peerapper women into a hut for sex. When the Peerapper men objected, a skirmish developed during which one of the shepherds, Thomas John, was speared in the leg and several Peerapper men including a chief were shot dead. John was taken back to Circular Head a fortnight later and Curr reported the injury to VDLC directors in London, stating that his shepherd had been speared in an extended conflict that had begun when "a very strong party of Natives" attacked the men.
A party of Peerapper, probably led by Wymurrick, returned to Cape Grim on 31 December, a month after the clash, to seek retribution. They destroyed 118 ewes from the company's stock, spearing some, beating others with waddies and driving the rest over a cliff and into the sea. The company vessel Fanny, with its master, Richard Frederick, was then sent to Cape Grim, ostensibly to collect sheep to be transported to Emu Bay (modern-day Burnie). While he was there, Frederick, who was "very well acquainted with that part of the country and with the habits of the Natives"—helped the shepherds search for the Peerapper clan and located their camp as part of a punitive expedition. Then, according to a journal account by Rosalie Hare, wife of the captain of the Caroline who was staying with Curr and his wife, they killed 12 men in a surprise night time raid.
Several days later, on 10 February—about six weeks after the destruction of the ewes—the same four shepherds are believed to have surprised and trapped a party of Aboriginal men, women and children in what is now known as Suicide Bay, as they feasted on mutton-birds the women had caught at the nearby Doughboy Islands. Although there is no single definitive narrative, it is thought that the Aboriginal people, confronted by the armed Europeans, panicked and fled in different directions, with some rushing into the sea, others scrambling around the cliff and some fatally shot by the shepherds. One group—thought to be all men—were killed near the edge of a 60m cliff and their bodies then thrown to the rocks below. Two individuals, one of the convicts involved and an Aboriginal woman, stated that the death toll was 30, a senior VDLC employee described the fatalities as "a good number" and "a great many", while Curr initially reported six dead "besides several severely wounded". Those wounded by shot fired from muskets would have had poor prospects of survival.
In a dispatch to VDL Company directors on 14 January Curr reported the voyage of the Fanny and the subsequent night time encounter with Peerapper at their camp by Frederick and the shepherds who had "gone in quest" of those who had slaughtered the sheep. In Curr's account there were about 70 Peerapper in the encampment, but the shepherds watched and waited until dawn before retreating without a shot being fired, because "not a musket would go off" as a result of heavy rain during the night. Historian Ian McFarlane has described Curr's account as problematic and less plausible than that of Rosalie Hare: he said the men would have known the Peerapper were reluctant to move during the night, being timid in the dark, and it was improbable that men armed with that knowledge would sit in the cold and rain all night watching the targets silhouetted by campfires, only to await the light of the morning and lose their strategic advantage.
Two weeks later, on 28 February, Curr provided the directors with his first, brief reference to the events of 10 February. He reported that he had heard information from the men on the Fanny that shepherds had encountered "a strong party of natives" and that after a long fight six Aboriginals were left "dead on the field including their chief besides several severely wounded." He added: "I have no doubt that this will have the effect of intimidating them, and oblige them to keep aloof."
Curr reported nothing more on the incident or what had become of those who had been severely wounded, prompting the directors to write back to express extreme "regret" over the deaths and point out: "It does not appear from the account who were the aggressors." Despite his role as magistrate Curr did not further investigate the clash or notify Governor Arthur of the deaths and outside knowledge of the massacre would have remained negligible had it not been for the decision of embittered VDL Company agricultural superintendent Alexander Goldie to write a lengthy letter to Arthur in November 1829 mentioning the encounter. Goldie's letter to Arthur was one of confession of his own involvements in the killing of Aboriginals—notably the shooting and butchering with an axe a woman on a north-west beach two months earlier—and revealed:
There have been a great many Natives shot by the Company's Servants, and several engagements between them while their stock was in that district. On one occasion a good many were shot (I never heard exactly the number) and although Mr Curr knew it, yet he never that I am aware, took any notice of it although in the Commission of the Peace and at that time there was no proclamation against the Natives, nor were they (the Natives) at the time they were attacked at all disturbing the Company's flocks ..."
In a separate, scathing, 110-page letter to VDL Company directors Goldie said Curr had personally encouraged the killing of other Aboriginals, offering rum on one occasion to any man who could bring him an Aboriginal head. Arthur responded to Goldie's accusations by asking Robinson to discover what he could about the incident when he ventured to the north-west region as part of his "friendly mission" to Aboriginal Tasmanians. It took until June the following year before Robinson arrived in the area, where on 16 June he interviewed Charles Chamberlain, one of the four convict sherpherds involved. He recounted the conversation about events that were by then almost 2 1⁄2 years in the past:
Robinson: How many natives do you suppose there was killed?
Robinson: There appears to be some difference respecting the numbers.
Chamberlain: Yes, it was so. We was afraid and thought at the time the Governor would hear of it and we should get into trouble, but thirty was about the number.
Robinson: What did you do with the bodies?
Chamberlain: We threw them down the rocks where they had thrown the sheep.
Robinson: Was there any more females shot?
Chamberlain: No, the women all laid down, they were most of them men.
Robinson: How many was there in your party?
Chamberlain: There was four of us.
Robinson: What had they done to you?
Chamberlain: They had some time before that attacked us in a hut and had speared one man in the thigh. Several blacks was shot on that occasion. Subsequently thirty sheep had been driven over the rocks.
Four days later Robinson questioned a group of Aboriginal women at a sealer's camp adjacent to Robbins Passage, east of Cape Grim. Some related the details of the spearing of Thomas John, the subsequent shooting of an Aboriginal chief and the return of tribe members a few days later to drive sheep off the cliff. They also described the massacre of 10 February, recounting how VDL Company shepherds had taken by "surprise a whole tribe which had come for a supply of muttonbirds at the Doughboys, massacred thirty of them and threw them off a cliff two hundred feet in altitude".
On 10 August Robinson encountered convict William Gunchannon, another of the four who had been present at the massacre. Gunchannan admitted his involvement, estimating it had happened about six weeks after the destruction of the sheep, but was reluctant to provide detail. He told Robinson that the Aboriginal group attacked on 10 February had included men and women, but denied knowing whether any had been killed. Robinson later wrote that when he informed him that Chamberlain had already admitted a death toll of about 30, Gunchannan "seemed to glory in the act and said he would shoot them whenever he met them". Robinson did not interview the other two involved in the massacre: Richard Nicholson had previously drowned and John Weavis had since moved to Hobart.
Guided by bushman Alexander McKay, Robinson visited Cape Grim and identified the site of the massacre. At the northern arm of what is today known as Suicide Bay, Robinson was able to identify the steep cliff over which the Aborigines drove the sheep. Just south of the cliff was a steep path leading down to the beach the Aboriginal women had identified as the site of the massacre. From the accounts gathered and his visit to the site, Robinson formulated what he believed was the most likely scenario of the day as the women swam across to the Doughboys to gather muttonbirds:
They swim across, leaving their children at the rocks in the care of the elderly people. They had prepared their supply of birds, had tied them with grass, had towed them on shore, and the whole tribe was seated around their fires partaking of their heard-earned fare, when down rushed the band of fierce barbarians thirsting for the blood of those unprotected and unoffending people ... Some rushed into the sea, others scrambled around the cliff and what remained the monsters put to death. Those poor creatures who had sought shelter in the cleft of the rock they forced to the brink of the awful precipice, massacred them all and threw their bodies down the precipice.
VDL Company directors, meanwhile, asked Curr to respond to Goldie's long list of complaints and accusations. His reply, on 7 October 1830, included a more comprehensive report on the events of 10 February 1828. Yet it was markedly different to the accounts Robinson had already obtained. Curr explained to VDL directors that a "very large" Aboriginal party had initially assembled at the top of a hill that overlooked the shepherds' hut. He continued:
There our men saw them and the account they gave me of the transaction was that they considered the natives were coming to attack them again and marched out to meet them, and in the fight which ensued they killed six of the natives one of whom was a woman. This was the manner in which the story was first related to me: nothing was said about the natives being a party of people who were returning from the Islands with birds and fish, nor do I now believe that was the case but I think it probable they were going there.
... I have no doubt whatever that our men were fully impressed with the idea that the natives were there only for the purpose of surrounding and attacking them, and with that idea it would be madness for them to wait until the natives shewed their designs by making it too late for one man to escape. I considered these things at the time for I had thought of investigating the case, but I saw first that there was a strong presumption that our men were right, second if wrong it was impossible to convict them, and thirdly that the mere enquiry would induce every man to leave Cape Grim.
Seven months later, in May 1831, the paths of Arthur and Curr crossed in the central Tasmanian village of Jericho, where the Governor confronted Curr with Robinson's report and told the Chief Agent that if the findings were incorrect then he should say so. In a letter to the Governor, Curr did just that, declaring: "I believe it to be untrue. I have no doubt that some Natives were killed on the occasion, my impression is that the real number was three ... as the case was represented to me by the men themselves at the time they had no alternative but to act as they did."
The contradictions surrounding accounts of the events of 10 February 1828 have prompted some history writers to carry out their own inspections of the site in order to speculate on the most likely series of events. There is sharp contrast in their conclusions.
Based on his visit to Cape Grim, Windschuttle has disputed much of Robinson's description of events, concluding that the shepherds could not have launched a surprise attack if the Aboriginals had been sitting on the beach at Suicide Bay. He explained that because the basalt slope above the beach is too steep to climb down, the shepherds would have had to descend via a steep track halfway round the bay in full view of those on the beach, giving the Aboriginals at least five minutes to flee, either by swimming across the bay or out to sea, or going around the rocks at the base of the cliff. He said Robinson's description of Aboriginals seeking shelter "in the cleft of the rock" and then being "forced to the brink of an awful precipice" was equally problematic because of the difficulty for shepherds to force captives up the track while carrying weapons and then—once the Aboriginal people reached the top—the impossibility of preventing their escape over the open grassy land as the shepherds climbed up behind them. He said: "If they really were trying to kill them all, they would have done it where they allegedly found them, down near the waterline at the edge of the bay." Windschuttle said the site's "extraordinarily difficult terrain" coupled with the limitations of 19th century muskets made it beyond belief that four shepherds could have killed 30 Aboriginal people. He said the most credible account was Curr's, in which the shepherds felt threatened by the advancing Aboriginal party and marched from their hut to launch a pre-emptive strike. He also accepted Curr's claim of just six Aboriginal fatalities. Windschuttle said the clash probably took place on the open grassland near Victory Hill (on which he said the hut stood) and if bodies were thrown over a cliff, Victory Hill was the most plausible location from which to do it.
A study of the area by McFarlane, however, raises critical flaws with Windschuttle's favoured version in which the convicts responded with gunfire after being threatened at their hut. McFarlane said surveyors' charts placed the shepherds' hut about a kilometre to the northeast of Victory Hill, which allowed the company easy access from the sea via Davisons Bay. The hut was well beyond the range of spears thrown by Aboriginal people on the hill, and McFarlane has argued that abandoning the cover of a hut to engage a vastly greater force of Aboriginal people occupying the higher ground would have been "an act of gross stupidity", particularly given that one of the convicts, John Weavis, was a former soldier who had served in the 89th Foot Regiment and York Chasseurs, a regiment raised from military deserters. McFarlane said a musket loaded with shot and fired uphill would have been a poor match for spears that could be thrown with great accuracy as far as 90 metres. He wrote: "A large number of Aborigines armed with spears on the high ground would certainly have been victorious. That four shepherds could emerge from that shower of missiles unscathed is beyond the bounds of credibility." Additionally, if the fatal encounter had taken place closer to the shepherds' hut they would have had to carry the bodies of their victims almost two kilometres—passing Victory Hill on the way—in order to throw them off the cliffs at Suicide Bay. McFarlane said neither Chamberlain, Gunchannon nor the Aboriginal woman interviewed by Robinson had made any mention of the hut or the hill, with the focus of their accounts solely Suicide Bay. He concluded: "Curr's version of events is clearly implausible, without foundation and would appear designed to depict the Aborigines as aggressors by shifting the scene, and thus the nature of he crime, from Suicide Bay to Victory Hill."
McFarlane has postulated that the two contradictory witness accounts of events—Chamberlain's admission of men's bodies being thrown from the cliff and the Aboriginal women's account of the whole tribe, including women and children, being attacked on the beach—were two elements of the one story: the convicts attacked and shot a small group of men who were hunting wallaby on the heights and then fired down on to the women, children and elderly who were close to the sea harvesting seafood. The bodies of the men might later have been thrown upon the rocks. He also suggested a second scenario, which he described as more likely, which involved a midden whose remains are about 10 metres from the top of the path to the beach on a large flattish sandy area. He said if this was the cooking area chosen on the day, the tribe could have been ambushed as they cooked and ate the muttonbirds, and suddenly found themselves trapped between the shepherds and the sea. Alarmed by gunfire, some may have fled down to the beach while others were driven back around the lip of the high ground leading to the cliff top.
According to McFarlane, most of the Aboriginal people of Tasmania's north west were methodically hunted down and killed by VDL Company hunting expeditions, acting under Curr's control. He says between 400 and 500 Aboriginal people were living in the region before the company's arrival, but by 1835 their number had dwindled to just over 100. From 1830 Robinson began rounding up the last survivors of the Aboriginal tribes to take them to a "place of safety" on an island off Tasmania's north coast; however those in the north-west avoided him. In 1830 at a sealer's camp Robinson found six abducted Aboriginal women, and an 18-year-old man called "Jack of Cape Grim" from the Parperloihener band of Robbins Island, whose Aboriginal name was Tunnerminnerwait. Robinson threatened the sealers with legal action unless they gave up the Aborigines, and to the Aborigines he promised safety and an eventual return to tribal areas. | <urn:uuid:f1245dcb-6f68-43b1-b6d4-18952e901192> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alchetron.com/Cape-Grim-massacre | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00039.warc.gz | en | 0.987537 | 4,407 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.1786800920963287... | 1 | Clans of the North West nation had experienced violent conflict with European settlers since 1810 when sealing parties abducted women. In 1820 a group of sealers sprang from hiding in a cave at The Doughboys near Cape Grim and ambushed a group of Pennemukeer women collecting muttonbirds and shellfish, capturing and binding them and carrying them off to Kangaroo Island. Pennemukeer men responded with a reprisal attack, clubbing three sealers to death.
Further conflict developed after the arrival of the VDLC in late 1826. The company had been formed in London in 1824 as a joint stock company whose purpose would be to breed and farm Merino and Saxon sheep on a large scale to meet the high demand for wool in England. The company was given a grant to 250,000 acres in the northwest tip of the colony then known as Van Diemen's Land, an area that was home to about 400 or 500 Aboriginals who had cleared the grassy plains of trees through generations of fire-stick farming. Ships then began arriving to offload livestock and labourers—mostly indentured "servants" or convicts who would work as shepherds and ploughmen on sheep stations at Cape Grim and Circular Head, occupying key Aboriginal kangaroo hunting grounds.
Businessman Edward Curr was appointed as VDLC's Chief Agent, answering to a court of directors in London, but his position in the remote part of the colony also gave him the powers and authority of a magistrate. Curr quickly developed a reputation as a cruel and ruthless despot. Within a year of the company establishing a presence in the North West, employees under his direct control had gained a reputation for brutal treatment of the local Aboriginal population. Curr, rather than inquiring into or intervening in such cases, sometimes actively encouraged violence. Rosalie Hare, the wife of a ship's captain who arrived in January 1828 on board the Caroline and remained in the Curr household until March, noted in her journal the frequency of Aboriginal attacks on shepherds, but added: "We are not to suppose the Europeans in their turn take no revenge. We have to lament that our own countrymen consider the massacre of these people an honour. While we remained at Circular Head there were several accounts of considerable numbers of natives having been shot by them, they wishing to extirpate them entirely if possible."
According to historian Nicholas Clements, the primary cause of conflict was sex: very few white women were in the colony generally, and the shortage was particularly acute in the North West, where only Curr’s wife and one other woman lived. The Governor was warned by one worker in 1827 that Curr’s shepherds "had designs of violating the (native) women" and examples were later given to Robinson of female Aboriginals being kept by stock keepers and shepherds, some of them "chained up like a wild beast" and abused. Another woman was said to have been kept by a stock keeper for about a month, "after which she was taken out and shot."
The immediate catalyst of the February killings at Cape Grim was an incident about the beginning of December 1827 during a visit to the area by the Peerapper clan from West Point in search of muttonbird eggs and seals. Convicts who were working as assigned servants for the VDLC were tending to a large flock of sheep and managed to lure some Peerapper women into a hut for sex. When the Peerapper men objected, a skirmish developed during which one of the shepherds, Thomas John, was speared in the leg and several Peerapper men including a chief were shot dead. John was taken back to Circular Head a fortnight later and Curr reported the injury to VDLC directors in London, stating that his shepherd had been speared in an extended conflict that had begun when "a very strong party of Natives" attacked the men.
A party of Peerapper, probably led by Wymurrick, returned to Cape Grim on 31 December, a month after the clash, to seek retribution. They destroyed 118 ewes from the company's stock, spearing some, beating others with waddies and driving the rest over a cliff and into the sea. The company vessel Fanny, with its master, Richard Frederick, was then sent to Cape Grim, ostensibly to collect sheep to be transported to Emu Bay (modern-day Burnie). While he was there, Frederick, who was "very well acquainted with that part of the country and with the habits of the Natives"—helped the shepherds search for the Peerapper clan and located their camp as part of a punitive expedition. Then, according to a journal account by Rosalie Hare, wife of the captain of the Caroline who was staying with Curr and his wife, they killed 12 men in a surprise night time raid.
Several days later, on 10 February—about six weeks after the destruction of the ewes—the same four shepherds are believed to have surprised and trapped a party of Aboriginal men, women and children in what is now known as Suicide Bay, as they feasted on mutton-birds the women had caught at the nearby Doughboy Islands. Although there is no single definitive narrative, it is thought that the Aboriginal people, confronted by the armed Europeans, panicked and fled in different directions, with some rushing into the sea, others scrambling around the cliff and some fatally shot by the shepherds. One group—thought to be all men—were killed near the edge of a 60m cliff and their bodies then thrown to the rocks below. Two individuals, one of the convicts involved and an Aboriginal woman, stated that the death toll was 30, a senior VDLC employee described the fatalities as "a good number" and "a great many", while Curr initially reported six dead "besides several severely wounded". Those wounded by shot fired from muskets would have had poor prospects of survival.
In a dispatch to VDL Company directors on 14 January Curr reported the voyage of the Fanny and the subsequent night time encounter with Peerapper at their camp by Frederick and the shepherds who had "gone in quest" of those who had slaughtered the sheep. In Curr's account there were about 70 Peerapper in the encampment, but the shepherds watched and waited until dawn before retreating without a shot being fired, because "not a musket would go off" as a result of heavy rain during the night. Historian Ian McFarlane has described Curr's account as problematic and less plausible than that of Rosalie Hare: he said the men would have known the Peerapper were reluctant to move during the night, being timid in the dark, and it was improbable that men armed with that knowledge would sit in the cold and rain all night watching the targets silhouetted by campfires, only to await the light of the morning and lose their strategic advantage.
Two weeks later, on 28 February, Curr provided the directors with his first, brief reference to the events of 10 February. He reported that he had heard information from the men on the Fanny that shepherds had encountered "a strong party of natives" and that after a long fight six Aboriginals were left "dead on the field including their chief besides several severely wounded." He added: "I have no doubt that this will have the effect of intimidating them, and oblige them to keep aloof."
Curr reported nothing more on the incident or what had become of those who had been severely wounded, prompting the directors to write back to express extreme "regret" over the deaths and point out: "It does not appear from the account who were the aggressors." Despite his role as magistrate Curr did not further investigate the clash or notify Governor Arthur of the deaths and outside knowledge of the massacre would have remained negligible had it not been for the decision of embittered VDL Company agricultural superintendent Alexander Goldie to write a lengthy letter to Arthur in November 1829 mentioning the encounter. Goldie's letter to Arthur was one of confession of his own involvements in the killing of Aboriginals—notably the shooting and butchering with an axe a woman on a north-west beach two months earlier—and revealed:
There have been a great many Natives shot by the Company's Servants, and several engagements between them while their stock was in that district. On one occasion a good many were shot (I never heard exactly the number) and although Mr Curr knew it, yet he never that I am aware, took any notice of it although in the Commission of the Peace and at that time there was no proclamation against the Natives, nor were they (the Natives) at the time they were attacked at all disturbing the Company's flocks ..."
In a separate, scathing, 110-page letter to VDL Company directors Goldie said Curr had personally encouraged the killing of other Aboriginals, offering rum on one occasion to any man who could bring him an Aboriginal head. Arthur responded to Goldie's accusations by asking Robinson to discover what he could about the incident when he ventured to the north-west region as part of his "friendly mission" to Aboriginal Tasmanians. It took until June the following year before Robinson arrived in the area, where on 16 June he interviewed Charles Chamberlain, one of the four convict sherpherds involved. He recounted the conversation about events that were by then almost 2 1⁄2 years in the past:
Robinson: How many natives do you suppose there was killed?
Robinson: There appears to be some difference respecting the numbers.
Chamberlain: Yes, it was so. We was afraid and thought at the time the Governor would hear of it and we should get into trouble, but thirty was about the number.
Robinson: What did you do with the bodies?
Chamberlain: We threw them down the rocks where they had thrown the sheep.
Robinson: Was there any more females shot?
Chamberlain: No, the women all laid down, they were most of them men.
Robinson: How many was there in your party?
Chamberlain: There was four of us.
Robinson: What had they done to you?
Chamberlain: They had some time before that attacked us in a hut and had speared one man in the thigh. Several blacks was shot on that occasion. Subsequently thirty sheep had been driven over the rocks.
Four days later Robinson questioned a group of Aboriginal women at a sealer's camp adjacent to Robbins Passage, east of Cape Grim. Some related the details of the spearing of Thomas John, the subsequent shooting of an Aboriginal chief and the return of tribe members a few days later to drive sheep off the cliff. They also described the massacre of 10 February, recounting how VDL Company shepherds had taken by "surprise a whole tribe which had come for a supply of muttonbirds at the Doughboys, massacred thirty of them and threw them off a cliff two hundred feet in altitude".
On 10 August Robinson encountered convict William Gunchannon, another of the four who had been present at the massacre. Gunchannan admitted his involvement, estimating it had happened about six weeks after the destruction of the sheep, but was reluctant to provide detail. He told Robinson that the Aboriginal group attacked on 10 February had included men and women, but denied knowing whether any had been killed. Robinson later wrote that when he informed him that Chamberlain had already admitted a death toll of about 30, Gunchannan "seemed to glory in the act and said he would shoot them whenever he met them". Robinson did not interview the other two involved in the massacre: Richard Nicholson had previously drowned and John Weavis had since moved to Hobart.
Guided by bushman Alexander McKay, Robinson visited Cape Grim and identified the site of the massacre. At the northern arm of what is today known as Suicide Bay, Robinson was able to identify the steep cliff over which the Aborigines drove the sheep. Just south of the cliff was a steep path leading down to the beach the Aboriginal women had identified as the site of the massacre. From the accounts gathered and his visit to the site, Robinson formulated what he believed was the most likely scenario of the day as the women swam across to the Doughboys to gather muttonbirds:
They swim across, leaving their children at the rocks in the care of the elderly people. They had prepared their supply of birds, had tied them with grass, had towed them on shore, and the whole tribe was seated around their fires partaking of their heard-earned fare, when down rushed the band of fierce barbarians thirsting for the blood of those unprotected and unoffending people ... Some rushed into the sea, others scrambled around the cliff and what remained the monsters put to death. Those poor creatures who had sought shelter in the cleft of the rock they forced to the brink of the awful precipice, massacred them all and threw their bodies down the precipice.
VDL Company directors, meanwhile, asked Curr to respond to Goldie's long list of complaints and accusations. His reply, on 7 October 1830, included a more comprehensive report on the events of 10 February 1828. Yet it was markedly different to the accounts Robinson had already obtained. Curr explained to VDL directors that a "very large" Aboriginal party had initially assembled at the top of a hill that overlooked the shepherds' hut. He continued:
There our men saw them and the account they gave me of the transaction was that they considered the natives were coming to attack them again and marched out to meet them, and in the fight which ensued they killed six of the natives one of whom was a woman. This was the manner in which the story was first related to me: nothing was said about the natives being a party of people who were returning from the Islands with birds and fish, nor do I now believe that was the case but I think it probable they were going there.
... I have no doubt whatever that our men were fully impressed with the idea that the natives were there only for the purpose of surrounding and attacking them, and with that idea it would be madness for them to wait until the natives shewed their designs by making it too late for one man to escape. I considered these things at the time for I had thought of investigating the case, but I saw first that there was a strong presumption that our men were right, second if wrong it was impossible to convict them, and thirdly that the mere enquiry would induce every man to leave Cape Grim.
Seven months later, in May 1831, the paths of Arthur and Curr crossed in the central Tasmanian village of Jericho, where the Governor confronted Curr with Robinson's report and told the Chief Agent that if the findings were incorrect then he should say so. In a letter to the Governor, Curr did just that, declaring: "I believe it to be untrue. I have no doubt that some Natives were killed on the occasion, my impression is that the real number was three ... as the case was represented to me by the men themselves at the time they had no alternative but to act as they did."
The contradictions surrounding accounts of the events of 10 February 1828 have prompted some history writers to carry out their own inspections of the site in order to speculate on the most likely series of events. There is sharp contrast in their conclusions.
Based on his visit to Cape Grim, Windschuttle has disputed much of Robinson's description of events, concluding that the shepherds could not have launched a surprise attack if the Aboriginals had been sitting on the beach at Suicide Bay. He explained that because the basalt slope above the beach is too steep to climb down, the shepherds would have had to descend via a steep track halfway round the bay in full view of those on the beach, giving the Aboriginals at least five minutes to flee, either by swimming across the bay or out to sea, or going around the rocks at the base of the cliff. He said Robinson's description of Aboriginals seeking shelter "in the cleft of the rock" and then being "forced to the brink of an awful precipice" was equally problematic because of the difficulty for shepherds to force captives up the track while carrying weapons and then—once the Aboriginal people reached the top—the impossibility of preventing their escape over the open grassy land as the shepherds climbed up behind them. He said: "If they really were trying to kill them all, they would have done it where they allegedly found them, down near the waterline at the edge of the bay." Windschuttle said the site's "extraordinarily difficult terrain" coupled with the limitations of 19th century muskets made it beyond belief that four shepherds could have killed 30 Aboriginal people. He said the most credible account was Curr's, in which the shepherds felt threatened by the advancing Aboriginal party and marched from their hut to launch a pre-emptive strike. He also accepted Curr's claim of just six Aboriginal fatalities. Windschuttle said the clash probably took place on the open grassland near Victory Hill (on which he said the hut stood) and if bodies were thrown over a cliff, Victory Hill was the most plausible location from which to do it.
A study of the area by McFarlane, however, raises critical flaws with Windschuttle's favoured version in which the convicts responded with gunfire after being threatened at their hut. McFarlane said surveyors' charts placed the shepherds' hut about a kilometre to the northeast of Victory Hill, which allowed the company easy access from the sea via Davisons Bay. The hut was well beyond the range of spears thrown by Aboriginal people on the hill, and McFarlane has argued that abandoning the cover of a hut to engage a vastly greater force of Aboriginal people occupying the higher ground would have been "an act of gross stupidity", particularly given that one of the convicts, John Weavis, was a former soldier who had served in the 89th Foot Regiment and York Chasseurs, a regiment raised from military deserters. McFarlane said a musket loaded with shot and fired uphill would have been a poor match for spears that could be thrown with great accuracy as far as 90 metres. He wrote: "A large number of Aborigines armed with spears on the high ground would certainly have been victorious. That four shepherds could emerge from that shower of missiles unscathed is beyond the bounds of credibility." Additionally, if the fatal encounter had taken place closer to the shepherds' hut they would have had to carry the bodies of their victims almost two kilometres—passing Victory Hill on the way—in order to throw them off the cliffs at Suicide Bay. McFarlane said neither Chamberlain, Gunchannon nor the Aboriginal woman interviewed by Robinson had made any mention of the hut or the hill, with the focus of their accounts solely Suicide Bay. He concluded: "Curr's version of events is clearly implausible, without foundation and would appear designed to depict the Aborigines as aggressors by shifting the scene, and thus the nature of he crime, from Suicide Bay to Victory Hill."
McFarlane has postulated that the two contradictory witness accounts of events—Chamberlain's admission of men's bodies being thrown from the cliff and the Aboriginal women's account of the whole tribe, including women and children, being attacked on the beach—were two elements of the one story: the convicts attacked and shot a small group of men who were hunting wallaby on the heights and then fired down on to the women, children and elderly who were close to the sea harvesting seafood. The bodies of the men might later have been thrown upon the rocks. He also suggested a second scenario, which he described as more likely, which involved a midden whose remains are about 10 metres from the top of the path to the beach on a large flattish sandy area. He said if this was the cooking area chosen on the day, the tribe could have been ambushed as they cooked and ate the muttonbirds, and suddenly found themselves trapped between the shepherds and the sea. Alarmed by gunfire, some may have fled down to the beach while others were driven back around the lip of the high ground leading to the cliff top.
According to McFarlane, most of the Aboriginal people of Tasmania's north west were methodically hunted down and killed by VDL Company hunting expeditions, acting under Curr's control. He says between 400 and 500 Aboriginal people were living in the region before the company's arrival, but by 1835 their number had dwindled to just over 100. From 1830 Robinson began rounding up the last survivors of the Aboriginal tribes to take them to a "place of safety" on an island off Tasmania's north coast; however those in the north-west avoided him. In 1830 at a sealer's camp Robinson found six abducted Aboriginal women, and an 18-year-old man called "Jack of Cape Grim" from the Parperloihener band of Robbins Island, whose Aboriginal name was Tunnerminnerwait. Robinson threatened the sealers with legal action unless they gave up the Aborigines, and to the Aborigines he promised safety and an eventual return to tribal areas. | 4,484 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Science Day 2020
27th January 2020
Monday 27th January 2020 - Science Day
Today, St. Sidwell's were joined by Professor Smart from Fizz Pop Sciece. Beginning our day, he did an 'Air-Mazing' assembly showing us the power of air. He levitated ping-pong ball and football and made paper flap in the air.
Professor Smart then had KS2 throughout the day where the children were 'crazy chemists', they identified different liquids and their PH scales using universal indicator. Then, looking at the PH scale, had to decide if the liquid was acidic, neutral or alkaline. Following on from this, the children had the chance to create a change of materials by creating their own slime! Needless to say, it was very exciting.
Years 1 and 2 were visited by Dr Fox who taught them about oxygen and oxygenated blood. The children then had the chance to use stethoscopes to listen to each others' hearts and lungs, as well as used bandages to wrap up different parts of the body - a real life skill.
Year 3 and 4 were joined by Dr Santer, who works to develop 'rovers' on Mars. The children were challenged with created a 'lander' which was the heaviest but also which would fall the slowest. A real engineering challenge with great fun and collaboration.
Years 5 and 6 had Mrs Fox, Mr Matthews and some Science Ambassadors from West Exe Secondary School and were shown how to extract DNA from strawberries. The children said it was both amazing and cool and something which they want to try at home!
It has been a great day full of observations, questions and comments. Please ask your child what they have learnt and what their favourite part was. Also be sure to look on your child's class page for more photos and information about what they did today.
At Sidwell's we really want the children to be engaged in the sciences and have opportunities which promote exploration of the world around them!
Thank you all of the parents who volunteered their time, for the contributions made by parents and also to FOSSS for genroualy donating over half of the money needed for the Fizz Pop Science workshops. | <urn:uuid:9f770b66-a004-472e-81dc-0e3a8a27aed2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.st-sidwells-ce.devon.sch.uk/website/news | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00182.warc.gz | en | 0.985481 | 451 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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27th January 2020
Monday 27th January 2020 - Science Day
Today, St. Sidwell's were joined by Professor Smart from Fizz Pop Sciece. Beginning our day, he did an 'Air-Mazing' assembly showing us the power of air. He levitated ping-pong ball and football and made paper flap in the air.
Professor Smart then had KS2 throughout the day where the children were 'crazy chemists', they identified different liquids and their PH scales using universal indicator. Then, looking at the PH scale, had to decide if the liquid was acidic, neutral or alkaline. Following on from this, the children had the chance to create a change of materials by creating their own slime! Needless to say, it was very exciting.
Years 1 and 2 were visited by Dr Fox who taught them about oxygen and oxygenated blood. The children then had the chance to use stethoscopes to listen to each others' hearts and lungs, as well as used bandages to wrap up different parts of the body - a real life skill.
Year 3 and 4 were joined by Dr Santer, who works to develop 'rovers' on Mars. The children were challenged with created a 'lander' which was the heaviest but also which would fall the slowest. A real engineering challenge with great fun and collaboration.
Years 5 and 6 had Mrs Fox, Mr Matthews and some Science Ambassadors from West Exe Secondary School and were shown how to extract DNA from strawberries. The children said it was both amazing and cool and something which they want to try at home!
It has been a great day full of observations, questions and comments. Please ask your child what they have learnt and what their favourite part was. Also be sure to look on your child's class page for more photos and information about what they did today.
At Sidwell's we really want the children to be engaged in the sciences and have opportunities which promote exploration of the world around them!
Thank you all of the parents who volunteered their time, for the contributions made by parents and also to FOSSS for genroualy donating over half of the money needed for the Fizz Pop Science workshops. | 465 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Colonial Rhode Island's communities', a group of people in an area with a common goal, beliefs were surprisingly common to the beliefs of my culture of Omaha. Including are religious beliefs And the government beliefs. The cultural diffusion, bringing one culture into another, between the Natives and Colonists was amazing.You can't be ethnocentric, viewing another's culture by ones standards, when viewing the beliefs.
The Baptist church formed in Providence, Rhode Island, in 1639. Quakers merged with the Antinomians, the natives, and established a meeting house in 1657. This soon became a powerful force in the colony’s ethical life. A Jewish Church, a religious group, was established in Newport in 1658. Puritans, very religious people, were also there setting up places for them to go. Rhode Island;s religious belief was very much like Omaha;s today, which is that anyone can have any religion they want without being punished.
The Puritans believed in hard work, and they worked every day and never took it easy, these people made Rhode Island very productive. The Lower class, a person with a low social status, was the hardest working. Social loafing, when one slacks off in a group, was not accepted at all, this is somewhat the same in Omaha. They were most productive in the industries of trading, shipping, lumbering, and fishing. Omaha is most productive in manufacturing, financial, and consumer goods.Fishing was one of the biggest industries in Rhode Island, one out of every seven men took place in fishing. In Omaha fishing is not a big source of income because there is not a big water body by Omaha. Rhode Island did use money, Rhode Island was thefirst to use and introduce the five dollar bill that is much like the one used in Omaha today.
Rhode Island’s government was very much like ours today. For an amount of years it shared two capitols, Newport and Providence. There was a chief state offic… | <urn:uuid:5feb5c40-ed17-4143-8d20-c4eacd47fc43> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/colonial-rhode-island-with-bibliography/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00412.warc.gz | en | 0.983084 | 411 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.13022077083587... | 1 | Colonial Rhode Island's communities', a group of people in an area with a common goal, beliefs were surprisingly common to the beliefs of my culture of Omaha. Including are religious beliefs And the government beliefs. The cultural diffusion, bringing one culture into another, between the Natives and Colonists was amazing.You can't be ethnocentric, viewing another's culture by ones standards, when viewing the beliefs.
The Baptist church formed in Providence, Rhode Island, in 1639. Quakers merged with the Antinomians, the natives, and established a meeting house in 1657. This soon became a powerful force in the colony’s ethical life. A Jewish Church, a religious group, was established in Newport in 1658. Puritans, very religious people, were also there setting up places for them to go. Rhode Island;s religious belief was very much like Omaha;s today, which is that anyone can have any religion they want without being punished.
The Puritans believed in hard work, and they worked every day and never took it easy, these people made Rhode Island very productive. The Lower class, a person with a low social status, was the hardest working. Social loafing, when one slacks off in a group, was not accepted at all, this is somewhat the same in Omaha. They were most productive in the industries of trading, shipping, lumbering, and fishing. Omaha is most productive in manufacturing, financial, and consumer goods.Fishing was one of the biggest industries in Rhode Island, one out of every seven men took place in fishing. In Omaha fishing is not a big source of income because there is not a big water body by Omaha. Rhode Island did use money, Rhode Island was thefirst to use and introduce the five dollar bill that is much like the one used in Omaha today.
Rhode Island’s government was very much like ours today. For an amount of years it shared two capitols, Newport and Providence. There was a chief state offic… | 411 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Causes of Federation nationwide Are Both Practical and Ideological. Outline and Analyse Some of the Causes being a Rationale to get Federation.
The causes of Federation in Australia are pragmatic and ideological. Outline and review some of those causes as a explanation for federation.
The federation of Australia was your development through which the 6 separate English self-governing colonies of New To the south Wales, Western Australia, To the south Australia, Exito, Tasmania and Queensland combined together and formed 1 nation. The constitution of Australia arrived to force within the 1st of January 1901. There are many practical and ideological reasons as to the cause of federation within Australia, which will be mentioned in additional detail and depth. The pragmatic triggers that will be reviewed include operate and travel, defense, and immigration. The trade and transport concerns relate to the down sides and troubles that Australian's had in terms of the inbound goods caused by other colonies and offshore. This meant that consumers were buying merchandise from international rather then nearby. Implementing federation would mean that tariffs can be put on these kinds of incoming merchandise, which helped protect Down under. Transport was also a major issue within Australia before federation, as each colony acquired their own rail gauge. This kind of created many issues just like time holds off and the hassle for people exploring on the locomotives. Before federation, each nest had their particular defence and immigration laws and regulations. If federation were to be passed, it would imply that the colonies were able to unite their protection forces, making the nation more powerful and keeping out the non-Europeans. As well as various pragmatic causes to federation, there are also ideological causes. The people of Quotes wanted to participate in a country. They needed people to observe how great Sydney was. If federation was to be authorized, the people of Australia's national identity will be increased, and so they would experience proud and humble of their country. Additionally, it coincides together with the belief of egalitarianism, the belief that everyone needs to be treated similar. John Hirst's view of federation in religious conditions as вЂa sacred cause' demonstrates that the reasons for federation were the truth is philosophical, and that the thought of Quotes being a combined nation was something that have been in the process for several years, and was expected to happen.
One of the reasons as to why federation was prompted was that the implication of federation tends to make it easier to trade, travelling and connect between the declares. Before federation was established, back in the 1800s the Victorian govt realised that goods via overseas and also other colonies were being produced at a lesser charge than what their particular industries could provide. The policy of protectionism was then enforced, which included placing tariffs within the incoming goods and encouraging customers to buy the products from inside the colonies. The taxation created anxiety between the colonies, and therefore the take action of free trade between the colonies was encouraged. One of the laws and regulations with federation was that it could enable free of charge trade between states. This kind of meant that the tariffs can be abolished, and consumers and business people could take merchandise over the boundaries and between colonies at no cost. This created many advantages such as some the amount of money spent. When people crossed the edges between groupe they had to halt and show the border protects any items that they acquired purchased, after which pay the tariff to get the items, so that it was very time consuming. Businesses such as brokers and merchants, who performed business much more than one colony, had been in favour to federation as it meant that it would be less difficult for them to operate and make payments between colonies. The acts of abolishing the tariffs involving the states were an вЂattempt to provide reasonable and equitable wages and conditions pertaining to workers' (Gare & Ritter, 2008, l. 245). Transportation was as well something that was promised to improve with the addition of federation. Before federation, the colonies were restricted in getting... | <urn:uuid:c2150bf4-fd21-40f2-a57a-d2864c4eef81> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://azschoolsmakeadifference.org/the-causes-of-federation-in/22615-the-causes-of-federation-in-australia.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00103.warc.gz | en | 0.983169 | 805 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.378353118896484... | 1 | The Causes of Federation nationwide Are Both Practical and Ideological. Outline and Analyse Some of the Causes being a Rationale to get Federation.
The causes of Federation in Australia are pragmatic and ideological. Outline and review some of those causes as a explanation for federation.
The federation of Australia was your development through which the 6 separate English self-governing colonies of New To the south Wales, Western Australia, To the south Australia, Exito, Tasmania and Queensland combined together and formed 1 nation. The constitution of Australia arrived to force within the 1st of January 1901. There are many practical and ideological reasons as to the cause of federation within Australia, which will be mentioned in additional detail and depth. The pragmatic triggers that will be reviewed include operate and travel, defense, and immigration. The trade and transport concerns relate to the down sides and troubles that Australian's had in terms of the inbound goods caused by other colonies and offshore. This meant that consumers were buying merchandise from international rather then nearby. Implementing federation would mean that tariffs can be put on these kinds of incoming merchandise, which helped protect Down under. Transport was also a major issue within Australia before federation, as each colony acquired their own rail gauge. This kind of created many issues just like time holds off and the hassle for people exploring on the locomotives. Before federation, each nest had their particular defence and immigration laws and regulations. If federation were to be passed, it would imply that the colonies were able to unite their protection forces, making the nation more powerful and keeping out the non-Europeans. As well as various pragmatic causes to federation, there are also ideological causes. The people of Quotes wanted to participate in a country. They needed people to observe how great Sydney was. If federation was to be authorized, the people of Australia's national identity will be increased, and so they would experience proud and humble of their country. Additionally, it coincides together with the belief of egalitarianism, the belief that everyone needs to be treated similar. John Hirst's view of federation in religious conditions as вЂa sacred cause' demonstrates that the reasons for federation were the truth is philosophical, and that the thought of Quotes being a combined nation was something that have been in the process for several years, and was expected to happen.
One of the reasons as to why federation was prompted was that the implication of federation tends to make it easier to trade, travelling and connect between the declares. Before federation was established, back in the 1800s the Victorian govt realised that goods via overseas and also other colonies were being produced at a lesser charge than what their particular industries could provide. The policy of protectionism was then enforced, which included placing tariffs within the incoming goods and encouraging customers to buy the products from inside the colonies. The taxation created anxiety between the colonies, and therefore the take action of free trade between the colonies was encouraged. One of the laws and regulations with federation was that it could enable free of charge trade between states. This kind of meant that the tariffs can be abolished, and consumers and business people could take merchandise over the boundaries and between colonies at no cost. This created many advantages such as some the amount of money spent. When people crossed the edges between groupe they had to halt and show the border protects any items that they acquired purchased, after which pay the tariff to get the items, so that it was very time consuming. Businesses such as brokers and merchants, who performed business much more than one colony, had been in favour to federation as it meant that it would be less difficult for them to operate and make payments between colonies. The acts of abolishing the tariffs involving the states were an вЂattempt to provide reasonable and equitable wages and conditions pertaining to workers' (Gare & Ritter, 2008, l. 245). Transportation was as well something that was promised to improve with the addition of federation. Before federation, the colonies were restricted in getting... | 809 | ENGLISH | 1 |
While the power of the Roman Empire was declining there dwelt on the banks of the River Rhine a number of savage Teuton tribes called Franks. The word Frank means FREE, and those tribes took pride in being known as Franks or freemen.
The Franks occupied the east bank of the Rhine for about two hundred years. Then many of the tribes crossed the river in search of new homes. The region west of the river was at that time called Gaul . Here the Franks established themselves and became a powerful people. From their name the country was afterwards called FRANCE .
Each tribe of the Franks had its own king. The greatest of all these kings was Chlodwig, or Clovis , as we call him, who became ruler of his tribe in the year 481, just six years after Theodoric became king of the Ostrogoths. Clovis was then only sixteen years of age. But though he was so young he proved in a very short time that he could govern as well as older men. He was intelligent and brave. No one ever knew him to be afraid of anything even when he was but a child. His father, who was named Childeric (chil'-der-ic), often took him to wars which the Franks had with neighboring tribes, and he was very proud of his son's bravery. The young man was also a bold and skillful horseman. He could tame and ride the most fiery horse.
When Clovis became king of the Franks a great part of Gaul still belonged to Rome . This part was then governed by a Roman general, named Syagrius (sy-ag'-ri-us). Clovis resolved to drive the Romans out of the country, and he talked over the matter with the head men of his army.
"My desire, " said he, "is that the Franks shall have possession of every part of this fair land. I shall drive the Romans and their friends away and make Gaul the empire of the Franks." | <urn:uuid:4811778f-3433-4e41-aa28-215542f1e795> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://e-reading.mobi/chapter.php/70959/25/Haaren_-_Famous_Men_of_The_Middle_Ages.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00004.warc.gz | en | 0.993181 | 410 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.18996000289916992... | 1 | While the power of the Roman Empire was declining there dwelt on the banks of the River Rhine a number of savage Teuton tribes called Franks. The word Frank means FREE, and those tribes took pride in being known as Franks or freemen.
The Franks occupied the east bank of the Rhine for about two hundred years. Then many of the tribes crossed the river in search of new homes. The region west of the river was at that time called Gaul . Here the Franks established themselves and became a powerful people. From their name the country was afterwards called FRANCE .
Each tribe of the Franks had its own king. The greatest of all these kings was Chlodwig, or Clovis , as we call him, who became ruler of his tribe in the year 481, just six years after Theodoric became king of the Ostrogoths. Clovis was then only sixteen years of age. But though he was so young he proved in a very short time that he could govern as well as older men. He was intelligent and brave. No one ever knew him to be afraid of anything even when he was but a child. His father, who was named Childeric (chil'-der-ic), often took him to wars which the Franks had with neighboring tribes, and he was very proud of his son's bravery. The young man was also a bold and skillful horseman. He could tame and ride the most fiery horse.
When Clovis became king of the Franks a great part of Gaul still belonged to Rome . This part was then governed by a Roman general, named Syagrius (sy-ag'-ri-us). Clovis resolved to drive the Romans out of the country, and he talked over the matter with the head men of his army.
"My desire, " said he, "is that the Franks shall have possession of every part of this fair land. I shall drive the Romans and their friends away and make Gaul the empire of the Franks." | 412 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Sir David Kirke, trader and privateer, first governor of Newfoundland (born at Dieppe, France c1597; died near London, England 1654). Kirke, with Sir William Alexander, Earl of Stirling, formed the Company of Adventurers, which was granted patents by King Charles I. It gave them the right to trade and settle in Canada. Kirke was the owner of the first recorded Black chattel-slave in New France, Olivier Le Jeune.
Sir David Kirke was hired by England’s King Charles I to stage raids in the New World. Accompanied by his brothers Sir Lewis (born at Dieppe c 1599; died 1683), Thomas (born at Dieppe c1603; d after 1641), John and James, he captured Tadoussac in 1628. His demand that Samuel de Champlain surrender Quebec was refused (see New France). Kirke left, and captured a French supply fleet off Gaspé. In July 1629, the Kirke brothers forced a bloodless surrender from the starved and destitute French colonists. Thomas was left in charge of the post as governor. However, in 1632 Quebec was restored to the French by the Treaty of Saint-Germain and reverted to French rule.
Did you know?
The earliest record of enslaved Black Africans in New France is the sale of a boy from either Madagascar or Guinea. In 1629, the child, believed to have been six-years-old, was brought to New France aboard a British ship as the chattel-slave of Sir David Kirke. Before leaving for England in July 1632, Kirke sold his slave, then 10 years of age, to Olivier Le Baillif, a French clerk who collaborated with the English. The purchase price was 50 écus, the equivalent of six months regular wages for a skilled person at that time. In 1633, the boy was baptized as Olivier Le Jeune. The deal marked Le Jeune as the first recorded slave sold in New France, and Sir David Kirke as one of the first recorded Europeans to engage in such a transaction in New France (see Black Enslavement in Canada.)
First Governor of Newfoundland
David Kirke was made coproprietor and became first governor of Newfoundland in 1637. He took possession of Ferryland on the Avalon Peninsula, which had been founded in 1621 by Sir George Calvert, Lord Baltimore, as the province of Avalon. Under Kirke, Ferryland became known as the Pool Plantation.
Calvert's prior right in Ferryland had been set aside when he was accused of deserting the settlement. The patent issued to the Company of Adventurers forbade settlement within 6 miles of the shore as well as any interference with visiting fishermen. It did, however, allow Kirke to collect a tax of 5 per cent of all fish and oil taken by foreign fishermen. Kirke developed the infrastructure of a significant fishery on the foundation established by Calvert but came into conflict with the fishing merchants.
Sir David Kirke and his company relied on royal favour to retain their rights and supported the king during the English Civil War. Oliver Cromwell's government, fearing that Newfoundland under Kirke might be used as a royalist base for counter-revolutionary actions, raised enough objections to Kirke's control of Ferryland that Kirke was recalled to England in 1651 to answer charges of withholding taxes. The charges could not be substantiated and his wife, Lady Sara Kirke, was allowed to return to Newfoundland to superintend his business, but only after he had transferred five-sixths of his patent rights to Cromwell's son-in-law. Kirke was imprisoned on a suit resulting from his seizure of Ferryland and died in jail. Lady Kirke managed the plantation in his absence and inherited it, and its problems, upon his death.
A hero to some English writers and a pirate in the eyes of the French, Kirke remains a controversial figure in Canadian history. | <urn:uuid:921efdf3-3d9b-4596-b2d2-790c16514334> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/sir-david-kirke | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00453.warc.gz | en | 0.980872 | 823 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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... | 19 | Sir David Kirke, trader and privateer, first governor of Newfoundland (born at Dieppe, France c1597; died near London, England 1654). Kirke, with Sir William Alexander, Earl of Stirling, formed the Company of Adventurers, which was granted patents by King Charles I. It gave them the right to trade and settle in Canada. Kirke was the owner of the first recorded Black chattel-slave in New France, Olivier Le Jeune.
Sir David Kirke was hired by England’s King Charles I to stage raids in the New World. Accompanied by his brothers Sir Lewis (born at Dieppe c 1599; died 1683), Thomas (born at Dieppe c1603; d after 1641), John and James, he captured Tadoussac in 1628. His demand that Samuel de Champlain surrender Quebec was refused (see New France). Kirke left, and captured a French supply fleet off Gaspé. In July 1629, the Kirke brothers forced a bloodless surrender from the starved and destitute French colonists. Thomas was left in charge of the post as governor. However, in 1632 Quebec was restored to the French by the Treaty of Saint-Germain and reverted to French rule.
Did you know?
The earliest record of enslaved Black Africans in New France is the sale of a boy from either Madagascar or Guinea. In 1629, the child, believed to have been six-years-old, was brought to New France aboard a British ship as the chattel-slave of Sir David Kirke. Before leaving for England in July 1632, Kirke sold his slave, then 10 years of age, to Olivier Le Baillif, a French clerk who collaborated with the English. The purchase price was 50 écus, the equivalent of six months regular wages for a skilled person at that time. In 1633, the boy was baptized as Olivier Le Jeune. The deal marked Le Jeune as the first recorded slave sold in New France, and Sir David Kirke as one of the first recorded Europeans to engage in such a transaction in New France (see Black Enslavement in Canada.)
First Governor of Newfoundland
David Kirke was made coproprietor and became first governor of Newfoundland in 1637. He took possession of Ferryland on the Avalon Peninsula, which had been founded in 1621 by Sir George Calvert, Lord Baltimore, as the province of Avalon. Under Kirke, Ferryland became known as the Pool Plantation.
Calvert's prior right in Ferryland had been set aside when he was accused of deserting the settlement. The patent issued to the Company of Adventurers forbade settlement within 6 miles of the shore as well as any interference with visiting fishermen. It did, however, allow Kirke to collect a tax of 5 per cent of all fish and oil taken by foreign fishermen. Kirke developed the infrastructure of a significant fishery on the foundation established by Calvert but came into conflict with the fishing merchants.
Sir David Kirke and his company relied on royal favour to retain their rights and supported the king during the English Civil War. Oliver Cromwell's government, fearing that Newfoundland under Kirke might be used as a royalist base for counter-revolutionary actions, raised enough objections to Kirke's control of Ferryland that Kirke was recalled to England in 1651 to answer charges of withholding taxes. The charges could not be substantiated and his wife, Lady Sara Kirke, was allowed to return to Newfoundland to superintend his business, but only after he had transferred five-sixths of his patent rights to Cromwell's son-in-law. Kirke was imprisoned on a suit resulting from his seizure of Ferryland and died in jail. Lady Kirke managed the plantation in his absence and inherited it, and its problems, upon his death.
A hero to some English writers and a pirate in the eyes of the French, Kirke remains a controversial figure in Canadian history. | 862 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Find the Powys War Memorials Project Films promoting the project here:
World War I
Many called it the Great War, but it was great only in its extent, the number of those involved and its awful consequences. Nearly 70 million soldiers, sailors and airmen took part; 10 million never came home. Nothing like that had ever been suffered before.
The British Empire played a leading role in the war and lost nearly a million people, including members of the forces and civilians. Over 1.5 million were wounded.
In Wales, 272,924 men and women were recruited and about 35,000 are listed as killed or ‘missing in action’. In Powys, as elsewhere, those who fell are remembered by memorials in towns and villages.
How did it all begin?
The ‘political’ map of Europe in 1914 was very different from the Europe of today.
The great German, Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires still had territorial ambitions but the Turkish Ottoman Empire’s influence in Europe was waning.
Britain and France concentrated on their huge overseas empires but were also increasingly wary of the jockeying for power among former allies and enemies in Europe. Italy and Spain were no less watchful as Germany spent huge sums in an unparalleled arms race to build up its army and – like Britain – its navy.
Europe was a dangerous crucible about to burst into flames. And at the end of June 1914, the first sparks flew.
In Sarajevo, then part of the Austrian Empire, a Bosnian nationalist assassinated the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to this empire. A month later, despite frantic negotiations among Europe’s leading powers, Austria prepared to invade Serbia which, it believed, was implicated in the murder.
This led Russia, in support of Serbia, to mobilise its troops against Austria. Germany, fearful of Russian ambitions, then declared war on Russia and, almost immediately, on France. The various armies began to march.
On 4th August, Britain, in support of France (ironically, the ‘old enemy’) and Russia, then declared war on Germany and the world has never been the same again.
The expression ‘all Hell let loose’ was never more accurate as, over the years of the war, many other countries were drawn into the conflict. The final line up was complex.
Which countries were involved in the war?
Allied Powers (The Entente)
British Empire including United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, Australia, Canada, India, Malta, Rhodesia, Newfoundland, New Hebrides, New Zealand, South Africa
United States including Alaska, Hawaii, Philippines and Puerto Rico
The Central Powers
Austria-Hungarian Empire including Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Czech Republic, Hungary, parts of north-east Italy, northern Serbia, parts of Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Ukraine
Azerbaijan and parts of Armenia
Bulgaria including parts of Greece and of Macedonia
Dervish State (parts of Somalia)
German Empire including Germany, Burundi, Cameroon, small parts of China, parts of Gabon, Ghana, Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Namibia, north-eastern Nigeria, Palau, northern Papua New Guinea, Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Samoa, mainland Tanzania and Togo
Jabal Shammar including most of Saudi Arabia and parts of Iraq and Jordan
Ottoman Empire including Israel, Lebanon, parts of Iraq and of Jordan,
Saudi Arabia, Syria and most of Turkey.
The great empires of the United Kingdom, France and Russia formed the armed forces of what were called the Allied Powers and they were joined during the four years of conflict by more than 30 other countries, from Andorra to Japan and – crucially – the USA.
Opposing the Allies were the three empires of Austria-Hungary, Germany and Turkey (the Ottoman Empire). They were supported by a number of other countries. The Allied forces greatly outnumbered those of the enemy. Britain relied heavily on the armies from what is now the Commonwealth.
Countries in all the world’s populated continents were involved.
However, some European countries remained officially neutral – or were technically non-combatants. They included the Netherlands and all of Scandinavia.
Despite that, never before had a war sucked in so many nations or left so many dead.
A very short history of the war
Much has been written about World War 1 since the conflict began and more is added almost daily. There are extensive official records that are now accessible online, innumerable contemporary reports by journalists and experts, thousands of books and articles by eminent writers or former combatants, and a myriad collection of documents and ephemera held nationally and locally in libraries and archives.
In addition, countless radio and television programmes have been, and are being, broadcast, and many plays and films have been produced as documentaries or entertainment.
Perhaps the most poignant accounts of the war itself are the works of poets and writers, including notable Welsh authors, letters of serving men and women which have recently become widely available, and photographs in many collections. They capture the horrors, the numbing deprivations, the occasional triumphs, the camaraderie and the endlessness of a war that many thought ‘would all be over by ‘Christmas’.
The internet is an excellent source of information, comment and analysis that draws upon all kinds of sources.
The whole war was not only fought in the trenches of France and Belgium, although that aspect was one of the most awful. Equally dreadful was the extended conflict on the Eastern Front between Russia and Germany, the Allies’ ill-fated Gallipoli campaign in the Dardanelles and their campaign in the Middle East.
The war was fought not only on land but also at sea and in the air. It affected millions of civilians whose only "error" was to live in the wrong place.
Countless combatants died from illness or starvation as well as from the effect of armaments and the fate of many thousands of soldiers, sailors and airmen remains unknown.
What can be recorded here is that the British Empire’s direct involvement began with the first British troops landing in France on 7th August to help the French army hold back Germany’s advance through Belgium. It ended with the signing of the Armistice of Compiègne (in France) that came into effect at 11am on 11th November 1918.
Germany acknowledged defeat by the Allied Forces, which had been greatly strengthened by the USA’s involvement from 1917. It is that date and time in November which is commemorated every year, at local war memorials as well as nationally.
What took place in the intervening four years and three months is recorded at infinitely varying levels of detail in widely available printed, graphic and digital formats. It is also recorded, informally, in the many thousands of diaries and letters to families that soldiers wrote during lulls in the fighting.
However, for every individual community, the most important history of the war is that which relates to its people. In the context of this project, it means the history that encompasses the accounts of the men of Montgomeryshire, Radnorshire and Brecknockshire who fought for their flag, some of whom never returned to their homeland.
Effects of war on communities and survivors
The long-term impacts of the war were felt in all parts of society. Individuals who fought in the war and survived, lived with their memories, often shocking, for the rest of their lives. Many were in deep trauma (shell shock) that would be recognised today as Post-traumatic Stress Disorder but then was considered as evidence of cowardice. There were many cases of violence and domestic abuse recorded in communities after the war that could be attributed to this trauma.
Many returning soldiers suffered extreme injuries and disfigurements that deeply affected them and their families. Those who suffered gas attacks in the trenches also suffered blindness and lung injuries. Often, they were kept away from public places for fear of upsetting people and they had great difficulties getting jobs and earning wages to support their families.
Motor vehicles of the time were still quite crude and the engines often spluttered and coughed in what was known as "backfiring". When this happened in a busy street after the Great War, it was not uncommon to see men throw themselves to the floor. The survival instincts that they had learned during their wartime service were still locked inside their heads and for a split second their instincts told them they were being fired on again! Many men finding themselves in this situation would just stand up, dust themselves off and carry on as if nothing had happened.
Many men returned home and had difficulty adapting to civilian life and their families. Some had missed out on four years of their children’s development and both child and parent were strangers to each other. Many men were brutal after time spent in such a violent routine.
Women made many important contributions to the war. They were recruited as Land Girls and forestry workers to replace the men that went to the war, and many also worked in industry. This had a lasting impact on the role of women in society. Employment for women had been predominantly in domestic service, in shops and mills, and on the land. The war provided a wider range of occupations for women, which were better paid and offered better conditions of service. Women could earn £3 a week in munitions, compared with 8–10 shillings in domestic service.
The war also forced trade unions to accept women as members and to provide them with the support they needed as crucial wage earners in a family.
Women could also socialise more. It became acceptable for women to go into pubs on their own and also to wear trousers, like the dungarees they wore for work.
Women also provided an essential service of making ‘comfort for the troops’ by sending letters and cigarettes. Their efforts had a huge effect on the morale of the fighting men.
Wales and Powys in World War 1
In 1914, although Wales was clearly defined on the map, its profile as a ‘separate’ country was quite different from its status and reputation today. It was then, to all intents and purposes, part of greater England, as it had been for nearly 500 years. It was officially referred to as ‘Wales and Monmouthshire’ and speaking Welsh was not encouraged. Nevertheless, most of its people had a strong sense of ‘Welshness’ and this was particularly true, for obvious reasons, in Welsh-speaking areas.
The skill and toil of men and women in Wales’ heavy industries had contributed hugely to the economy and power of Britain and its far-flung empire. Their continued productivity was a vital part of the overall war effort, providing steel for armaments and coal for ships. So, too, was the work of those on the land, producing food to sustain the population, and in the mills and the armaments factories.
When war was declared by Britain on Germany and its allies, young Welsh men were part of ‘the flower of British manhood’ that propelled themselves into a battle of unknown, and unimaginable, consequences.
Although miners and steelworkers, and also to an extent farm workers, were in ‘reserved’ jobs, which meant they could serve the war best by continuing to work there, many chose to sign up for military service overseas.
In the four years of the war, 272,924 men and women were recruited from Wales, mainly from the populous counties of Glamorgan and Monmouthshire.
Initially they were volunteers; by 1916, however, they were conscripted like many of their fellows from England, Scotland and Ireland, all of which was then part of the United Kingdom. They were joined by men and women from the empire – Canada, Australia and New Zealand, India and South Africa.
The 1911 census records Wales’ population as just under 2.5 million, about 5% of that of the United Kingdom – as it still is. In total, rather more than one in ten Welsh people went to war. The proportion of the male population was more than one in five. Some 35,000 are listed as dead or missing in the Welsh Book of Remembrance, equivalent to about one in eight of all Welsh combatants, nearly 1.5% of the whole population. While most were men, women had played crucial roles, for example, in nursing and driving ambulances.
The impact of the war on the community was enormous, not least the loss of large numbers of young men, the bereavement of their families and friends and big changes in the structure and functions of society. There were huge moral and social dilemmas.
Men from religious families who had always been taught in Sunday Schools ‘Thou shalt not kill’ were now being told it was ‘God’s work’ to kill ‘the Hun’. However, the Welsh language was banned from use as it was considered a ‘foreign’ language. Soldiers were not allowed to speak in Welsh, to write to their families or to receive letters from their relatives and friends in their native language.
Until August 2014, Wales was the only home nation not to have a war memorial in Flanders despite losing thousands of young men there in the First World War. A campaign to establish a Welsh memorial won the co-operation of the Belgian authorities who donated a site in the small village of Langemark where the Battle of Passchendaele was fought in July 1917. A dramatic Welsh dragon, created by artist Lee Odishow, now stands on a cromlech in memory of the lost men of Wales.
The men of Powys
At the start of the war, the population of Powys was similar to that of today, about 135,000. This was just over 5% of the population of Wales so it’s likely – based on national statistics – that around 15,000 men joined the armed forces from what were then the separate counties of Montgomery, Radnor and Brecknock. If the percentage of those who died mirrors that for Wales as a whole, the number of dead and missing servicemen from the three counties of today’s Powys was fewer than 2,000 – a large number, however, from one of the least populated areas of Wales.
Men from Powys served in the various corps, brigades, divisions, regiments and battalions of the British Army, in the Royal Navy and Royal Marines, and in the Royal Flying Corps (which became the RAF). Some were part of the several Welsh regiments including the South Wales Borderers, the Welsh Regiment and the Royal Welsh* Fusiliers.
* During World War 1 the Welch Regiment and the Royal Welch Fusiliers were known as the Welsh Regiment and the Royal Welsh Fusiliers. In 1920 they changed their names to the Welch Regiment and the Royal Welch Fusiliers.
Battalions from the South Wales Borderers served in all the main areas of the war including the Somme, Gallipoli, Palestine and all the major actions on the Western Front. The Royal Welsh Fusiliers raised more battalions than any other regiment in the Great War.
Others were recruited to battalions that were raised locally such as the 2/7th Merioneth & Montgomeryshire Battalion which was formed at Newtown in September 1914, and the 25th Montgomery & Welsh Horse Yeomanry Battalion which was formed in Egypt in 1917 from the Montgomery Yeomanry and Welsh Horse Cavalry. The rural landscape of Powys, though, provided many experienced horsemen for the Territorial cavalry. What is known is that there were relatively few Welsh officers, which is perhaps a comment of prevailing attitudes in the military at the time. | <urn:uuid:02d02bbf-271c-47fb-aff6-551e397833ac> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.powyswarmemorials.co.uk/world-war-1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00262.warc.gz | en | 0.984913 | 3,291 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.67280328273... | 9 | Find the Powys War Memorials Project Films promoting the project here:
World War I
Many called it the Great War, but it was great only in its extent, the number of those involved and its awful consequences. Nearly 70 million soldiers, sailors and airmen took part; 10 million never came home. Nothing like that had ever been suffered before.
The British Empire played a leading role in the war and lost nearly a million people, including members of the forces and civilians. Over 1.5 million were wounded.
In Wales, 272,924 men and women were recruited and about 35,000 are listed as killed or ‘missing in action’. In Powys, as elsewhere, those who fell are remembered by memorials in towns and villages.
How did it all begin?
The ‘political’ map of Europe in 1914 was very different from the Europe of today.
The great German, Austro-Hungarian and Russian empires still had territorial ambitions but the Turkish Ottoman Empire’s influence in Europe was waning.
Britain and France concentrated on their huge overseas empires but were also increasingly wary of the jockeying for power among former allies and enemies in Europe. Italy and Spain were no less watchful as Germany spent huge sums in an unparalleled arms race to build up its army and – like Britain – its navy.
Europe was a dangerous crucible about to burst into flames. And at the end of June 1914, the first sparks flew.
In Sarajevo, then part of the Austrian Empire, a Bosnian nationalist assassinated the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to this empire. A month later, despite frantic negotiations among Europe’s leading powers, Austria prepared to invade Serbia which, it believed, was implicated in the murder.
This led Russia, in support of Serbia, to mobilise its troops against Austria. Germany, fearful of Russian ambitions, then declared war on Russia and, almost immediately, on France. The various armies began to march.
On 4th August, Britain, in support of France (ironically, the ‘old enemy’) and Russia, then declared war on Germany and the world has never been the same again.
The expression ‘all Hell let loose’ was never more accurate as, over the years of the war, many other countries were drawn into the conflict. The final line up was complex.
Which countries were involved in the war?
Allied Powers (The Entente)
British Empire including United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, Australia, Canada, India, Malta, Rhodesia, Newfoundland, New Hebrides, New Zealand, South Africa
United States including Alaska, Hawaii, Philippines and Puerto Rico
The Central Powers
Austria-Hungarian Empire including Austria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Czech Republic, Hungary, parts of north-east Italy, northern Serbia, parts of Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and Ukraine
Azerbaijan and parts of Armenia
Bulgaria including parts of Greece and of Macedonia
Dervish State (parts of Somalia)
German Empire including Germany, Burundi, Cameroon, small parts of China, parts of Gabon, Ghana, Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Namibia, north-eastern Nigeria, Palau, northern Papua New Guinea, Republic of the Congo, Rwanda, Samoa, mainland Tanzania and Togo
Jabal Shammar including most of Saudi Arabia and parts of Iraq and Jordan
Ottoman Empire including Israel, Lebanon, parts of Iraq and of Jordan,
Saudi Arabia, Syria and most of Turkey.
The great empires of the United Kingdom, France and Russia formed the armed forces of what were called the Allied Powers and they were joined during the four years of conflict by more than 30 other countries, from Andorra to Japan and – crucially – the USA.
Opposing the Allies were the three empires of Austria-Hungary, Germany and Turkey (the Ottoman Empire). They were supported by a number of other countries. The Allied forces greatly outnumbered those of the enemy. Britain relied heavily on the armies from what is now the Commonwealth.
Countries in all the world’s populated continents were involved.
However, some European countries remained officially neutral – or were technically non-combatants. They included the Netherlands and all of Scandinavia.
Despite that, never before had a war sucked in so many nations or left so many dead.
A very short history of the war
Much has been written about World War 1 since the conflict began and more is added almost daily. There are extensive official records that are now accessible online, innumerable contemporary reports by journalists and experts, thousands of books and articles by eminent writers or former combatants, and a myriad collection of documents and ephemera held nationally and locally in libraries and archives.
In addition, countless radio and television programmes have been, and are being, broadcast, and many plays and films have been produced as documentaries or entertainment.
Perhaps the most poignant accounts of the war itself are the works of poets and writers, including notable Welsh authors, letters of serving men and women which have recently become widely available, and photographs in many collections. They capture the horrors, the numbing deprivations, the occasional triumphs, the camaraderie and the endlessness of a war that many thought ‘would all be over by ‘Christmas’.
The internet is an excellent source of information, comment and analysis that draws upon all kinds of sources.
The whole war was not only fought in the trenches of France and Belgium, although that aspect was one of the most awful. Equally dreadful was the extended conflict on the Eastern Front between Russia and Germany, the Allies’ ill-fated Gallipoli campaign in the Dardanelles and their campaign in the Middle East.
The war was fought not only on land but also at sea and in the air. It affected millions of civilians whose only "error" was to live in the wrong place.
Countless combatants died from illness or starvation as well as from the effect of armaments and the fate of many thousands of soldiers, sailors and airmen remains unknown.
What can be recorded here is that the British Empire’s direct involvement began with the first British troops landing in France on 7th August to help the French army hold back Germany’s advance through Belgium. It ended with the signing of the Armistice of Compiègne (in France) that came into effect at 11am on 11th November 1918.
Germany acknowledged defeat by the Allied Forces, which had been greatly strengthened by the USA’s involvement from 1917. It is that date and time in November which is commemorated every year, at local war memorials as well as nationally.
What took place in the intervening four years and three months is recorded at infinitely varying levels of detail in widely available printed, graphic and digital formats. It is also recorded, informally, in the many thousands of diaries and letters to families that soldiers wrote during lulls in the fighting.
However, for every individual community, the most important history of the war is that which relates to its people. In the context of this project, it means the history that encompasses the accounts of the men of Montgomeryshire, Radnorshire and Brecknockshire who fought for their flag, some of whom never returned to their homeland.
Effects of war on communities and survivors
The long-term impacts of the war were felt in all parts of society. Individuals who fought in the war and survived, lived with their memories, often shocking, for the rest of their lives. Many were in deep trauma (shell shock) that would be recognised today as Post-traumatic Stress Disorder but then was considered as evidence of cowardice. There were many cases of violence and domestic abuse recorded in communities after the war that could be attributed to this trauma.
Many returning soldiers suffered extreme injuries and disfigurements that deeply affected them and their families. Those who suffered gas attacks in the trenches also suffered blindness and lung injuries. Often, they were kept away from public places for fear of upsetting people and they had great difficulties getting jobs and earning wages to support their families.
Motor vehicles of the time were still quite crude and the engines often spluttered and coughed in what was known as "backfiring". When this happened in a busy street after the Great War, it was not uncommon to see men throw themselves to the floor. The survival instincts that they had learned during their wartime service were still locked inside their heads and for a split second their instincts told them they were being fired on again! Many men finding themselves in this situation would just stand up, dust themselves off and carry on as if nothing had happened.
Many men returned home and had difficulty adapting to civilian life and their families. Some had missed out on four years of their children’s development and both child and parent were strangers to each other. Many men were brutal after time spent in such a violent routine.
Women made many important contributions to the war. They were recruited as Land Girls and forestry workers to replace the men that went to the war, and many also worked in industry. This had a lasting impact on the role of women in society. Employment for women had been predominantly in domestic service, in shops and mills, and on the land. The war provided a wider range of occupations for women, which were better paid and offered better conditions of service. Women could earn £3 a week in munitions, compared with 8–10 shillings in domestic service.
The war also forced trade unions to accept women as members and to provide them with the support they needed as crucial wage earners in a family.
Women could also socialise more. It became acceptable for women to go into pubs on their own and also to wear trousers, like the dungarees they wore for work.
Women also provided an essential service of making ‘comfort for the troops’ by sending letters and cigarettes. Their efforts had a huge effect on the morale of the fighting men.
Wales and Powys in World War 1
In 1914, although Wales was clearly defined on the map, its profile as a ‘separate’ country was quite different from its status and reputation today. It was then, to all intents and purposes, part of greater England, as it had been for nearly 500 years. It was officially referred to as ‘Wales and Monmouthshire’ and speaking Welsh was not encouraged. Nevertheless, most of its people had a strong sense of ‘Welshness’ and this was particularly true, for obvious reasons, in Welsh-speaking areas.
The skill and toil of men and women in Wales’ heavy industries had contributed hugely to the economy and power of Britain and its far-flung empire. Their continued productivity was a vital part of the overall war effort, providing steel for armaments and coal for ships. So, too, was the work of those on the land, producing food to sustain the population, and in the mills and the armaments factories.
When war was declared by Britain on Germany and its allies, young Welsh men were part of ‘the flower of British manhood’ that propelled themselves into a battle of unknown, and unimaginable, consequences.
Although miners and steelworkers, and also to an extent farm workers, were in ‘reserved’ jobs, which meant they could serve the war best by continuing to work there, many chose to sign up for military service overseas.
In the four years of the war, 272,924 men and women were recruited from Wales, mainly from the populous counties of Glamorgan and Monmouthshire.
Initially they were volunteers; by 1916, however, they were conscripted like many of their fellows from England, Scotland and Ireland, all of which was then part of the United Kingdom. They were joined by men and women from the empire – Canada, Australia and New Zealand, India and South Africa.
The 1911 census records Wales’ population as just under 2.5 million, about 5% of that of the United Kingdom – as it still is. In total, rather more than one in ten Welsh people went to war. The proportion of the male population was more than one in five. Some 35,000 are listed as dead or missing in the Welsh Book of Remembrance, equivalent to about one in eight of all Welsh combatants, nearly 1.5% of the whole population. While most were men, women had played crucial roles, for example, in nursing and driving ambulances.
The impact of the war on the community was enormous, not least the loss of large numbers of young men, the bereavement of their families and friends and big changes in the structure and functions of society. There were huge moral and social dilemmas.
Men from religious families who had always been taught in Sunday Schools ‘Thou shalt not kill’ were now being told it was ‘God’s work’ to kill ‘the Hun’. However, the Welsh language was banned from use as it was considered a ‘foreign’ language. Soldiers were not allowed to speak in Welsh, to write to their families or to receive letters from their relatives and friends in their native language.
Until August 2014, Wales was the only home nation not to have a war memorial in Flanders despite losing thousands of young men there in the First World War. A campaign to establish a Welsh memorial won the co-operation of the Belgian authorities who donated a site in the small village of Langemark where the Battle of Passchendaele was fought in July 1917. A dramatic Welsh dragon, created by artist Lee Odishow, now stands on a cromlech in memory of the lost men of Wales.
The men of Powys
At the start of the war, the population of Powys was similar to that of today, about 135,000. This was just over 5% of the population of Wales so it’s likely – based on national statistics – that around 15,000 men joined the armed forces from what were then the separate counties of Montgomery, Radnor and Brecknock. If the percentage of those who died mirrors that for Wales as a whole, the number of dead and missing servicemen from the three counties of today’s Powys was fewer than 2,000 – a large number, however, from one of the least populated areas of Wales.
Men from Powys served in the various corps, brigades, divisions, regiments and battalions of the British Army, in the Royal Navy and Royal Marines, and in the Royal Flying Corps (which became the RAF). Some were part of the several Welsh regiments including the South Wales Borderers, the Welsh Regiment and the Royal Welsh* Fusiliers.
* During World War 1 the Welch Regiment and the Royal Welch Fusiliers were known as the Welsh Regiment and the Royal Welsh Fusiliers. In 1920 they changed their names to the Welch Regiment and the Royal Welch Fusiliers.
Battalions from the South Wales Borderers served in all the main areas of the war including the Somme, Gallipoli, Palestine and all the major actions on the Western Front. The Royal Welsh Fusiliers raised more battalions than any other regiment in the Great War.
Others were recruited to battalions that were raised locally such as the 2/7th Merioneth & Montgomeryshire Battalion which was formed at Newtown in September 1914, and the 25th Montgomery & Welsh Horse Yeomanry Battalion which was formed in Egypt in 1917 from the Montgomery Yeomanry and Welsh Horse Cavalry. The rural landscape of Powys, though, provided many experienced horsemen for the Territorial cavalry. What is known is that there were relatively few Welsh officers, which is perhaps a comment of prevailing attitudes in the military at the time. | 3,269 | ENGLISH | 1 |
William Faulkner was born in the northeast Mississippi town of New Albany in 1897 and as a child moved with his family to nearly Oxford. His family loomed large over him, particularly his great-grandfather, called “The Colonel.” Faulkner’s upbringing instilled in him a fascination with family and social dynamics of the South.
Though ties to family and history are integral to Southern culture, Faulkner delved into their eccentricities with a depth rarely seen in literature. For the first years of his writing career, he lived in New Haven, New Orleans and Paris, writing predominantly poetry and essays. While in Paris, friend and fellow writer Sherwood Anderson contacted him, encouraging Faulkner to return to his native Mississippi. Faulkner would heed the advice, making the now well-known statement of writing about his own “postage stamp” of soil. He returned to Oxford, Mississippi, purchased the home he named Rowan Oak, and established the fictional Yoknapatawpha County in his writing. His debut novel Soldier’s Pay was followed by works that would become literary classics, novels including The Sound and the Fury, As I Lay Dying, and A Fable. Faulkner was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1949. He died in Byhalia, Mississippi in 1962.
Today, Faulkner’s Mississippi home remains much as it did during his life. Visitors can see the outline of A Fable written on the walls of his study. His hometown of New Albany also preserves his legacy at the Union County Heritage Museum. The museum contains The William Faulkner Literary Garden, a fascinating collection of plants included in Faulkner’s writing, along with corresponding quotes from his work. The museum also hosts numerous rotating exhibits and a range of literary programs. | <urn:uuid:bafd81b0-511d-482f-8406-cc401966412b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.southernliterarytrail.org/writers/william-faulkner | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00061.warc.gz | en | 0.985787 | 376 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.3565255403518... | 9 | William Faulkner was born in the northeast Mississippi town of New Albany in 1897 and as a child moved with his family to nearly Oxford. His family loomed large over him, particularly his great-grandfather, called “The Colonel.” Faulkner’s upbringing instilled in him a fascination with family and social dynamics of the South.
Though ties to family and history are integral to Southern culture, Faulkner delved into their eccentricities with a depth rarely seen in literature. For the first years of his writing career, he lived in New Haven, New Orleans and Paris, writing predominantly poetry and essays. While in Paris, friend and fellow writer Sherwood Anderson contacted him, encouraging Faulkner to return to his native Mississippi. Faulkner would heed the advice, making the now well-known statement of writing about his own “postage stamp” of soil. He returned to Oxford, Mississippi, purchased the home he named Rowan Oak, and established the fictional Yoknapatawpha County in his writing. His debut novel Soldier’s Pay was followed by works that would become literary classics, novels including The Sound and the Fury, As I Lay Dying, and A Fable. Faulkner was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1949. He died in Byhalia, Mississippi in 1962.
Today, Faulkner’s Mississippi home remains much as it did during his life. Visitors can see the outline of A Fable written on the walls of his study. His hometown of New Albany also preserves his legacy at the Union County Heritage Museum. The museum contains The William Faulkner Literary Garden, a fascinating collection of plants included in Faulkner’s writing, along with corresponding quotes from his work. The museum also hosts numerous rotating exhibits and a range of literary programs. | 371 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Who Else Is Trump Like?News at Home
tags: impeachment, Trump, Andrew Johnson, John Tyler
America has had two Presidents “without a party” – the 10th President, John Tyler (April 4, 1841 to March 4, 1845), and the 17th President, Andrew Johnson (April 15, 1865 to March 4, 1869). Both had never-ending battles with Congress, as both were from the opposition party, but had run on a “fusion” ticket in the Presidential campaign, and then suddenly after 31 days and 45 days in the Vice Presidency, respectively, became President. The question is whether Donald Trump, who ran as an outsider against the party system, but overcame all of his 16 Republican opponents in the primaries and caucuses of 2016, is the third such President.
John Tyler was a states rights Democrat, who agreed to run for Vice President on the Whig Party ticket of 1840, with former General William Henry Harrison, the hero of the Battle of Tippecanoe in the War of 1812. Suddenly, within one month of taking the oath, Harrison was dead of pneumonia, and Tyler had become the first Vice President to succeed to the Presidency due to the death of the incumbent.
The Whig Party leadership, headed by Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky and Congressman John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts, declared war on Tyler, asserting that he was not President, but simply “Acting President,” who could be controlled by the Whig Party in Congress as to personnel and policies. But Tyler asserted that he was President, as if he had been elected to the office. It became common for Tyler to be referred to as “His Accidency” by Clay and other Whigs, who refused ever to see Tyler as a legitimate President, and with Clay planning ahead to run for the Whig Party presidential nomination in 1844. The lack of respect and deference was apparent within months, as the entire Whig cabinet, after initially being kept on in their positions by Tyler, all resigned on September 11, 1841, with the exception of Secretary of State Daniel Webster, who agreed to remain to finalize the Webster-Ashburton Treaty with Great Britain over the Canadian boundary, and also to show independence from Clay, his Whig rival for party leadership. Two days after the cabinet members had resigned, the Whig leadership expelled Tyler from the party. Tyler now suffered constant attacks by Whig Party newspapers, and many threats of assassination were aimed at the President, who was regarded as a “renegade” for having the gall to act independently of the party that made him Vice President.
Tyler would discover that the Whig Congress was unwilling to provide funds to fix the White House, which had fallen into disrepair. Four of his cabinet appointments were rejected by the Senate as were four Supreme Court nominees. Tyler, in turn, refused to cooperate with the Whig plan to re-establish the National Bank or raise the protective tariff, traditional Whig policies. After he vetoed Whig bills, the Whigs attempted to impeach him in the House of Representatives. They failed due to loss of the House to the Democrats in the midterm elections in 1842.
The Texas Treaty that the Tyler Administration negotiated was rejected by the Whig controlled Senate in June 1844, but after the victory of Democrat James K. Polk in the Presidential Election that fall, it was arranged that Texas would be added to the union by joint resolution, becoming the one major accomplishment of the Tyler Presidency, but it was done without the cooperation of his party. So Tyler became the first President to be unable to gain the backing of his party on any issue throughout his tenure.
A generation later Andrew Johnson shared much the same experience. His Vice Presidency had begun inauspiciously. He appeared to be drunk on Inauguration Day in 1865 when he gave a long, rambling speech embarrassing President Abraham Lincoln and the Republican Party, which had named him, despite being a Democrat, as Lincoln’s running mate in 1864. Lincoln, concerned about the danger of losing the election to former General George McClellan, who had been fired by Lincoln for disastrous leadership during the Civil War, ran on the National Union party line. Johnson had been loyal to the Union, despite being from the South, and had been an effective Military Governor of his home state, Tennessee, after a long political career as a Democrat, and replaced Vice President Hannibal Hamlin on the Presidential ticket.
But when Lincoln was assassinated, Johnson made clear that he did not agree with the Republican Party opposition to Lincoln’s Ten Percent Plan on Reconstruction of the Southern states, and decided to give amnesty to former Southern Confederate leaders. He also chose to allow the Southern states back into the Union. He asserted his authority during the seven and a half months that Congress was out of session. When Congress returned in December 1865 the Radical Republican leaders, led by Congressman Thaddeus Stevens of Pennsylvania, Senators Charles Sumner of Massachusetts and Benjamin Wade of Ohio, promoted an investigation of the violation of the rights of freed African Americans and the widespread violence by the Ku Klux Klan and other groups in the reconstructed South.
This led to open confrontation from early 1866 to the end of the Johnson Presidency. Johnson used his veto power to prevent the extension of the Freedmen’s Bureau, but otherwise was neutered. The Freedman’s Bureau was passed on the second round in 1866, followed by the enactment of the Civil Rights Act of 1866 over his veto. He opposed the proposed 14th Amendment. Johnson then went out on the campaign trail, as no President had ever done before, and campaigned for the defeat of his Radical Republican opponents, failing miserably in that attempt, and sadly undermining his own stature by the use of foul language in many of his campaign speeches. The result was a more recalcitrant Congress, and the passage of laws to limit the powers of the presidency. One law diminished the president’s authority over the military while another, the Tenure Of Office Act, denied the President’s right to remove Cabinet officers once they had been confirmed by the Senate, in violation of a tradition since George Washington’s day.
Ultimately, Andrew Johnson was brought up on impeachment charges. The case against him was weak. Seven courageous Republican Senators refused to convict him, and he was saved by one vote short of the two-thirds needed for conviction. Johnson was treated with a final indignity, when his attempt to fill a Supreme Court vacancy was prevented by Congress, which passed a law reducing the membership of the Court from 10 justices to 9. So as under Tyler, Johnson suffered constant rebukes and had a continuously contentious Presidency, which was further undermined by his own confrontational and extremely aggressive public behavior.
And now we have President Donald Trump, who in his first three months in office, has shown evidence that he is willing to ignore party labels, after his successful defeat of all of his opponents in the Republican Party in 2016, and his constantly changing viewpoints on domestic and foreign policy issues. Trump has clashed with many members of the Republican Party, and has hinted at trying to work with Democrats on health care, after his disillusionment with Speaker of the House Paul Ryan over the failed attempt to end Barack Obama’s Affordable Care Act, and his denunciation of the Freedom Caucus in the House of Representatives. Republicans in the Senate, including John McCain of Arizona, Lindsey Graham of South Carolina, Ben Sasse of Nebraska, and many others have also clashed with Trump over the investigation of the influence of Russia in the 2016 election, and Trump’s reckless, unstable, unpredictable behavior, including his incessant use of Twitter.
Trump’s confrontational and extremely aggressive public behavior, quite similar to that of Andrew Johnson in office, has not helped his ability to get things done or promote unity, and his public opinion rating is the lowest of any new Presidency in the era of modern public opinion polls. There are investigations going on in the House and Senate, and many Republicans and conservatives have leveled strong criticisms of Trump on a multitude of issues. Democrats have roundly denounced him at every turn. The result is that the only significant accomplishment of Trump in his first Hundred Days is the confirmation of Neil Gorsuch to the Supreme Court.
The possibility of impeachment is still lurking. Investigations continue by Congress and the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the Central Intelligence Agency, and other intelligence agencies, including foreign intelligence services. The reality of potential prosecution is very real, but just as in the Watergate Scandal under President Richard Nixon, it will take time for the investigations to finish their work.
In any case, it can be said already that Donald Trump is the first President truly without a party since the eras of John Tyler and Andrew Johnson. He has shown little loyalty to his party and his party has returned the favor. This is in part owing to his own character flaws and to the fact that he has zero government experience. Unlike Tyler and Johnson, Trump was elected to the presidency, but that was only owing to the Electoral College. He lost in the popular vote by 2.85 million votes to Hillary Clinton. We are in very combative times, as occurred under John Tyler and Andrew Johnson, and how it will all work out is a question that we cannot answer at this time. Certainly, the next chapters of the Donald Trump Presidency will be fascinating to observe and deserve every American’s full attention.
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- African Americans and Africa: A New Book about Black America’s Relationship with the Continent | <urn:uuid:aaae01ee-97de-4660-8eb1-cf6071728a76> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://historynewsnetwork.org/article/165709 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00186.warc.gz | en | 0.982643 | 2,093 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.49491822719573975,... | 1 | Who Else Is Trump Like?News at Home
tags: impeachment, Trump, Andrew Johnson, John Tyler
America has had two Presidents “without a party” – the 10th President, John Tyler (April 4, 1841 to March 4, 1845), and the 17th President, Andrew Johnson (April 15, 1865 to March 4, 1869). Both had never-ending battles with Congress, as both were from the opposition party, but had run on a “fusion” ticket in the Presidential campaign, and then suddenly after 31 days and 45 days in the Vice Presidency, respectively, became President. The question is whether Donald Trump, who ran as an outsider against the party system, but overcame all of his 16 Republican opponents in the primaries and caucuses of 2016, is the third such President.
John Tyler was a states rights Democrat, who agreed to run for Vice President on the Whig Party ticket of 1840, with former General William Henry Harrison, the hero of the Battle of Tippecanoe in the War of 1812. Suddenly, within one month of taking the oath, Harrison was dead of pneumonia, and Tyler had become the first Vice President to succeed to the Presidency due to the death of the incumbent.
The Whig Party leadership, headed by Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky and Congressman John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts, declared war on Tyler, asserting that he was not President, but simply “Acting President,” who could be controlled by the Whig Party in Congress as to personnel and policies. But Tyler asserted that he was President, as if he had been elected to the office. It became common for Tyler to be referred to as “His Accidency” by Clay and other Whigs, who refused ever to see Tyler as a legitimate President, and with Clay planning ahead to run for the Whig Party presidential nomination in 1844. The lack of respect and deference was apparent within months, as the entire Whig cabinet, after initially being kept on in their positions by Tyler, all resigned on September 11, 1841, with the exception of Secretary of State Daniel Webster, who agreed to remain to finalize the Webster-Ashburton Treaty with Great Britain over the Canadian boundary, and also to show independence from Clay, his Whig rival for party leadership. Two days after the cabinet members had resigned, the Whig leadership expelled Tyler from the party. Tyler now suffered constant attacks by Whig Party newspapers, and many threats of assassination were aimed at the President, who was regarded as a “renegade” for having the gall to act independently of the party that made him Vice President.
Tyler would discover that the Whig Congress was unwilling to provide funds to fix the White House, which had fallen into disrepair. Four of his cabinet appointments were rejected by the Senate as were four Supreme Court nominees. Tyler, in turn, refused to cooperate with the Whig plan to re-establish the National Bank or raise the protective tariff, traditional Whig policies. After he vetoed Whig bills, the Whigs attempted to impeach him in the House of Representatives. They failed due to loss of the House to the Democrats in the midterm elections in 1842.
The Texas Treaty that the Tyler Administration negotiated was rejected by the Whig controlled Senate in June 1844, but after the victory of Democrat James K. Polk in the Presidential Election that fall, it was arranged that Texas would be added to the union by joint resolution, becoming the one major accomplishment of the Tyler Presidency, but it was done without the cooperation of his party. So Tyler became the first President to be unable to gain the backing of his party on any issue throughout his tenure.
A generation later Andrew Johnson shared much the same experience. His Vice Presidency had begun inauspiciously. He appeared to be drunk on Inauguration Day in 1865 when he gave a long, rambling speech embarrassing President Abraham Lincoln and the Republican Party, which had named him, despite being a Democrat, as Lincoln’s running mate in 1864. Lincoln, concerned about the danger of losing the election to former General George McClellan, who had been fired by Lincoln for disastrous leadership during the Civil War, ran on the National Union party line. Johnson had been loyal to the Union, despite being from the South, and had been an effective Military Governor of his home state, Tennessee, after a long political career as a Democrat, and replaced Vice President Hannibal Hamlin on the Presidential ticket.
But when Lincoln was assassinated, Johnson made clear that he did not agree with the Republican Party opposition to Lincoln’s Ten Percent Plan on Reconstruction of the Southern states, and decided to give amnesty to former Southern Confederate leaders. He also chose to allow the Southern states back into the Union. He asserted his authority during the seven and a half months that Congress was out of session. When Congress returned in December 1865 the Radical Republican leaders, led by Congressman Thaddeus Stevens of Pennsylvania, Senators Charles Sumner of Massachusetts and Benjamin Wade of Ohio, promoted an investigation of the violation of the rights of freed African Americans and the widespread violence by the Ku Klux Klan and other groups in the reconstructed South.
This led to open confrontation from early 1866 to the end of the Johnson Presidency. Johnson used his veto power to prevent the extension of the Freedmen’s Bureau, but otherwise was neutered. The Freedman’s Bureau was passed on the second round in 1866, followed by the enactment of the Civil Rights Act of 1866 over his veto. He opposed the proposed 14th Amendment. Johnson then went out on the campaign trail, as no President had ever done before, and campaigned for the defeat of his Radical Republican opponents, failing miserably in that attempt, and sadly undermining his own stature by the use of foul language in many of his campaign speeches. The result was a more recalcitrant Congress, and the passage of laws to limit the powers of the presidency. One law diminished the president’s authority over the military while another, the Tenure Of Office Act, denied the President’s right to remove Cabinet officers once they had been confirmed by the Senate, in violation of a tradition since George Washington’s day.
Ultimately, Andrew Johnson was brought up on impeachment charges. The case against him was weak. Seven courageous Republican Senators refused to convict him, and he was saved by one vote short of the two-thirds needed for conviction. Johnson was treated with a final indignity, when his attempt to fill a Supreme Court vacancy was prevented by Congress, which passed a law reducing the membership of the Court from 10 justices to 9. So as under Tyler, Johnson suffered constant rebukes and had a continuously contentious Presidency, which was further undermined by his own confrontational and extremely aggressive public behavior.
And now we have President Donald Trump, who in his first three months in office, has shown evidence that he is willing to ignore party labels, after his successful defeat of all of his opponents in the Republican Party in 2016, and his constantly changing viewpoints on domestic and foreign policy issues. Trump has clashed with many members of the Republican Party, and has hinted at trying to work with Democrats on health care, after his disillusionment with Speaker of the House Paul Ryan over the failed attempt to end Barack Obama’s Affordable Care Act, and his denunciation of the Freedom Caucus in the House of Representatives. Republicans in the Senate, including John McCain of Arizona, Lindsey Graham of South Carolina, Ben Sasse of Nebraska, and many others have also clashed with Trump over the investigation of the influence of Russia in the 2016 election, and Trump’s reckless, unstable, unpredictable behavior, including his incessant use of Twitter.
Trump’s confrontational and extremely aggressive public behavior, quite similar to that of Andrew Johnson in office, has not helped his ability to get things done or promote unity, and his public opinion rating is the lowest of any new Presidency in the era of modern public opinion polls. There are investigations going on in the House and Senate, and many Republicans and conservatives have leveled strong criticisms of Trump on a multitude of issues. Democrats have roundly denounced him at every turn. The result is that the only significant accomplishment of Trump in his first Hundred Days is the confirmation of Neil Gorsuch to the Supreme Court.
The possibility of impeachment is still lurking. Investigations continue by Congress and the Federal Bureau of Investigation, the Central Intelligence Agency, and other intelligence agencies, including foreign intelligence services. The reality of potential prosecution is very real, but just as in the Watergate Scandal under President Richard Nixon, it will take time for the investigations to finish their work.
In any case, it can be said already that Donald Trump is the first President truly without a party since the eras of John Tyler and Andrew Johnson. He has shown little loyalty to his party and his party has returned the favor. This is in part owing to his own character flaws and to the fact that he has zero government experience. Unlike Tyler and Johnson, Trump was elected to the presidency, but that was only owing to the Electoral College. He lost in the popular vote by 2.85 million votes to Hillary Clinton. We are in very combative times, as occurred under John Tyler and Andrew Johnson, and how it will all work out is a question that we cannot answer at this time. Certainly, the next chapters of the Donald Trump Presidency will be fascinating to observe and deserve every American’s full attention.
comments powered by Disqus
- How 22-Year-Old George Washington Inadvertently Sparked a World War
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- African Americans and Africa: A New Book about Black America’s Relationship with the Continent | 2,143 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Wovoka received a message that was said to come from God. In order for this vision to come true, they had to do a round dance that had a leader to lead the ceremony and they made a circle to dance a ritual for five days. If the ceremony is performed the wild game would come back and evil would be erased from the earth. They also had to agree to live peacefully with the white man, love each other, not fight, must work, no stealing or telling lies and abandon the old tradition of war and self mutilations. The Native Americans called this the Ghost Dance. Other communities sent delegates to see about the prophet after word spread across the Western part of the U.S. Ghost shirts were common garments for the warriors to wear in the belief that the shirts repelled bullets. They would wear the shirts to protect them from the white man. Among these communities were the Lakota Indians who picked up the ritual of the Ghost Dance immediately. The government soon heard of the Ghost Dance and thought it had a militaristic aspect to it and wanted to put a stop to it.
Lakota Indians are a Native American group in the United States, located in North and South Dakota. These groups of Indians have a very strong cultural and spiritual background. They believed in the Ghost Dance which would bring back their ancestors and take the evil from the world.
Chief Big Foot stressed peace among his people and was known for his political and diplomatic views. In 1870 Chief Big Foot, Sitting Bull and Chief Crazy Horse allied themselves against the United States Army. In 1876 they saw their first encounter with the U.S. army during the Sioux War which led them to surrender. The government placed the Indians on the Cheyenne River Reservation where they had to adapt to the new living arrangements. The government wanted them to learn the white man’s traditions and cultures. The Lakota Indians were expected to farm, raise livestock and send their children to school. The conditions on the reservations were so bad that starvation was upon them, causing them to practice the Ghost Dance more often. The Bureau of Indian Affairs agents were afraid of the impact the Ghost Dance would have and requested U.S. troops get involved to bring about order to prevent any uprisings. The government tried to outlaw the religious practices by the Lakota Indians in 1890.
The Ghost Dance deals with fears, anger and hope brought on by white people, government and the U.S. army. The Lakota Indians had their land taken away from them and their lifestyle changed by the U.S. government. Almost all Indians were on reservations by 1880 which were so bad that the white man didn’t want it because it had no value to them. Treaties were put into effect to give out food and supplies but sometimes they never arrived which led to the starvation factor.
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0.12677618... | 1 | Wovoka received a message that was said to come from God. In order for this vision to come true, they had to do a round dance that had a leader to lead the ceremony and they made a circle to dance a ritual for five days. If the ceremony is performed the wild game would come back and evil would be erased from the earth. They also had to agree to live peacefully with the white man, love each other, not fight, must work, no stealing or telling lies and abandon the old tradition of war and self mutilations. The Native Americans called this the Ghost Dance. Other communities sent delegates to see about the prophet after word spread across the Western part of the U.S. Ghost shirts were common garments for the warriors to wear in the belief that the shirts repelled bullets. They would wear the shirts to protect them from the white man. Among these communities were the Lakota Indians who picked up the ritual of the Ghost Dance immediately. The government soon heard of the Ghost Dance and thought it had a militaristic aspect to it and wanted to put a stop to it.
Lakota Indians are a Native American group in the United States, located in North and South Dakota. These groups of Indians have a very strong cultural and spiritual background. They believed in the Ghost Dance which would bring back their ancestors and take the evil from the world.
Chief Big Foot stressed peace among his people and was known for his political and diplomatic views. In 1870 Chief Big Foot, Sitting Bull and Chief Crazy Horse allied themselves against the United States Army. In 1876 they saw their first encounter with the U.S. army during the Sioux War which led them to surrender. The government placed the Indians on the Cheyenne River Reservation where they had to adapt to the new living arrangements. The government wanted them to learn the white man’s traditions and cultures. The Lakota Indians were expected to farm, raise livestock and send their children to school. The conditions on the reservations were so bad that starvation was upon them, causing them to practice the Ghost Dance more often. The Bureau of Indian Affairs agents were afraid of the impact the Ghost Dance would have and requested U.S. troops get involved to bring about order to prevent any uprisings. The government tried to outlaw the religious practices by the Lakota Indians in 1890.
The Ghost Dance deals with fears, anger and hope brought on by white people, government and the U.S. army. The Lakota Indians had their land taken away from them and their lifestyle changed by the U.S. government. Almost all Indians were on reservations by 1880 which were so bad that the white man didn’t want it because it had no value to them. Treaties were put into effect to give out food and supplies but sometimes they never arrived which led to the starvation factor.
A detachment of troops were sent out in November to Pine Ridge, South Dakota to handle the uprising that was occurring. ... | 603 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Herzl, Theodor (1860-1904)
Theodor was an Austrian Jewish journalist who became the founder of modern political Zionism. His Hebrew name was Benjamin Ze’ev.
Herzl was born in Budapest, Hungary, in 1860. His parents, though Jewish, had no religious sentiment and young Herzl was educated in the spirit of the German-Jewish “Enlightenment” of the time. He attended a Jewish grade school, then a local high school, and finally an evangelical high school. The family moved to Vienna in 1878 after the death of his sister. He studied law at the University of Vienna and received a doctorate in law in 1884.
Herzl worked several years in Germany and at the same time began to produce philosophical stories and plays. During this period, he married and had three children. This was not a happy period in his life, searching for meaning and social reform; he left law and became the Paris correspondent for the Vienna Free Press, a liberal newspaper. Herzl was in Paris to witness the rise of anti-Semitism, which, resulted from the court martial of Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish army officer, who was divested of his rank in a humiliating public ceremony in January 1895, as a mob shouted “Death to the Jews”. In June 1895, in his diary, he wrote: “In Paris, as I have said, I achieved a freer attitude toward anti-Semitism, which I now began to understand historically and to pardon. Above all, I recognized the emptiness and futility of trying to combat anti-Semitism”.
After considering a number of possibilities, Herzl became convinced that the salvage of the Jews was mass exodus from their present environment to a resettlement in a territory of their own. Herzl now began a new era in his life – convincing and organizing what turned out to be the World Zionist Organization. Herzl, who was completely cut off from his Jewish roots and brethren, felt that any territory would suffice. He turned his impressive writing skills to convincing the wealthy and influential Jews to support his ideas.
Although Herzl, never lived to see his dreams fulfilled, his organizational skills moved the existing Zionist organizations, from small ineffective groups to a truly worldwide supported organization.
He published a pamphlet, The Jewish State in 1896. Although others had suggested solutions to anti-Semitism, Herzl was the first to call for immediate political action. Jewish reaction to his plan was mixed. Many Jews rejected it as too extreme, although there were those who responded with enthusiasm and asked him to head what was to become the Zionist movement. He succeeded in convening the first Zionist Congress in Basle, Switzerland, August 29-31, 1897.
In his diary Herzl wrote,
“Were I to sum up the Basle Congress in a word – which I shall guard against pronouncing publicly – it would be this: At Basle I founded the Jewish State”.
The congress adopted the Basle Program and established the World Zionist Organization to help create the economic foundation for the proposed Jewish state. Herzl was elected president of the organization and chaired the first six Zionist congresses. He spent much of his time in his remaining years meeting with world leaders, both Jewish and non-Jewish, trying to enlist financial and political support for his dream of a Jewish state. He died in 1904 before his dream could become reality.
After his death, his reputation increased to that of a legend. He is credited with being the father of the modern Jewish state. Unfortunately, as it is with so many great personalities, being a father to his family was not successful. Of his three children, his older daughter became a drug addict and of devious character, dying in unfortunate circumstances. His only son converted to Christianity and subsequently committed suicide. His youngest daughter spent many years in hospitals and was taken by the Nazis to an extermination camp. Although Herzl transformed to Zionist world, he was not able to influence his own family to follow his lead. Unfortunately we have seen that Judaism could exist two thousand years with out Zionism, but Zionism could not exist one generation with out Judaism.
Herzl envisioned a Jewish state that was devoid of most aspects of Jewish culture. He did not envision the Jewish inhabitants of the state being religious, or even speaking Hebrew. Proponents of a Jewish cultural rebirth, such as Ahad Ha’am were critical of Altneuland.
Herzl did not foresee any conflict between Jews and Arabs. The one Arab character in Altneuland, Reshid Bey, is very grateful to his Jewish neighbors for improving the economic condition of Palestine and sees no cause for conflict.
The name of Tel Aviv is the title given to the Hebrew translation of Altneuland by the translator, Nahum Sokolov. This name, which comes from Ezekiel 3:15, means tell – an ancient mound formed when a town is built on its own debris for thousands of years – Aviv (the season) spring. The name was later applied to the new town built outside of Jaffa, which went on to become the second-largest city in Israel. Nearby is Herzlya, named in honor of Herzl.
In 1949 his remains were transferred to a mountain in western Jerusalem, which became Mount Herzl, and is today a major military cemetery. | <urn:uuid:a26ed680-9041-40ff-b9bd-a80c544549bf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.holidayinisrael.com/herzl-theodor-1860-1904/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00295.warc.gz | en | 0.98963 | 1,094 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.169180721044540... | 1 | Herzl, Theodor (1860-1904)
Theodor was an Austrian Jewish journalist who became the founder of modern political Zionism. His Hebrew name was Benjamin Ze’ev.
Herzl was born in Budapest, Hungary, in 1860. His parents, though Jewish, had no religious sentiment and young Herzl was educated in the spirit of the German-Jewish “Enlightenment” of the time. He attended a Jewish grade school, then a local high school, and finally an evangelical high school. The family moved to Vienna in 1878 after the death of his sister. He studied law at the University of Vienna and received a doctorate in law in 1884.
Herzl worked several years in Germany and at the same time began to produce philosophical stories and plays. During this period, he married and had three children. This was not a happy period in his life, searching for meaning and social reform; he left law and became the Paris correspondent for the Vienna Free Press, a liberal newspaper. Herzl was in Paris to witness the rise of anti-Semitism, which, resulted from the court martial of Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish army officer, who was divested of his rank in a humiliating public ceremony in January 1895, as a mob shouted “Death to the Jews”. In June 1895, in his diary, he wrote: “In Paris, as I have said, I achieved a freer attitude toward anti-Semitism, which I now began to understand historically and to pardon. Above all, I recognized the emptiness and futility of trying to combat anti-Semitism”.
After considering a number of possibilities, Herzl became convinced that the salvage of the Jews was mass exodus from their present environment to a resettlement in a territory of their own. Herzl now began a new era in his life – convincing and organizing what turned out to be the World Zionist Organization. Herzl, who was completely cut off from his Jewish roots and brethren, felt that any territory would suffice. He turned his impressive writing skills to convincing the wealthy and influential Jews to support his ideas.
Although Herzl, never lived to see his dreams fulfilled, his organizational skills moved the existing Zionist organizations, from small ineffective groups to a truly worldwide supported organization.
He published a pamphlet, The Jewish State in 1896. Although others had suggested solutions to anti-Semitism, Herzl was the first to call for immediate political action. Jewish reaction to his plan was mixed. Many Jews rejected it as too extreme, although there were those who responded with enthusiasm and asked him to head what was to become the Zionist movement. He succeeded in convening the first Zionist Congress in Basle, Switzerland, August 29-31, 1897.
In his diary Herzl wrote,
“Were I to sum up the Basle Congress in a word – which I shall guard against pronouncing publicly – it would be this: At Basle I founded the Jewish State”.
The congress adopted the Basle Program and established the World Zionist Organization to help create the economic foundation for the proposed Jewish state. Herzl was elected president of the organization and chaired the first six Zionist congresses. He spent much of his time in his remaining years meeting with world leaders, both Jewish and non-Jewish, trying to enlist financial and political support for his dream of a Jewish state. He died in 1904 before his dream could become reality.
After his death, his reputation increased to that of a legend. He is credited with being the father of the modern Jewish state. Unfortunately, as it is with so many great personalities, being a father to his family was not successful. Of his three children, his older daughter became a drug addict and of devious character, dying in unfortunate circumstances. His only son converted to Christianity and subsequently committed suicide. His youngest daughter spent many years in hospitals and was taken by the Nazis to an extermination camp. Although Herzl transformed to Zionist world, he was not able to influence his own family to follow his lead. Unfortunately we have seen that Judaism could exist two thousand years with out Zionism, but Zionism could not exist one generation with out Judaism.
Herzl envisioned a Jewish state that was devoid of most aspects of Jewish culture. He did not envision the Jewish inhabitants of the state being religious, or even speaking Hebrew. Proponents of a Jewish cultural rebirth, such as Ahad Ha’am were critical of Altneuland.
Herzl did not foresee any conflict between Jews and Arabs. The one Arab character in Altneuland, Reshid Bey, is very grateful to his Jewish neighbors for improving the economic condition of Palestine and sees no cause for conflict.
The name of Tel Aviv is the title given to the Hebrew translation of Altneuland by the translator, Nahum Sokolov. This name, which comes from Ezekiel 3:15, means tell – an ancient mound formed when a town is built on its own debris for thousands of years – Aviv (the season) spring. The name was later applied to the new town built outside of Jaffa, which went on to become the second-largest city in Israel. Nearby is Herzlya, named in honor of Herzl.
In 1949 his remains were transferred to a mountain in western Jerusalem, which became Mount Herzl, and is today a major military cemetery. | 1,113 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Famous Artists: Henri Matisse
Henri Matisse, a French artist, was famous for his use of colors and original draughtsman. He was a sculptor, printmaker, and draughtsman but he was known mainly for painting. Henri Matisse and Pablo Picasso are regarded as some of the artists who played major roles in the development of visual art in the early 20th century. The two influenced the contemporary arts in the 20th century. Matisse was praised for upholding the classical tradition of French painting despite being considered a Fauve initially. His expressive use of color and drawing as displayed by most of his works for over half a century won him a place among the leading artists in the Modern Art.
Henri was born in December 1869 in a little town known as Le Cateau-Cambresis in northern France. He was raised up Bohain-en-Vermandois. He joined law school in Paris in 1887 and later went back to Le Cateau-Cambresis after gaining his qualifications to work as a court administrator. He began painting in 1889 when his mother bought him art materials. He immediately developed an interest in art and described the feeling as having “discovered a paradise.” He enrolled for art classes in Paris in 1891 and the Academie Julian was one of the students of William-Adolphe and Gustave Moreau.
Early Work and Painting
Matisse’s early artwork included still life paintings and landscapes in traditional styles in which he developed proficiency. His work was influenced by early artists such as Nicolas Poussin and Antoine Watteau, and some modern artists such as Edouard Manet. His most admired artist was Jean-Baptiste-Simeon Chardin of whom he made several copies of his art in the Louvre. Between 1896 and 1897, Matisse was introduced to Impressionism by John Peter Russell who he had visited in Australia. Matisse’s style of painting changed completely, commending Russell as his teacher. In 1896, some of his paintings that were exhibited in Societe Nationale des Beaux-Art were purchased by the state, boosting his growing popularity. Because of his love for art, particularly painting, Matisse ran into debts from buying work from other painters he admired. Between 1898 and 1901, he employed the use of Divisionist techniques in his painting. Matisse also made the first attempt at sculpture in 1899 where he devoted most of his time to working with clay.
Fauvism was an art movement that began in 1900 and lasted beyond 1910. However, the movement was most popular between 1904 and 1908. Matisse and Andre Derain led the Fauvist group. The first individual exhibition by Matisse was in 1904 at Ambroise Vollard’s gallery. Although the exhibition was not a success, Matisse spent most of his time painting some of his most popular neo-Impressionist styled work. Most of his work displayed flat shapes and controlled lines. Matisse together with his group of artists known as “Fauve” held an exhibition in 1905 with the paintings expressing emotions with wild colors without regards for the subject’s natural color. Although Matisse and Derain were recognized as leaders of the Fauve, they had their own separate followers. Matisse was not affected by the decline of Fauvist movement after 1906. In fact, most of his paintings were created between 1906 and 1917. Matisse died in 1954 at the age of 84 from cardiac arrest.
Who Was Henri Matisse?
Henri Matisse is an artist who played a major role in the development of visual art in the early 20th century.
About the Author
John Misachi is a seasoned writer with 5+ years of experience. His favorite topics include finance, history, geography, agriculture, legal, and sports.
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Henri Matisse, a French artist, was famous for his use of colors and original draughtsman. He was a sculptor, printmaker, and draughtsman but he was known mainly for painting. Henri Matisse and Pablo Picasso are regarded as some of the artists who played major roles in the development of visual art in the early 20th century. The two influenced the contemporary arts in the 20th century. Matisse was praised for upholding the classical tradition of French painting despite being considered a Fauve initially. His expressive use of color and drawing as displayed by most of his works for over half a century won him a place among the leading artists in the Modern Art.
Henri was born in December 1869 in a little town known as Le Cateau-Cambresis in northern France. He was raised up Bohain-en-Vermandois. He joined law school in Paris in 1887 and later went back to Le Cateau-Cambresis after gaining his qualifications to work as a court administrator. He began painting in 1889 when his mother bought him art materials. He immediately developed an interest in art and described the feeling as having “discovered a paradise.” He enrolled for art classes in Paris in 1891 and the Academie Julian was one of the students of William-Adolphe and Gustave Moreau.
Early Work and Painting
Matisse’s early artwork included still life paintings and landscapes in traditional styles in which he developed proficiency. His work was influenced by early artists such as Nicolas Poussin and Antoine Watteau, and some modern artists such as Edouard Manet. His most admired artist was Jean-Baptiste-Simeon Chardin of whom he made several copies of his art in the Louvre. Between 1896 and 1897, Matisse was introduced to Impressionism by John Peter Russell who he had visited in Australia. Matisse’s style of painting changed completely, commending Russell as his teacher. In 1896, some of his paintings that were exhibited in Societe Nationale des Beaux-Art were purchased by the state, boosting his growing popularity. Because of his love for art, particularly painting, Matisse ran into debts from buying work from other painters he admired. Between 1898 and 1901, he employed the use of Divisionist techniques in his painting. Matisse also made the first attempt at sculpture in 1899 where he devoted most of his time to working with clay.
Fauvism was an art movement that began in 1900 and lasted beyond 1910. However, the movement was most popular between 1904 and 1908. Matisse and Andre Derain led the Fauvist group. The first individual exhibition by Matisse was in 1904 at Ambroise Vollard’s gallery. Although the exhibition was not a success, Matisse spent most of his time painting some of his most popular neo-Impressionist styled work. Most of his work displayed flat shapes and controlled lines. Matisse together with his group of artists known as “Fauve” held an exhibition in 1905 with the paintings expressing emotions with wild colors without regards for the subject’s natural color. Although Matisse and Derain were recognized as leaders of the Fauve, they had their own separate followers. Matisse was not affected by the decline of Fauvist movement after 1906. In fact, most of his paintings were created between 1906 and 1917. Matisse died in 1954 at the age of 84 from cardiac arrest.
Who Was Henri Matisse?
Henri Matisse is an artist who played a major role in the development of visual art in the early 20th century.
About the Author
John Misachi is a seasoned writer with 5+ years of experience. His favorite topics include finance, history, geography, agriculture, legal, and sports.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 907 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Biography of William Butler Yeats
|born||June 13, 1865||Dublin|
|died||January 28, 1939||Menton (France)|
William Butler Yeats was an Irish poet and one of the foremost figures of 20th century literature. A pillar of both the Irish and British literary establishments, in his later years he served as an Irish Senator for two terms. Yeats was a driving force behind the Irish Literary Revival and, along with Lady Gregory, Edward Martyn, and others, founded the Abbey Theatre, where he served as its chief during its early years. In 1923, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature and was the first Irishman awarded. W.B. Yeats was born on 18 June 1865 in County Dublin, Ireland to John Butler Yeats, a lawyer turned portrait painter and Susan Mary Pollexfen, daughter of a wealthy family from county Sligo. His father was a supporter of nationalism and the nationalist movement in the country. Although John trained as a lawyer, he abandoned the law for art soon after his first son was born. Yeats spent much of his early years in London, where his father was studying art, but frequently returned to Ireland as well. In the mid-1880s, Yeats pursued his own interest in art as a student at the Metropolitan School of Art in Dublin. Following the publication of his poems in the Dublin University Review in 1885, he soon abandoned art school for other pursuits. William's upbringing in this type of environment was sure to have an impact on his life and poetry. Yeats' early years are marked by events like rise of the Home rule movement and the momentum of nationalism and a power shift away from the Protestant minority. These events had a deep impact on the young Yeats' mind and would reflect in his literary work. Although he lived in London for 14 years of his childhood (and kept a permanent home there during the first half of his adult life), Yeats maintained his cultural roots, featuring Irish legends and heroes in many of his poems and plays. After returning to London in the late 1880s, William met famous writers Oscar Wilde, Lionel Johnson and George Bernard Shaw. He also became acquainted with Maud Gonne, a supporter of Irish independence. This revolutionary woman served as a muse for Yeats for years. He even proposed marriage to her several times, but she turned him down. He dedicated his 1892 drama The Countess Kathleen to her. Around this time, Yeats founded the Rhymers' Club poetry group with Ernest Rhys. He also joined the Order of the Golden Dawn, an organization that explored topics related to the occult and mysticism. While he was fascinated with otherworldly elements, Yeats's interest in Ireland, especially its folktales, fueled much of his output. The title work of The Wanderings of Oisin and Other Poems (1889) draws from the story of a mythic Irish hero. Yeats married Georgie Hyde-Lees in 1917, and they soon had daughter Anne and son William Michael. The celebrated writer then became a political figure in the new Irish Free State, serving as a senator for six years beginning in 1922. The following year, he received an important accolade for his writing as the recipient of the Nobel Prize in Literature. According to the official Nobel Prize website, Yeats was selected "for his always inspired poetry, which in a highly artistic form gives expression to the spirit of a whole nation." Yeats continued to write until his death. Some of his important later works include The Wild Swans at Coole (1917), The Tower (1928) and Words for Music Perhaps and Other Poems (1932). Yeats passed away on January 28, 1939, in Roquebrune-Cap-Martin, France. The publication of Last Poems and Two Plays shortly after his death further cemented his legacy as a leading poet and playwright. William Butler Yeats was one of the greatest English-language poets of the 20th century, and one of the best and most famous Irish poets of all time. | <urn:uuid:a09f8306-0ebf-4556-a4f1-3dff61dd63ab> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.poetryverse.com/william-butler-yeats-poems | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00523.warc.gz | en | 0.989426 | 833 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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|born||June 13, 1865||Dublin|
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William Butler Yeats was an Irish poet and one of the foremost figures of 20th century literature. A pillar of both the Irish and British literary establishments, in his later years he served as an Irish Senator for two terms. Yeats was a driving force behind the Irish Literary Revival and, along with Lady Gregory, Edward Martyn, and others, founded the Abbey Theatre, where he served as its chief during its early years. In 1923, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature and was the first Irishman awarded. W.B. Yeats was born on 18 June 1865 in County Dublin, Ireland to John Butler Yeats, a lawyer turned portrait painter and Susan Mary Pollexfen, daughter of a wealthy family from county Sligo. His father was a supporter of nationalism and the nationalist movement in the country. Although John trained as a lawyer, he abandoned the law for art soon after his first son was born. Yeats spent much of his early years in London, where his father was studying art, but frequently returned to Ireland as well. In the mid-1880s, Yeats pursued his own interest in art as a student at the Metropolitan School of Art in Dublin. Following the publication of his poems in the Dublin University Review in 1885, he soon abandoned art school for other pursuits. William's upbringing in this type of environment was sure to have an impact on his life and poetry. Yeats' early years are marked by events like rise of the Home rule movement and the momentum of nationalism and a power shift away from the Protestant minority. These events had a deep impact on the young Yeats' mind and would reflect in his literary work. Although he lived in London for 14 years of his childhood (and kept a permanent home there during the first half of his adult life), Yeats maintained his cultural roots, featuring Irish legends and heroes in many of his poems and plays. After returning to London in the late 1880s, William met famous writers Oscar Wilde, Lionel Johnson and George Bernard Shaw. He also became acquainted with Maud Gonne, a supporter of Irish independence. This revolutionary woman served as a muse for Yeats for years. He even proposed marriage to her several times, but she turned him down. He dedicated his 1892 drama The Countess Kathleen to her. Around this time, Yeats founded the Rhymers' Club poetry group with Ernest Rhys. He also joined the Order of the Golden Dawn, an organization that explored topics related to the occult and mysticism. While he was fascinated with otherworldly elements, Yeats's interest in Ireland, especially its folktales, fueled much of his output. The title work of The Wanderings of Oisin and Other Poems (1889) draws from the story of a mythic Irish hero. Yeats married Georgie Hyde-Lees in 1917, and they soon had daughter Anne and son William Michael. The celebrated writer then became a political figure in the new Irish Free State, serving as a senator for six years beginning in 1922. The following year, he received an important accolade for his writing as the recipient of the Nobel Prize in Literature. According to the official Nobel Prize website, Yeats was selected "for his always inspired poetry, which in a highly artistic form gives expression to the spirit of a whole nation." Yeats continued to write until his death. Some of his important later works include The Wild Swans at Coole (1917), The Tower (1928) and Words for Music Perhaps and Other Poems (1932). Yeats passed away on January 28, 1939, in Roquebrune-Cap-Martin, France. The publication of Last Poems and Two Plays shortly after his death further cemented his legacy as a leading poet and playwright. William Butler Yeats was one of the greatest English-language poets of the 20th century, and one of the best and most famous Irish poets of all time. | 892 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Describe and evaluate two theories of the formation of relationships One theory is ‘The Matching Hypothesis’ which is a social psychological theory based on relationships, proposed by Goffman in 1952. It suggests that in order for a relationship to be a long and successful one; both partners in the relationship must be equally matched in attractiveness. The reason for this is due to fear of rejection, therefore when searching for a potential life partner the primary drive is to select someone who is similarly attractive. Walster et al (1966) carried out a study to test the Matching Hypothesis he did this by advertising a “computer dance” during College fresher’s week in the United States. The total number participants were 752, 376 males and 376 females. When signing up for the dance, the judges rated the participants on physical attractiveness, and asked to complete a questionnaire; the results were inserted into a computer database to pair the participants up for the dance. However, the real purpose of the questionnaire was to use later in the research to assess similarity. Instead, the participants were paired randomly; however, it was made sure that the men were all taller than their female dates. The participants completed a second questionnaire during the dance about their partners. The results found that the more attractive the date they were more likely to liked by their date than less attractive dates. This does not prove the Matching hypothesis as the experiment concluded that the physical attractiveness was the most important factor. However, the study lacks ecological validity because interaction was very brief between participants, hence any judgement was likely to have been of superficial characteristics. The short duration between meeting and rating their partner also reduced the chance of rejection. Finally, because only students were used as participants, the sample is not representative of the whole population....
Please join StudyMode to read the full document | <urn:uuid:693bc377-c2b8-4bd3-a030-2f9b9b7930f2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.studymode.com/essays/Describe-And-Evaluate-Two-Theories-Of-63710626.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00301.warc.gz | en | 0.980569 | 373 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.006347359158098... | 2 | Describe and evaluate two theories of the formation of relationships One theory is ‘The Matching Hypothesis’ which is a social psychological theory based on relationships, proposed by Goffman in 1952. It suggests that in order for a relationship to be a long and successful one; both partners in the relationship must be equally matched in attractiveness. The reason for this is due to fear of rejection, therefore when searching for a potential life partner the primary drive is to select someone who is similarly attractive. Walster et al (1966) carried out a study to test the Matching Hypothesis he did this by advertising a “computer dance” during College fresher’s week in the United States. The total number participants were 752, 376 males and 376 females. When signing up for the dance, the judges rated the participants on physical attractiveness, and asked to complete a questionnaire; the results were inserted into a computer database to pair the participants up for the dance. However, the real purpose of the questionnaire was to use later in the research to assess similarity. Instead, the participants were paired randomly; however, it was made sure that the men were all taller than their female dates. The participants completed a second questionnaire during the dance about their partners. The results found that the more attractive the date they were more likely to liked by their date than less attractive dates. This does not prove the Matching hypothesis as the experiment concluded that the physical attractiveness was the most important factor. However, the study lacks ecological validity because interaction was very brief between participants, hence any judgement was likely to have been of superficial characteristics. The short duration between meeting and rating their partner also reduced the chance of rejection. Finally, because only students were used as participants, the sample is not representative of the whole population....
Please join StudyMode to read the full document | 378 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Confederate States Of America The Confederate States Of America Confederate States of America, the name adopted by the federation of 11 slave holding Southern states of the United States that seceded from the Union and were arrayed against the national government during the American Civil War. Immediately after confirmation of the election of Abraham Lincoln as president, the legislature of South Carolina convened. In a unanimous vote on December 20, 1860, the state seceded from the Union. During the next two months ordinances of secession were adopted by the states of Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. President James Buchanan, in the last days of his administration, declared that the federal government would not forcibly prevent the secessions.
In February 1861, the seceding states sent representatives to a convention in Montgomery, Alabama. The convention, presided over by Howell Cobb of Georgia, adopted a provisional constitution and chose Jefferson Davis of Mississippi as provisional president and Alexander Hamilton Stephens of Georgia as provisional vice president. The convention, on March 11, 1861, unanimously ratified a permanent constitution. The constitution, which closely resembled the federal Constitution, prohibited the African slave trade but allowed interstate commerce in slaves. Jefferson Davis (1808-89), first and only president of the Confederate States of America (1861-65). Davis was born onJune 3, 1808, in Christian (now Todd) County, Kentucky, and educated at Transylvania University, Lexington, Kentucky, and at the U.S.
Military Academy. After his graduation in 1828, he saw frontier service until ill health forced his resignation from the army in 1835. He was a planter in Mississippi from 1835 to 1845, when he was elected to the U.S. Congress. In 1846 he resigned his seat in order to serve in the Mexican War and fought at Monterrey and Buena Vista, where he was wounded. He was U.S. senator from Mississippi from 1847 to 1851, secretary of war in the cabinet of President Franklin Pierce from 1853 to 1857, and again U.S. senator from 1857 to 1861.
As a senator he often stated his support of slavery and of states’ rights, and as a cabinet member he influenced Pierce to sign the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which favored the South and increased the bitterness of the struggle over slavery. In his second term as senator he became the acknowledged spokesman for the Southern point of view. He opposed the idea of secession from the Union, however, as a means of maintaining the principles of the South. Even after the first steps toward secession had been taken, he tried to keep the Southern states in the Union, although not at the expense of their principles. When the state of Mississippi seceded, he withdrew from the Senate.
On February 18, 1861, the provisional Congress of the Confederate States made him provisional president. He was elected to the office by popular vote the same year for a 6-year term and was inaugurated in Richmond, Virginia, the capital of the Confederacy, on February 22, 1862. Davis failed to raise sufficient money to fight the American Civil War and could not obtain recognition and help for the Confederacy from foreign governments. He was in constant conflict with extreme exponents of the doctrine of states’ rights, and his attempts to have high military officers appointed by the president were opposed by the governors of the states. The judges of state courts constantly interfered in military matters through judicial decisions.
Davis was nevertheless responsible for the raising of the formidable Confederate armies, the notable appointment of General Robert E. Lee as commander of the Army of Virginia, and the encouragement of industrial enterprise throughout the South. His zeal, energy, and faith in the cause of the South were a source of much of the tenacity with which the Confederacy fought the Civil War. Even in 1865 Davis still hoped the South would be able to achieve its independence, but at last he realized defeat was imminent and fled from Richmond. On May 10, 1865, federal troops captured him at Irwinville, Georgia.
From 1865 to 1867 he was imprisoned at Fortress Monroe, Virginia. Davis was indicted for treason in 1866 but the next year was released on a bond of $100,000 signed by the American newspaper publisher Horace Greeley and other influential Northerners. In 1868 the federal government dropped the case against him. From 1870 to 1878 he engaged in a number of unsuccessful business enterprises; and from 1878 until his death in New Orleans, on December 6, 1889, he lived near Biloxi, Mississippi. His grave is in Richmond, Virginia.
He wrote The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government (1881). Soon after his inauguration as provisional president on February 18, 1861, Davis appointed his first cabinet; each of the six members represented a different state. The first task of the administration was to prepare for the impending conflict. Between December 30, 1860, and February 18, 1861, the Confederates had seized 11 federal forts and arsenals from South Carolina to Texas and harassed Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina. Lincoln, in his inaugural address on March 4, 1861, rejected the right of secession but attempted to conciliate the South. Negotiations for the relief of Fort Sumter failed, and on April 12 the bombardment of the fort began. Three days later Lincoln announced that an insurrection had occurred, and he called for volunteers.The number of states in the Confederacy was increased to 11 by the secession of Virginia in April and of Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina in May. The provisional Confederate Congress, which had met for four sessions between February 4, 1861 and February 17, 1862, was replaced by a permanent legislature on February 18, 1862.
The Confederate capital was moved on May 24, 1861 from Montgomery to Richmond, Virginia. At the first general elections held under the permanent constitution on November 6, 1861, Davis was elected president and Stephens vice president. In February 1862, Davis was inaugurated president for a term of 6 years. The last years of his service were marked by the conflict between the civil and military forces and gave rise to the assertion that the government of the Confederacy had become a military dictatorship. The tendency toward dictatorship was increased by the custom of holding secret sessions of the Congress, by the practice of cabinet officers exercising their rights to sit in Congress, and by the gradual lowering of the political morale and independence of Congress. This condition was further complicated by personal controversies among officials. The first permanent Congress held four sessions; the second Congress, two sessions, with the final adjournment of the body taking place on March 18, 1865.
Although the political organization of the Confederacy was almost identical with that of the Union, the outbreak of the war served to accentuate the marked difference between the two sections. The population of the Confederacy at the start of the war was nearly 9 million including more than 3.8 million slaves. The population of the territory loyal to the Union was about 22 million, including about 500,000 slaves. The value of the improved lands of the seceding states was estimated at less than $2 billion; the value of those in the Union states was nearly $5 billion. The South had 150 textile factories, with a product valued at $8 million; the North had 900 such factories, with a product valued at $115 million.
In the South 2000 persons were employed in the manufacture of clothing; in the North 100,000 were so engaged. During 1860 the imports of the South were valued at $331 million; those of the North at $331 million. It was thus obvious that the South was dependent on Europe and on the North for material goods. The lack of resources forced the Confederacy to levy war taxes and borrow heavily on future cotton crops. An inflationary period in 1863 and later government actions almost destroyed the Confederate credit.In addition the South was hampered by the lack of powder mills and of suitable iron works; only one plant, the Tredegar Iron Works in Richmond, was equipped to turn out large field guns. The railroad system was inadequately developed and equipped, and although the South made desperate attempts to maintain itself in a battle against overwhelming odds, the struggles left it financially and industrially ruined at the close of the Civil War.
The process of restoring the Confederacy to the Union was called Reconstruction . The U.S. Supreme Court, in 1869, in the case of Texas v. White, declared secession unconstitutional. | <urn:uuid:77d5304b-c62d-48c6-8f44-432da813ff27> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://kapaldev.com/the-confederate-states-of-america/716/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00354.warc.gz | en | 0.981186 | 1,714 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.186798155307... | 3 | The Confederate States Of America The Confederate States Of America Confederate States of America, the name adopted by the federation of 11 slave holding Southern states of the United States that seceded from the Union and were arrayed against the national government during the American Civil War. Immediately after confirmation of the election of Abraham Lincoln as president, the legislature of South Carolina convened. In a unanimous vote on December 20, 1860, the state seceded from the Union. During the next two months ordinances of secession were adopted by the states of Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. President James Buchanan, in the last days of his administration, declared that the federal government would not forcibly prevent the secessions.
In February 1861, the seceding states sent representatives to a convention in Montgomery, Alabama. The convention, presided over by Howell Cobb of Georgia, adopted a provisional constitution and chose Jefferson Davis of Mississippi as provisional president and Alexander Hamilton Stephens of Georgia as provisional vice president. The convention, on March 11, 1861, unanimously ratified a permanent constitution. The constitution, which closely resembled the federal Constitution, prohibited the African slave trade but allowed interstate commerce in slaves. Jefferson Davis (1808-89), first and only president of the Confederate States of America (1861-65). Davis was born onJune 3, 1808, in Christian (now Todd) County, Kentucky, and educated at Transylvania University, Lexington, Kentucky, and at the U.S.
Military Academy. After his graduation in 1828, he saw frontier service until ill health forced his resignation from the army in 1835. He was a planter in Mississippi from 1835 to 1845, when he was elected to the U.S. Congress. In 1846 he resigned his seat in order to serve in the Mexican War and fought at Monterrey and Buena Vista, where he was wounded. He was U.S. senator from Mississippi from 1847 to 1851, secretary of war in the cabinet of President Franklin Pierce from 1853 to 1857, and again U.S. senator from 1857 to 1861.
As a senator he often stated his support of slavery and of states’ rights, and as a cabinet member he influenced Pierce to sign the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which favored the South and increased the bitterness of the struggle over slavery. In his second term as senator he became the acknowledged spokesman for the Southern point of view. He opposed the idea of secession from the Union, however, as a means of maintaining the principles of the South. Even after the first steps toward secession had been taken, he tried to keep the Southern states in the Union, although not at the expense of their principles. When the state of Mississippi seceded, he withdrew from the Senate.
On February 18, 1861, the provisional Congress of the Confederate States made him provisional president. He was elected to the office by popular vote the same year for a 6-year term and was inaugurated in Richmond, Virginia, the capital of the Confederacy, on February 22, 1862. Davis failed to raise sufficient money to fight the American Civil War and could not obtain recognition and help for the Confederacy from foreign governments. He was in constant conflict with extreme exponents of the doctrine of states’ rights, and his attempts to have high military officers appointed by the president were opposed by the governors of the states. The judges of state courts constantly interfered in military matters through judicial decisions.
Davis was nevertheless responsible for the raising of the formidable Confederate armies, the notable appointment of General Robert E. Lee as commander of the Army of Virginia, and the encouragement of industrial enterprise throughout the South. His zeal, energy, and faith in the cause of the South were a source of much of the tenacity with which the Confederacy fought the Civil War. Even in 1865 Davis still hoped the South would be able to achieve its independence, but at last he realized defeat was imminent and fled from Richmond. On May 10, 1865, federal troops captured him at Irwinville, Georgia.
From 1865 to 1867 he was imprisoned at Fortress Monroe, Virginia. Davis was indicted for treason in 1866 but the next year was released on a bond of $100,000 signed by the American newspaper publisher Horace Greeley and other influential Northerners. In 1868 the federal government dropped the case against him. From 1870 to 1878 he engaged in a number of unsuccessful business enterprises; and from 1878 until his death in New Orleans, on December 6, 1889, he lived near Biloxi, Mississippi. His grave is in Richmond, Virginia.
He wrote The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government (1881). Soon after his inauguration as provisional president on February 18, 1861, Davis appointed his first cabinet; each of the six members represented a different state. The first task of the administration was to prepare for the impending conflict. Between December 30, 1860, and February 18, 1861, the Confederates had seized 11 federal forts and arsenals from South Carolina to Texas and harassed Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina. Lincoln, in his inaugural address on March 4, 1861, rejected the right of secession but attempted to conciliate the South. Negotiations for the relief of Fort Sumter failed, and on April 12 the bombardment of the fort began. Three days later Lincoln announced that an insurrection had occurred, and he called for volunteers.The number of states in the Confederacy was increased to 11 by the secession of Virginia in April and of Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina in May. The provisional Confederate Congress, which had met for four sessions between February 4, 1861 and February 17, 1862, was replaced by a permanent legislature on February 18, 1862.
The Confederate capital was moved on May 24, 1861 from Montgomery to Richmond, Virginia. At the first general elections held under the permanent constitution on November 6, 1861, Davis was elected president and Stephens vice president. In February 1862, Davis was inaugurated president for a term of 6 years. The last years of his service were marked by the conflict between the civil and military forces and gave rise to the assertion that the government of the Confederacy had become a military dictatorship. The tendency toward dictatorship was increased by the custom of holding secret sessions of the Congress, by the practice of cabinet officers exercising their rights to sit in Congress, and by the gradual lowering of the political morale and independence of Congress. This condition was further complicated by personal controversies among officials. The first permanent Congress held four sessions; the second Congress, two sessions, with the final adjournment of the body taking place on March 18, 1865.
Although the political organization of the Confederacy was almost identical with that of the Union, the outbreak of the war served to accentuate the marked difference between the two sections. The population of the Confederacy at the start of the war was nearly 9 million including more than 3.8 million slaves. The population of the territory loyal to the Union was about 22 million, including about 500,000 slaves. The value of the improved lands of the seceding states was estimated at less than $2 billion; the value of those in the Union states was nearly $5 billion. The South had 150 textile factories, with a product valued at $8 million; the North had 900 such factories, with a product valued at $115 million.
In the South 2000 persons were employed in the manufacture of clothing; in the North 100,000 were so engaged. During 1860 the imports of the South were valued at $331 million; those of the North at $331 million. It was thus obvious that the South was dependent on Europe and on the North for material goods. The lack of resources forced the Confederacy to levy war taxes and borrow heavily on future cotton crops. An inflationary period in 1863 and later government actions almost destroyed the Confederate credit.In addition the South was hampered by the lack of powder mills and of suitable iron works; only one plant, the Tredegar Iron Works in Richmond, was equipped to turn out large field guns. The railroad system was inadequately developed and equipped, and although the South made desperate attempts to maintain itself in a battle against overwhelming odds, the struggles left it financially and industrially ruined at the close of the Civil War.
The process of restoring the Confederacy to the Union was called Reconstruction . The U.S. Supreme Court, in 1869, in the case of Texas v. White, declared secession unconstitutional. | 1,938 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By Ken Zurski
In 1915, the United States of America held the dubious distinction of having the highest divorce rate in the world. Comparatively, by today’s standard, the rate was relatively low at 10-percent, but at the time it was considered alarming. So much so that changes were made to help save the institution of marriage.
Why 1915? The book Victorian America explains that divorces increased fifteen-fold at the start of the 20th century and in 1915 reached a peak (the first time the percentage number hit double digits). But there were other reasons why that year in particular was significant. It was perhaps the last year before the world changed in a way in which everything shifted, both socially and culturally.
A war was on overseas and 1915 began with hope that US boys could stay out of the fray in Europe. Attitudes changed however in May of that year when the British ocean liner Lusitania was befallen by a German U-boat torpedo. Americans were among the victims. President Wilson heard the war cries, but still waited. In April 1917, as more American merchant ships were taken out by the Germans, he commissioned Congress to declare war.
Although the US was only in the “war to end all wars” a short time, it still had a significant impact on the nation’s sensibilities. The women’s rights movement had been underway for more than decade but gained footing after the war. Women found a role and acceptance by replacing enlisted men in manufacturing jobs and working in munitions factories. This only emboldened their resolve. In 1919, the 19th amendment was passed giving women the right to vote.
The Roaring 20’s was next.
So one can argue that 1915 was the last conventional year before America and the world changed as a whole. For statisticians, it’s also a good spot in the historical timeline to make a point. And so that year, 1915, according to statistics, was the year more marriages began ending in divorce. It keep going up from there.
So why? Well that’s tricky and more difficult to pinpoint. Until then, getting a divorce was a process, often embarrassing and difficult for women who were dependent on a man to leave.
Getting married, however, now that was easy.
Men’s attitude especially towards sex usually led them to ask for their ladies hand in marriage sooner than later. “The moment you taste the happiness of the marriage union, you will curse yourself a fool, that you lived so long without it,” one frisky male suitor wrote to another in the late 1800’s. He wasn’t talking about chess pie.
It’s not that couples weren’t having premarital sex, but negative sentiments by more morally conscious women were hard to change and oftentimes carried down through generations. In many instances, out of necessity, women married men they did not love or find attractive. Some women abstained from sex due to fear. Once married, the desire was even less.
So just as quickly as marriages began, the physical relationship was strained. This led to more drinking and straying. So divorce became a tool that was fueled both by the liberation of women as much as it was the chauvinism of men.
According to Victorian America in 1915, “one out of every seven marriages ended in divorce in the nation at large.” And in some larger cities like San Francisco, one in four.
To counter this disturbing trend, marriage legislation was passed that raised the age of consent and called for stricter requirements to prohibit certain types of common-law, polygamous, even interracial marriages. Many states also strengthened rules for divorce by requiring longer stay of residence before petitioning for divorce and stricter guidelines by which a couple could legally be granted one. In most cases something criminal or abusive needed to be proven. Only two states, New Mexico and Oklahoma, allowed a divorce simply on the grounds of incompatibility.
In addition, separate courts were established to help families cope with problems that often led to a rift in marriage, including unfaithfulness, desertion, spousal or child abuse and alcoholism.
All this seemed to help keep marriages together, but due to the number of immigrants flooding the country and the increase in population, marriages in general increased and the number of divorces nationally remained high.
Today, due to the addition of annulments, property divisions and child custody laws, the divorce rate hovers around or just below 50-percent. | <urn:uuid:f6bd9a25-4808-4717-9b32-29d19cccbe19> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://unrememberedhistory.com/tag/divorce/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00283.warc.gz | en | 0.981165 | 935 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.3363203108310699... | 13 | By Ken Zurski
In 1915, the United States of America held the dubious distinction of having the highest divorce rate in the world. Comparatively, by today’s standard, the rate was relatively low at 10-percent, but at the time it was considered alarming. So much so that changes were made to help save the institution of marriage.
Why 1915? The book Victorian America explains that divorces increased fifteen-fold at the start of the 20th century and in 1915 reached a peak (the first time the percentage number hit double digits). But there were other reasons why that year in particular was significant. It was perhaps the last year before the world changed in a way in which everything shifted, both socially and culturally.
A war was on overseas and 1915 began with hope that US boys could stay out of the fray in Europe. Attitudes changed however in May of that year when the British ocean liner Lusitania was befallen by a German U-boat torpedo. Americans were among the victims. President Wilson heard the war cries, but still waited. In April 1917, as more American merchant ships were taken out by the Germans, he commissioned Congress to declare war.
Although the US was only in the “war to end all wars” a short time, it still had a significant impact on the nation’s sensibilities. The women’s rights movement had been underway for more than decade but gained footing after the war. Women found a role and acceptance by replacing enlisted men in manufacturing jobs and working in munitions factories. This only emboldened their resolve. In 1919, the 19th amendment was passed giving women the right to vote.
The Roaring 20’s was next.
So one can argue that 1915 was the last conventional year before America and the world changed as a whole. For statisticians, it’s also a good spot in the historical timeline to make a point. And so that year, 1915, according to statistics, was the year more marriages began ending in divorce. It keep going up from there.
So why? Well that’s tricky and more difficult to pinpoint. Until then, getting a divorce was a process, often embarrassing and difficult for women who were dependent on a man to leave.
Getting married, however, now that was easy.
Men’s attitude especially towards sex usually led them to ask for their ladies hand in marriage sooner than later. “The moment you taste the happiness of the marriage union, you will curse yourself a fool, that you lived so long without it,” one frisky male suitor wrote to another in the late 1800’s. He wasn’t talking about chess pie.
It’s not that couples weren’t having premarital sex, but negative sentiments by more morally conscious women were hard to change and oftentimes carried down through generations. In many instances, out of necessity, women married men they did not love or find attractive. Some women abstained from sex due to fear. Once married, the desire was even less.
So just as quickly as marriages began, the physical relationship was strained. This led to more drinking and straying. So divorce became a tool that was fueled both by the liberation of women as much as it was the chauvinism of men.
According to Victorian America in 1915, “one out of every seven marriages ended in divorce in the nation at large.” And in some larger cities like San Francisco, one in four.
To counter this disturbing trend, marriage legislation was passed that raised the age of consent and called for stricter requirements to prohibit certain types of common-law, polygamous, even interracial marriages. Many states also strengthened rules for divorce by requiring longer stay of residence before petitioning for divorce and stricter guidelines by which a couple could legally be granted one. In most cases something criminal or abusive needed to be proven. Only two states, New Mexico and Oklahoma, allowed a divorce simply on the grounds of incompatibility.
In addition, separate courts were established to help families cope with problems that often led to a rift in marriage, including unfaithfulness, desertion, spousal or child abuse and alcoholism.
All this seemed to help keep marriages together, but due to the number of immigrants flooding the country and the increase in population, marriages in general increased and the number of divorces nationally remained high.
Today, due to the addition of annulments, property divisions and child custody laws, the divorce rate hovers around or just below 50-percent. | 942 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The small history, with local facts, has the tendency to forget of the Kingdom of Cyprus and its scope within Time while it began in 1192 and ended in 1489 for the Venetian period to follow until 1878 when the Congress of Berlin takes place. In other words the Kingdom of Cyprus has a duration of three centuries, without us giving it though the corresponding value. This fact is due to that the successors did everything they could to erase its traces. They did not succeed though to also erase the relevant community which now belongs to the Republic of Cyprus. Upgraded history which is capable of removing pieces of oblivion from the collective memory shows the significance of that period. It is also interesting to think that the Kingdom of Cyprus had the same institutions with the Kingdom of Jerusalem, only that the King pre-existed relevant to the Nobles and it is him who provided the property titles, that is also why its authority was more powerful. | <urn:uuid:4f644caa-ff59-4251-b5da-910acdb70920> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://lygeros.org/46866-en/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=46866-en | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00264.warc.gz | en | 0.98003 | 190 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.4788638651371002... | 4 | The small history, with local facts, has the tendency to forget of the Kingdom of Cyprus and its scope within Time while it began in 1192 and ended in 1489 for the Venetian period to follow until 1878 when the Congress of Berlin takes place. In other words the Kingdom of Cyprus has a duration of three centuries, without us giving it though the corresponding value. This fact is due to that the successors did everything they could to erase its traces. They did not succeed though to also erase the relevant community which now belongs to the Republic of Cyprus. Upgraded history which is capable of removing pieces of oblivion from the collective memory shows the significance of that period. It is also interesting to think that the Kingdom of Cyprus had the same institutions with the Kingdom of Jerusalem, only that the King pre-existed relevant to the Nobles and it is him who provided the property titles, that is also why its authority was more powerful. | 198 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The period from 1933 to 1945 marked the horrible time of the Holocaust. In Germany, the Jews were blamed for Germany’s economic problems and murdered by the millions. In total the Holocaust’s death toll was eleven million, six of which were Jews. Adolf Hitler, chancellor of
Germany at the time, is often seen as the sole person responsible for this terrible event. In fact, many groups many groups were to blame for the Holocaust. The three main groups responsible are the Nazis who pursued the Jews and ran the concentration camps, the people not being oppressed that said nothing, and, of course, Hitler himself.
One of the major contributors of the Holocaust are the Nazi soldiers. Can there be a clock without the gears? No, of course not! Well, the Nazis are like the gears that made the clock work.
They carried out the heinous acts against the Jews and the oppressed. It was their inhumane actions that resulted in so much death so they definitely deserve some blame. Hitler did not force the officers to starve the prisoners until they were nothing more than walking bones. He did not make them separate husbands and wives; parents and children, and he did not coerce them into making the captives work until they dropped. It was the Nazi’s ultimate choice to do all those awful deeds, therefore they must claim responsibility.
Additionally, the outsiders not being directly affected but who did not do anything to help the imprisoned are also partly responsible for the genocide. As the Holocaust survivor, Elie
Wiesel, said in his book Night, “How was it possible that men, women, and children were being burned and that the world kept silent” (32)? Others knew of Hitler’s “Final Solution” and the brutal concentration camps but they did nothing to help. Either people supported the Holocaust or were against it. Those who supported it obviously deserve blame because they allowed the
Holocaust to happen and even encouraged it. However, those who were not in favor of the genocide but did nothing are no better than the supporters. It is just like Albert Einstein said:
“The world is a dangerous place to live; not because of the people who are evil, but because of the people who don’t do anything about it.” For twelve years, countless Jews along with many other groups of people were persecuted and tortured for no valid reason and it was not stopped.
Even though is wasn’t their problem, other countries like the US, or even cities housing the death camps should have at least done something to help sooner. Then the awful genocide could not have victimized so many.
Lastly, some may argue that it was completely… | <urn:uuid:ce2f5a53-91d4-4ce4-9538-ad0664f2dffe> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/Who-Is-To-Blame-558498.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00451.warc.gz | en | 0.987586 | 550 | 4.125 | 4 | [
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0.4521401524... | 1 | The period from 1933 to 1945 marked the horrible time of the Holocaust. In Germany, the Jews were blamed for Germany’s economic problems and murdered by the millions. In total the Holocaust’s death toll was eleven million, six of which were Jews. Adolf Hitler, chancellor of
Germany at the time, is often seen as the sole person responsible for this terrible event. In fact, many groups many groups were to blame for the Holocaust. The three main groups responsible are the Nazis who pursued the Jews and ran the concentration camps, the people not being oppressed that said nothing, and, of course, Hitler himself.
One of the major contributors of the Holocaust are the Nazi soldiers. Can there be a clock without the gears? No, of course not! Well, the Nazis are like the gears that made the clock work.
They carried out the heinous acts against the Jews and the oppressed. It was their inhumane actions that resulted in so much death so they definitely deserve some blame. Hitler did not force the officers to starve the prisoners until they were nothing more than walking bones. He did not make them separate husbands and wives; parents and children, and he did not coerce them into making the captives work until they dropped. It was the Nazi’s ultimate choice to do all those awful deeds, therefore they must claim responsibility.
Additionally, the outsiders not being directly affected but who did not do anything to help the imprisoned are also partly responsible for the genocide. As the Holocaust survivor, Elie
Wiesel, said in his book Night, “How was it possible that men, women, and children were being burned and that the world kept silent” (32)? Others knew of Hitler’s “Final Solution” and the brutal concentration camps but they did nothing to help. Either people supported the Holocaust or were against it. Those who supported it obviously deserve blame because they allowed the
Holocaust to happen and even encouraged it. However, those who were not in favor of the genocide but did nothing are no better than the supporters. It is just like Albert Einstein said:
“The world is a dangerous place to live; not because of the people who are evil, but because of the people who don’t do anything about it.” For twelve years, countless Jews along with many other groups of people were persecuted and tortured for no valid reason and it was not stopped.
Even though is wasn’t their problem, other countries like the US, or even cities housing the death camps should have at least done something to help sooner. Then the awful genocide could not have victimized so many.
Lastly, some may argue that it was completely… | 537 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Early computers often had load-store architectures because that approach resulted in simple instruction sets (especially on computers which had only an accumulator), and thus simple implementations. (The PDP-8 is a machine which went this direction.)
More recently, RISC computers often were of this type; the single memory operation per instruction led to simple instructions, which allowed the machine's cycle time to be kept low, a key goal of RISC machines. Also, because all instructions had at most one memory address, it made it easy to have fixed-length instructions, which made constructing pipelines easier (since an instruction did not have to be partially decoded to tell how long it was, i.e. where the next instruction started).
CISC computers were usually not load-store, as they often had instructions in which both the source and destination were in main memory. The object code can be denser (since instructions can do more), which was important in the core memory era, when main memory was very expensive. | <urn:uuid:ae37842e-9a6e-4681-9539-988445c055b4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gunkies.org/wiki/Load-store_architecture | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00198.warc.gz | en | 0.983713 | 205 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.20171047747135162,
... | 2 | Early computers often had load-store architectures because that approach resulted in simple instruction sets (especially on computers which had only an accumulator), and thus simple implementations. (The PDP-8 is a machine which went this direction.)
More recently, RISC computers often were of this type; the single memory operation per instruction led to simple instructions, which allowed the machine's cycle time to be kept low, a key goal of RISC machines. Also, because all instructions had at most one memory address, it made it easy to have fixed-length instructions, which made constructing pipelines easier (since an instruction did not have to be partially decoded to tell how long it was, i.e. where the next instruction started).
CISC computers were usually not load-store, as they often had instructions in which both the source and destination were in main memory. The object code can be denser (since instructions can do more), which was important in the core memory era, when main memory was very expensive. | 197 | ENGLISH | 1 |
One morning after I had taught a women’s Bible study on the life of Abigail, wife of Nabal, a woman hustled over to me, elbows swinging. Seeing her body language, I braced myself.
Her argument about my teaching went something like this: “You're wrong! Abigail was most definitely not righteous. By taking matters into her own hands, she shows what happens when a wife steps out from under her husband’s ‘umbrella of authority.’ If Abigail had submitted to Nabal rather than intervening, David would have felt guilty for killing him, and it would have kept him from killing later."
I’d heard this interpretation once before—from Bill Gothard, among others. So how do we figure out how to interpret this story? Was Abigail good or evil?
The text itself gives us the clues we need.
We find the narrative in 1 Samuel 25:2–43. The narrator begins with his assessment: “[Abigail] was both wise and beautiful.” But of Nabal the storyteller says, “But the man was harsh and his deeds were evil” (v. 3). The first clues about how to view this story appear at the beginning.
Now, Nabal was filthy rich, and David’s men had treated his servants well. But when the time came for Nabal to reciprocate, he screamed at the king’s servants: “WHO IS DAVID, AND WHO IS THIS SON OF JESSE? This is a time when many servants are breaking away from their masters! Should I take my bread and my water and my meat that I have slaughtered for my shearers and give them to these men? I don’t even know where they came from!”
Whoa. As they say in Texas, “Them’s fightin’ words!”
When David heard how Nabal had dissed him, he rounded up four hundred men. His plan: wipe out Nabal and every one of his children and slaves. Nabal was totally outnumbered.
Fortunately, one of Abigail’s servants told her what Nabal had done. This slave provided the backstory about how David’s men had treated Nabal’s servants with utter kindness and deserved better from Nabal. The servant needed Abigail to intervene, or he would die along with the rest.
Abigail chose to act. But it wasn’t just her own neck she sought to save. It was hers, and her kids', and her servants'—and her evil husband's!
Abigail was no rebel. She was a peacemaker. And as such, she put together enough food for the army and sent her servants ahead of her. But she did not tell her husband. Nabal would have tried to stop her, and a lot of innocent people would have died.
Riding on her donkey, the equivalent to a Mercedes, she went down to meet David and his men. By the time she met up with him, David was good and worked up over Nabal's insults. David planned to kill all the men in any way associated with Nabal’s household
When Abigail met David, she showed the humility her husband should have exhibited. She “got down off her high horse,” threw herself to the ground, fell at his feet and pleaded with David. And notice how much she talked about the Lord: “Please forgive the sin of your servant, for the Lord will certainly establish the house of my lord, because my lord fights the battles of the Lord. May no evil be found in you all your days! When someone sets out to chase you and to take your life, the life of my lord will be wrapped securely in the bag of the living by the Lord your God. But he will sling away the lives of your enemies from the sling’s pocket! The Lord will do for my lord everything that he promised you, and he will make you a leader over Israel. Your conscience will not be overwhelmed with guilt for having poured out innocent blood and for having taken matters into your own hands. When the Lord has granted my lord success, please remember your servant.”
Did you catch that? Abigail was focused on God. And she considered it evil to “take matters into your own hands”—the very action for which she is accused by contemporary critics. So…either this story is full of extreme irony or Abigail is a model of righteousness.
Notice the future king's "God talk." He said, “Praised be the Lord, the God of Israel, who has sent you this day to meet me! Praised be your good judgment! May you yourself be rewarded for having prevented me this day from shedding blood and taking matters into my own hands! Otherwise, as surely as the Lord, the God of Israel, lives—he who has prevented me from harming you—if you had not come so quickly to meet me, by morning’s light not even one male belonging to Nabal would have remained alive!”
Did you catch that? David saw Abigail’s actions as preventing him from sin, as wise, and as guided by the Lord himself.
A less honest wife would have hidden her actions from her man. But once everyone was out of danger, she summoned the courage to tell Nabal what she'd done—after he had sobered up, that is. And her words made him flip out so intensely that he had a stroke. Literally. Utter rage exploded in his head.
And again David saw the circumstances as being from God. When he heard about Nabal’s death, he exclaimed, “Praised be the Lord who has vindicated me and avenged the insult that I suffered from Nabal! The Lord has kept his servant from doing evil, and he has repaid Nabal for his evil deeds.” David was so impressed with Abigail and how God used her that he sent for her to marry her.
So how do we know how to interpret this story? The text itself gives us the clues we need to see the point-of-view of the narrator: Abigail was beautiful inside and out, and the hand of the Lord was on her and on David. As is often true of Bible stories, the text interprets itself.
Aside from learning hermeneutics in Abigail's story, we can also learn from Abigail's life. Although suffering in an abusive marriage, Abigail protected others from harm rather than thinking only of herself. She refused to cover for Nabal's sin, and she retained her voice in the situation. Sounds like a timely message, huh? | <urn:uuid:beea7bce-544e-46eb-9851-c38f1aa89f8c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://blogs.bible.org/was-abigail-right-to-go-behind-nabals-back/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00053.warc.gz | en | 0.982067 | 1,418 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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-0.017815791... | 4 | One morning after I had taught a women’s Bible study on the life of Abigail, wife of Nabal, a woman hustled over to me, elbows swinging. Seeing her body language, I braced myself.
Her argument about my teaching went something like this: “You're wrong! Abigail was most definitely not righteous. By taking matters into her own hands, she shows what happens when a wife steps out from under her husband’s ‘umbrella of authority.’ If Abigail had submitted to Nabal rather than intervening, David would have felt guilty for killing him, and it would have kept him from killing later."
I’d heard this interpretation once before—from Bill Gothard, among others. So how do we figure out how to interpret this story? Was Abigail good or evil?
The text itself gives us the clues we need.
We find the narrative in 1 Samuel 25:2–43. The narrator begins with his assessment: “[Abigail] was both wise and beautiful.” But of Nabal the storyteller says, “But the man was harsh and his deeds were evil” (v. 3). The first clues about how to view this story appear at the beginning.
Now, Nabal was filthy rich, and David’s men had treated his servants well. But when the time came for Nabal to reciprocate, he screamed at the king’s servants: “WHO IS DAVID, AND WHO IS THIS SON OF JESSE? This is a time when many servants are breaking away from their masters! Should I take my bread and my water and my meat that I have slaughtered for my shearers and give them to these men? I don’t even know where they came from!”
Whoa. As they say in Texas, “Them’s fightin’ words!”
When David heard how Nabal had dissed him, he rounded up four hundred men. His plan: wipe out Nabal and every one of his children and slaves. Nabal was totally outnumbered.
Fortunately, one of Abigail’s servants told her what Nabal had done. This slave provided the backstory about how David’s men had treated Nabal’s servants with utter kindness and deserved better from Nabal. The servant needed Abigail to intervene, or he would die along with the rest.
Abigail chose to act. But it wasn’t just her own neck she sought to save. It was hers, and her kids', and her servants'—and her evil husband's!
Abigail was no rebel. She was a peacemaker. And as such, she put together enough food for the army and sent her servants ahead of her. But she did not tell her husband. Nabal would have tried to stop her, and a lot of innocent people would have died.
Riding on her donkey, the equivalent to a Mercedes, she went down to meet David and his men. By the time she met up with him, David was good and worked up over Nabal's insults. David planned to kill all the men in any way associated with Nabal’s household
When Abigail met David, she showed the humility her husband should have exhibited. She “got down off her high horse,” threw herself to the ground, fell at his feet and pleaded with David. And notice how much she talked about the Lord: “Please forgive the sin of your servant, for the Lord will certainly establish the house of my lord, because my lord fights the battles of the Lord. May no evil be found in you all your days! When someone sets out to chase you and to take your life, the life of my lord will be wrapped securely in the bag of the living by the Lord your God. But he will sling away the lives of your enemies from the sling’s pocket! The Lord will do for my lord everything that he promised you, and he will make you a leader over Israel. Your conscience will not be overwhelmed with guilt for having poured out innocent blood and for having taken matters into your own hands. When the Lord has granted my lord success, please remember your servant.”
Did you catch that? Abigail was focused on God. And she considered it evil to “take matters into your own hands”—the very action for which she is accused by contemporary critics. So…either this story is full of extreme irony or Abigail is a model of righteousness.
Notice the future king's "God talk." He said, “Praised be the Lord, the God of Israel, who has sent you this day to meet me! Praised be your good judgment! May you yourself be rewarded for having prevented me this day from shedding blood and taking matters into my own hands! Otherwise, as surely as the Lord, the God of Israel, lives—he who has prevented me from harming you—if you had not come so quickly to meet me, by morning’s light not even one male belonging to Nabal would have remained alive!”
Did you catch that? David saw Abigail’s actions as preventing him from sin, as wise, and as guided by the Lord himself.
A less honest wife would have hidden her actions from her man. But once everyone was out of danger, she summoned the courage to tell Nabal what she'd done—after he had sobered up, that is. And her words made him flip out so intensely that he had a stroke. Literally. Utter rage exploded in his head.
And again David saw the circumstances as being from God. When he heard about Nabal’s death, he exclaimed, “Praised be the Lord who has vindicated me and avenged the insult that I suffered from Nabal! The Lord has kept his servant from doing evil, and he has repaid Nabal for his evil deeds.” David was so impressed with Abigail and how God used her that he sent for her to marry her.
So how do we know how to interpret this story? The text itself gives us the clues we need to see the point-of-view of the narrator: Abigail was beautiful inside and out, and the hand of the Lord was on her and on David. As is often true of Bible stories, the text interprets itself.
Aside from learning hermeneutics in Abigail's story, we can also learn from Abigail's life. Although suffering in an abusive marriage, Abigail protected others from harm rather than thinking only of herself. She refused to cover for Nabal's sin, and she retained her voice in the situation. Sounds like a timely message, huh? | 1,326 | ENGLISH | 1 |
« ПредыдущаяПродолжить »
72 INVENTION OF THE STEAM-BLAST. Chat. V.
tions were made with the view of ascertaining this important point. The result was, that it was found the working of the engine was at first barely economical; and at the end of the year the steam power and the horse power were ascertained to be as nearly as possible upon a par in point of cost. The fate of the locomotive in a great measure depended on this very engine. Its speed was not beyond that of a horse's walk, and the heating surface presented to the fire being comparatively small, sufficient steam could not be raised to enable it to accomplish more on an average than about three miles an hour. The result was anything but decisive; and the locomotive might have been condemned as useless, had not Mr. Stephenson at this juncture applied the steam-blast, and at once more than doubled the power of the engine.
The eduction steam was originally allowed to escape into the open atmosphere with a hissing blast, which was the terror of horses and cattle, and was generally complained of as a nuisance. A neighbouring squire even threatened an action against the colliery lessees if it were not put an end to. But Mr. Stephenson's attention had already been drawn to the circumstance of the much greater velocity with which the steam issued from the exit pipe, compared with that at which the smoke escaped from the chimney of the engine. He then thought that, by conveying the eduction steam into the chimney by means of a small pipe after it had performed its office in the cylinders, and allowing it to escape in a vertical direction, its velocity would be imparted to the smoke from the fire, or to the ascending current of air in the chimney.
The experiment was no sooner made than he found that the combustion of the fuel in the furnace was greatly stimulated by the blast; consequently the capability of the boiler to generate steam was much increased, and the effective power of the engine was augmented in precisely the same proportion, without in any way adding to its weight.
This simple but beautiful expedient, though it has hitherto Chap. V. HIS SECOND LOCOMOTIVE. 73
received but slight notice as an original idea on the part of its author, was really fraught with the most important consequences to railway communication; and it is not too much to say that the success of the locomotive depended upon its adoption. Without the steam-blast, the advantages of the "multitubular boiler" could never have been fairly tested; and it was these two improvements, working together, which afterwards secured the triumph of the locomotive on the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Eailway. Without the steam-blast, by which the intensity of combustion was kept up to the highest point, and the evolution of steam thus rapidly effected, high rates of speed could not have been maintained, and locomotives might still have been dragging themselves unwieldily along at little more than five or six miles an hour.
The steam-blast had scarcely been adopted, with so decided a success, when Mr. Stephenson, observing the numerous defects in his engine, and profiting by the experience which he had already acquired, determined to construct a second engine, in which to embody his improvements in their best form. Careful and cautious observation of the working of his locomotive had convinced him that the complication arising out of the action of the two cylinders being combined by spnrwheels would prevent its coming into practical use. He according directed his attention to an entire change in the construction and mechanical arrangements of the machine ; and in the following year, conjointly with Mr. Dodds, who provided the necessary funds, he took out a patent, dated the 28th of February, 1815, for an engine which combined in a remarkable degree the essential requisites of an economical locomotive; that is to say, few parts, simplicity in their action, and directness in the mode by which the power was communicated to the wheels supporting the engine.
This locomotive, like the first, had two vertical cylinders, which communicated directly with each pair of the four wheels that supported the engine, by means of a cross head and a pair of connecting rods. But, in attempting to 74 HIS SECOND LOCOMOTIVE. Chap. V.
establish a direct communication between the cylinders and the wheels that rolled upon the rails, considerable difficulties presented themselves. The ordinary joints could not be employed to unite the parts of the engine, which was a rigid mass, with the wheels rolling upon the irregular surface of the rails; for it was evident that the two rails of the line of way—more especially in those early days of imperfect construction of the permanent road—could not always be maintained at the same level,—that the wheel at one end of the axle might be depressed into one part of the line which had subsided, whilst the other wheel would be comparatively elevated; and, in such a position of the axle and wheels, it was obvious that a rigid communication between the cross head and the wheels was impracticable. Hence it became necessary to form a joint at the top of the pistonrod where it united with the cross head, so as to permit the cross head to preserve complete parallelism with the axle of the wheels with which it was in communication.
In order to obtain that degree of flexibility combined with direct action, which was essential for ensuring power and avoiding needless friction and jars from irregularities in the road, Mr. Stephenson made use of the "ball and socket" joint for effecting a union between the ends of the cross heads where they united with the connecting rods, and between the ends of the connecting rods where they were united with the crank-pins attached to each driving wheel. By this arrangement the parallelism between the cross head and the axle was at all times maintained and preserved, without producing any serious jar or friction on any part of the machine. Another important point was, to combine each pair of wheels by means of some simple mechanism, instead of by the cogwheels which had formerly been used. And, with this object, Mr. Stephenson began by making in each axle cranks at right angles to each other, with rods communicating horizontally between them.
A locomotive was accordingly constructed upon this plan in the year 1815, and it was found to answer extremely Chap. V. HIS SECOND LOCOMOTIVE. 75
well. But at that period the mechanical skill of the country was not equal to the task of forging cranked axles of the soundness and strength necessary to stand the jars incident to locomotive work. Mr. Stephenson was accordingly compelled to fall back upon a substitute, which, although less simple and efficient, was within the mechanical capabilities of the workmen of that day, in respect of construction as well as repair. He adopted a chain which rolled over indented wheels placed on the centre of each axle, and so arranged that the two pairs of wheels were effectually coupled and made to keep pace with each other. The chain, however, after a few years' use, became stretched; and then the engines were liable to irregularity in their working, especially in changing from working back to working forward again. Eventually the chain was laid aside, and the front and hind wheels were united by rods on the outside, instead of by rods and crank axles inside, as specified in the original patent. This expedient completely answered the purpose required, without involving any expensive or difficult workmanship.
Thus, in the year 1815, Mr. Stephenson, by dint of patient and persevering labour,—by careful observation of the works of others, and never neglecting to avail himself of their suggestions,—had succeeded in manufacturing an engine which included the following important improvements on all previous attempts in the same direction :—viz., simple and direct communication between the cylinder and the wheels rolling upon the rails ; joint adhesion of all the wheels, attained by the use of horizontal connecting rods; and finally, a beautiful method of exciting the combustion of the fuel by employing the waste steam, which had formerly been allowed uselessly to escape into the air. Although many improvements in detail were afterwards introduced in the locomotive by Mr. Stephenson himself, as well as by his equally distinguished son, it is perhaps not too much to say that this engine, as a mechanical contrivance, contained the germ of all that has since been effected. It may in fact be regarded as the type of the present locomotive engine.
76 EXPLOSIONS OF FIRE-DAMP. Chap. VI
Invention Of The "Geordy" Safety-lamp.
Explosions of fire-damp were unusually frequent in the coal mines of Northumberland and Durham about the time when George Stephenson was engaged in the construction of his first locomotives. These explosions were frequently attended with fearful loss of life and dreadful suifering to the colliery workers. Killingworth Colliery was not free from such deplorable calamities; and during the time that Stephenson was employed as a brakesman at the West Moor, several " blasts" took place in the pit, by which many workmen were scorched and killed, and the owners of the colliery sustained heavy losses. One of the most serious of these accidents occurred in 1806, not long after he had been appointed brakesman, by which ten persons were killed. Stephenson was working at the mouth of the pit at the time, and the circumstances connected with the accident seem to have made a deep impression on his mind, as appeared from the graphic account which he gave to a committee of the House of Commons, which sat on the subject of Accidents in Coal Mines, some thirty years after the event.
Another explosion of a similar kind occurred in the same pit in 1809, by which twelve persons lost their lives. George Stephenson was working at the pit when the accident occurred, but the blast did not reach the shaft as in the former case; the unfortunate persons in the pit having been suffocated by the after-damp. But more calamitous explosions than these occurred in the neighbouring collieries; one of the worst being that which took place in May, 1812, in the Felling Pit, near Gateshead, a mine belonging to Mr. Brandling, by which no fewer than ninety men and boys were suffocated or burnt to death. And a similar ao | <urn:uuid:f56a92e8-3600-4d3c-af2c-d8d91ad81b89> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://books.google.ru/books?id=PFMBAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA76&vq=West+Moor&dq=editions:STANFORD36105036703580&hl=ru&output=html_text&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=4 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00114.warc.gz | en | 0.985279 | 2,149 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.087216682732... | 2 | « ПредыдущаяПродолжить »
72 INVENTION OF THE STEAM-BLAST. Chat. V.
tions were made with the view of ascertaining this important point. The result was, that it was found the working of the engine was at first barely economical; and at the end of the year the steam power and the horse power were ascertained to be as nearly as possible upon a par in point of cost. The fate of the locomotive in a great measure depended on this very engine. Its speed was not beyond that of a horse's walk, and the heating surface presented to the fire being comparatively small, sufficient steam could not be raised to enable it to accomplish more on an average than about three miles an hour. The result was anything but decisive; and the locomotive might have been condemned as useless, had not Mr. Stephenson at this juncture applied the steam-blast, and at once more than doubled the power of the engine.
The eduction steam was originally allowed to escape into the open atmosphere with a hissing blast, which was the terror of horses and cattle, and was generally complained of as a nuisance. A neighbouring squire even threatened an action against the colliery lessees if it were not put an end to. But Mr. Stephenson's attention had already been drawn to the circumstance of the much greater velocity with which the steam issued from the exit pipe, compared with that at which the smoke escaped from the chimney of the engine. He then thought that, by conveying the eduction steam into the chimney by means of a small pipe after it had performed its office in the cylinders, and allowing it to escape in a vertical direction, its velocity would be imparted to the smoke from the fire, or to the ascending current of air in the chimney.
The experiment was no sooner made than he found that the combustion of the fuel in the furnace was greatly stimulated by the blast; consequently the capability of the boiler to generate steam was much increased, and the effective power of the engine was augmented in precisely the same proportion, without in any way adding to its weight.
This simple but beautiful expedient, though it has hitherto Chap. V. HIS SECOND LOCOMOTIVE. 73
received but slight notice as an original idea on the part of its author, was really fraught with the most important consequences to railway communication; and it is not too much to say that the success of the locomotive depended upon its adoption. Without the steam-blast, the advantages of the "multitubular boiler" could never have been fairly tested; and it was these two improvements, working together, which afterwards secured the triumph of the locomotive on the opening of the Liverpool and Manchester Eailway. Without the steam-blast, by which the intensity of combustion was kept up to the highest point, and the evolution of steam thus rapidly effected, high rates of speed could not have been maintained, and locomotives might still have been dragging themselves unwieldily along at little more than five or six miles an hour.
The steam-blast had scarcely been adopted, with so decided a success, when Mr. Stephenson, observing the numerous defects in his engine, and profiting by the experience which he had already acquired, determined to construct a second engine, in which to embody his improvements in their best form. Careful and cautious observation of the working of his locomotive had convinced him that the complication arising out of the action of the two cylinders being combined by spnrwheels would prevent its coming into practical use. He according directed his attention to an entire change in the construction and mechanical arrangements of the machine ; and in the following year, conjointly with Mr. Dodds, who provided the necessary funds, he took out a patent, dated the 28th of February, 1815, for an engine which combined in a remarkable degree the essential requisites of an economical locomotive; that is to say, few parts, simplicity in their action, and directness in the mode by which the power was communicated to the wheels supporting the engine.
This locomotive, like the first, had two vertical cylinders, which communicated directly with each pair of the four wheels that supported the engine, by means of a cross head and a pair of connecting rods. But, in attempting to 74 HIS SECOND LOCOMOTIVE. Chap. V.
establish a direct communication between the cylinders and the wheels that rolled upon the rails, considerable difficulties presented themselves. The ordinary joints could not be employed to unite the parts of the engine, which was a rigid mass, with the wheels rolling upon the irregular surface of the rails; for it was evident that the two rails of the line of way—more especially in those early days of imperfect construction of the permanent road—could not always be maintained at the same level,—that the wheel at one end of the axle might be depressed into one part of the line which had subsided, whilst the other wheel would be comparatively elevated; and, in such a position of the axle and wheels, it was obvious that a rigid communication between the cross head and the wheels was impracticable. Hence it became necessary to form a joint at the top of the pistonrod where it united with the cross head, so as to permit the cross head to preserve complete parallelism with the axle of the wheels with which it was in communication.
In order to obtain that degree of flexibility combined with direct action, which was essential for ensuring power and avoiding needless friction and jars from irregularities in the road, Mr. Stephenson made use of the "ball and socket" joint for effecting a union between the ends of the cross heads where they united with the connecting rods, and between the ends of the connecting rods where they were united with the crank-pins attached to each driving wheel. By this arrangement the parallelism between the cross head and the axle was at all times maintained and preserved, without producing any serious jar or friction on any part of the machine. Another important point was, to combine each pair of wheels by means of some simple mechanism, instead of by the cogwheels which had formerly been used. And, with this object, Mr. Stephenson began by making in each axle cranks at right angles to each other, with rods communicating horizontally between them.
A locomotive was accordingly constructed upon this plan in the year 1815, and it was found to answer extremely Chap. V. HIS SECOND LOCOMOTIVE. 75
well. But at that period the mechanical skill of the country was not equal to the task of forging cranked axles of the soundness and strength necessary to stand the jars incident to locomotive work. Mr. Stephenson was accordingly compelled to fall back upon a substitute, which, although less simple and efficient, was within the mechanical capabilities of the workmen of that day, in respect of construction as well as repair. He adopted a chain which rolled over indented wheels placed on the centre of each axle, and so arranged that the two pairs of wheels were effectually coupled and made to keep pace with each other. The chain, however, after a few years' use, became stretched; and then the engines were liable to irregularity in their working, especially in changing from working back to working forward again. Eventually the chain was laid aside, and the front and hind wheels were united by rods on the outside, instead of by rods and crank axles inside, as specified in the original patent. This expedient completely answered the purpose required, without involving any expensive or difficult workmanship.
Thus, in the year 1815, Mr. Stephenson, by dint of patient and persevering labour,—by careful observation of the works of others, and never neglecting to avail himself of their suggestions,—had succeeded in manufacturing an engine which included the following important improvements on all previous attempts in the same direction :—viz., simple and direct communication between the cylinder and the wheels rolling upon the rails ; joint adhesion of all the wheels, attained by the use of horizontal connecting rods; and finally, a beautiful method of exciting the combustion of the fuel by employing the waste steam, which had formerly been allowed uselessly to escape into the air. Although many improvements in detail were afterwards introduced in the locomotive by Mr. Stephenson himself, as well as by his equally distinguished son, it is perhaps not too much to say that this engine, as a mechanical contrivance, contained the germ of all that has since been effected. It may in fact be regarded as the type of the present locomotive engine.
76 EXPLOSIONS OF FIRE-DAMP. Chap. VI
Invention Of The "Geordy" Safety-lamp.
Explosions of fire-damp were unusually frequent in the coal mines of Northumberland and Durham about the time when George Stephenson was engaged in the construction of his first locomotives. These explosions were frequently attended with fearful loss of life and dreadful suifering to the colliery workers. Killingworth Colliery was not free from such deplorable calamities; and during the time that Stephenson was employed as a brakesman at the West Moor, several " blasts" took place in the pit, by which many workmen were scorched and killed, and the owners of the colliery sustained heavy losses. One of the most serious of these accidents occurred in 1806, not long after he had been appointed brakesman, by which ten persons were killed. Stephenson was working at the mouth of the pit at the time, and the circumstances connected with the accident seem to have made a deep impression on his mind, as appeared from the graphic account which he gave to a committee of the House of Commons, which sat on the subject of Accidents in Coal Mines, some thirty years after the event.
Another explosion of a similar kind occurred in the same pit in 1809, by which twelve persons lost their lives. George Stephenson was working at the pit when the accident occurred, but the blast did not reach the shaft as in the former case; the unfortunate persons in the pit having been suffocated by the after-damp. But more calamitous explosions than these occurred in the neighbouring collieries; one of the worst being that which took place in May, 1812, in the Felling Pit, near Gateshead, a mine belonging to Mr. Brandling, by which no fewer than ninety men and boys were suffocated or burnt to death. And a similar ao | 2,160 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The first world war began in August 1914. It was directly triggered by the assassination of the Austrian archduke, Franz Ferdinand and his wife, on 28th June 1914 by Bosnian revolutionary, Gavrilo Princip.
This event was, however, simply the trigger that set off declarations of war. The actual causes of the war are more complicated and are still debated by historians today.
Scroll down for a comprehensive discussion of the causes of World War 1.
Causes of WW1: Alliances
An alliance is an agreement made between two or more countries to give each other help if it is needed. When an alliance is signed, those countries become known as Allies.
A number of alliances had been signed by countries between the years 1879 and 1914. These were important because they meant that some countries had no option but to declare war if one of their allies. declared war first. (the table below reads clockwise from the top left picture)
The Dual Alliance
Germany and Austria-Hungary made an alliance to protect themselves from Russia
Austria-Hungary made an alliance with Serbia to stop Russia gaining control of Serbia
The Triple Alliance
Germany and Austria- Hungary made an alliance with Italy to stop Italy from taking sides with Russia
Triple Entente (no separate peace)
Britain, Russia and France agreed not to sign for peace separately.
Russia formed an alliance with France to protect herself against Germany and Austria-Hungary
This was made between Russia, France and Britain to counter the increasing threat from Germany.
This was an agreement between Britain and Russia
This was an agreement, but not a formal alliance, between France and Britain.
Causes of WW1: Imperialism
Imperialism is when a country takes over new lands or countries and makes them subject to their rule. By 1900 the British Empire extended over five continents and France had control of large areas of Africa. With the rise of industrialism countries needed new markets. The amount of lands ‘owned’ by Britain and France increased the rivalry with Germany who had entered the scramble to acquire colonies late and only had small areas of Africa. Note the contrast in the map below.
Causes of WW1: Militarism
Militarism means that the army and military forces are given a high profile by the government. The growing European divide had led to an arms race between the main countries. The armies of both France and Germany had more than doubled between 1870 and 1914 and there was fierce competition between Britain and Germany for mastery of the seas. The British had introduced the ‘Dreadnought’, an effective battleship, in 1906. The Germans soon followed suit introducing their own battleships. The German, Von Schlieffen also drew up a plan of action that involved attacking France through Belgium if Russia made an attack on Germany. The map below shows how the plan was to work.
Causes of WW1: Nationalism
Nationalism means being a strong supporter of the rights and interests of one’s country. The Congress of Vienna, held after Napoleon’s exile to Elba, aimed to sort out problems in Europe. Delegates from Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia (the winning allies) decided upon a new Europe that left both Germany and Italy as divided states. Strong nationalist elements led to the re-unification of Italy in 1861 and Germany in 1871. The settlement at the end of the Franco-Prussian war left France angry at the loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany and keen to regain their lost territory. Large areas of both Austria-Hungary and Serbia were home to differing nationalist groups, all of whom wanted freedom from the states in which they lived.
Causes of WW1: Crises
In 1904 Morocco had been given to France by Britain, but the Moroccans wanted their independence. In 1905, Germany announced her support for Moroccan independence. War was narrowly avoided by a conference which allowed France to retain possession of Morocco. However, in 1911, the Germans were again protesting against French possession of Morocco. Britain supported France and Germany was persuaded to back down for part of French Congo.
In 1908, Austria-Hungary took over the former Turkish province of Bosnia. This angered Serbians who felt the province should be theirs. Serbia threatened Austria-Hungary with war, Russia, allied to Serbia, mobilized its forces. Germany, allied to Austria-Hungary mobilized its forces and prepared to threaten Russia. War was avoided when Russia backed down. There was, however, war in the Balkans between 1911 and 1912 when the Balkan states drove Turkey out of the area. The states then fought each other over which area should belong to which state. Austria-Hungary then intervened and forced Serbia to give up some of its acquisitions. Tension between Serbia and Austria-Hungary was high.
The Assassination of Franz Ferdinand
Franz Ferdinand, aged 51, was heir to the Austro-Hungarian empire. He was married to Sophie Chotek von Chotvoka and had three children. Franz Ferdinand was, however, very unpopular because he had made it clear that once he became Emperor he would make changes.
The map below, of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1914, shows that Bosnia/ Herzegovnia was controlled by Austria. Austria had annexed Bosnia in 1908, a move that was not popular with the Bosnian people.
Franz Ferdinand decided to visit Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia and Herzegovnia, to make an inspection of the Austro-Hungarian troops there. The inspection was scheduled for 28th June 1914. It was planned that Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie would be met at the station and taken by car to the City Hall where they would have lunch before going to inspect the troops.
A Serbian terrorist group, called The Black Hand, had decided that the Archduke should be assassinated and the planned visit provided the ideal opportunity. Seven young men who had been trained in bomb throwing and marksmanship were stationed along the route that Franz Ferdinand’s car would follow from the City Hall to the inspection.
The first two terrorists were unable to throw their grenades because the streets were too crowded and the car was travelling quite fast. The third terrorist, a young man called Cabrinovic, threw a grenade which exploded under the car following that of the Archduke. Although the Archduke and his wife were unhurt, some of his attendants were injured and had to be taken to hospital.
After lunch at the City Hall, Franz Ferdinand insisted on visiting the injured attendants in hospital. However, on the way to the hospital the driver took a wrong turn. Realising his mistake he stopped the car and began to reverse. Another terrorist, named Gavrilo Princip, stepped forward and fired two shots. The first hit the pregnant Sophia in the stomach, she died almost instantly. The second shot hit the Archduke in the neck. He died a short while later.
Gavrilo Princip was arrested but was not executed because he was under 20 years. He was sentenced to twenty years in prison where he died of TB in 1918.
Cite This Article"World War One – Causes" History on the Net
© 2000-2020, Salem Media.
January 18, 2020 <https://www.historyonthenet.com/world-war-one-causes-2>
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0.585731625556945... | 1 | The first world war began in August 1914. It was directly triggered by the assassination of the Austrian archduke, Franz Ferdinand and his wife, on 28th June 1914 by Bosnian revolutionary, Gavrilo Princip.
This event was, however, simply the trigger that set off declarations of war. The actual causes of the war are more complicated and are still debated by historians today.
Scroll down for a comprehensive discussion of the causes of World War 1.
Causes of WW1: Alliances
An alliance is an agreement made between two or more countries to give each other help if it is needed. When an alliance is signed, those countries become known as Allies.
A number of alliances had been signed by countries between the years 1879 and 1914. These were important because they meant that some countries had no option but to declare war if one of their allies. declared war first. (the table below reads clockwise from the top left picture)
The Dual Alliance
Germany and Austria-Hungary made an alliance to protect themselves from Russia
Austria-Hungary made an alliance with Serbia to stop Russia gaining control of Serbia
The Triple Alliance
Germany and Austria- Hungary made an alliance with Italy to stop Italy from taking sides with Russia
Triple Entente (no separate peace)
Britain, Russia and France agreed not to sign for peace separately.
Russia formed an alliance with France to protect herself against Germany and Austria-Hungary
This was made between Russia, France and Britain to counter the increasing threat from Germany.
This was an agreement between Britain and Russia
This was an agreement, but not a formal alliance, between France and Britain.
Causes of WW1: Imperialism
Imperialism is when a country takes over new lands or countries and makes them subject to their rule. By 1900 the British Empire extended over five continents and France had control of large areas of Africa. With the rise of industrialism countries needed new markets. The amount of lands ‘owned’ by Britain and France increased the rivalry with Germany who had entered the scramble to acquire colonies late and only had small areas of Africa. Note the contrast in the map below.
Causes of WW1: Militarism
Militarism means that the army and military forces are given a high profile by the government. The growing European divide had led to an arms race between the main countries. The armies of both France and Germany had more than doubled between 1870 and 1914 and there was fierce competition between Britain and Germany for mastery of the seas. The British had introduced the ‘Dreadnought’, an effective battleship, in 1906. The Germans soon followed suit introducing their own battleships. The German, Von Schlieffen also drew up a plan of action that involved attacking France through Belgium if Russia made an attack on Germany. The map below shows how the plan was to work.
Causes of WW1: Nationalism
Nationalism means being a strong supporter of the rights and interests of one’s country. The Congress of Vienna, held after Napoleon’s exile to Elba, aimed to sort out problems in Europe. Delegates from Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia (the winning allies) decided upon a new Europe that left both Germany and Italy as divided states. Strong nationalist elements led to the re-unification of Italy in 1861 and Germany in 1871. The settlement at the end of the Franco-Prussian war left France angry at the loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany and keen to regain their lost territory. Large areas of both Austria-Hungary and Serbia were home to differing nationalist groups, all of whom wanted freedom from the states in which they lived.
Causes of WW1: Crises
In 1904 Morocco had been given to France by Britain, but the Moroccans wanted their independence. In 1905, Germany announced her support for Moroccan independence. War was narrowly avoided by a conference which allowed France to retain possession of Morocco. However, in 1911, the Germans were again protesting against French possession of Morocco. Britain supported France and Germany was persuaded to back down for part of French Congo.
In 1908, Austria-Hungary took over the former Turkish province of Bosnia. This angered Serbians who felt the province should be theirs. Serbia threatened Austria-Hungary with war, Russia, allied to Serbia, mobilized its forces. Germany, allied to Austria-Hungary mobilized its forces and prepared to threaten Russia. War was avoided when Russia backed down. There was, however, war in the Balkans between 1911 and 1912 when the Balkan states drove Turkey out of the area. The states then fought each other over which area should belong to which state. Austria-Hungary then intervened and forced Serbia to give up some of its acquisitions. Tension between Serbia and Austria-Hungary was high.
The Assassination of Franz Ferdinand
Franz Ferdinand, aged 51, was heir to the Austro-Hungarian empire. He was married to Sophie Chotek von Chotvoka and had three children. Franz Ferdinand was, however, very unpopular because he had made it clear that once he became Emperor he would make changes.
The map below, of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1914, shows that Bosnia/ Herzegovnia was controlled by Austria. Austria had annexed Bosnia in 1908, a move that was not popular with the Bosnian people.
Franz Ferdinand decided to visit Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia and Herzegovnia, to make an inspection of the Austro-Hungarian troops there. The inspection was scheduled for 28th June 1914. It was planned that Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie would be met at the station and taken by car to the City Hall where they would have lunch before going to inspect the troops.
A Serbian terrorist group, called The Black Hand, had decided that the Archduke should be assassinated and the planned visit provided the ideal opportunity. Seven young men who had been trained in bomb throwing and marksmanship were stationed along the route that Franz Ferdinand’s car would follow from the City Hall to the inspection.
The first two terrorists were unable to throw their grenades because the streets were too crowded and the car was travelling quite fast. The third terrorist, a young man called Cabrinovic, threw a grenade which exploded under the car following that of the Archduke. Although the Archduke and his wife were unhurt, some of his attendants were injured and had to be taken to hospital.
After lunch at the City Hall, Franz Ferdinand insisted on visiting the injured attendants in hospital. However, on the way to the hospital the driver took a wrong turn. Realising his mistake he stopped the car and began to reverse. Another terrorist, named Gavrilo Princip, stepped forward and fired two shots. The first hit the pregnant Sophia in the stomach, she died almost instantly. The second shot hit the Archduke in the neck. He died a short while later.
Gavrilo Princip was arrested but was not executed because he was under 20 years. He was sentenced to twenty years in prison where he died of TB in 1918.
Cite This Article"World War One – Causes" History on the Net
© 2000-2020, Salem Media.
January 18, 2020 <https://www.historyonthenet.com/world-war-one-causes-2>
More Citation Information. | 1,585 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Blood donation in the 1800s was not an easy process. Often doctors had to use whatever they had to hand during house calls — and what they had on hand, usually, was an egg-beater. Here’s how it was used.
The earliest transfusions were done in the 1600s, but the practice failed to catch on. This didn’t mean that doctors stopped trying, and in the mid-1800s, the procedure underwent a revival. There were two major reasons for this: cholera and childbirth. Doctors weren’t thinking about the function of blood while they were doing transfusions; they were thinking of blood as the stuff that brings a person vigor and life. Cholera and childbirth seemed to sap both, so doctors infused blood into their patients to restore them in a kind of reverse-bloodletting.
Cholera patients usually were seen in hospitals, or special wards set up in towns or on battlefields, so doctors had equipment on hand to help them through the transfusion process. Women who hemorrhaged during childbirth, however, were almost always in their own homes.
The transfusion procedure was finicky because blood, when exposed to air, clots up. Clots jammed the tubes that connected the donor to the receiver. Soon doctors discovered a way to get the lumps out. Blood contains a long protein called fibrin, which clumps together during the clotting process. It does this effectively enough that it can be separated out if it is tangled vigorously enough.
That’s is where the egg-beater comes in. Doctors would empty the donor blood into a vessel, then break out the beater, the whisk, or sometimes even clean bundles of broom-straw, and stir the blood until it formed large clumps. Once the blood was clotted to their satisfaction, the doctors would strain the blood through fine fabric, and transfuse the liquid into the patient.
Did the process help anyone? That’s tough to say. While some patients probably benefited from fewer blood clots being jammed into their veins, and some may have been saved by their transfusions, others blood recipients had probably only been kept alive because clots limited the amount of blood they received. Forget mismatched blood types. Doctors would sometimes give people animal blood—usually sheep’s blood, cattle blood, or dog’s blood. It would be decades before anyone knew enough about blood itself to make blood donation more helpful than harmful.
Today, the process is safe and reliable, and although that’s a good thing, I’d love to see infomercials for kitchen appliances that mentioned clot-removal as one of their functions.
[Source: Flesh and Blood, by Susan Lederer] | <urn:uuid:abd19bc8-07df-4faf-8fc9-decffc4bdd16> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gizmodo.com/you-needed-an-egg-beater-for-blood-transfusions-in-the-1737742647 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00072.warc.gz | en | 0.982832 | 571 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.224196046590... | 4 | Blood donation in the 1800s was not an easy process. Often doctors had to use whatever they had to hand during house calls — and what they had on hand, usually, was an egg-beater. Here’s how it was used.
The earliest transfusions were done in the 1600s, but the practice failed to catch on. This didn’t mean that doctors stopped trying, and in the mid-1800s, the procedure underwent a revival. There were two major reasons for this: cholera and childbirth. Doctors weren’t thinking about the function of blood while they were doing transfusions; they were thinking of blood as the stuff that brings a person vigor and life. Cholera and childbirth seemed to sap both, so doctors infused blood into their patients to restore them in a kind of reverse-bloodletting.
Cholera patients usually were seen in hospitals, or special wards set up in towns or on battlefields, so doctors had equipment on hand to help them through the transfusion process. Women who hemorrhaged during childbirth, however, were almost always in their own homes.
The transfusion procedure was finicky because blood, when exposed to air, clots up. Clots jammed the tubes that connected the donor to the receiver. Soon doctors discovered a way to get the lumps out. Blood contains a long protein called fibrin, which clumps together during the clotting process. It does this effectively enough that it can be separated out if it is tangled vigorously enough.
That’s is where the egg-beater comes in. Doctors would empty the donor blood into a vessel, then break out the beater, the whisk, or sometimes even clean bundles of broom-straw, and stir the blood until it formed large clumps. Once the blood was clotted to their satisfaction, the doctors would strain the blood through fine fabric, and transfuse the liquid into the patient.
Did the process help anyone? That’s tough to say. While some patients probably benefited from fewer blood clots being jammed into their veins, and some may have been saved by their transfusions, others blood recipients had probably only been kept alive because clots limited the amount of blood they received. Forget mismatched blood types. Doctors would sometimes give people animal blood—usually sheep’s blood, cattle blood, or dog’s blood. It would be decades before anyone knew enough about blood itself to make blood donation more helpful than harmful.
Today, the process is safe and reliable, and although that’s a good thing, I’d love to see infomercials for kitchen appliances that mentioned clot-removal as one of their functions.
[Source: Flesh and Blood, by Susan Lederer] | 554 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On 3 June 1947, Viscount Louis Mountbatten, the last British Governor-General of India, announced the partitioning of British India into India and Pakistan. With the speedy passage through the British Parliament of the Indian Independence Act 1947, at 11:57 on 14 August 1947 Pakistan was declared a separate nation, and at 12:02, just after midnight, on 15 August 1947, India also became an independent nation.
Gandhiji on Independence
Gandhiji was against partition at any cost but he was unable to convince the Congress leaders of the wisdom of his stand.
Gandhi declined to attend the celebrations in the capital and went to Calcutta where communal riots were still raging. And then on the day of independence a miracle happened. A year-old riot stopped as if by magic and Hindus and Muslims began to fraternize with one another. Gandhi spent a day in fast and prayer.
Unfortunately, the communal frenzy broke loose again on August 31, and while he was staying in a Muslim house, the safety of his own persons was threatened. On the following day he went on a fast which was “to end only if and when sanity returns to Calcutta”. The effect was magical. Those who had indulged in loot, arson and murder amid shouts of glee, came and knelt by his beside and begged for forgiveness. On September 4, the leaders of all communities in the city brought him a signed pledge that Calcutta would see no more of such outrages. Then Gandhi broke the fast. Calcutta kept the pledge even when many other cities were plunged in violence in the wake of Partition.
Gandhiji’s Quest for Peace
January 13, 1948. Gandhi Ji started the fast again. On January 18, after a week of painful suspense and anxiety, representatives of various communities and organizations in Delhi including the militant Hindu organization known as R.S.S., came to Birla house where Gandhi lay on a cot, weak but cheerful, and gave him a written pledge that “we shall protect the life, property and faith of the Muslims and that the incidents which have taken place in Delhi will not happen again”. Gandhi then broke the fast amid the chanting of passages from the various scriptures of the world.
Though the fast had touched the hearts of millions all over the world, its effect on the Hindu extremists was different. They were incensed at the success of the fast and felt that Gandhi had blackmailed the Hindu conscience to appease Pakistan.
On the second day after the fast while Gandhi was at his usual evening prayers, a bomb was thrown at him. Fortunately it missed the mark. Gandhi sat unmoved and continued his discourse.
On January 30, 1948, ten days after the bomb incident, Gandhi hurriedly went up the few steps of the prayer ground in the large park of the Birla House. He had been detained by a conference with the Deputy Prime Minister, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, and was late by a few minutes. He loved punctuality and was worried that he had kept the congregation waiting. “I am late by ten minutes,” he murmured. “I should be here at the stroke of five.” He raised his hands and touched the palms together to greet the crowd that was waiting. Every one returned the greeting. Many came forward wanting to touch his feet. They were not allowed to do so, as Gandhi was already late. But a young Hindu from Poona forced his way forward and while seeming to do obeisance fired three point-blank shots from a small automatic pistol aimed at the heart. Gandhi fell, his lips uttering the name of God (He Ram). Before medical aid could arrive the heart had ceased to beat-the heart that had beat only love of man.
Thus died the Mahatma, at the hands of one of his own people, to the eternal glory of what he had lived for and to the eternal shame of those who failed to understand that he was the best representative of the religion for which he suffered martyrdom.
Gandhi-Irwin Pact and Bhagat Singh
For those who think that Gandhi was behind the death sentence of Bhagat Singh here is the full story behind it,
Yes Gandhi ji was againt any act of violence and Un lawful activities though he was a great admirer of Bhagat Singh and all the revolutionaries but was worried for the result of it.
Gandhi also once remarked about capital punishment, “I cannot in all conscience agree to anyone being sent to the gallows. God alone can take life, because he alone gives it.
Gandhi had managed to have 90,000 political prisoners who were not members of his Satyagraha movement released under the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. According to a report in the Indian magazine Frontline, he did plead several times for the commutation of the death sentence of Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev, including a personal visit on 19 March 1931. In a letter to the Viceroy on the day of their execution, he pleaded fervently for commutation, not knowing that the letter would be too late.
Lord Irwin, the Viceroy, later said:
As I listened to Mr. Gandhi putting the case for commutation before me, I reflected first on what significance it surely was that the apostle of non-violence should so earnestly be pleading the cause of the devotees of a creed so fundamentally opposed to his own, but I should regard it as wholly wrong to allow my judgment to be influenced by purely political considerations. I could not imagine a case in which under the law, penalty had been more directly deserved. | <urn:uuid:2cdd16bc-5f56-4219-9475-095f10196ef4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bankersadda.com/and-saint-walked-in-sunse | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00288.warc.gz | en | 0.985996 | 1,179 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.4152608215808... | 1 | On 3 June 1947, Viscount Louis Mountbatten, the last British Governor-General of India, announced the partitioning of British India into India and Pakistan. With the speedy passage through the British Parliament of the Indian Independence Act 1947, at 11:57 on 14 August 1947 Pakistan was declared a separate nation, and at 12:02, just after midnight, on 15 August 1947, India also became an independent nation.
Gandhiji on Independence
Gandhiji was against partition at any cost but he was unable to convince the Congress leaders of the wisdom of his stand.
Gandhi declined to attend the celebrations in the capital and went to Calcutta where communal riots were still raging. And then on the day of independence a miracle happened. A year-old riot stopped as if by magic and Hindus and Muslims began to fraternize with one another. Gandhi spent a day in fast and prayer.
Unfortunately, the communal frenzy broke loose again on August 31, and while he was staying in a Muslim house, the safety of his own persons was threatened. On the following day he went on a fast which was “to end only if and when sanity returns to Calcutta”. The effect was magical. Those who had indulged in loot, arson and murder amid shouts of glee, came and knelt by his beside and begged for forgiveness. On September 4, the leaders of all communities in the city brought him a signed pledge that Calcutta would see no more of such outrages. Then Gandhi broke the fast. Calcutta kept the pledge even when many other cities were plunged in violence in the wake of Partition.
Gandhiji’s Quest for Peace
January 13, 1948. Gandhi Ji started the fast again. On January 18, after a week of painful suspense and anxiety, representatives of various communities and organizations in Delhi including the militant Hindu organization known as R.S.S., came to Birla house where Gandhi lay on a cot, weak but cheerful, and gave him a written pledge that “we shall protect the life, property and faith of the Muslims and that the incidents which have taken place in Delhi will not happen again”. Gandhi then broke the fast amid the chanting of passages from the various scriptures of the world.
Though the fast had touched the hearts of millions all over the world, its effect on the Hindu extremists was different. They were incensed at the success of the fast and felt that Gandhi had blackmailed the Hindu conscience to appease Pakistan.
On the second day after the fast while Gandhi was at his usual evening prayers, a bomb was thrown at him. Fortunately it missed the mark. Gandhi sat unmoved and continued his discourse.
On January 30, 1948, ten days after the bomb incident, Gandhi hurriedly went up the few steps of the prayer ground in the large park of the Birla House. He had been detained by a conference with the Deputy Prime Minister, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, and was late by a few minutes. He loved punctuality and was worried that he had kept the congregation waiting. “I am late by ten minutes,” he murmured. “I should be here at the stroke of five.” He raised his hands and touched the palms together to greet the crowd that was waiting. Every one returned the greeting. Many came forward wanting to touch his feet. They were not allowed to do so, as Gandhi was already late. But a young Hindu from Poona forced his way forward and while seeming to do obeisance fired three point-blank shots from a small automatic pistol aimed at the heart. Gandhi fell, his lips uttering the name of God (He Ram). Before medical aid could arrive the heart had ceased to beat-the heart that had beat only love of man.
Thus died the Mahatma, at the hands of one of his own people, to the eternal glory of what he had lived for and to the eternal shame of those who failed to understand that he was the best representative of the religion for which he suffered martyrdom.
Gandhi-Irwin Pact and Bhagat Singh
For those who think that Gandhi was behind the death sentence of Bhagat Singh here is the full story behind it,
Yes Gandhi ji was againt any act of violence and Un lawful activities though he was a great admirer of Bhagat Singh and all the revolutionaries but was worried for the result of it.
Gandhi also once remarked about capital punishment, “I cannot in all conscience agree to anyone being sent to the gallows. God alone can take life, because he alone gives it.
Gandhi had managed to have 90,000 political prisoners who were not members of his Satyagraha movement released under the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. According to a report in the Indian magazine Frontline, he did plead several times for the commutation of the death sentence of Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev, including a personal visit on 19 March 1931. In a letter to the Viceroy on the day of their execution, he pleaded fervently for commutation, not knowing that the letter would be too late.
Lord Irwin, the Viceroy, later said:
As I listened to Mr. Gandhi putting the case for commutation before me, I reflected first on what significance it surely was that the apostle of non-violence should so earnestly be pleading the cause of the devotees of a creed so fundamentally opposed to his own, but I should regard it as wholly wrong to allow my judgment to be influenced by purely political considerations. I could not imagine a case in which under the law, penalty had been more directly deserved. | 1,199 | ENGLISH | 1 |
"I hear the sound of pioneers,
Of nations yet to be."
T HE capture of the Cape of Good Hope was an important result of the battles of Camperdown and Trafalgar. The first of these destroyed the sea power of Holland, the second secured it to England.
Slowly but surely the little colony founded by Van Riebeek at the Cape had grown and prospered. Let us take up its story from those early days.
For some time, the colonists had been content to stay under the shadow of Table Mountain, but as the years passed on, the younger colonists became adventurous. Musket in hand, to drive back the native Hottentots of the country, they began to explore inland, until little settlements sprang up in all directions. They were presently joined by some 300 French Huguenots, who had been driven from their country and taken refuge in Holland. At first these people clung to their French language and service of the French church, but soon the Dutch forbade this, and they talked and worshipped with their neighbours. Not long after their arrival, a terrible outbreak of smallpox swept whole tribes of Hottentots away, and the inland country was clear for the European colonists. Farther and farther inland now they spread, over the mountains to the pasture land beyond. The grass was thin, and it was necessary to graze the cattle over wide stretches of ground. Thus they became more and more cut off from the coast and from the far-off homes of their ancestors. With their wives and children they followed the cattle from spot to spot: their children were untaught, their wives forgot the neat and cleanly ways of their Dutch forefathers. At last they reached the Great Fish River and came in contact with the Kaffirs. These were the natives, who occupied the lands from the Zambesi to the Great Fish River. They consisted of a number of tribes, constantly making war on each other, who appear later under various names of Zulus, Swazis, and Basutos.
All the colonists fretted under the misrule of the Dutch East India Company. They were worried with petty laws and obliged to pay heavy taxes; the farmers were told exactly what to grow, and forced to give up much of their produce. The company had broken faith with the natives, and had imported a number of slaves into the colony, which had no need of negro labour. When, therefore, in the year 1795 the news spread, that English troops were in possession of Cape Town, the idea of change was not wholly unwelcome. The English came as friends of the Dutch, in their united struggle against the French. The Prince of Orange was an exile in England, and the English carried a letter from him to the Dutch officials at the Cape.
Conquerors and conquered came of the same stock. Of all the nations in Europe, the people of Holland are closest to those of Great Britain. True, 1400 years of separation had altered the history of each, but many points of resemblance were left. Both were a liberty-loving people, both were Protestant, both had Viking blood in their veins. Moreover, it was as simple for the Dutchman to learn English, as it was for the Englishman to learn Dutch. Here is a quaint picture, of how the colonists from the surrounding districts came into Cape Town, to take the oath of allegiance to George III. of England.
Over the Dutch castle flew the English flag. Within was the English governor. The gates stood open. First came the Dutch officials, all dressed in black, "well-fed, rosy-cheeked men with powdered hair." They walked in pairs with their hats off. They were followed by the Boers or farmers, who had come in from distant parts of the colony. They were splendid men, head and shoulders above their neighbours, and broad in proportion. They were dressed in blue cloth jackets and trousers and tall flat hats. Behind each, crept a black Hottentot servant, carrying his master's umbrella. The Hottentot was small: he wore a sheepskin round his shoulders, and a hat trimmed with ostrich feathers.
For nearly eight years, the English ruled. Then came another peace between France and England after the battle of Copenhagen, by which the Cape was given back to Holland, now subject to France. The old Dutch East India Company had by this time disappeared, for since the battle of Camperdown, Holland had lost command of the sea. For the next three years, the Cape was hers again. Africa is a land of surprises: once more she was to change hands.
The Cape had been "swept into the whirlpool" of the European conflict raging with Napoleon. More than ever now, England felt the importance of possessing the Cape as a naval stronghold, as a half-way house to her ever-increasing dominions in India. The power of the sea was now hers beyond dispute. The victory of Trafalgar made all things possible. So she sent an expedition to South Africa. Early in the new year of 1806, sixty-three English ships came sweeping into Table Bay. But a gale was blowing, and the heavy surf rolling in to the shore, made landing impossible for a time. The Dutch prepared to defend Cape Town, but they had not the means or the men. It was the height of summer, and the Boers of the country could not leave their farms. So the English took the Cape, and once again the British flag flew from the top of the castle ramparts.
A few years later the English occupation was acknowledged, and Holland sold her rights for the sum of £6,000,000.
The English governors were men of high
character, and anxious for the welfare of the new colony. Reforms were introduced, schools were built, the
slave-trade was forbidden, justice administered. The Dutch law was allowed to remain as it was, and it is
It seemed as if an era of peace and prosperity were about to begin, and there seemed no reason why the history of the happy union of English and Dutch at New York, in America, should not repeat itself. | <urn:uuid:12630a3b-ff19-473a-997b-2368df6fc8ee> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/displayitem.php?item=books/synge/seapower/cape | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00440.warc.gz | en | 0.987259 | 1,268 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.401235163211... | 6 | "I hear the sound of pioneers,
Of nations yet to be."
T HE capture of the Cape of Good Hope was an important result of the battles of Camperdown and Trafalgar. The first of these destroyed the sea power of Holland, the second secured it to England.
Slowly but surely the little colony founded by Van Riebeek at the Cape had grown and prospered. Let us take up its story from those early days.
For some time, the colonists had been content to stay under the shadow of Table Mountain, but as the years passed on, the younger colonists became adventurous. Musket in hand, to drive back the native Hottentots of the country, they began to explore inland, until little settlements sprang up in all directions. They were presently joined by some 300 French Huguenots, who had been driven from their country and taken refuge in Holland. At first these people clung to their French language and service of the French church, but soon the Dutch forbade this, and they talked and worshipped with their neighbours. Not long after their arrival, a terrible outbreak of smallpox swept whole tribes of Hottentots away, and the inland country was clear for the European colonists. Farther and farther inland now they spread, over the mountains to the pasture land beyond. The grass was thin, and it was necessary to graze the cattle over wide stretches of ground. Thus they became more and more cut off from the coast and from the far-off homes of their ancestors. With their wives and children they followed the cattle from spot to spot: their children were untaught, their wives forgot the neat and cleanly ways of their Dutch forefathers. At last they reached the Great Fish River and came in contact with the Kaffirs. These were the natives, who occupied the lands from the Zambesi to the Great Fish River. They consisted of a number of tribes, constantly making war on each other, who appear later under various names of Zulus, Swazis, and Basutos.
All the colonists fretted under the misrule of the Dutch East India Company. They were worried with petty laws and obliged to pay heavy taxes; the farmers were told exactly what to grow, and forced to give up much of their produce. The company had broken faith with the natives, and had imported a number of slaves into the colony, which had no need of negro labour. When, therefore, in the year 1795 the news spread, that English troops were in possession of Cape Town, the idea of change was not wholly unwelcome. The English came as friends of the Dutch, in their united struggle against the French. The Prince of Orange was an exile in England, and the English carried a letter from him to the Dutch officials at the Cape.
Conquerors and conquered came of the same stock. Of all the nations in Europe, the people of Holland are closest to those of Great Britain. True, 1400 years of separation had altered the history of each, but many points of resemblance were left. Both were a liberty-loving people, both were Protestant, both had Viking blood in their veins. Moreover, it was as simple for the Dutchman to learn English, as it was for the Englishman to learn Dutch. Here is a quaint picture, of how the colonists from the surrounding districts came into Cape Town, to take the oath of allegiance to George III. of England.
Over the Dutch castle flew the English flag. Within was the English governor. The gates stood open. First came the Dutch officials, all dressed in black, "well-fed, rosy-cheeked men with powdered hair." They walked in pairs with their hats off. They were followed by the Boers or farmers, who had come in from distant parts of the colony. They were splendid men, head and shoulders above their neighbours, and broad in proportion. They were dressed in blue cloth jackets and trousers and tall flat hats. Behind each, crept a black Hottentot servant, carrying his master's umbrella. The Hottentot was small: he wore a sheepskin round his shoulders, and a hat trimmed with ostrich feathers.
For nearly eight years, the English ruled. Then came another peace between France and England after the battle of Copenhagen, by which the Cape was given back to Holland, now subject to France. The old Dutch East India Company had by this time disappeared, for since the battle of Camperdown, Holland had lost command of the sea. For the next three years, the Cape was hers again. Africa is a land of surprises: once more she was to change hands.
The Cape had been "swept into the whirlpool" of the European conflict raging with Napoleon. More than ever now, England felt the importance of possessing the Cape as a naval stronghold, as a half-way house to her ever-increasing dominions in India. The power of the sea was now hers beyond dispute. The victory of Trafalgar made all things possible. So she sent an expedition to South Africa. Early in the new year of 1806, sixty-three English ships came sweeping into Table Bay. But a gale was blowing, and the heavy surf rolling in to the shore, made landing impossible for a time. The Dutch prepared to defend Cape Town, but they had not the means or the men. It was the height of summer, and the Boers of the country could not leave their farms. So the English took the Cape, and once again the British flag flew from the top of the castle ramparts.
A few years later the English occupation was acknowledged, and Holland sold her rights for the sum of £6,000,000.
The English governors were men of high
character, and anxious for the welfare of the new colony. Reforms were introduced, schools were built, the
slave-trade was forbidden, justice administered. The Dutch law was allowed to remain as it was, and it is
It seemed as if an era of peace and prosperity were about to begin, and there seemed no reason why the history of the happy union of English and Dutch at New York, in America, should not repeat itself. | 1,276 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Schools are not taking sufficient action to address bullying in grades K-8th. This is an issue because bullying has major effects on the grades and drive to learn in young students. While writing this, many questions were raised about bullying in schools. The questions used to guide the research done were questions like,”How does bullying affect the way students learn?,”How many children are bullied during school hours?,”What is done to stop bullying?”, and “Why are some students bullied more than others?”.These are very interesting questions, because bullying is a common occurrence in schools, so it is interesting to think about how students are reacting to it, how it is affecting their learning and school work, how often bullying happens, and what teachers and staff are doing to prevent it. Finding out more about bullying is very important because it can affect a child in many ways, and even change their life. Many people can probably relate to bullying and even think back to how it has affected them. Bullying is a major issue in the education system that affects many students in many ways, a variety of solutions need to be made for this issue, so students can feel safe again.
For students being in the education system is hard enough, even without the constant fear of having to watch their back for bullies. For a child that’s being bullied, the fear of what the bully is going to do next is more focused on than the actual material being taught in the classroom. According to Megan Polanin “85% of students are victims of bullying in school”(Polanin 304 ). This is a very high percentage, out of a class of 20 children 17 of them could be victims of bullying. If students are too distracted by the thought or fear of getting bullied they are not completely focused on the tasks being done during school hours. This means that 85% of students can not learn to their full potential, and bullying is taking away from an education that every student deserves. More than just a slap on the wrist or a talk with the teacher needs to be done to prevent something that affects the way children learn so greatly. The future of our country relies on these children and what they are learning, they need to be learning how to care for one another and work together. Not that everyone around them is thinking badly of each other.
Not only does bullying affect students school work, it also has emotional and mental effects that can greatly affect the way children learn. In her article, Elizabeth Villares explains how “depression, low self esteem, and anxiety are just a few mental effects bullying has on children”(Villares 341-342). A victim of bullying can be affected by depression because at a young developmental age when someone brings a child down they start to believe the words they are hearing and it makes them feel worthless.
This leads to low self esteem, and can affect the way a student learns because it gives them no drive to pay attention in class. It also causes students to feel like they are not worthy of an education. Bullying also leads to anxiety because students become worried and anxious about when and what the bully is going to say or do next. This affects the way students learn because it makes them too nervous to perform in front of an audience, makes them less social, and makes it harder for them to make friends in the classroom. According to Anne Williford ” bullying in children targets the development of empathy.” (Willford 526 ). In today’s education system students are often harassed and bullied multiple times on a daily basis. As a child is developing they often learn the behavior they see, since the students are treated with such negative behavior they start to lack empathy skills that are taught at a young age, and start to bully others as well. Therefore not only are students losing education from being bullied in school, they are also being taught negative behaviors and growing up with the lack of empathy. In today’s society, education is very important and is most often needed to succeed in life. Bullying causes children to fail and even drop out of school, but yet so little is done to prevent it.
Even when schools are taking action, the approaches being taken by teachers and staff are not efficient. According to Kirsten Weir the method of telling the teacher does not work “because they punish bullies in ways that make them dislike their victims even more”(Weir 6). Because of this students are less likely to tell an adult due to the
fear of making the bully even more mad. The punishments these bullies get are negative which end up giving the bully an even more negative outlook on the victim. According to Susan Carter “staff are reluctant to suspend students for an extended period of time due to pressures of parents and litigation” (Carter 156). Something more needs to be done in the education system to find successful methods to fix the issue of bullying so students can feel safe at school and get the education they deserve.
A major issue that comes with bullying is the fact that it can lead to depression and even suicide. Many parents have no clue that their child is being bullied because most children are too embarrassed by it and don’t tell the people they are closest to. According to the website “StopBullyng.gov” signs that a child is being bullied can consist of “declining grades, loss of interest in schoolwork, not wanting to go to school, frequent headaches or stomach aches, difficulty sleeping, frequent nightmares, and unexplainable injuries”. Parents and guardians should keep a lookout for these signs and take action if these are to occur. Along with parents not knowing about a child being bullied, many do not know that their child is a bully. All it takes is for a child to meet the wrong friends and become a bully themselves. Signs to lookout for if a child is a bully is if they are “increasingly aggressive, have friends who bully others, have unexplained extra money or new belongings, or don’t accept responsibility for their actions”. If a child shows any of these signs look into as soon as possible and see what could be causing the child to act this way.
Many people have arguments about the effects of bullying and what should be done to stop it. One popular argument is that kids are “soft” these days and bullying will
only make them stronger and teach them how to deal with issues later in life. My argument to this is that children are meant to be soft and treated as they are. Bullying also does the opposite and makes children want to hide from their problems later in life due to the fear of confrontation that was instilled in them at such a young age. Another argument frequently used is that schools are not responsible for bullying, the parents of the bully are. My response to this is that although the parents are responsible for teaching their children what is right from wrong, the actual act of bullying is happening in schools during school hours, so the staff there should be looking out for it and stopping it. A popular response to bullying is that bullying will always exist and there will always be rude people in this world, so children need to learn it now anyway. My response is that if a child is being a mean bully and is caught and taught how to act right, then maybe they would grow up knowing how to treat people better. That is what is wrong with today’s society, we just assume people will be rude at such a young age instead of trying to change people with help and make them better. Maybe if we went about it in a different way the world could be a much better place. People are so quick to shut issues down with excuses and arguments against them, that is why problems never get solved. If bullying was addressed and fixed then the children in our country could get the education they deserve.
Bullying is a major issue in the education system that affects many students in many ways, a variety of solutions need to be made for this issue, so students can feel safe again. Many things were brought to attention over the course of this paper such as bullying needs to be more payed attention to, and that it has so many more effects on students than just their grades. Bullying can lead to major mental issues that affect a child’s thoughts and even change them for life. No action is being taken to prevent this issue when in reality huge action should be being taken, and no student should ever have to be scared to go to school, or too distracted from fear to concentrate during class. | <urn:uuid:c041871d-8ab0-4d1c-825f-98cf6286f004> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://irvinebusinessdirectory.net/schools-are-not-taking-sufficient-action-to-address-bullying-in-grades-k-8th/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00238.warc.gz | en | 0.982194 | 1,755 | 3.96875 | 4 | [
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0.1897373646497... | 4 | Schools are not taking sufficient action to address bullying in grades K-8th. This is an issue because bullying has major effects on the grades and drive to learn in young students. While writing this, many questions were raised about bullying in schools. The questions used to guide the research done were questions like,”How does bullying affect the way students learn?,”How many children are bullied during school hours?,”What is done to stop bullying?”, and “Why are some students bullied more than others?”.These are very interesting questions, because bullying is a common occurrence in schools, so it is interesting to think about how students are reacting to it, how it is affecting their learning and school work, how often bullying happens, and what teachers and staff are doing to prevent it. Finding out more about bullying is very important because it can affect a child in many ways, and even change their life. Many people can probably relate to bullying and even think back to how it has affected them. Bullying is a major issue in the education system that affects many students in many ways, a variety of solutions need to be made for this issue, so students can feel safe again.
For students being in the education system is hard enough, even without the constant fear of having to watch their back for bullies. For a child that’s being bullied, the fear of what the bully is going to do next is more focused on than the actual material being taught in the classroom. According to Megan Polanin “85% of students are victims of bullying in school”(Polanin 304 ). This is a very high percentage, out of a class of 20 children 17 of them could be victims of bullying. If students are too distracted by the thought or fear of getting bullied they are not completely focused on the tasks being done during school hours. This means that 85% of students can not learn to their full potential, and bullying is taking away from an education that every student deserves. More than just a slap on the wrist or a talk with the teacher needs to be done to prevent something that affects the way children learn so greatly. The future of our country relies on these children and what they are learning, they need to be learning how to care for one another and work together. Not that everyone around them is thinking badly of each other.
Not only does bullying affect students school work, it also has emotional and mental effects that can greatly affect the way children learn. In her article, Elizabeth Villares explains how “depression, low self esteem, and anxiety are just a few mental effects bullying has on children”(Villares 341-342). A victim of bullying can be affected by depression because at a young developmental age when someone brings a child down they start to believe the words they are hearing and it makes them feel worthless.
This leads to low self esteem, and can affect the way a student learns because it gives them no drive to pay attention in class. It also causes students to feel like they are not worthy of an education. Bullying also leads to anxiety because students become worried and anxious about when and what the bully is going to say or do next. This affects the way students learn because it makes them too nervous to perform in front of an audience, makes them less social, and makes it harder for them to make friends in the classroom. According to Anne Williford ” bullying in children targets the development of empathy.” (Willford 526 ). In today’s education system students are often harassed and bullied multiple times on a daily basis. As a child is developing they often learn the behavior they see, since the students are treated with such negative behavior they start to lack empathy skills that are taught at a young age, and start to bully others as well. Therefore not only are students losing education from being bullied in school, they are also being taught negative behaviors and growing up with the lack of empathy. In today’s society, education is very important and is most often needed to succeed in life. Bullying causes children to fail and even drop out of school, but yet so little is done to prevent it.
Even when schools are taking action, the approaches being taken by teachers and staff are not efficient. According to Kirsten Weir the method of telling the teacher does not work “because they punish bullies in ways that make them dislike their victims even more”(Weir 6). Because of this students are less likely to tell an adult due to the
fear of making the bully even more mad. The punishments these bullies get are negative which end up giving the bully an even more negative outlook on the victim. According to Susan Carter “staff are reluctant to suspend students for an extended period of time due to pressures of parents and litigation” (Carter 156). Something more needs to be done in the education system to find successful methods to fix the issue of bullying so students can feel safe at school and get the education they deserve.
A major issue that comes with bullying is the fact that it can lead to depression and even suicide. Many parents have no clue that their child is being bullied because most children are too embarrassed by it and don’t tell the people they are closest to. According to the website “StopBullyng.gov” signs that a child is being bullied can consist of “declining grades, loss of interest in schoolwork, not wanting to go to school, frequent headaches or stomach aches, difficulty sleeping, frequent nightmares, and unexplainable injuries”. Parents and guardians should keep a lookout for these signs and take action if these are to occur. Along with parents not knowing about a child being bullied, many do not know that their child is a bully. All it takes is for a child to meet the wrong friends and become a bully themselves. Signs to lookout for if a child is a bully is if they are “increasingly aggressive, have friends who bully others, have unexplained extra money or new belongings, or don’t accept responsibility for their actions”. If a child shows any of these signs look into as soon as possible and see what could be causing the child to act this way.
Many people have arguments about the effects of bullying and what should be done to stop it. One popular argument is that kids are “soft” these days and bullying will
only make them stronger and teach them how to deal with issues later in life. My argument to this is that children are meant to be soft and treated as they are. Bullying also does the opposite and makes children want to hide from their problems later in life due to the fear of confrontation that was instilled in them at such a young age. Another argument frequently used is that schools are not responsible for bullying, the parents of the bully are. My response to this is that although the parents are responsible for teaching their children what is right from wrong, the actual act of bullying is happening in schools during school hours, so the staff there should be looking out for it and stopping it. A popular response to bullying is that bullying will always exist and there will always be rude people in this world, so children need to learn it now anyway. My response is that if a child is being a mean bully and is caught and taught how to act right, then maybe they would grow up knowing how to treat people better. That is what is wrong with today’s society, we just assume people will be rude at such a young age instead of trying to change people with help and make them better. Maybe if we went about it in a different way the world could be a much better place. People are so quick to shut issues down with excuses and arguments against them, that is why problems never get solved. If bullying was addressed and fixed then the children in our country could get the education they deserve.
Bullying is a major issue in the education system that affects many students in many ways, a variety of solutions need to be made for this issue, so students can feel safe again. Many things were brought to attention over the course of this paper such as bullying needs to be more payed attention to, and that it has so many more effects on students than just their grades. Bullying can lead to major mental issues that affect a child’s thoughts and even change them for life. No action is being taken to prevent this issue when in reality huge action should be being taken, and no student should ever have to be scared to go to school, or too distracted from fear to concentrate during class. | 1,733 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There was nothing like a shipment of white pine Maine timbers from the New England colonies to cheer up a British Royal Navy undersecretary in 1666.
England’s prosperity depended on the navy to control the seas and trade routes. From March 1665 through July 1667, England was at war for a second time with the Dutch Republic, trying to end its domination of world trade. But the Royal Navy faced a chronic problem: there were few trees big enough in Britain for spars and masts to outfit its warships.
The immense stands of tall white pines in northern New England offered a solution. They grew to a height of over 200 feet and were sometimes 10 feet in diameter. Some were a thousand years old. The British Admiralty was quick to grasp the potential of New England’s great white pines for ship construction.
Eventually laws were passed to reserve for the Crown. The king’s surveyors traveled the woods, scoring the king’s trees with three slashes shaped like an arrow – the King’s Broad Arrow. The laws were honored more in the breach than in the observance.
During most of the 17th and 18th centuries, Falmouth, Maine (now Portland), and Portsmouth, N.H., were the center of the mast trade.
Samuel Pepys was an undersecretary of the British Admiralty in 1666. He kept a detailed diary from 1660-69.
On Dec. 3, 1666, Pepys had a bad day at work, ‘with everybody prophesying destruction to the nation.’ One event comforted him: “There is also the very good news come of four New England ships come home safe to Falmouth with masts for the King; which is a blessing mighty unexpected, and without which, if for nothing else, we must have failed next year. But God be praised for this good fortune, and send us a continuance of his favor in other things.”
It would not be enough, however, as Britain was unable to put its entire navy into fighting shape and England was beaten soundly in the war that ended in 1667.
This story was updated from the 2014 version. | <urn:uuid:a8b487ce-7574-4669-81ca-0e1eb27d221e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/maine-timbers-shore-british-navy-1666/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00221.warc.gz | en | 0.980657 | 456 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.3595130741... | 8 | There was nothing like a shipment of white pine Maine timbers from the New England colonies to cheer up a British Royal Navy undersecretary in 1666.
England’s prosperity depended on the navy to control the seas and trade routes. From March 1665 through July 1667, England was at war for a second time with the Dutch Republic, trying to end its domination of world trade. But the Royal Navy faced a chronic problem: there were few trees big enough in Britain for spars and masts to outfit its warships.
The immense stands of tall white pines in northern New England offered a solution. They grew to a height of over 200 feet and were sometimes 10 feet in diameter. Some were a thousand years old. The British Admiralty was quick to grasp the potential of New England’s great white pines for ship construction.
Eventually laws were passed to reserve for the Crown. The king’s surveyors traveled the woods, scoring the king’s trees with three slashes shaped like an arrow – the King’s Broad Arrow. The laws were honored more in the breach than in the observance.
During most of the 17th and 18th centuries, Falmouth, Maine (now Portland), and Portsmouth, N.H., were the center of the mast trade.
Samuel Pepys was an undersecretary of the British Admiralty in 1666. He kept a detailed diary from 1660-69.
On Dec. 3, 1666, Pepys had a bad day at work, ‘with everybody prophesying destruction to the nation.’ One event comforted him: “There is also the very good news come of four New England ships come home safe to Falmouth with masts for the King; which is a blessing mighty unexpected, and without which, if for nothing else, we must have failed next year. But God be praised for this good fortune, and send us a continuance of his favor in other things.”
It would not be enough, however, as Britain was unable to put its entire navy into fighting shape and England was beaten soundly in the war that ended in 1667.
This story was updated from the 2014 version. | 470 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This happened approximately in the year 3050 BC, and his reign lasted, according to sources such as Herodotus and Sincelo, for six decades.
He was assigned the name Menes as a throne name when he acceded to the throne of Upper Egypt.
Then, he extended his territory until he conquered Lower Egypt, and made the city of Ineb Hedy (later Memphis) the capital of his government.
The conquest process was carried out by force, as evidenced by the famous Narmer Palette.
It depicts the pharaoh wearing an allusive crown to Upper Egypt hitting one of the foreigners also represented there.
As with many other pharaohs, among the riches that bequeathed to posterity, the architectural pieces of various kinds stand out.
During his reign, he ordered the construction of a dike that allowed to drain the waters of the wettest region of Ineb Hedy by changing the course of the Nile until it emptied into a lake.
The city itself was also built by Narmer to a large extent. There stands out the temple dedicated to Vulcano Ptah, today associated with Herodotus.
Currently, it is believed that the tomb of Pharaoh is located in Umm el-Qaab, a necropolis of Abidos.
It is considered that he was buried in grave B17-18 of the complex, although there are other theories as well.
Some experts hold the assumption that Narmer’s grave is in Saqqara or Tarjan, an ancient Egyptian cemetery.
There were also references to the pharaoh, although there is a possibility, in all cases, that they were rather monuments in his honor or cenotaphs, rather than authentic tombs. | <urn:uuid:163c5da6-4ac7-4f98-bc52-0980c6d0b1f3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://infinityexplorers.com/narmer-the-first-pharaoh-of-ancient-egypt | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00455.warc.gz | en | 0.982595 | 361 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.19953905045... | 6 | This happened approximately in the year 3050 BC, and his reign lasted, according to sources such as Herodotus and Sincelo, for six decades.
He was assigned the name Menes as a throne name when he acceded to the throne of Upper Egypt.
Then, he extended his territory until he conquered Lower Egypt, and made the city of Ineb Hedy (later Memphis) the capital of his government.
The conquest process was carried out by force, as evidenced by the famous Narmer Palette.
It depicts the pharaoh wearing an allusive crown to Upper Egypt hitting one of the foreigners also represented there.
As with many other pharaohs, among the riches that bequeathed to posterity, the architectural pieces of various kinds stand out.
During his reign, he ordered the construction of a dike that allowed to drain the waters of the wettest region of Ineb Hedy by changing the course of the Nile until it emptied into a lake.
The city itself was also built by Narmer to a large extent. There stands out the temple dedicated to Vulcano Ptah, today associated with Herodotus.
Currently, it is believed that the tomb of Pharaoh is located in Umm el-Qaab, a necropolis of Abidos.
It is considered that he was buried in grave B17-18 of the complex, although there are other theories as well.
Some experts hold the assumption that Narmer’s grave is in Saqqara or Tarjan, an ancient Egyptian cemetery.
There were also references to the pharaoh, although there is a possibility, in all cases, that they were rather monuments in his honor or cenotaphs, rather than authentic tombs. | 350 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Essay PreviewMore ↓
From the beginning of some life, people make many choices that affect their personal growth and livelihood, choices like what they should wear and/or what they should do. Even the littlest choices that they make could make a big difference in their lives. In the book, Robinson Crusoe retold by Daniel Defoe, Robinson Crusoe, while on the island, made many choices, big and small, that affected his personal growth and contributed to why he survived for so long. On the island he made a lot of smart decisions of what to do in order to stay a live. On his second day he made a choice to go back to the ship to explore what was there. He spent a lot of time building his home when he could have done something more important. He also took a risk and helped out a person that he did not know. These were some of many choices that Robinson Crusoe made throughout his many years on the island.
While on a trip off the coast of England, rough winds threw Robinson Crusoe and his crew of sixteen members off course. Right after one of the crew yelled out “land ahoy'; the ship hit a rock and went down. Everybody drowned except Robinson Crusoe, who washed up on a nearby island; he was the only survivor. The next morning he realized what had happened and became scared of dying, because without food or clothes he could not survive. Not knowing what to do, he made a small shack and settled on the island for that night. The very next morning he made a choice to build a raft and go out to the broken boat and explore for items he could find. He was hardworking and smart even in a bad situation. His decision to go back to the boat and risk a chance of being killed by sharks changed his life span. It also proved that he was smart. By making smart decision and thinking wisely, it proved that he was a smart man. “I at once found some food, for I was hungry'; (15). If he had not gone back to the ship he could have starved to death. Robinson needed food and his choice to get it made him survive for a longer time. Even though Robinson had food and shelter he had nobody there to keep him company.
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"Robinson Crusoe." 123HelpMe.com. 23 Jan 2020
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- Eva Brann writes in her article “The Unexpurgated Robinson Crusoe” that Robinson Crusoe is the archetype, a model of a new man, soon to be predominant breed – a modern man. Crusoe is a rational man, with extraordinary capabilities, a lone individual and an individual that makes a culture of one. He is every man in one: a businessman, laborer, and accountant. He is the ultimate individualist. He does everything by himself, for himself. Nevertheless, what can be said about Robinson Crusoe’s modernity if while reading the novel he continued reminding me to an ancient Greek hero Jason.... [tags: Robinson Crusoe Essays]
1898 words (5.4 pages)
- Freedom is a theme that appears multiple times throughout the entirety of both stories, Robinson Crusoe and Foe. Freedom is so called power where there are basically no rules. When a story has freedom as a concurrent theme, it means that the story has little restraint; there is a lot of room to act freely as one wishes. Robinson Crusoe and Foe are two different stories that can be compared through the theme of freedom. One will see throughout this writing, how much these two stories can relate as well as the major differences between the same yet, different meaning of freedom.... [tags: Robinson Crusoe, Novel, Daniel Defoe]
1179 words (3.4 pages)
- Robinson Crusoe Analysis As boys grow into men they go through a series of changes, leaving them doubting both themselves and their beliefs. One specific author who explores this is Daniel Defoe, the author of Robinson Crusoe. In this publication, Defoe writes about a man who emerges from a series of catastrophes as a symbol of man’s ability to survive the tests of nature. Because of the many hardships that Defoe encountered throughout his life, writing about a man whose thoughts and internal struggles mirrored his own helps to give the publication a sense of realism.... [tags: Robinson Crusoe, Novel, Daniel Defoe]
1172 words (3.3 pages)
- “He told me I might judge happiness of this state by this one thing, viz. that this was the state of life which all other people envied, that kings have frequently lamented the miserable consequences of being born to great things, and wish’d they had been placed in the middle of the two extremes, between the mean and they great; that the wise man gave his testimony to this as the just standard of true felicity, when he prayed to have neither poverty or riches” (Defoe 2). This is a part of the lecture Robinson’s father had given when he tried to keep him from a life of sailing.... [tags: Robinson Crusoe Essays]
891 words (2.5 pages)
- “Thus fear of danger is ten thousand times more terrifying than danger itself when apparent to the eyes” (Defoe 116). The protagonist and also namesake of the book, Robinson Crusoe, has enough experience flirting with danger to be able to say the above quote with surety. Following the life of one man, the novel, Robinson Crusoe¸ records the adventures he has while on the sea. The main section of the book has Crusoe marooned on an island for nearly 30 years. One can assume that the events in Robinson Crusoe did not happen based on the following events, the ability he obtained supplies from the wrecked ship, his ability to build various objects, and variations from the true even... [tags: Robinson Crusoe Essays]
685 words (2 pages)
- It has been observed that when placed in harsh or unusual conditions, people tend to look to spiritual support to help them overcome adversity. In Robinson Crusoe, Daniel Defoe not only depicts the struggle of a man abandoned on a deserted island, but also depicts Crusoe's repentance for past disobedience against his father and humanity as well as his acceptance of religion into his life. Crusoe's religious beliefs, however, do not remain consistent; in fact, he later uses religion as a justification for murder and other immoral acts.... [tags: Robinson Crusoe Essays]
1052 words (3 pages)
- Robinson Crusoe is a character we get to know extremely well, thanks to Daniel Defoe and his informative descriptions. Because of this we can see how Robinson's attitudes and beliefs may or may not change throughout the book. In this essay I will look at how they do or do not change, and decide on whether Robinson is a changing or unchanging character. "I was born in the year 1623, in the city of York, of a good family, though not of that country, my father being a foreigner.... [tags: Robinson Crusoe Essays]
874 words (2.5 pages)
- Daniel Defoe was an extraordinary man. Although he never had the benefit of a university education, he spoke six languages and was able to read even more. His curriculum included having been a government spy, a shopkeeper, and a journalist. As the latter, he was employed by both major parties. Of course, serving two lord is impossible, so after he got into trouble with both of these parties, he turned to writing as another means of living. The first major difference between Defoe's work and most other books dating from this time is that Robinson Crusoe is really entertaining, quite exhilarating and at times even amusing to read.... [tags: Defoe Robinson Crusoe Essays]
1022 words (2.9 pages)
- Robinson Crusoe and God As Robinson Crusoe salvages anything useful for his subsistence off of the shipwreck, he alludes to his materialism. "...O Drug!.. what art thou good for, thou art not worth to me, no not the taking off of the ground, one of those knives is worth all this heap, I have no manner of use for thee, e'en remain where thou art, and go to the bottom as a creature whose life is not worth saving... However, upon second thoughts, I took it away..." (Defoe 57) It is easy to take Crusoe's statement literally and dismiss him merely as an ostentatious person; however, Crusoe sees real beauty in the saving hand of God. The dominant theme in Robinson Crusoe is that sin ha... [tags: Defoe Robinson Crusoe Essays]
1076 words (3.1 pages)
- Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe The balance between agency and the challenges to it proposed by unexplained or supernatural occurrences is of central importance in Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe. Additionally, the question of human control over various surroundings seemingly develops commensurate to the title character’s increased reliance on and understanding of his faith. That particular conflict is a replication of the overall theme of the narrative — Crusoe’s finding increasing discomfort the more familiar he becomes with his environment.... [tags: Daniel Defoe Robinson Crusoe Essays]
1199 words (3.4 pages)
Robinson was smart enough to anticipate what the conditions on the island were and how to protect himself. Robinson took some time and built a strong home so that a storm wouldn’t knock it down. “I spent a lot of time working on my home so that another storm wouldn’t knock it down'; (29). Robinson also had a choice to add more things to his house to make it better and to protect him. “…It took me all day to put up my fence, …so that no wild animals could attack me…'; (31). After all the effort and hard work he put into making his home it paid off because when a storm came he was safe and so was his home. He says, “a storm came by and my pets and I were safe in my home'; (52).
Sometimes people make choices, where they risk their lives in order to make their lives and others better. One night Robinson saw a group of cannibals having a feast and there was this one cannibal that didn’t want to join in, so the other cannibals tried to kill him but he ran away so two of the others ran after him, Robinson then killed them both and adopted the other. He called him Friday, the man he saved, because it was Friday when he adopted him. Robinson risked his life in adopting Friday into his life. Instead of leaving him on the island and being killed by hunger or wild animals, he cared for him and raised him and taught him the things he knew. “The next day I took Friday around the island and showed him how to hunt'; (90). Also now it would take Robinson less time to complete a task and it would be faster to begin one. Robinson’s smart decision to take in Friday helped him out and now there was a way of getting out of the island and going home. “Friday and I began to make a big boat that would carry us over the sea…'; (92). Now that Friday had knowledge of what Robinson knew, their lives changed from this point on “…now with Friday helping, life became more easy.'; (105)
In our lives we have to make smart decisions in order to get through each day. Sometimes these decisions could affect our personal growth. They could help us or hurt us, but that is the risk we have to take. When Robinson got stuck on the island his choices became limited. Robinson could have left the boat alone and gone exploring the island to see what he could have found, but he was smart enough to know that there were still some supplies on the boat that he could us. Robinson could have also panicked and lost his cool but he took control of this situation and handled it. Robinson could have had killed Friday, but he didn’t and took care of him. This shows that he was a smart, helpful man who made excellent choices to survive and flourish in life, despite his difficult circumstances. | <urn:uuid:103f8435-5480-4bce-8701-3e2beab3e2c9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.123helpme.com/view.asp?id=84139 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00027.warc.gz | en | 0.980805 | 2,577 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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From the beginning of some life, people make many choices that affect their personal growth and livelihood, choices like what they should wear and/or what they should do. Even the littlest choices that they make could make a big difference in their lives. In the book, Robinson Crusoe retold by Daniel Defoe, Robinson Crusoe, while on the island, made many choices, big and small, that affected his personal growth and contributed to why he survived for so long. On the island he made a lot of smart decisions of what to do in order to stay a live. On his second day he made a choice to go back to the ship to explore what was there. He spent a lot of time building his home when he could have done something more important. He also took a risk and helped out a person that he did not know. These were some of many choices that Robinson Crusoe made throughout his many years on the island.
While on a trip off the coast of England, rough winds threw Robinson Crusoe and his crew of sixteen members off course. Right after one of the crew yelled out “land ahoy'; the ship hit a rock and went down. Everybody drowned except Robinson Crusoe, who washed up on a nearby island; he was the only survivor. The next morning he realized what had happened and became scared of dying, because without food or clothes he could not survive. Not knowing what to do, he made a small shack and settled on the island for that night. The very next morning he made a choice to build a raft and go out to the broken boat and explore for items he could find. He was hardworking and smart even in a bad situation. His decision to go back to the boat and risk a chance of being killed by sharks changed his life span. It also proved that he was smart. By making smart decision and thinking wisely, it proved that he was a smart man. “I at once found some food, for I was hungry'; (15). If he had not gone back to the ship he could have starved to death. Robinson needed food and his choice to get it made him survive for a longer time. Even though Robinson had food and shelter he had nobody there to keep him company.
How to Cite this Page
"Robinson Crusoe." 123HelpMe.com. 23 Jan 2020
Need Writing Help?
Get feedback on grammar, clarity, concision and logic instantly.Check your paper »
- Eva Brann writes in her article “The Unexpurgated Robinson Crusoe” that Robinson Crusoe is the archetype, a model of a new man, soon to be predominant breed – a modern man. Crusoe is a rational man, with extraordinary capabilities, a lone individual and an individual that makes a culture of one. He is every man in one: a businessman, laborer, and accountant. He is the ultimate individualist. He does everything by himself, for himself. Nevertheless, what can be said about Robinson Crusoe’s modernity if while reading the novel he continued reminding me to an ancient Greek hero Jason.... [tags: Robinson Crusoe Essays]
1898 words (5.4 pages)
- Freedom is a theme that appears multiple times throughout the entirety of both stories, Robinson Crusoe and Foe. Freedom is so called power where there are basically no rules. When a story has freedom as a concurrent theme, it means that the story has little restraint; there is a lot of room to act freely as one wishes. Robinson Crusoe and Foe are two different stories that can be compared through the theme of freedom. One will see throughout this writing, how much these two stories can relate as well as the major differences between the same yet, different meaning of freedom.... [tags: Robinson Crusoe, Novel, Daniel Defoe]
1179 words (3.4 pages)
- Robinson Crusoe Analysis As boys grow into men they go through a series of changes, leaving them doubting both themselves and their beliefs. One specific author who explores this is Daniel Defoe, the author of Robinson Crusoe. In this publication, Defoe writes about a man who emerges from a series of catastrophes as a symbol of man’s ability to survive the tests of nature. Because of the many hardships that Defoe encountered throughout his life, writing about a man whose thoughts and internal struggles mirrored his own helps to give the publication a sense of realism.... [tags: Robinson Crusoe, Novel, Daniel Defoe]
1172 words (3.3 pages)
- “He told me I might judge happiness of this state by this one thing, viz. that this was the state of life which all other people envied, that kings have frequently lamented the miserable consequences of being born to great things, and wish’d they had been placed in the middle of the two extremes, between the mean and they great; that the wise man gave his testimony to this as the just standard of true felicity, when he prayed to have neither poverty or riches” (Defoe 2). This is a part of the lecture Robinson’s father had given when he tried to keep him from a life of sailing.... [tags: Robinson Crusoe Essays]
891 words (2.5 pages)
- “Thus fear of danger is ten thousand times more terrifying than danger itself when apparent to the eyes” (Defoe 116). The protagonist and also namesake of the book, Robinson Crusoe, has enough experience flirting with danger to be able to say the above quote with surety. Following the life of one man, the novel, Robinson Crusoe¸ records the adventures he has while on the sea. The main section of the book has Crusoe marooned on an island for nearly 30 years. One can assume that the events in Robinson Crusoe did not happen based on the following events, the ability he obtained supplies from the wrecked ship, his ability to build various objects, and variations from the true even... [tags: Robinson Crusoe Essays]
685 words (2 pages)
- It has been observed that when placed in harsh or unusual conditions, people tend to look to spiritual support to help them overcome adversity. In Robinson Crusoe, Daniel Defoe not only depicts the struggle of a man abandoned on a deserted island, but also depicts Crusoe's repentance for past disobedience against his father and humanity as well as his acceptance of religion into his life. Crusoe's religious beliefs, however, do not remain consistent; in fact, he later uses religion as a justification for murder and other immoral acts.... [tags: Robinson Crusoe Essays]
1052 words (3 pages)
- Robinson Crusoe is a character we get to know extremely well, thanks to Daniel Defoe and his informative descriptions. Because of this we can see how Robinson's attitudes and beliefs may or may not change throughout the book. In this essay I will look at how they do or do not change, and decide on whether Robinson is a changing or unchanging character. "I was born in the year 1623, in the city of York, of a good family, though not of that country, my father being a foreigner.... [tags: Robinson Crusoe Essays]
874 words (2.5 pages)
- Daniel Defoe was an extraordinary man. Although he never had the benefit of a university education, he spoke six languages and was able to read even more. His curriculum included having been a government spy, a shopkeeper, and a journalist. As the latter, he was employed by both major parties. Of course, serving two lord is impossible, so after he got into trouble with both of these parties, he turned to writing as another means of living. The first major difference between Defoe's work and most other books dating from this time is that Robinson Crusoe is really entertaining, quite exhilarating and at times even amusing to read.... [tags: Defoe Robinson Crusoe Essays]
1022 words (2.9 pages)
- Robinson Crusoe and God As Robinson Crusoe salvages anything useful for his subsistence off of the shipwreck, he alludes to his materialism. "...O Drug!.. what art thou good for, thou art not worth to me, no not the taking off of the ground, one of those knives is worth all this heap, I have no manner of use for thee, e'en remain where thou art, and go to the bottom as a creature whose life is not worth saving... However, upon second thoughts, I took it away..." (Defoe 57) It is easy to take Crusoe's statement literally and dismiss him merely as an ostentatious person; however, Crusoe sees real beauty in the saving hand of God. The dominant theme in Robinson Crusoe is that sin ha... [tags: Defoe Robinson Crusoe Essays]
1076 words (3.1 pages)
- Daniel Defoe's Robinson Crusoe The balance between agency and the challenges to it proposed by unexplained or supernatural occurrences is of central importance in Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe. Additionally, the question of human control over various surroundings seemingly develops commensurate to the title character’s increased reliance on and understanding of his faith. That particular conflict is a replication of the overall theme of the narrative — Crusoe’s finding increasing discomfort the more familiar he becomes with his environment.... [tags: Daniel Defoe Robinson Crusoe Essays]
1199 words (3.4 pages)
Robinson was smart enough to anticipate what the conditions on the island were and how to protect himself. Robinson took some time and built a strong home so that a storm wouldn’t knock it down. “I spent a lot of time working on my home so that another storm wouldn’t knock it down'; (29). Robinson also had a choice to add more things to his house to make it better and to protect him. “…It took me all day to put up my fence, …so that no wild animals could attack me…'; (31). After all the effort and hard work he put into making his home it paid off because when a storm came he was safe and so was his home. He says, “a storm came by and my pets and I were safe in my home'; (52).
Sometimes people make choices, where they risk their lives in order to make their lives and others better. One night Robinson saw a group of cannibals having a feast and there was this one cannibal that didn’t want to join in, so the other cannibals tried to kill him but he ran away so two of the others ran after him, Robinson then killed them both and adopted the other. He called him Friday, the man he saved, because it was Friday when he adopted him. Robinson risked his life in adopting Friday into his life. Instead of leaving him on the island and being killed by hunger or wild animals, he cared for him and raised him and taught him the things he knew. “The next day I took Friday around the island and showed him how to hunt'; (90). Also now it would take Robinson less time to complete a task and it would be faster to begin one. Robinson’s smart decision to take in Friday helped him out and now there was a way of getting out of the island and going home. “Friday and I began to make a big boat that would carry us over the sea…'; (92). Now that Friday had knowledge of what Robinson knew, their lives changed from this point on “…now with Friday helping, life became more easy.'; (105)
In our lives we have to make smart decisions in order to get through each day. Sometimes these decisions could affect our personal growth. They could help us or hurt us, but that is the risk we have to take. When Robinson got stuck on the island his choices became limited. Robinson could have left the boat alone and gone exploring the island to see what he could have found, but he was smart enough to know that there were still some supplies on the boat that he could us. Robinson could have also panicked and lost his cool but he took control of this situation and handled it. Robinson could have had killed Friday, but he didn’t and took care of him. This shows that he was a smart, helpful man who made excellent choices to survive and flourish in life, despite his difficult circumstances. | 2,552 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Bomber Gap was the Cold War belief that the Soviet Union's Long Range Aviation department had gained an advantage in deploying jet-powered strategic bombers. Widely accepted for several years, the gap was used as a political talking point in the United States to justify a great increase in defense spending.
One result was a massive buildup of the US Air Force bomber fleet, which peaked at over 2500 bombers to counter the perceived Soviet threat. Surveillance flights by the U-2 aircraft indicated that the bomber gap did not exist.
Realizing that the belief in the gap was an extremely effective funding source, the US military fabricated a series of similarly-nonexistent Soviet military advances. That tactic is now known as policy by press release. Some of the claims were a nuclear-powered bomber,supersonic VTOL flying saucers, and, only a few years later, the missile gap.
On February 15, 1954, Aviation Week published an article describing new Soviet jet bombers capable of carrying a nuclear bomb from their bases to the US. The aircraft was the Myasishchev M-4 Bison. Over the next year and a half, the rumors were debated publicly in the press and soon in Congress.
Adding to the concerns was an infamous event in July 1955. At the Soviet Aviation Day demonstrations at the Tushino Airfield, ten Bison bombers were flown past the reviewing stand, flew out of sight, quickly turned around, and then flew past the stands again with eight more. That presented the illusion that there were 28 aircraft in the flyby. Western analysts, extrapolating from the illusionary 28 aircraft, judged that by 1960, the Soviets would have 800.
At the time, the Air Force had just introduced its own strategic jet bomber, the B-52 Stratofortress, and the shorter-range B-47 Stratojet was still suffering from a variety of technical problems that limited its availability. Its staff started pressing for accelerated production of the B-52 but also grudgingly accepted calls for expanded air defense.
The Air Force was generally critical of spending effort on defense after it had studied the results of the World War II bombing campaigns and concluded that British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin's pre-war thinking on the fruitlessness of air defense was mostly correct: "The bomber will always get through." Like the British, the US Air Force concluded that money would better be spent on making the offensive arm larger to deter an attack. The result was a production series consisting of thousands of aircraft. Over 2,000 B-47s and almost 750 B-52s were built to match the imagined fleet of Soviet aircraft.
The first U-2 flights started in 1956. One early mission, Mission 2020, flown by Martin Knutson on 9 July 1956, flew over an airfield southwest of Leningrad[a] and photographed 30 M-4 Bison bombers on the ramp. Multiplying by the number of Soviet bomber bases, the intelligence suggested the Soviets were already well on their way to deploying large numbers, with NEI 11-4-57 of November 1957 claiming 150 to 250 by 1958, and over 600 by the mid-1960s.
In fact, the U-2 had actually photographed the entire Bison fleet; there were no M-4s at any of the other bases. Follow-up missions over the next year showed increasing evidence that the Soviet military was actually at a very low level of activity. Further, the CIA received information from the factories that showed that production rate had slowed down. A follow-up report in April 1958 by Sherman Kent of the CIA stated that the program appeared to be winding down, not speeding up, and that the estimates for the force should be decreased.
The Air Force would have none of it. In May 1958, they instead suggested that production was being carried out at Samara (then known as Kuybyshev), Kazan and Irkutsk, and the aircraft being delivered to Engels-2, Bila Tserkva and Balbasovo Air Base (Orsha Southwest) - basically, anywhere that had not yet been overflown. They suggested these be photographed, with the expectation that it would also provide information on new equipment.
Engels and Kuybyshev were finally overflown by a Royal Air Force pilot in December 1959. They showed no sign of the bombers nor the production capacity for them. At least in official circles, the gap had been disproved.
As it was later discovered, the M-4 was unable to meet its original range goals and was limited to about 8,000 kilometers (5,000 mi). Unlike the US, the Soviets still lacked overseas bases in the Western Hemisphere and so the M-4 could not attack the US and then land at a friendly airbase. Interest in the M-4 waned, and a total of only 93 were produced before the assembly lines were shut down in 1963. The vast majority were used as tankers or maritime reconnaissance aircraft; only the original ten shown at the air show and nine newer 3MD13 models served on nuclear alert. | <urn:uuid:84e0efaa-9dd0-4d3f-90f4-29059a1e2d68> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.popflock.com/learn?s=Bomber_gap | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00447.warc.gz | en | 0.980833 | 1,040 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.32903718948364... | 1 | The Bomber Gap was the Cold War belief that the Soviet Union's Long Range Aviation department had gained an advantage in deploying jet-powered strategic bombers. Widely accepted for several years, the gap was used as a political talking point in the United States to justify a great increase in defense spending.
One result was a massive buildup of the US Air Force bomber fleet, which peaked at over 2500 bombers to counter the perceived Soviet threat. Surveillance flights by the U-2 aircraft indicated that the bomber gap did not exist.
Realizing that the belief in the gap was an extremely effective funding source, the US military fabricated a series of similarly-nonexistent Soviet military advances. That tactic is now known as policy by press release. Some of the claims were a nuclear-powered bomber,supersonic VTOL flying saucers, and, only a few years later, the missile gap.
On February 15, 1954, Aviation Week published an article describing new Soviet jet bombers capable of carrying a nuclear bomb from their bases to the US. The aircraft was the Myasishchev M-4 Bison. Over the next year and a half, the rumors were debated publicly in the press and soon in Congress.
Adding to the concerns was an infamous event in July 1955. At the Soviet Aviation Day demonstrations at the Tushino Airfield, ten Bison bombers were flown past the reviewing stand, flew out of sight, quickly turned around, and then flew past the stands again with eight more. That presented the illusion that there were 28 aircraft in the flyby. Western analysts, extrapolating from the illusionary 28 aircraft, judged that by 1960, the Soviets would have 800.
At the time, the Air Force had just introduced its own strategic jet bomber, the B-52 Stratofortress, and the shorter-range B-47 Stratojet was still suffering from a variety of technical problems that limited its availability. Its staff started pressing for accelerated production of the B-52 but also grudgingly accepted calls for expanded air defense.
The Air Force was generally critical of spending effort on defense after it had studied the results of the World War II bombing campaigns and concluded that British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin's pre-war thinking on the fruitlessness of air defense was mostly correct: "The bomber will always get through." Like the British, the US Air Force concluded that money would better be spent on making the offensive arm larger to deter an attack. The result was a production series consisting of thousands of aircraft. Over 2,000 B-47s and almost 750 B-52s were built to match the imagined fleet of Soviet aircraft.
The first U-2 flights started in 1956. One early mission, Mission 2020, flown by Martin Knutson on 9 July 1956, flew over an airfield southwest of Leningrad[a] and photographed 30 M-4 Bison bombers on the ramp. Multiplying by the number of Soviet bomber bases, the intelligence suggested the Soviets were already well on their way to deploying large numbers, with NEI 11-4-57 of November 1957 claiming 150 to 250 by 1958, and over 600 by the mid-1960s.
In fact, the U-2 had actually photographed the entire Bison fleet; there were no M-4s at any of the other bases. Follow-up missions over the next year showed increasing evidence that the Soviet military was actually at a very low level of activity. Further, the CIA received information from the factories that showed that production rate had slowed down. A follow-up report in April 1958 by Sherman Kent of the CIA stated that the program appeared to be winding down, not speeding up, and that the estimates for the force should be decreased.
The Air Force would have none of it. In May 1958, they instead suggested that production was being carried out at Samara (then known as Kuybyshev), Kazan and Irkutsk, and the aircraft being delivered to Engels-2, Bila Tserkva and Balbasovo Air Base (Orsha Southwest) - basically, anywhere that had not yet been overflown. They suggested these be photographed, with the expectation that it would also provide information on new equipment.
Engels and Kuybyshev were finally overflown by a Royal Air Force pilot in December 1959. They showed no sign of the bombers nor the production capacity for them. At least in official circles, the gap had been disproved.
As it was later discovered, the M-4 was unable to meet its original range goals and was limited to about 8,000 kilometers (5,000 mi). Unlike the US, the Soviets still lacked overseas bases in the Western Hemisphere and so the M-4 could not attack the US and then land at a friendly airbase. Interest in the M-4 waned, and a total of only 93 were produced before the assembly lines were shut down in 1963. The vast majority were used as tankers or maritime reconnaissance aircraft; only the original ten shown at the air show and nine newer 3MD13 models served on nuclear alert. | 1,117 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Family During the Holocaust
Where both the preservation of tradition and the acclimatization to social and cultural change are concerned, Jewish folklore attributes to the family a magic role in shaping the lives of individuals and the community at large. However, academic research on the Jewish family is only in its early stages and information on the Jewish family in Eastern Europe is particularly scarce.
The Holocaust dealt a mortal blow to the family and to Jewish life in general. Nevertheless, some sources indicate that, apart from the crisis and breakdown, there was also considerable strength in family ties so long as normal life could be maintained. Evidence from the labor and extermination camps, in which the sexes were separated, reveals that there were fragments of family that remained intact, such as siblings and cousins who tried to maintain contact; where this proved impossible, the inmates created a kind of alternative family. Such evidence is more plentiful with regard to women in the camps, for whom memories of family life were a source of strength even while they also aroused fear of a loss of hope. One might have expected sad memories to cause profound depression because of the unbridgeable gap between them and the grim reality. But women survivors report conversations about recipes, holiday customs and family life in general as a way of coping with the violence of their daily lives. There is no better evidence of the family’s serving as a real anchor to life than the readiness of the survivors to set up families in the years immediately following the end of the war, even if they had lost a spouse and children.
Documentation of these phenomena is fragmented and scattered. Letters, diaries and notes from the period relate what happened to families and we can also learn from them of the decline that occurred in the ghettos of Eastern Europe as well as in Western Europe as expulsion threatened. Evidence collected after the war also provides a resource for researchers, but one must take into account the subjectivity of all the sources.
Contemporary sources reflect the terrible pressures on daily life in the ghettos and the fragility of life in Western Europe. Family members found it hard to convey their condition objectively and their personal evidence reflects the painful changes that occurred in relations between spouses, between parents and children and more distant relatives. These sources frequently reflect a harsh and judgmental attitude.
Evidence collected and memoirs written after the war often express nostalgia on the part of those who were children or young people at the time. Many of them also bore the heavy burden of recalling a “shameful act,” such as secretly stealing a portion of bread from a sibling or a parent, or of improper behavior, such as joining a youth group and abandoning their parents at a time of hardship. Since their parents, like most of their relatives, had been murdered, there were no survivors with whom to share these thoughts and feelings. Their feelings find expression in some of the memoirs and oral evidence.
In the 1930s and 1940s, Jewish families were typical of their times: a nuclear consumer unit whose adult members were partners in production and property. As in non-Jewish families, there was a clear division of responsibilities, with the woman in charge of domestic life and child-rearing and the man serving as income-earner. In Eastern Europe more married women shared the income-earning, since most of the families belonged to the lower-income bracket of laborers, artisans and petty merchants. Most West and Middle European Jews were middle-class, with a few in both the lower and upper classes.
However, women also dealt with extra-familiar issues, such as neighborly relations, neighborhood activity, contact with teachers and fellow parents at their children’s schools, etc. Thus the mother had, as it were, two apparently contradictory functions: she was an agent of socialization with the surrounding society in everything relating to culture, customs, manners and education, and hence an agent of change, but at the same time she was responsible for preserving Jewish identity via family customs, SabbathShabbat, holidays and the like.
The family life of Jews in the ghettos existed in a constant state of tension between disintegration, on the one hand, and the preservation of solidarity by way of an enormous effort to maintain what might be termed “normality,” at a time of total absence of normality. The way in which families coped with reality differed from place to place and from stage to stage of the implementation of the “Final Solution.” The difficult daily life in the ghettos of Eastern Europe and the Western European countries in which Jews were not confined to ghettos was a major factor in determining family life. Hence, when we consider the everyday existence of both the family and the individual, we need to take into account the parameters by which we examine public life and the economic and social activities permitted to Jews under occupation.
In the unique reality of the “Ghetto Regime,” the private and public spheres were almost totally intertwined. In the west, too, the state penetrated into the private domain via confiscation of Jewish property, prohibition of various occupations and study at state schools. Everywhere family life was influenced by economic status prior to the war and social contacts with non-Jewish surroundings.
Many families were left without a husband/father. Many men fled at the outbreak of the war, since it was assumed that they were in greater danger than the women and children. Many men were caught and imprisoned during the early weeks of the war and later more men than women were sent to forced-labor camps.
It is worth noting that while many women encouraged their husbands to flee, many others were so frightened by the situation and so feared remaining alone that they urged their husbands not to leave.
What follows is based primarily on the ghettos in Warsaw under the Generalgouvernement in Warthegau (an area that was annexed to the Reich), Lodz and Kovno, which was occupied only in 1941. In the latter, as in all of the areas that were taken over by the USSR in the wake of the Molotov-Ribbentrop agreement of August 1939, the German occupation began with a series of mass murders even before the establishment of the ghetto. These continued during the early months of the ghetto, whose social composition reflected the remnants of the Jewish community and family. With regard to Western Europe, we shall deal mainly with Germany, where Jews experienced the Nazi regime from its beginnings, and with other countries that shared similar experiences, such as separation from children, concealment, etc.
Families with very different economic backgrounds and lifestyles before the war underwent a vast change in their lives and found themselves together in the ghetto. While the men in the various families did not all share the same fate, nor at identical times, yet the families functioned as a unit even after they were taken, establishing new divisions of responsibility in which every family member participated. Those men who underwent physical abuse and were in greater danger refrained from leaving the protection of the home. The women thus undertook new tasks, becoming the main income earners. This change in the relationship within the family was sometimes harmonious, but at other times led to friction, undermining relationships between husband and wife and leading to the disintegration of the family.
The chronicle of the Lodz Ghetto confirms the breakdown of marital relationships. A headline of December 1941 publicizes the case of a woman who requests a divorce because her husband, who is working in the carpentry, is not supporting the family and there is no shalom bayit (domestic peace) between them. Their thirteen-year-old daughter has died of starvation and the woman requests aid for herself and her three surviving children. Other evidence also indicates that “in these days in the ghetto many couples quarrel over trivial matters.”
Apart from changes in the traditional division of functions which occurred in numerous families, other factors affected relationships between couples and between family members in general, especially the terrible shortages and the hunger that reigned in ghettos such as Lodz and Warsaw. The chronicles relate numerous stories and facts: an eight-year-old complains that his parents deprive him of the bread ration that is his due; parents who cannot afford medications for their sick children sell part of their bread ration, the sick child never recovers. In general, the shortage of bread weakens the children and leads to their death. Thus the chronicle reports the demise of an entire family in the ghetto. A document from the Warsaw ghetto describes a boy who strangled his sister in a dispute over bread after their parents’ death left them the sole survivors.
Other descriptions of families that remained with only one parent present a picture of great neglect of children in the difficult living conditions in damp cellars without heating or adequate clothing in the severe winter of 1941. Mothers who have to go out to work in order to bring some food home leave their (frequently sick) children at home without adequate supervision. Fathers left alone after their wives died of illness or exhaustion describe their helplessness and inability to provide even the little needed to protect the children. The danger of neglect among these groups, which usually comprised the poor and the refugees, was so great that no parental authority could survive the everyday conditions.
Food proved to be a factor either in creating greater cooperation and responsibility or in causing division and alienation between family members. In September 1942, David Sierakowiak described pitilessly and unforgivingly in his diary how his father concentrated on eating when the doctor came to determine which of the family members were too weak to work and would therefore be deported. After examining the mother he declared her unfit to work and thus to be among the deported. Mourning her fate, Sierakowiak explains that only because of the generosity which led her to do everything for her family and even to give them her own bread ration did she become so “shrunk.” And now the doctor determined her fate, despite the fact that she worked, kept the house and even cultivated the small piece of ground which the family received in order to grow vegetables.
Many could not stand the hunger and either begged or stole bread from other family members. Many diaries and other evidence describe the heavy sense of guilt that resulted. In the Lodz ghetto many people carried the bread about with them and as a result were attacked in the streets.
Eating at home was a factor that helped preserve the family framework. Some families gathered around a cloth-covered table to eat the little they had in the manner to which they had been accustomed in better days; but in most families there was no longer such a framework. The effort of getting food and preparing it was shared by all family members, but the main burden fell on the mother. One of the foods mentioned in the Lodz ghetto consisted of potato peels which were cooked, minced and fried. This was a long and tiring process that began with the children gathering the peels or other remains from the garbage. They then waited for their mother to come home from work in the evening and then they began the process which was usually completed only late at night.
The Judenrat impacted on family life in various, often brutal, ways. One example of this was the degrading process of disinfecting and checking for cleanliness, which frequently deprived many families of their precious utensils and clothing. The speech by Mordechai Rumkowski (1877–1944, chairman of the Lodz Judenrat) to the clothes pressers was an extreme example of interference in the feelings and considerations of the individual: he warned them not to share with their relatives the extra rations which they received because of the hard work in which they were engaged. He thus deprived the individual of even his personal and familial considerations regarding matters of life and death. In the ghetto reality, control of human life is not an individual but a general matter and the head of the Judenrat is therefore authorized to determine it. That was the reason why the workers’ ration coupons had been replaced by additional food at the meal breaks at their place of work. “Of course these meals are intended only for you, while other family members benefited from the coupons. But this principle of Jewish partnership, that sense of Jewish family, do not hold good here. We are dealing with the general good, not that of the individual.” His most extreme and blatant interference found expression in the speech in September 1942 (during the deportation known as the Sperre) in which he asked parents to hand over their children for deportation. The deportation of children and wives who had no husband was the most brutal intervention in the fate of the remnants of families.
Such interventions on the part of the authorities were not an indication of opposition to the existence of families. On the contrary: the heads of the Judenrat generally saw families as a positive factor in ghetto life. When rabbis could not perform weddings, or if they refused to do so on The legal corpus of Jewish laws and observances as prescribed in the Torah and interpreted by rabbinic authorities, beginning with those of the Mishnah and Talmud.halakhic grounds, one could register a marriage through the Judenrat. In Lodz a married couple received a loaf of bread and a dish of honey, while families that remained whole were less likely to be deported. In the Lodz ghetto, marriages were recorded almost daily, even in 1942, the hardest year of deportation.
For ghetto residents the family was functional. Apart from granting both youngsters and adults a feeling of closeness and warmth, the family also helped in fulfilling daily duties such as providing food, cooking, cleaning, doing laundry and so on. The way families organized in the Lodz ghetto on Sundays, a day on which half the day was allocated for rest, is described in the ghetto chronicles, which reflect reason, order, organization and the way in which all the members of the family prepared for the week ahead. All these were far more difficult for the individual who lacked a family. Therefore the ghetto authorities in Lodz and Kovno, for example, tried to create cooperative frameworks for lone persons, in order to maximize child care, employment, human resources and mutual support in everyday life.
At the same time, the trials with which the family had to cope were unbearably hard, especially at the terrible times of deportation. In his diary, Zalek Prechodnik describes his inability to summon up the courage to join his wife and daughter, whom he had persuaded to report for deportation, when he discovered that the police chief had deceived him and they were deported and murdered. On the other hand, he writes about his friend, a fellow policeman, who joined his family on their final journey.
In September 1942, after the deportation of the elderly and those unfit for work from the Łódź ghetto , the chronicle reports:
“Here in the ghetto, at the end of two years of war, the concept of ‘family’—with a very few exceptions—has been wiped out of the vocabulary and if we still had any illusions on this subject, now after the deportations these have been destroyed. It was a terrible time and horrible scenes were witnessed, such as children torn from their mothers’ arms, yet nevertheless a certain calm reigned immediately afterwards and even more so two days later. A calm of the masses, that same unmediated switch to everyday activities, that same stupefaction—if one may call it that—all of which testifies to an indescribable dulling of the senses and a total paralysis of the normal way of thinking. Of course there were exceptions, but they were scarce. Most people went on as usual after the disaster. After three years of war this dulling of the senses is nothing to be marveled at, nor can one blame people for carrying on as usual despite the pain of others, but it is hard not to notice it when the phenomenon is so blatant.”
A year later, on The Day of Atonement, which falls on the 10th day of the Hebrew month of Tishrei and is devoted to prayer and fasting.Yom Kippur 1943, the chronicle reports:
SabbathShabbat of Yom Kippur bore all the signs of respect and ceremony. People moved quietly in the streets, dressed in their best. Everybody who could wore better clothing. … Once again, after a long interval, every family gathered together. Parents walked about with their children, holding them by the hand—on that day work in the workshops did not separate husbands from their wives and children. Here and there one could see a Polish Jew openly carrying a Torah she-bi-khetav: Lit. "the written Torah." The Bible; the Pentateuch; Tanakh (the Pentateuch, Prophets and Hagiographia)Torah scroll in the streets of the ghetto, in order to take it to the house where prayers were being conducted. … One can sum up the atmosphere in the homes and the streets by saying: On Yom Kippur 1943 the ghetto turned into a “shtetl” in the fullest sense of that word.
These two quotations are among the examples which depict the swinging pendulum of family life in the ghettos of Eastern Europe and the way in which the fine line between solidarity and rupture could crack as a result of the indescribable distress and threats to life.
GERMANY AND AUSTRIA
At the very beginning of Nazi rule in Germany and even before the implementation of the laws expelling Jewish children from school in 1938, the mothers were the first to learn from their children of Jew-baiting by teachers and fellow pupils, the first to sense the change in the attitudes of neighbors towards them and their children; they heard the comments—both loud and quieter—of customers in the grocery store or people in the neighborhood park. The mothers attended parents’ meetings and experienced ostracism there and hence better understood their children’s complaints. Usually, the mothers realized sooner than the fathers that something had happened, that they and their children were experiencing something they had never before experienced and that they could no longer rely on the various authorities or on the law to protect them.
In addition, their function as spouses became more difficult. Their husbands were dismissed from work and the search for alternative sources of income became increasingly difficult in the Germany of the second half of the 1930s, and from the start of “aryanization” (the transfer of ownership of businesses and property from Jews to Aryans) at the beginning of 1936, more and more men lost their income and the major sources of their self-respect, so that their masculine identity was crushed by their inability to provide for their families.
It became the women’s duty to run their households with limited means, to forgo the help of servants to which they had been accustomed, to provide a pleasant atmosphere for their troubled spouses and children and to ensure that the home remained warm and supportive. Even though the family duties of the wife and mother remained virtually the same as always and the focus of their activity remained the home, they underwent a certain intensification. The women had to steer the lives of their families with sensitivity and great care in order not to disrupt completely the balance within the family and the respective status of each partner in preserving order in the family. It was important to maintain continuity in the face of changes in the mutual relationship between the parents and in their relations with the children.
After the pogroms of November 9 and 10, 1938 (“Kristallnacht”), thirty thousand Jewish men were imprisoned in concentration camps and many families remained fatherless. Now the women had to care for all the family’s needs and, in particular, to try to obtain the necessary documents, especially the emigration permits which would enable the release of their husbands. This compelled them to undertake a new kind of activity. They had to apply to the authorities and especially the SS, which since November 9had borne virtually sole responsibility for the fate of the Jewish population, and to show entry permits to a destination of emigration. They turned to foreign consulates requesting the issue of such permits. The appeals to the SS and the Gestapo evoked unending humiliation and harassment, while waiting for the permits at foreign consulates was a Sisyphean task. In 1938 and 1939, it became increasingly difficult to obtain the entry permits. It became clear to the women that they were no longer dealing with the kind of orderly emigration they had previously contemplated, but that their husbands must flee Germany and try to arrange for them and their children to join them. From then on, many women became responsible not only for earning the family income, but in addition for difficult decisions regarding their children—such as whether to send them abroad with the Kindertransport or to The Land of IsraelErez Israel with Youth Aliyah—which had to be made without joint consultation with their detained husbands.
From the early stages of the Nazi regime Jewish families realized that they must part from their children and send them to places where they could grow up and develop in greater security. Thousands of children were sent away from their homes to safety in strange, unknown places. Prior to World War II and during the first years of war more than six thousand children went with Youth Lit. "ascent." A "calling up" to the Torah during its reading in the synagogue.Aliyah to Palestine, where they had to grow used to life in an institution in a country that was strange to them and with whose language they were unfamiliar. Many of them found themselves in an ideological framework whose values were frequently the opposite of those of their parental home and the cultural climate with which they were familiar. The parents knew that their children had been sent to a demanding framework, where they would have to work as well as study, and they worried about their acclimatization, even though they realized that they had very little influence on what was going on.
In 1939 nearly ten thousand children of both sexes, aged between twelve and seventeen, were sent to Britain as a result of that country’s agreement to assist the Jews after Kristallnacht. These youngsters were known as the Kindertransport. In England some were accommodated in camps and institutions, while others were housed with families whom they did not know, including non-Jewish families, in a strange land, with an unknown language and customs unfamiliar to them. Many of them remember this period—and especially the first year, when they anxiously awaited the arrival of their parents—as the most difficult time in their lives. Even after the outbreak of war, when it became clear that their parents could not join them until it was over, the lives of many of them were filled with longing. For their part, the parents knew that their children’s lives would not be easy. They did not know who would shelter them or to which families they would be sent. They also feared for their children’s identity and longed for them. In her memoirs Marta Appel, whose husband, Ernst Appel, was the rabbi of Dortmund, gives the following description:
My most difficult assignment was organizing the dispatch of the children themselves to the United States, Erez Israel, England and Italy. My heart bled as I witnessed the children’s parting from their parents. Yet it was the parents who turned to us, begging us to do everything possible to send the children away as quickly as possible, since they could not bear to see them suffering persecution and hatred. Out of love, the parents were ready to sacrifice what was dearest to them, just so that their children could grow up in peace and freedom.
She goes on to describe the parents’ leavetaking of the children at the Berlin railway station.
The platform of Berlin’s large station was completed packed with mothers and fathers. Nobody but the parents was allowed onto the platform. … I stood there and watched the train slowly pulling away, passing by me. I saw the children crying. Now, as they saw their dear ones for the last time, the enthusiasm drained from their young faces. Many little girls who had been laughing only moments earlier now stretched their arms out of the window in order to clutch their parents’ hands one last time, and all the while the tears poured down their cheeks. I saw many young boys screwing their faces into a forced smile. … The waving handkerchiefs had long gone and there was nothing more to be seen of the train, but the crowds of parents still stood silent and as if frozen, gazing at the spot where nothing more remained. … Suddenly I heard a scream and saw people running. “A woman has fainted,” someone said. They ran for a doctor. A long silence reigned as the doctor examined the poor woman. After a while a whisper went through the crowd and finally I understood, as I stood in the very back row: “She’s dead.” She had summoned up her strength to accompany her child to the threshold of a new life, and then her heart gave out.
Parents sent their children on illegal aliyah without any certainty that they would reach their destination. For example, a group of children who set out from Germany and Austria with Youth Aliyah in the summer of 1939 were unable to continue their journey when war broke out. For many months they were trapped in Yugoslavia, Slovenia and Italy. They came to be known as “The Children of Villa Emma,” after the place where they lived in Italy. After the fall of Mussolini and the German conquest of Italy their organizers, headed by Yoshko Indig, a young man of twenty-two, who belonged to Ha-Shomer ha-Za’ir in Yugoslavia, managed to transfer them to Switzerland. They reached the Promised Land only after the war, weary with travel and worry. Every one of their stops marked a successful escape from the claws of the Nazis and a promise of life. But after the first hours of forced farewells in Germany of 1939, their mothers and fathers were no longer there to accompany them. In fact, during their years of wandering they had lost their parents in the murderous activities of Nazi Germany.
From the evidence we have on parents in Germany and other countries who sent their children away, we learn of the parents’ sense of emptiness, mingled with the hope that their children were really safe. Family life no longer existed and the crippled family could not resume normal life. The distress that increased at the outbreak of war, followed by the deportations to the east, cast a fresh light on the children’s fate, but the family per se was no longer able to function, even though the relationship between husbands and their wives remained one of partnership despite their unbearable wounds as parents.
In Western Europe under German rule Jews lived in a state of peril and persecution until the deportations began. Thereafter, they were under the threat of extermination. Even before they were deported they suffered from a permanent lack of the normal family framework. As a result of discriminatory economic laws in all the countries of western and central Europe, shortage of food, lodging and alternative employment were the main problems from which Jews suffered. This was true of the first countries to be occupied, such as the Netherlands and France, as well as of countries such as Romania and Italy, where racial laws were promulgated. In these countries one cannot always discern any noticeable change in the patterns of married women’s behavior: few of them went out to work. The possibility of living on savings, from sale of household goods and on the earnings of other family members, as well as aid from Jewish organizations, all helped some of the families whose situations steadily deteriorated. Families that fled from occupied France to the unoccupied region were often unable to continue living together, either for financial reasons or because the danger that some members were in compelled them to separate. With the beginning of deportation, partings were inevitable, just as they were for Jewish families in Eastern Europe, especially when families attempted to smuggle children out of the ghettos in an attempt to save their lives. In most cases, this separation proved permanent, since the parents did not survive.
Gelber, Yoav. A New Homeland: The Immigration and Absorption of Central European Jews, 1933–1948. Jerusalem: 1990, 186–222.
Ofer, Dalia, and Lenore Weitzman. “The Role of Gender in Holocaust Research.” Yalkut Moreshet 67 (April 1999): 9–24.
Orvieto-Nidam, Yael. “The Affair of the Children in the Villa Emma in Light of the Rescue of Children during the Holocaust.” The Twelfth World Congress for Jewish Studies, 2001, 145–154.
Idem. The Affair of the Children in the Villa Emma: The Rescue of a Group of Children during the Holocaust. Jerusalem: 2005.
Ressart, Hilda. Yad Vashem Archives, M-1/E, 1946.
Richarz, Monica. Jewish Life in Germany: Memoirs from Three Centuries. Jerusalem: 1993.
Ringelblum, Emanuel. Notes from the Warsaw Ghetto: The Diary of Emanuel Ringelblum. Jerusalem: 1992.
Yuval (Koppler), Hedva. An Outcry Before the Holocaust: The Letters of Ya’akov and Sarah Koppler and Their Daughter Hella in Vienna to their Daughter Klara Hedva in Jerusalem, 1939–1941. Jerusalem: 1998, 63.
Zariz, Ruth. Escape Before the Holocaust. Tel Aviv: 1990.
Adelson, Alan, ed. The Diary of Dawid Sierakowiak: Five Notebooks from the Lodz Ghetto. New York: 1996, 219.
Bacon, Gershon. “Woman? Youth? Jews?: The Search for Identity of Jewish Young Women in Interwar Poland.” In Gender, Place and Memory in the Modern Jewish Experience, edited by Judith Tydor Baumel and Tova Cohen, 3–28. London: 2003.
Baron, Dan, and Julia Chaitin. Parenthood and the Holocaust. Jerusalem: 2001.
Kangisser Choen, Sharon. “Finding Their Voices: The Life Stories of Child Survivors of the Holocaust in Israel.” Ph.D. diss., Hebrew University of Jerusalem: 2003.
Kaplan, Marion. “Keeping Calm and Weathering the Storm: Jewish Women’s Responses to Daily Life in Nazi Germany 1933–1939.” In Women in the Holocaust, edited by Dalia Ofer and Lenore. J. Weitzman, 39–54. New Haven: 1999.
Ofer, Dalia. “Cohesion and Rupture: The Jewish Family in East European Ghettos During the Holocaust.” Studies in Contemporary Jewry 14 (1998): 143–165.
Ofer, Dalia and Hannah Weiner. The Dead-End Journey: The Tragic Story of the Kladovo-Sabac Group. Lanham: 1996.
Shandler, Jeffrey, ed. Awakening Lives: Autobiographies of Jewish Youth in Poland Before the Holocaust. New Haven: 2002.
Unger, Michal. “The Status and Plight of Women in the Lodz Ghetto.” In Women in the Holocaust, edited by Dalia Ofer and Lenore. J. Weitzman, 123–142.
How to cite this page
Ofer, Dalia. "Family During the Holocaust." Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia. 27 February 2009. Jewish Women's Archive. (Viewed on January 28, 2020) <https://qa.jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/family-during-holocaust>. | <urn:uuid:582cb15a-524e-43f5-b49a-91164ee34939> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://qa.jwa.org/comment/2707 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00559.warc.gz | en | 0.980966 | 6,565 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.295162022113800... | 1 | Family During the Holocaust
Where both the preservation of tradition and the acclimatization to social and cultural change are concerned, Jewish folklore attributes to the family a magic role in shaping the lives of individuals and the community at large. However, academic research on the Jewish family is only in its early stages and information on the Jewish family in Eastern Europe is particularly scarce.
The Holocaust dealt a mortal blow to the family and to Jewish life in general. Nevertheless, some sources indicate that, apart from the crisis and breakdown, there was also considerable strength in family ties so long as normal life could be maintained. Evidence from the labor and extermination camps, in which the sexes were separated, reveals that there were fragments of family that remained intact, such as siblings and cousins who tried to maintain contact; where this proved impossible, the inmates created a kind of alternative family. Such evidence is more plentiful with regard to women in the camps, for whom memories of family life were a source of strength even while they also aroused fear of a loss of hope. One might have expected sad memories to cause profound depression because of the unbridgeable gap between them and the grim reality. But women survivors report conversations about recipes, holiday customs and family life in general as a way of coping with the violence of their daily lives. There is no better evidence of the family’s serving as a real anchor to life than the readiness of the survivors to set up families in the years immediately following the end of the war, even if they had lost a spouse and children.
Documentation of these phenomena is fragmented and scattered. Letters, diaries and notes from the period relate what happened to families and we can also learn from them of the decline that occurred in the ghettos of Eastern Europe as well as in Western Europe as expulsion threatened. Evidence collected after the war also provides a resource for researchers, but one must take into account the subjectivity of all the sources.
Contemporary sources reflect the terrible pressures on daily life in the ghettos and the fragility of life in Western Europe. Family members found it hard to convey their condition objectively and their personal evidence reflects the painful changes that occurred in relations between spouses, between parents and children and more distant relatives. These sources frequently reflect a harsh and judgmental attitude.
Evidence collected and memoirs written after the war often express nostalgia on the part of those who were children or young people at the time. Many of them also bore the heavy burden of recalling a “shameful act,” such as secretly stealing a portion of bread from a sibling or a parent, or of improper behavior, such as joining a youth group and abandoning their parents at a time of hardship. Since their parents, like most of their relatives, had been murdered, there were no survivors with whom to share these thoughts and feelings. Their feelings find expression in some of the memoirs and oral evidence.
In the 1930s and 1940s, Jewish families were typical of their times: a nuclear consumer unit whose adult members were partners in production and property. As in non-Jewish families, there was a clear division of responsibilities, with the woman in charge of domestic life and child-rearing and the man serving as income-earner. In Eastern Europe more married women shared the income-earning, since most of the families belonged to the lower-income bracket of laborers, artisans and petty merchants. Most West and Middle European Jews were middle-class, with a few in both the lower and upper classes.
However, women also dealt with extra-familiar issues, such as neighborly relations, neighborhood activity, contact with teachers and fellow parents at their children’s schools, etc. Thus the mother had, as it were, two apparently contradictory functions: she was an agent of socialization with the surrounding society in everything relating to culture, customs, manners and education, and hence an agent of change, but at the same time she was responsible for preserving Jewish identity via family customs, SabbathShabbat, holidays and the like.
The family life of Jews in the ghettos existed in a constant state of tension between disintegration, on the one hand, and the preservation of solidarity by way of an enormous effort to maintain what might be termed “normality,” at a time of total absence of normality. The way in which families coped with reality differed from place to place and from stage to stage of the implementation of the “Final Solution.” The difficult daily life in the ghettos of Eastern Europe and the Western European countries in which Jews were not confined to ghettos was a major factor in determining family life. Hence, when we consider the everyday existence of both the family and the individual, we need to take into account the parameters by which we examine public life and the economic and social activities permitted to Jews under occupation.
In the unique reality of the “Ghetto Regime,” the private and public spheres were almost totally intertwined. In the west, too, the state penetrated into the private domain via confiscation of Jewish property, prohibition of various occupations and study at state schools. Everywhere family life was influenced by economic status prior to the war and social contacts with non-Jewish surroundings.
Many families were left without a husband/father. Many men fled at the outbreak of the war, since it was assumed that they were in greater danger than the women and children. Many men were caught and imprisoned during the early weeks of the war and later more men than women were sent to forced-labor camps.
It is worth noting that while many women encouraged their husbands to flee, many others were so frightened by the situation and so feared remaining alone that they urged their husbands not to leave.
What follows is based primarily on the ghettos in Warsaw under the Generalgouvernement in Warthegau (an area that was annexed to the Reich), Lodz and Kovno, which was occupied only in 1941. In the latter, as in all of the areas that were taken over by the USSR in the wake of the Molotov-Ribbentrop agreement of August 1939, the German occupation began with a series of mass murders even before the establishment of the ghetto. These continued during the early months of the ghetto, whose social composition reflected the remnants of the Jewish community and family. With regard to Western Europe, we shall deal mainly with Germany, where Jews experienced the Nazi regime from its beginnings, and with other countries that shared similar experiences, such as separation from children, concealment, etc.
Families with very different economic backgrounds and lifestyles before the war underwent a vast change in their lives and found themselves together in the ghetto. While the men in the various families did not all share the same fate, nor at identical times, yet the families functioned as a unit even after they were taken, establishing new divisions of responsibility in which every family member participated. Those men who underwent physical abuse and were in greater danger refrained from leaving the protection of the home. The women thus undertook new tasks, becoming the main income earners. This change in the relationship within the family was sometimes harmonious, but at other times led to friction, undermining relationships between husband and wife and leading to the disintegration of the family.
The chronicle of the Lodz Ghetto confirms the breakdown of marital relationships. A headline of December 1941 publicizes the case of a woman who requests a divorce because her husband, who is working in the carpentry, is not supporting the family and there is no shalom bayit (domestic peace) between them. Their thirteen-year-old daughter has died of starvation and the woman requests aid for herself and her three surviving children. Other evidence also indicates that “in these days in the ghetto many couples quarrel over trivial matters.”
Apart from changes in the traditional division of functions which occurred in numerous families, other factors affected relationships between couples and between family members in general, especially the terrible shortages and the hunger that reigned in ghettos such as Lodz and Warsaw. The chronicles relate numerous stories and facts: an eight-year-old complains that his parents deprive him of the bread ration that is his due; parents who cannot afford medications for their sick children sell part of their bread ration, the sick child never recovers. In general, the shortage of bread weakens the children and leads to their death. Thus the chronicle reports the demise of an entire family in the ghetto. A document from the Warsaw ghetto describes a boy who strangled his sister in a dispute over bread after their parents’ death left them the sole survivors.
Other descriptions of families that remained with only one parent present a picture of great neglect of children in the difficult living conditions in damp cellars without heating or adequate clothing in the severe winter of 1941. Mothers who have to go out to work in order to bring some food home leave their (frequently sick) children at home without adequate supervision. Fathers left alone after their wives died of illness or exhaustion describe their helplessness and inability to provide even the little needed to protect the children. The danger of neglect among these groups, which usually comprised the poor and the refugees, was so great that no parental authority could survive the everyday conditions.
Food proved to be a factor either in creating greater cooperation and responsibility or in causing division and alienation between family members. In September 1942, David Sierakowiak described pitilessly and unforgivingly in his diary how his father concentrated on eating when the doctor came to determine which of the family members were too weak to work and would therefore be deported. After examining the mother he declared her unfit to work and thus to be among the deported. Mourning her fate, Sierakowiak explains that only because of the generosity which led her to do everything for her family and even to give them her own bread ration did she become so “shrunk.” And now the doctor determined her fate, despite the fact that she worked, kept the house and even cultivated the small piece of ground which the family received in order to grow vegetables.
Many could not stand the hunger and either begged or stole bread from other family members. Many diaries and other evidence describe the heavy sense of guilt that resulted. In the Lodz ghetto many people carried the bread about with them and as a result were attacked in the streets.
Eating at home was a factor that helped preserve the family framework. Some families gathered around a cloth-covered table to eat the little they had in the manner to which they had been accustomed in better days; but in most families there was no longer such a framework. The effort of getting food and preparing it was shared by all family members, but the main burden fell on the mother. One of the foods mentioned in the Lodz ghetto consisted of potato peels which were cooked, minced and fried. This was a long and tiring process that began with the children gathering the peels or other remains from the garbage. They then waited for their mother to come home from work in the evening and then they began the process which was usually completed only late at night.
The Judenrat impacted on family life in various, often brutal, ways. One example of this was the degrading process of disinfecting and checking for cleanliness, which frequently deprived many families of their precious utensils and clothing. The speech by Mordechai Rumkowski (1877–1944, chairman of the Lodz Judenrat) to the clothes pressers was an extreme example of interference in the feelings and considerations of the individual: he warned them not to share with their relatives the extra rations which they received because of the hard work in which they were engaged. He thus deprived the individual of even his personal and familial considerations regarding matters of life and death. In the ghetto reality, control of human life is not an individual but a general matter and the head of the Judenrat is therefore authorized to determine it. That was the reason why the workers’ ration coupons had been replaced by additional food at the meal breaks at their place of work. “Of course these meals are intended only for you, while other family members benefited from the coupons. But this principle of Jewish partnership, that sense of Jewish family, do not hold good here. We are dealing with the general good, not that of the individual.” His most extreme and blatant interference found expression in the speech in September 1942 (during the deportation known as the Sperre) in which he asked parents to hand over their children for deportation. The deportation of children and wives who had no husband was the most brutal intervention in the fate of the remnants of families.
Such interventions on the part of the authorities were not an indication of opposition to the existence of families. On the contrary: the heads of the Judenrat generally saw families as a positive factor in ghetto life. When rabbis could not perform weddings, or if they refused to do so on The legal corpus of Jewish laws and observances as prescribed in the Torah and interpreted by rabbinic authorities, beginning with those of the Mishnah and Talmud.halakhic grounds, one could register a marriage through the Judenrat. In Lodz a married couple received a loaf of bread and a dish of honey, while families that remained whole were less likely to be deported. In the Lodz ghetto, marriages were recorded almost daily, even in 1942, the hardest year of deportation.
For ghetto residents the family was functional. Apart from granting both youngsters and adults a feeling of closeness and warmth, the family also helped in fulfilling daily duties such as providing food, cooking, cleaning, doing laundry and so on. The way families organized in the Lodz ghetto on Sundays, a day on which half the day was allocated for rest, is described in the ghetto chronicles, which reflect reason, order, organization and the way in which all the members of the family prepared for the week ahead. All these were far more difficult for the individual who lacked a family. Therefore the ghetto authorities in Lodz and Kovno, for example, tried to create cooperative frameworks for lone persons, in order to maximize child care, employment, human resources and mutual support in everyday life.
At the same time, the trials with which the family had to cope were unbearably hard, especially at the terrible times of deportation. In his diary, Zalek Prechodnik describes his inability to summon up the courage to join his wife and daughter, whom he had persuaded to report for deportation, when he discovered that the police chief had deceived him and they were deported and murdered. On the other hand, he writes about his friend, a fellow policeman, who joined his family on their final journey.
In September 1942, after the deportation of the elderly and those unfit for work from the Łódź ghetto , the chronicle reports:
“Here in the ghetto, at the end of two years of war, the concept of ‘family’—with a very few exceptions—has been wiped out of the vocabulary and if we still had any illusions on this subject, now after the deportations these have been destroyed. It was a terrible time and horrible scenes were witnessed, such as children torn from their mothers’ arms, yet nevertheless a certain calm reigned immediately afterwards and even more so two days later. A calm of the masses, that same unmediated switch to everyday activities, that same stupefaction—if one may call it that—all of which testifies to an indescribable dulling of the senses and a total paralysis of the normal way of thinking. Of course there were exceptions, but they were scarce. Most people went on as usual after the disaster. After three years of war this dulling of the senses is nothing to be marveled at, nor can one blame people for carrying on as usual despite the pain of others, but it is hard not to notice it when the phenomenon is so blatant.”
A year later, on The Day of Atonement, which falls on the 10th day of the Hebrew month of Tishrei and is devoted to prayer and fasting.Yom Kippur 1943, the chronicle reports:
SabbathShabbat of Yom Kippur bore all the signs of respect and ceremony. People moved quietly in the streets, dressed in their best. Everybody who could wore better clothing. … Once again, after a long interval, every family gathered together. Parents walked about with their children, holding them by the hand—on that day work in the workshops did not separate husbands from their wives and children. Here and there one could see a Polish Jew openly carrying a Torah she-bi-khetav: Lit. "the written Torah." The Bible; the Pentateuch; Tanakh (the Pentateuch, Prophets and Hagiographia)Torah scroll in the streets of the ghetto, in order to take it to the house where prayers were being conducted. … One can sum up the atmosphere in the homes and the streets by saying: On Yom Kippur 1943 the ghetto turned into a “shtetl” in the fullest sense of that word.
These two quotations are among the examples which depict the swinging pendulum of family life in the ghettos of Eastern Europe and the way in which the fine line between solidarity and rupture could crack as a result of the indescribable distress and threats to life.
GERMANY AND AUSTRIA
At the very beginning of Nazi rule in Germany and even before the implementation of the laws expelling Jewish children from school in 1938, the mothers were the first to learn from their children of Jew-baiting by teachers and fellow pupils, the first to sense the change in the attitudes of neighbors towards them and their children; they heard the comments—both loud and quieter—of customers in the grocery store or people in the neighborhood park. The mothers attended parents’ meetings and experienced ostracism there and hence better understood their children’s complaints. Usually, the mothers realized sooner than the fathers that something had happened, that they and their children were experiencing something they had never before experienced and that they could no longer rely on the various authorities or on the law to protect them.
In addition, their function as spouses became more difficult. Their husbands were dismissed from work and the search for alternative sources of income became increasingly difficult in the Germany of the second half of the 1930s, and from the start of “aryanization” (the transfer of ownership of businesses and property from Jews to Aryans) at the beginning of 1936, more and more men lost their income and the major sources of their self-respect, so that their masculine identity was crushed by their inability to provide for their families.
It became the women’s duty to run their households with limited means, to forgo the help of servants to which they had been accustomed, to provide a pleasant atmosphere for their troubled spouses and children and to ensure that the home remained warm and supportive. Even though the family duties of the wife and mother remained virtually the same as always and the focus of their activity remained the home, they underwent a certain intensification. The women had to steer the lives of their families with sensitivity and great care in order not to disrupt completely the balance within the family and the respective status of each partner in preserving order in the family. It was important to maintain continuity in the face of changes in the mutual relationship between the parents and in their relations with the children.
After the pogroms of November 9 and 10, 1938 (“Kristallnacht”), thirty thousand Jewish men were imprisoned in concentration camps and many families remained fatherless. Now the women had to care for all the family’s needs and, in particular, to try to obtain the necessary documents, especially the emigration permits which would enable the release of their husbands. This compelled them to undertake a new kind of activity. They had to apply to the authorities and especially the SS, which since November 9had borne virtually sole responsibility for the fate of the Jewish population, and to show entry permits to a destination of emigration. They turned to foreign consulates requesting the issue of such permits. The appeals to the SS and the Gestapo evoked unending humiliation and harassment, while waiting for the permits at foreign consulates was a Sisyphean task. In 1938 and 1939, it became increasingly difficult to obtain the entry permits. It became clear to the women that they were no longer dealing with the kind of orderly emigration they had previously contemplated, but that their husbands must flee Germany and try to arrange for them and their children to join them. From then on, many women became responsible not only for earning the family income, but in addition for difficult decisions regarding their children—such as whether to send them abroad with the Kindertransport or to The Land of IsraelErez Israel with Youth Aliyah—which had to be made without joint consultation with their detained husbands.
From the early stages of the Nazi regime Jewish families realized that they must part from their children and send them to places where they could grow up and develop in greater security. Thousands of children were sent away from their homes to safety in strange, unknown places. Prior to World War II and during the first years of war more than six thousand children went with Youth Lit. "ascent." A "calling up" to the Torah during its reading in the synagogue.Aliyah to Palestine, where they had to grow used to life in an institution in a country that was strange to them and with whose language they were unfamiliar. Many of them found themselves in an ideological framework whose values were frequently the opposite of those of their parental home and the cultural climate with which they were familiar. The parents knew that their children had been sent to a demanding framework, where they would have to work as well as study, and they worried about their acclimatization, even though they realized that they had very little influence on what was going on.
In 1939 nearly ten thousand children of both sexes, aged between twelve and seventeen, were sent to Britain as a result of that country’s agreement to assist the Jews after Kristallnacht. These youngsters were known as the Kindertransport. In England some were accommodated in camps and institutions, while others were housed with families whom they did not know, including non-Jewish families, in a strange land, with an unknown language and customs unfamiliar to them. Many of them remember this period—and especially the first year, when they anxiously awaited the arrival of their parents—as the most difficult time in their lives. Even after the outbreak of war, when it became clear that their parents could not join them until it was over, the lives of many of them were filled with longing. For their part, the parents knew that their children’s lives would not be easy. They did not know who would shelter them or to which families they would be sent. They also feared for their children’s identity and longed for them. In her memoirs Marta Appel, whose husband, Ernst Appel, was the rabbi of Dortmund, gives the following description:
My most difficult assignment was organizing the dispatch of the children themselves to the United States, Erez Israel, England and Italy. My heart bled as I witnessed the children’s parting from their parents. Yet it was the parents who turned to us, begging us to do everything possible to send the children away as quickly as possible, since they could not bear to see them suffering persecution and hatred. Out of love, the parents were ready to sacrifice what was dearest to them, just so that their children could grow up in peace and freedom.
She goes on to describe the parents’ leavetaking of the children at the Berlin railway station.
The platform of Berlin’s large station was completed packed with mothers and fathers. Nobody but the parents was allowed onto the platform. … I stood there and watched the train slowly pulling away, passing by me. I saw the children crying. Now, as they saw their dear ones for the last time, the enthusiasm drained from their young faces. Many little girls who had been laughing only moments earlier now stretched their arms out of the window in order to clutch their parents’ hands one last time, and all the while the tears poured down their cheeks. I saw many young boys screwing their faces into a forced smile. … The waving handkerchiefs had long gone and there was nothing more to be seen of the train, but the crowds of parents still stood silent and as if frozen, gazing at the spot where nothing more remained. … Suddenly I heard a scream and saw people running. “A woman has fainted,” someone said. They ran for a doctor. A long silence reigned as the doctor examined the poor woman. After a while a whisper went through the crowd and finally I understood, as I stood in the very back row: “She’s dead.” She had summoned up her strength to accompany her child to the threshold of a new life, and then her heart gave out.
Parents sent their children on illegal aliyah without any certainty that they would reach their destination. For example, a group of children who set out from Germany and Austria with Youth Aliyah in the summer of 1939 were unable to continue their journey when war broke out. For many months they were trapped in Yugoslavia, Slovenia and Italy. They came to be known as “The Children of Villa Emma,” after the place where they lived in Italy. After the fall of Mussolini and the German conquest of Italy their organizers, headed by Yoshko Indig, a young man of twenty-two, who belonged to Ha-Shomer ha-Za’ir in Yugoslavia, managed to transfer them to Switzerland. They reached the Promised Land only after the war, weary with travel and worry. Every one of their stops marked a successful escape from the claws of the Nazis and a promise of life. But after the first hours of forced farewells in Germany of 1939, their mothers and fathers were no longer there to accompany them. In fact, during their years of wandering they had lost their parents in the murderous activities of Nazi Germany.
From the evidence we have on parents in Germany and other countries who sent their children away, we learn of the parents’ sense of emptiness, mingled with the hope that their children were really safe. Family life no longer existed and the crippled family could not resume normal life. The distress that increased at the outbreak of war, followed by the deportations to the east, cast a fresh light on the children’s fate, but the family per se was no longer able to function, even though the relationship between husbands and their wives remained one of partnership despite their unbearable wounds as parents.
In Western Europe under German rule Jews lived in a state of peril and persecution until the deportations began. Thereafter, they were under the threat of extermination. Even before they were deported they suffered from a permanent lack of the normal family framework. As a result of discriminatory economic laws in all the countries of western and central Europe, shortage of food, lodging and alternative employment were the main problems from which Jews suffered. This was true of the first countries to be occupied, such as the Netherlands and France, as well as of countries such as Romania and Italy, where racial laws were promulgated. In these countries one cannot always discern any noticeable change in the patterns of married women’s behavior: few of them went out to work. The possibility of living on savings, from sale of household goods and on the earnings of other family members, as well as aid from Jewish organizations, all helped some of the families whose situations steadily deteriorated. Families that fled from occupied France to the unoccupied region were often unable to continue living together, either for financial reasons or because the danger that some members were in compelled them to separate. With the beginning of deportation, partings were inevitable, just as they were for Jewish families in Eastern Europe, especially when families attempted to smuggle children out of the ghettos in an attempt to save their lives. In most cases, this separation proved permanent, since the parents did not survive.
Gelber, Yoav. A New Homeland: The Immigration and Absorption of Central European Jews, 1933–1948. Jerusalem: 1990, 186–222.
Ofer, Dalia, and Lenore Weitzman. “The Role of Gender in Holocaust Research.” Yalkut Moreshet 67 (April 1999): 9–24.
Orvieto-Nidam, Yael. “The Affair of the Children in the Villa Emma in Light of the Rescue of Children during the Holocaust.” The Twelfth World Congress for Jewish Studies, 2001, 145–154.
Idem. The Affair of the Children in the Villa Emma: The Rescue of a Group of Children during the Holocaust. Jerusalem: 2005.
Ressart, Hilda. Yad Vashem Archives, M-1/E, 1946.
Richarz, Monica. Jewish Life in Germany: Memoirs from Three Centuries. Jerusalem: 1993.
Ringelblum, Emanuel. Notes from the Warsaw Ghetto: The Diary of Emanuel Ringelblum. Jerusalem: 1992.
Yuval (Koppler), Hedva. An Outcry Before the Holocaust: The Letters of Ya’akov and Sarah Koppler and Their Daughter Hella in Vienna to their Daughter Klara Hedva in Jerusalem, 1939–1941. Jerusalem: 1998, 63.
Zariz, Ruth. Escape Before the Holocaust. Tel Aviv: 1990.
Adelson, Alan, ed. The Diary of Dawid Sierakowiak: Five Notebooks from the Lodz Ghetto. New York: 1996, 219.
Bacon, Gershon. “Woman? Youth? Jews?: The Search for Identity of Jewish Young Women in Interwar Poland.” In Gender, Place and Memory in the Modern Jewish Experience, edited by Judith Tydor Baumel and Tova Cohen, 3–28. London: 2003.
Baron, Dan, and Julia Chaitin. Parenthood and the Holocaust. Jerusalem: 2001.
Kangisser Choen, Sharon. “Finding Their Voices: The Life Stories of Child Survivors of the Holocaust in Israel.” Ph.D. diss., Hebrew University of Jerusalem: 2003.
Kaplan, Marion. “Keeping Calm and Weathering the Storm: Jewish Women’s Responses to Daily Life in Nazi Germany 1933–1939.” In Women in the Holocaust, edited by Dalia Ofer and Lenore. J. Weitzman, 39–54. New Haven: 1999.
Ofer, Dalia. “Cohesion and Rupture: The Jewish Family in East European Ghettos During the Holocaust.” Studies in Contemporary Jewry 14 (1998): 143–165.
Ofer, Dalia and Hannah Weiner. The Dead-End Journey: The Tragic Story of the Kladovo-Sabac Group. Lanham: 1996.
Shandler, Jeffrey, ed. Awakening Lives: Autobiographies of Jewish Youth in Poland Before the Holocaust. New Haven: 2002.
Unger, Michal. “The Status and Plight of Women in the Lodz Ghetto.” In Women in the Holocaust, edited by Dalia Ofer and Lenore. J. Weitzman, 123–142.
How to cite this page
Ofer, Dalia. "Family During the Holocaust." Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia. 27 February 2009. Jewish Women's Archive. (Viewed on January 28, 2020) <https://qa.jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/family-during-holocaust>. | 6,608 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There were three colonial regions of the Colonial America. They were called New England, the Middle Colonies and the Southern colonies. These colonies were quite distinctive from each other. This essay will also focus on how they differentiate from the Modern World. The colonies of America material culture consisted of food, clothes and their shelter. For their food it will be what they ate, how they cooked it and how they ate the food. Their clothes is what colors they wore, the quality of the clothes and the reasons for wearing certain clothes. For their shelter is what it was made of, what sort of style and what their shelter represented. Each of these materials of the colonies cultures will be related to Modern America such as if it still has some sort of effect and is relevant.
The region of New England has very simple food and the way they prepare their food is done quite simple as well. Their food consists of boiled meats and bread. The cooking methods were quite plain. The New England region peoples always did the bare minimum. They did not have celebrated meals nor any sort of feasting. This was caused by religious beliefs. The Colonial Middle region was almost quite the same. They condemned feasting more than the New England region did and were against gluttony completely. They had simple foods that are similar to the New England region such as the boiled meats and breads. The Southern region food consisted of roasted meats, seafoods, vegetables and especially corn. Their recipes were more elaborate and wealthy. They dined as social ritual unlike the New England and Middle regions. The Southern region also had multiple feasting days. Nowadays, we do not condemn eating such as the people of the Middle region, unless you are in certain business' like entertainment, especially modeling where it is condemned. People nowadays tend to eat a larger amount of food, just like the Southern region with a larger variety of foods. | <urn:uuid:8cf934c6-b05a-439a-9d8c-5a29ca313dd9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/215596.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00306.warc.gz | en | 0.989727 | 380 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.24331967532... | 6 | There were three colonial regions of the Colonial America. They were called New England, the Middle Colonies and the Southern colonies. These colonies were quite distinctive from each other. This essay will also focus on how they differentiate from the Modern World. The colonies of America material culture consisted of food, clothes and their shelter. For their food it will be what they ate, how they cooked it and how they ate the food. Their clothes is what colors they wore, the quality of the clothes and the reasons for wearing certain clothes. For their shelter is what it was made of, what sort of style and what their shelter represented. Each of these materials of the colonies cultures will be related to Modern America such as if it still has some sort of effect and is relevant.
The region of New England has very simple food and the way they prepare their food is done quite simple as well. Their food consists of boiled meats and bread. The cooking methods were quite plain. The New England region peoples always did the bare minimum. They did not have celebrated meals nor any sort of feasting. This was caused by religious beliefs. The Colonial Middle region was almost quite the same. They condemned feasting more than the New England region did and were against gluttony completely. They had simple foods that are similar to the New England region such as the boiled meats and breads. The Southern region food consisted of roasted meats, seafoods, vegetables and especially corn. Their recipes were more elaborate and wealthy. They dined as social ritual unlike the New England and Middle regions. The Southern region also had multiple feasting days. Nowadays, we do not condemn eating such as the people of the Middle region, unless you are in certain business' like entertainment, especially modeling where it is condemned. People nowadays tend to eat a larger amount of food, just like the Southern region with a larger variety of foods. | 378 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Education Corner 25
- Category: Education Corner
- Published: Saturday, 29 October 2016 10:17
- Written by Richard Womack, Ed.D
- Hits: 4368
In our last several EC editions we have been telling a story about a young man named Navarro Navarro. Some readers wrote and said they did not understand what was happening and did not the idea of this Navarro as the main character because he was not a properly trained teacher. That said EC should make another try with this Navarro. We explained that in teacher education we call educational stories case studies. These are when lifelike education examples are set up using student, teachers, parents, administrators, and others as actors to teach educational lessons. In fact case studies are more like plays than stories. We use case studies for critical thinking and student/readers think about questions and decisions. In case studies we look at behaviors and think about what the story is supposed to teach. Remember Navarro is a made up character dealing with a big problem—he has no teacher training. In these case studies we will always put Navarro in learning situations trying to figure out what he should do. For certain Navarro make mistakes—of course. He has not had teacher training. E C readers will observe the errors and see if Navarro corrects them—or improves.
The case studies begins many years ago (let’s say Trust Territory times) with Navarro accepting a 5th grade teaching position at a Micronesian Roman Catholic elementary school. He accepted the job on a Sunday morning to begin teaching the next morning-Monday morning the first day of school. But as all good case studies there is a good problem. In these stories the problem is this. Navarro has never had any teacher training at all. That is he never was taught how to teach. We do find out that Navarro was a good student when in school and he knows his history and geography; science and math; and he was good in English, perhaps even more fluent that is own Micronesian language. And then Navarro’s problem is compounded when he realizes he must teach ESL and he cannot even recall how he learned English. So we find Navarro sitting on the Sunday evening wondering what he would do the next day at 8 A M.
Next, as Navarro sat he decided he wanted to do a good job. But with no teacher training he did not know what to do to be a good teacher. Therefore he decided to recall teachers he thought were “good” when he was a student. He also picked some that he thought were fair to students. Here too he did not really know was “fair” was. Likewise he did not want to do a bad job so he recalled a teacher from some 60 years in his past a Miss Maupin. Miss Maupin was based upon a teacher dismissal case at a Longfellow Elementary School, Pasco, Washington, United States of America in 1957. It was used as an example of a bad teacher and in fact it was the worst we could find. We wanted a teacher that Navarro and all of us would recognize and use the term “bad”. We used Miss Maupin to highlight another education issue that Navarro will learn about—special need students. And we used Navarro so we can eventually show how Navarro learns all about special needs students. Our Community is so fortunate nowadays with our Special Education programs and parent participation. We are most fortunate that the College of Micronesia- FSM has great expertise in this area and new teachers are prepared for teaching students with different abilities. Today’s new teachers understand that all their students are special and therefore students with learning or physical disabilities are just students with different needs. And then these teachers learn different ways of how to teach. Indeed Miss Maupin was an extreme example and as stated, it was the worst example we could find. Most classroom teachers in those times were kind and did the best they could if student with disabilities were included in a regular classroom as we do today. In those days students with disabilities were separated and not included or treated equally with the respect all students deserved. With this said let’s go right to Navarro’s first day
Case Study: Navarro Begins
Navarro had found his first day with the fifth graders simply delightful. He was friendly but he knew he was not there to make friends. He knew he was the teacher and they were the students but that did not mean he could not smile, and joke a little. He even shared with the class that he was a real beginner at this teaching. He joked with them how he trained himself the night before and told them he wanted to be a good teacher but the class would have to help him. He promised to help them become good students if they would help him be a good teacher. The young man even had the students stand, raise their right hand and take a pledge.
I _________ promise to be the best student I can be and I promise to help Mr. Navarro Navarro become the best teacher he can be.
Navarro thought of the night before. He did not know what he meant by a good teacher so he wondered to himself why he chose the word best. He thought about his English. In English ... good ... better ... best was how it went. He should probably know what good and better meant before he used best student and best teacher. But that first day he pledged himself to his class; more importantly, however, he made a pledge to himself. And all of Navarro’s 5th graders took the pledge.
That first day Navarro found all of the fifth grade textbooks piled in his room and a nice copy of all of the books on the big desk which he assumed would be his—the Teacher’s Desk. He was happy to find that there was a Teacher’s Edition for English and grammar. Navarro had been a straight A student in high-school English and his college years in the States had sharpened his skills at reading, writing, listening to and speaking English. To be honest, Navarro was far better in English than in his own vernacular language. As a young boy he could count in more than ten (10) different ways and even understood “high words” used by chiefs. Now, English was almost his first language and he was actually happy that at Mt. St. Mary’s the teachers must teach in English. In fact, on the wall of his classroom he saw a sign that read “English Must Be Spoken At All Times While On This Campus— And This Means At Recess Too.” He noticed in small print that someone had added—in the bathroom too. Yes, he was grateful for that and confident in his own skills, but could he teach it? Somehow, he realized that teaching English was different. Certainly, being good at something did not mean one could teach it ... Navarro though of his brother who was well known as an expert carver. No matter how hard he had tried to teach Navarro a little of that skill, Navarro could not carve the likeness of a shark. And further Navarro considered himself lucky to have ten fingers on his hands when he finished attempting to carve. TO BE CONTINUED- | <urn:uuid:7e0908f9-6b1d-4d47-b329-e48694935be7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.kpress.info/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=428:education-corner-25&catid=2&Itemid=115 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00429.warc.gz | en | 0.98862 | 1,505 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.368790477... | 1 | Education Corner 25
- Category: Education Corner
- Published: Saturday, 29 October 2016 10:17
- Written by Richard Womack, Ed.D
- Hits: 4368
In our last several EC editions we have been telling a story about a young man named Navarro Navarro. Some readers wrote and said they did not understand what was happening and did not the idea of this Navarro as the main character because he was not a properly trained teacher. That said EC should make another try with this Navarro. We explained that in teacher education we call educational stories case studies. These are when lifelike education examples are set up using student, teachers, parents, administrators, and others as actors to teach educational lessons. In fact case studies are more like plays than stories. We use case studies for critical thinking and student/readers think about questions and decisions. In case studies we look at behaviors and think about what the story is supposed to teach. Remember Navarro is a made up character dealing with a big problem—he has no teacher training. In these case studies we will always put Navarro in learning situations trying to figure out what he should do. For certain Navarro make mistakes—of course. He has not had teacher training. E C readers will observe the errors and see if Navarro corrects them—or improves.
The case studies begins many years ago (let’s say Trust Territory times) with Navarro accepting a 5th grade teaching position at a Micronesian Roman Catholic elementary school. He accepted the job on a Sunday morning to begin teaching the next morning-Monday morning the first day of school. But as all good case studies there is a good problem. In these stories the problem is this. Navarro has never had any teacher training at all. That is he never was taught how to teach. We do find out that Navarro was a good student when in school and he knows his history and geography; science and math; and he was good in English, perhaps even more fluent that is own Micronesian language. And then Navarro’s problem is compounded when he realizes he must teach ESL and he cannot even recall how he learned English. So we find Navarro sitting on the Sunday evening wondering what he would do the next day at 8 A M.
Next, as Navarro sat he decided he wanted to do a good job. But with no teacher training he did not know what to do to be a good teacher. Therefore he decided to recall teachers he thought were “good” when he was a student. He also picked some that he thought were fair to students. Here too he did not really know was “fair” was. Likewise he did not want to do a bad job so he recalled a teacher from some 60 years in his past a Miss Maupin. Miss Maupin was based upon a teacher dismissal case at a Longfellow Elementary School, Pasco, Washington, United States of America in 1957. It was used as an example of a bad teacher and in fact it was the worst we could find. We wanted a teacher that Navarro and all of us would recognize and use the term “bad”. We used Miss Maupin to highlight another education issue that Navarro will learn about—special need students. And we used Navarro so we can eventually show how Navarro learns all about special needs students. Our Community is so fortunate nowadays with our Special Education programs and parent participation. We are most fortunate that the College of Micronesia- FSM has great expertise in this area and new teachers are prepared for teaching students with different abilities. Today’s new teachers understand that all their students are special and therefore students with learning or physical disabilities are just students with different needs. And then these teachers learn different ways of how to teach. Indeed Miss Maupin was an extreme example and as stated, it was the worst example we could find. Most classroom teachers in those times were kind and did the best they could if student with disabilities were included in a regular classroom as we do today. In those days students with disabilities were separated and not included or treated equally with the respect all students deserved. With this said let’s go right to Navarro’s first day
Case Study: Navarro Begins
Navarro had found his first day with the fifth graders simply delightful. He was friendly but he knew he was not there to make friends. He knew he was the teacher and they were the students but that did not mean he could not smile, and joke a little. He even shared with the class that he was a real beginner at this teaching. He joked with them how he trained himself the night before and told them he wanted to be a good teacher but the class would have to help him. He promised to help them become good students if they would help him be a good teacher. The young man even had the students stand, raise their right hand and take a pledge.
I _________ promise to be the best student I can be and I promise to help Mr. Navarro Navarro become the best teacher he can be.
Navarro thought of the night before. He did not know what he meant by a good teacher so he wondered to himself why he chose the word best. He thought about his English. In English ... good ... better ... best was how it went. He should probably know what good and better meant before he used best student and best teacher. But that first day he pledged himself to his class; more importantly, however, he made a pledge to himself. And all of Navarro’s 5th graders took the pledge.
That first day Navarro found all of the fifth grade textbooks piled in his room and a nice copy of all of the books on the big desk which he assumed would be his—the Teacher’s Desk. He was happy to find that there was a Teacher’s Edition for English and grammar. Navarro had been a straight A student in high-school English and his college years in the States had sharpened his skills at reading, writing, listening to and speaking English. To be honest, Navarro was far better in English than in his own vernacular language. As a young boy he could count in more than ten (10) different ways and even understood “high words” used by chiefs. Now, English was almost his first language and he was actually happy that at Mt. St. Mary’s the teachers must teach in English. In fact, on the wall of his classroom he saw a sign that read “English Must Be Spoken At All Times While On This Campus— And This Means At Recess Too.” He noticed in small print that someone had added—in the bathroom too. Yes, he was grateful for that and confident in his own skills, but could he teach it? Somehow, he realized that teaching English was different. Certainly, being good at something did not mean one could teach it ... Navarro though of his brother who was well known as an expert carver. No matter how hard he had tried to teach Navarro a little of that skill, Navarro could not carve the likeness of a shark. And further Navarro considered himself lucky to have ten fingers on his hands when he finished attempting to carve. TO BE CONTINUED- | 1,489 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Click For Photo: https://scx2.b-cdn.net/gfx/news/hires/2019/sonarstudysh.jpg
A team of researchers from the University of Delaware has mapped the seafloor where an atomic blast created a crater back in 1946 during a test. The team has given a presentation outlining their findings at this year's fall meeting of the American Geophysical Union. Using high-resolution sonar, the team created depth maps that showed not only the crater created by the blast but the test ships that were used to measure its power.
The researchers began their report by noting that the U.S. carried out 22 atomic bomb tests in and around the bikini atoll over the years 1946 to 1958. In this new effort, they attempted to map two of the atomic test sites called Able and Baker (which were part of Operation Crossroads), both offshore. The bombs were detonated underwater to learn more about their destructiveness in such an environment. Prior to detonation, captured German and Japanese ships were placed in the vicinity to see what the bomb would do to them. They described the area as "the world's first simulated nuclear battlefield." They further reported that they were unable to find any seabed evidence of the Able test, but were able to map the area where...
Wake Up To Breaking News! | <urn:uuid:f18d4197-aace-4a99-a795-f1d8a4169f12> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.longroom.com/discussion/1730323/sonar-study-shows-crater-made-by-underwater-bikini-atoll-a-bomb-test | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00257.warc.gz | en | 0.982943 | 276 | 3.96875 | 4 | [
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A team of researchers from the University of Delaware has mapped the seafloor where an atomic blast created a crater back in 1946 during a test. The team has given a presentation outlining their findings at this year's fall meeting of the American Geophysical Union. Using high-resolution sonar, the team created depth maps that showed not only the crater created by the blast but the test ships that were used to measure its power.
The researchers began their report by noting that the U.S. carried out 22 atomic bomb tests in and around the bikini atoll over the years 1946 to 1958. In this new effort, they attempted to map two of the atomic test sites called Able and Baker (which were part of Operation Crossroads), both offshore. The bombs were detonated underwater to learn more about their destructiveness in such an environment. Prior to detonation, captured German and Japanese ships were placed in the vicinity to see what the bomb would do to them. They described the area as "the world's first simulated nuclear battlefield." They further reported that they were unable to find any seabed evidence of the Able test, but were able to map the area where...
Wake Up To Breaking News! | 281 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Tuesday Art ATTACK- Jozef Israëls " The Day Before Parting (1862)"
Posted on January 17 2017
By Chrisatian Franzen
Jozef Israëls was born on the 27th of January 1824 in Groningen, Netherlands. Despite his fathers relentless push to be a businessman throughout his childhood, Israëls deep desire to be an artist prevailed and his family allowed him to pursue art as a career. He began his studies at the Minerva Academy in Groningen from 1835-1842 and later furthered his education at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts in Amsterdam. During his time at the Royal Academy he mastered his drawing skills under the tutelage of famed Dutch artist Jan Kruseman.
In 1845, he took a brief hiatus from his educational endeavors in order to serve as an assistant in Françios Picot's studio, located in Paris. After two years, Israëls no longer wished to be an assistant and moved back to Amsterdam where he settled into his own artistic practice.
Israëls work is often compared to that of French painter Jean-François Millet because of their shared desire in visually sympathizing with the life of the laboring class. Although Israëls work is often thought to have a more somber tone compared to Millet's of admiration towards the laborer.
After a move to Hague in 1870, Israëls and several other painters banded together in order to form the Hague School. The Hague School, often referred to the gray school because of their dull color usage, mimicked the ideals of the French Barbizon School. This new school existed in the artistic revival in the Netherlands, referred to as the Romantic period in Dutch Painting. The main focus of these paintings was the rural Dutch landscape and the lower class people that populated the mass landscape. Israëls continued to work in the Barbizonesque style of realism until his death in 1911. | <urn:uuid:915018b1-abf2-427b-ae7e-1617bea9945f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mowglisurf.com/blogs/mowgli-surf/tuesday-art-attack-jozef-israels-the-day-before-parting-1862 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00319.warc.gz | en | 0.983328 | 406 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.854165494... | 9 | Tuesday Art ATTACK- Jozef Israëls " The Day Before Parting (1862)"
Posted on January 17 2017
By Chrisatian Franzen
Jozef Israëls was born on the 27th of January 1824 in Groningen, Netherlands. Despite his fathers relentless push to be a businessman throughout his childhood, Israëls deep desire to be an artist prevailed and his family allowed him to pursue art as a career. He began his studies at the Minerva Academy in Groningen from 1835-1842 and later furthered his education at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts in Amsterdam. During his time at the Royal Academy he mastered his drawing skills under the tutelage of famed Dutch artist Jan Kruseman.
In 1845, he took a brief hiatus from his educational endeavors in order to serve as an assistant in Françios Picot's studio, located in Paris. After two years, Israëls no longer wished to be an assistant and moved back to Amsterdam where he settled into his own artistic practice.
Israëls work is often compared to that of French painter Jean-François Millet because of their shared desire in visually sympathizing with the life of the laboring class. Although Israëls work is often thought to have a more somber tone compared to Millet's of admiration towards the laborer.
After a move to Hague in 1870, Israëls and several other painters banded together in order to form the Hague School. The Hague School, often referred to the gray school because of their dull color usage, mimicked the ideals of the French Barbizon School. This new school existed in the artistic revival in the Netherlands, referred to as the Romantic period in Dutch Painting. The main focus of these paintings was the rural Dutch landscape and the lower class people that populated the mass landscape. Israëls continued to work in the Barbizonesque style of realism until his death in 1911. | 428 | ENGLISH | 1 |
|Joseph Smith Junior was the founder and prophet leader of the Mormon Church. Joseph Smith’s family had a strong tradition of religion and patriotism. This tradition is most likely the reason for Joseph’s strong desire to understand religion even though he was so young.On Joseph Smith’s father’s side the first to come to America was Robert Smith in 1638. Robert Smith’s third son was Samuel born in 1666. Samuel’s first son, Samuel II was born in 1714. Samuel II was active in public affairs and held over twenty public offices throughout his life. He also fought for America in the Revolutionary War and was known as Captain Samuel Smith. Asael Smith was Samuel II second son and Joseph Smith Junior’s grandfather. Asael worked hard to teach his children virtue and piety. In a letter of advice written to his children Asael says, “and as to religion, I would not wish to point any particular form to you; but first I would wish you to search the scriptures and consult sound reason and see if they are not sufficient to evince to you that religion is a necessary theme.”1 This letter was a cherished family heirloom and most likely would have been well-known to Joseph.On Joseph Smith’s Mother’s side John Mack was the first to come to America. He came from Scotland in 1680. In 1697, his son Ebenezer was born. Ebenezer was a respected clergyman. Ebenezer’s son Solomon Mack was Lucy Mack’s father. Solomon was born in 1732 and married Lydia Gates in 1759. Solomon and Lydia were both very concerned that their children have a good education in secular as well as religious matters. Lydia was “in the habit of calling [the family] together both morning and evening, and teaching them to pray.”2 This tradition of gathering the family together was something that Lucy continued in her own home with her children. William Smith was interviewed in 1893 towards the end of his life and asked, “Were your folks religiously inclined before Joseph saw the angel?” William answered, “yes, we always had family prayers since I can remember.” 3 Joseph Sr. and Lucy wanted their children to be upright citizens, religious, and hard workers.Joseph Smith Senior was born in 1771. He married Lucy Mack on January 24, 1796. Joseph Smith Senior and Lucy Mack had eleven children. Their first son was born in 1797 and died shortly after his birth.Alvin Smith was born on February 11, 1798. The death of Alvin in 1823 when he was only 25 was a great trial for the family. Alvin had been a loving brother and worked hard to help care for the family. In the summer of 1821 the family was working hard to build a bigger house on their farm. Lucy Mack recorded that Alvin, “would say, I am going to have a nice pleasant room for father and mother to sit in, and everything arranged for their comfort, and they shall not work any more as they have done.” Alvin deeply believed in the truthfulness of his younger brother’s visions and just before his death told Joseph to “be a good boy, and do everything that lies in your power to obtain the Record [the Book of Mormon]. Be faithful in receiving instruction, and in keeping every commandment that is given you.” 4Hyrum was born on February 9, 1800. Hyrum, like Alvin, supported Joseph and completely believed in the visions of Joseph and the restoration of the Church. He was Joseph’s constant companion and advisor. He was loyal and firm in his beliefs. Hyrum served in many capacities in the early days of the Church, as a missionary, patriarch, and staunch supporter. He was a companion to Joseph throughout all of his persecutions and was killed at the same time as Joseph.
Sophronia, Joseph’s oldest sister, was born on May 17, 1803. Joseph was born on December 23, 1805, and Samuel was born on March 13, 1808. Samuel also strongly supported his brother Joseph. He was the first missionary for the Church. His missionary efforts eventually led to the conversion of Brigham Young, who later became the second prophet of the Mormon Church. Samuel is often called the third martyr, because he too died from injuries he sustained when he learned of the danger Joseph and Hyrum were in and rode to Nauvoo while being chased by a mob. He died about a month later.
Ephraim was born on March 13, 1810 and lived only a few hours. William was born on March 13, 1811. William too had great confidence in the truthfulness of Joseph’s mission. In an interview he was asked, “Did you not doubt Joseph’s testimony about the Book of Mormon sometimes?” William replied, “No; we all had the most implicit confidence in what he said. He was a truthful boy. Father and Mother believed him, why should not the children? I suppose if he had told crooked stories about other things we might have doubted his word about the plates, but Joseph was a truthful boy. That Father and Mother believed his report and suffered persecution for that belief shows that he was truthful. Now sir, we never doubted his word for one minute.” Katherine was born on July 25, 1813, Don Carlos on March 25, 1816 and finally Lucy on July 18, 1821.
See also “The Family of the Prophet Joseph Smith” by Elder Ballard
1 Roberts, B.H. 1965. Comprehensive History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Utah: Brigham Young University Press. P. 9
2 Roberts, B.H. 1965. Comprehensive History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Utah: Brigham Young University Press. P. 19 | <urn:uuid:5ef31c59-aa55-45ea-8d19-1b2f56942272> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://prophetjosephsmith.org/index/life_joseph_smith/joseph_smith_timeline/1805-1830/joseph_family | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00265.warc.gz | en | 0.99201 | 1,228 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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-0.1111054122447... | 3 | |Joseph Smith Junior was the founder and prophet leader of the Mormon Church. Joseph Smith’s family had a strong tradition of religion and patriotism. This tradition is most likely the reason for Joseph’s strong desire to understand religion even though he was so young.On Joseph Smith’s father’s side the first to come to America was Robert Smith in 1638. Robert Smith’s third son was Samuel born in 1666. Samuel’s first son, Samuel II was born in 1714. Samuel II was active in public affairs and held over twenty public offices throughout his life. He also fought for America in the Revolutionary War and was known as Captain Samuel Smith. Asael Smith was Samuel II second son and Joseph Smith Junior’s grandfather. Asael worked hard to teach his children virtue and piety. In a letter of advice written to his children Asael says, “and as to religion, I would not wish to point any particular form to you; but first I would wish you to search the scriptures and consult sound reason and see if they are not sufficient to evince to you that religion is a necessary theme.”1 This letter was a cherished family heirloom and most likely would have been well-known to Joseph.On Joseph Smith’s Mother’s side John Mack was the first to come to America. He came from Scotland in 1680. In 1697, his son Ebenezer was born. Ebenezer was a respected clergyman. Ebenezer’s son Solomon Mack was Lucy Mack’s father. Solomon was born in 1732 and married Lydia Gates in 1759. Solomon and Lydia were both very concerned that their children have a good education in secular as well as religious matters. Lydia was “in the habit of calling [the family] together both morning and evening, and teaching them to pray.”2 This tradition of gathering the family together was something that Lucy continued in her own home with her children. William Smith was interviewed in 1893 towards the end of his life and asked, “Were your folks religiously inclined before Joseph saw the angel?” William answered, “yes, we always had family prayers since I can remember.” 3 Joseph Sr. and Lucy wanted their children to be upright citizens, religious, and hard workers.Joseph Smith Senior was born in 1771. He married Lucy Mack on January 24, 1796. Joseph Smith Senior and Lucy Mack had eleven children. Their first son was born in 1797 and died shortly after his birth.Alvin Smith was born on February 11, 1798. The death of Alvin in 1823 when he was only 25 was a great trial for the family. Alvin had been a loving brother and worked hard to help care for the family. In the summer of 1821 the family was working hard to build a bigger house on their farm. Lucy Mack recorded that Alvin, “would say, I am going to have a nice pleasant room for father and mother to sit in, and everything arranged for their comfort, and they shall not work any more as they have done.” Alvin deeply believed in the truthfulness of his younger brother’s visions and just before his death told Joseph to “be a good boy, and do everything that lies in your power to obtain the Record [the Book of Mormon]. Be faithful in receiving instruction, and in keeping every commandment that is given you.” 4Hyrum was born on February 9, 1800. Hyrum, like Alvin, supported Joseph and completely believed in the visions of Joseph and the restoration of the Church. He was Joseph’s constant companion and advisor. He was loyal and firm in his beliefs. Hyrum served in many capacities in the early days of the Church, as a missionary, patriarch, and staunch supporter. He was a companion to Joseph throughout all of his persecutions and was killed at the same time as Joseph.
Sophronia, Joseph’s oldest sister, was born on May 17, 1803. Joseph was born on December 23, 1805, and Samuel was born on March 13, 1808. Samuel also strongly supported his brother Joseph. He was the first missionary for the Church. His missionary efforts eventually led to the conversion of Brigham Young, who later became the second prophet of the Mormon Church. Samuel is often called the third martyr, because he too died from injuries he sustained when he learned of the danger Joseph and Hyrum were in and rode to Nauvoo while being chased by a mob. He died about a month later.
Ephraim was born on March 13, 1810 and lived only a few hours. William was born on March 13, 1811. William too had great confidence in the truthfulness of Joseph’s mission. In an interview he was asked, “Did you not doubt Joseph’s testimony about the Book of Mormon sometimes?” William replied, “No; we all had the most implicit confidence in what he said. He was a truthful boy. Father and Mother believed him, why should not the children? I suppose if he had told crooked stories about other things we might have doubted his word about the plates, but Joseph was a truthful boy. That Father and Mother believed his report and suffered persecution for that belief shows that he was truthful. Now sir, we never doubted his word for one minute.” Katherine was born on July 25, 1813, Don Carlos on March 25, 1816 and finally Lucy on July 18, 1821.
See also “The Family of the Prophet Joseph Smith” by Elder Ballard
1 Roberts, B.H. 1965. Comprehensive History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Utah: Brigham Young University Press. P. 9
2 Roberts, B.H. 1965. Comprehensive History of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. Utah: Brigham Young University Press. P. 19 | 1,269 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Last month, United States lawmakers launched an impeachment investigation into President Donald Trump.
The move is unusual in American history. Only three out of 44 U.S. presidents have faced impeachment. But so far, none of them has ever been convicted and removed from office.
The possibility of impeaching top public officials for treason or other high crimes is written in the U.S. Constitution. A majority of delegates to the Constitutional Convention approved the process in 1787. But lawmakers did not first use it against a president until more than 80 years later.
At that time, the country was recovering from a civil war. President Andrew Johnson clashed repeatedly with some members of Congress. They disagreed about civil rights for newly freed slaves, and about how to deal with the southern states that had left the union.
To limit the president’s power, Congress passed a rule saying the president could not remove a Cabinet official without the approval of lawmakers. Johnson showed his objection to the rule by dismissing a Cabinet member while Congress was out of session.
Lawmakers answered the move in 1868 by impeaching Johnson for violating the rule. They also noted their disapproval of some of the angry public statements he made. They added charges that he “had brought disgrace and ridicule to the presidency,” writes historian Elizabeth Varon of the University of Virginia.
The case went to the Senate for trial. A number of senators were ready to vote to remove Johnson from office. However, the president’s lawyers argued that his actions were not really “high crimes.” Senators also knew that if Johnson were removed, he would be replaced by a politician many did not like. In the end, they voted to let him keep his job – but only by one vote.
Johnson did not seek another term as president.
For more than a hundred years, the U.S. House of Representatives did not bring impeachment articles against another president.
Then, in 1974, House members charged President Richard Nixon with asking people who worked for him to commit illegal acts. Among them were secret efforts to try to find damaging information about Nixon’s opponents. The president was also charged with trying to block the government’s investigation into his actions.
For several years during the investigation, many politicians and voters had supported Nixon. The president even won re-election in 1972. But in time, more evidence about Nixon’s abuses of power were made public. Lawmakers in his own party decided they could no longer support him. One party leader visited Nixon and warned that, if the case went to trial, more than two-thirds of the senators would vote to convict him.
Nixon decided to resign instead and turn his job over to the vice president. He returned to private life as, in the words of Miller Center researcher Ken Hughes, a broken man. But he later re-entered public life, wrote books and advised later presidents.
In 1998, House members again approved articles of impeachment. This time they were against President Bill Clinton.
The articles charged him with lying under oath about his relationship with a 25-year-old woman who worked at the White House. They also charged him with blocking investigations by interfering with witnesses.
The following year, senators held a trial to decide whether to convict Clinton. His supporters argued that his actions did not harm the country or the government. But critics said his actions challenged the rule of law and so could be considered “high crimes.”
In the end, senators’ votes were divided about in half – not enough to remove Clinton from office. He completed the remaining two years of his term as a popular president with a majority of voters, even if many thought he was dishonest.
Now, in 2019, lawmakers are launching another impeachment investigation into a president. Leaders in the House have said they will decide by the end of the year whether to issue charges.
I’m Pete Musto and I'm Dorothy Gundy.
Kelly Jean Kelly wrote this story for Learning English. George Grow was the editor.
Words in This Story
convict - v. to prove that someone is guilty of a crime in a court of law
out of session - n. not holding formal meetings (such as a court of law or legislature)
article - n. a separate part of a legal document that deals with a single subject
commit - v. to do something that is illegal or harmful
under oath - n. having made a formal promise to tell the truth in a court of law
challenge - v. to question the action or authority of something | <urn:uuid:a42fb082-2d2f-45df-8c78-fdaa71f5b893> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://learningenglish.voanews.com/a/how-unusual-is-impeaching-a-us-president-/5110445.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00479.warc.gz | en | 0.983982 | 938 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.445834577083587... | 9 | Last month, United States lawmakers launched an impeachment investigation into President Donald Trump.
The move is unusual in American history. Only three out of 44 U.S. presidents have faced impeachment. But so far, none of them has ever been convicted and removed from office.
The possibility of impeaching top public officials for treason or other high crimes is written in the U.S. Constitution. A majority of delegates to the Constitutional Convention approved the process in 1787. But lawmakers did not first use it against a president until more than 80 years later.
At that time, the country was recovering from a civil war. President Andrew Johnson clashed repeatedly with some members of Congress. They disagreed about civil rights for newly freed slaves, and about how to deal with the southern states that had left the union.
To limit the president’s power, Congress passed a rule saying the president could not remove a Cabinet official without the approval of lawmakers. Johnson showed his objection to the rule by dismissing a Cabinet member while Congress was out of session.
Lawmakers answered the move in 1868 by impeaching Johnson for violating the rule. They also noted their disapproval of some of the angry public statements he made. They added charges that he “had brought disgrace and ridicule to the presidency,” writes historian Elizabeth Varon of the University of Virginia.
The case went to the Senate for trial. A number of senators were ready to vote to remove Johnson from office. However, the president’s lawyers argued that his actions were not really “high crimes.” Senators also knew that if Johnson were removed, he would be replaced by a politician many did not like. In the end, they voted to let him keep his job – but only by one vote.
Johnson did not seek another term as president.
For more than a hundred years, the U.S. House of Representatives did not bring impeachment articles against another president.
Then, in 1974, House members charged President Richard Nixon with asking people who worked for him to commit illegal acts. Among them were secret efforts to try to find damaging information about Nixon’s opponents. The president was also charged with trying to block the government’s investigation into his actions.
For several years during the investigation, many politicians and voters had supported Nixon. The president even won re-election in 1972. But in time, more evidence about Nixon’s abuses of power were made public. Lawmakers in his own party decided they could no longer support him. One party leader visited Nixon and warned that, if the case went to trial, more than two-thirds of the senators would vote to convict him.
Nixon decided to resign instead and turn his job over to the vice president. He returned to private life as, in the words of Miller Center researcher Ken Hughes, a broken man. But he later re-entered public life, wrote books and advised later presidents.
In 1998, House members again approved articles of impeachment. This time they were against President Bill Clinton.
The articles charged him with lying under oath about his relationship with a 25-year-old woman who worked at the White House. They also charged him with blocking investigations by interfering with witnesses.
The following year, senators held a trial to decide whether to convict Clinton. His supporters argued that his actions did not harm the country or the government. But critics said his actions challenged the rule of law and so could be considered “high crimes.”
In the end, senators’ votes were divided about in half – not enough to remove Clinton from office. He completed the remaining two years of his term as a popular president with a majority of voters, even if many thought he was dishonest.
Now, in 2019, lawmakers are launching another impeachment investigation into a president. Leaders in the House have said they will decide by the end of the year whether to issue charges.
I’m Pete Musto and I'm Dorothy Gundy.
Kelly Jean Kelly wrote this story for Learning English. George Grow was the editor.
Words in This Story
convict - v. to prove that someone is guilty of a crime in a court of law
out of session - n. not holding formal meetings (such as a court of law or legislature)
article - n. a separate part of a legal document that deals with a single subject
commit - v. to do something that is illegal or harmful
under oath - n. having made a formal promise to tell the truth in a court of law
challenge - v. to question the action or authority of something | 916 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Civil War, also known as the War Between the States, began in 1861. (Civil War, 2009) There was conflict between the northern and south states. The northern states did not believe in slavery as the southern states believed.
Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Civil War and The Battle of Gettysburg" essay for youCreate order
They wanted it abolished. Tensions mounted between these two territories and thus began the Civil War. The Union was strong in manufacturing arms, and had a greater population than the south. The Confederates had a strong military with some of the greatest military leaders. Many thought that the war would be over quickly but that was not the case. “The conflict was the costliest and deadliest war ever fought on American soil, with some 620,000 of 2.4 million soldiers killed, millions more injured and much of the South left in ruin.”(Civil War, 2009) Even though the Union was favored to win the war, the Confederates won many hard fought battles and their initial victories appeared to have them taking the lead. The battle of Gettysburg reversed the tide of the civil war favoring the union army.
There had been no plan to fight in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. The confederate army, led by A.P. Hill, headed there in search of footwear and supplies. They had just experienced a great loss in Chancellorsville, when General Stonewall Jackson died. He had been mistaken as a Yankee and shot in the arm by one of his own Confederates. The injury resulted in amputation of his affected arm. He suffered complications of pneumonia and died a short time later. General Lee decided to press his troops north in the hopes of a victory on enemy soil. Hill was planning to get supplies from Gettysburg and meet up with the troops led by General Lee. He did not know that Union troops had arrived there a couple of days earlier. On the first day of the Battle, Confederates forces, led by Hill and Richard Ewell, were able to drive back the outnumbered Union troops to take over the town. Both sides called for reinforcements. Lee wanted to gain control of the higher ground of Cemetary Hill before the Union had a chance to gain more troops for battle. He ordered Ewell to attack the Union on Cemetary Hill. Fearing that the Union defenses were too strong, Ewell failed to order the attack. Throughout the night, the Union was strengthened by additional troops.
On day two, Union forces still controlled Cemetary Hill. They had the advantage of being positioned on Little Round Top, a hill with a great vantage point of the battlefield. General Lee ordered General Longstreet to attack the Union line. Longstreet did not agree with this decision. Lee wanted Longstreet to attack from one side while Ewell attacked from the other side. Longstreet followed the orders of his commander, however, he delayed his attack until later in the day. The Union forces were being led by Daniel Sickles. The Union was fortunate to hold their ground on Little Round Top. They had made the mistake of leaving their position. Luckily they realized their error in time. There was enormous blood shed in this day. “The combined casualty total from two days of fighting came to nearly 35,000, the largest two-day toll of the war.” (Danzer, 2009). The day ended with the Union forces giving up some ground to the Confederates. Still, they held their position and claimed the day as their victory.
Lee was certain that on Day 3 he could break the Union. Again he wanted to target the middle of the Union line. The fighting ensued and “could be heard in Pittsburg.” (Danzer, 2009) After a brief period of quiet, Lee wanted Longstreet and General Pickett to attack again. This attack was known as “Pickett’s Charge.” This would be Lee’s last attempt to penetrate the Union line at Cemetary Ridge. Although the Confederates were able to break through, they did not gain control. Their forces had been greatly weakened and they lacked reinforcements. This was the defeat of Lee and his troops. He retreated to Virginia and left behind battle flags and many prisoners. Even though Meade should have been praised for having stood his ground and winning the three day battle, he was criticized for not annihilating his attackers. There was disappointment in Meade for not pursuing the Confederates because many felt that if he had succeeded in defeating them, the Civil War may have ended with the Battle of Gettysburg.
There has never been a bloodier, more violent battle fought in North America, than the Battle of Gettysburg. The carnage and destruction is unparalleled. There was a staggering number of casualties. The number of wounded, missing, and dead topped 50,000. President Lincoln referred to what happened at the Battle of Gettysburg as “a new birth of freedom.” This phrase can be seen on the Lincoln Memorial.
Nearly 8000 men perished at the battle of Gettysburg. Twelve of those eight-thousand me were commanding generals. This lack of leadership would impact the war for months to come. A confederate general, Paul Semmes, had received a wound in the battle. Before his death he wrote a letter to his wife stating “ Martinsburg Va 9 July 1863
My Dearest Wife,I telegraphed you 3 day: “Seriously wounded. Main danger over. Stay at home. Will write.”I was wounded on the 2 inst. at Gettysburg, Penn. I arrived here in an ambulance yesterday, a distance of 60 miles. Abrm, Wm. Cleveland & Cody are with me – will write soon again. The wound has done remarkably well though I traveled part of 4 days in an ambulance – which was very uncomfortable. not leaving it after being placed in it at the Hospital until I got here I now write flat of my Back in a Comfortable room in a private family who treat me with kindness.I was wounded in the leg but stopped the flow of blood in the field by a Tournequet applied by myself and drawn by one of my men of the 10 Ga & lost but little blood.Col Mann—Lee Chambers Hd—killed—Jack Jones kill—& a long list.My Brigade suffered severely and behaved well.Much love to all. Your affec Hd. Paul J. Semmes. Ellis escaped—God will fully spare my life(Semmes, 1863). We all have cause to be thankful to Him. The generals handwriting is a clear sign he was struggling and that his wounds were severe.
A Cemetery was dedicated by President Lincoln several months after the Battle of Gettysburg took place. The speech delivered by the president had great power and his words would be forever remembered. “Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived, and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battlefield of that war. We come to dedicate a portion of it, as a final resting place for those who died here, that the nation might live. This we may, in all propriety do.”(Lincoln, 1863) It was a eulogy to the dead. Lincoln did not realize the effect that his words would have on the people. He did not think that his speech would be remembered let alone influential. “But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate we cannot consecrate we cannot hallow, this ground The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have hallowed it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here; while it can never forget what they did here.”(Lincoln, 1863) He thought that the war, and the Battle of Gettysburg itself would be the only thing that anyone remembered. The destruction and carnage had made most of Gettysburg a burial ground. Lincoln’s speech changed the macabre into something rich. His famous address honored those who fought, and died during the gruesome assault. He honored the sacrifices made by both sides. “It is rather for us, the living, we here be dedicated to the great task remaining before us that, from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they here, gave the last full measure of devotion that we here highly resolve these dead shall not have died in vain; that the nation, shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.”(Lincoln, 1863).
The Battle of Gettysburg marked a turning point in the Civil War, in favor of the Union. The Confederate army was comprised of superior military leaders and a powerful military force. This War of the States started out strong for the south and they were building momentum until the Battle of Gettysburg. The pendulum turned after the Union took this battle and in the end of the battle, as in the end of the Civil War, the Confederates were defeated.
We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper | <urn:uuid:ca58398b-2125-4f4c-a5d4-977df0ea9991> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studydriver.com/the-civil-war-and-the-battle-of-gettysburg/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00214.warc.gz | en | 0.983635 | 1,946 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.473855733871... | 1 | The Civil War, also known as the War Between the States, began in 1861. (Civil War, 2009) There was conflict between the northern and south states. The northern states did not believe in slavery as the southern states believed.
Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "The Civil War and The Battle of Gettysburg" essay for youCreate order
They wanted it abolished. Tensions mounted between these two territories and thus began the Civil War. The Union was strong in manufacturing arms, and had a greater population than the south. The Confederates had a strong military with some of the greatest military leaders. Many thought that the war would be over quickly but that was not the case. “The conflict was the costliest and deadliest war ever fought on American soil, with some 620,000 of 2.4 million soldiers killed, millions more injured and much of the South left in ruin.”(Civil War, 2009) Even though the Union was favored to win the war, the Confederates won many hard fought battles and their initial victories appeared to have them taking the lead. The battle of Gettysburg reversed the tide of the civil war favoring the union army.
There had been no plan to fight in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. The confederate army, led by A.P. Hill, headed there in search of footwear and supplies. They had just experienced a great loss in Chancellorsville, when General Stonewall Jackson died. He had been mistaken as a Yankee and shot in the arm by one of his own Confederates. The injury resulted in amputation of his affected arm. He suffered complications of pneumonia and died a short time later. General Lee decided to press his troops north in the hopes of a victory on enemy soil. Hill was planning to get supplies from Gettysburg and meet up with the troops led by General Lee. He did not know that Union troops had arrived there a couple of days earlier. On the first day of the Battle, Confederates forces, led by Hill and Richard Ewell, were able to drive back the outnumbered Union troops to take over the town. Both sides called for reinforcements. Lee wanted to gain control of the higher ground of Cemetary Hill before the Union had a chance to gain more troops for battle. He ordered Ewell to attack the Union on Cemetary Hill. Fearing that the Union defenses were too strong, Ewell failed to order the attack. Throughout the night, the Union was strengthened by additional troops.
On day two, Union forces still controlled Cemetary Hill. They had the advantage of being positioned on Little Round Top, a hill with a great vantage point of the battlefield. General Lee ordered General Longstreet to attack the Union line. Longstreet did not agree with this decision. Lee wanted Longstreet to attack from one side while Ewell attacked from the other side. Longstreet followed the orders of his commander, however, he delayed his attack until later in the day. The Union forces were being led by Daniel Sickles. The Union was fortunate to hold their ground on Little Round Top. They had made the mistake of leaving their position. Luckily they realized their error in time. There was enormous blood shed in this day. “The combined casualty total from two days of fighting came to nearly 35,000, the largest two-day toll of the war.” (Danzer, 2009). The day ended with the Union forces giving up some ground to the Confederates. Still, they held their position and claimed the day as their victory.
Lee was certain that on Day 3 he could break the Union. Again he wanted to target the middle of the Union line. The fighting ensued and “could be heard in Pittsburg.” (Danzer, 2009) After a brief period of quiet, Lee wanted Longstreet and General Pickett to attack again. This attack was known as “Pickett’s Charge.” This would be Lee’s last attempt to penetrate the Union line at Cemetary Ridge. Although the Confederates were able to break through, they did not gain control. Their forces had been greatly weakened and they lacked reinforcements. This was the defeat of Lee and his troops. He retreated to Virginia and left behind battle flags and many prisoners. Even though Meade should have been praised for having stood his ground and winning the three day battle, he was criticized for not annihilating his attackers. There was disappointment in Meade for not pursuing the Confederates because many felt that if he had succeeded in defeating them, the Civil War may have ended with the Battle of Gettysburg.
There has never been a bloodier, more violent battle fought in North America, than the Battle of Gettysburg. The carnage and destruction is unparalleled. There was a staggering number of casualties. The number of wounded, missing, and dead topped 50,000. President Lincoln referred to what happened at the Battle of Gettysburg as “a new birth of freedom.” This phrase can be seen on the Lincoln Memorial.
Nearly 8000 men perished at the battle of Gettysburg. Twelve of those eight-thousand me were commanding generals. This lack of leadership would impact the war for months to come. A confederate general, Paul Semmes, had received a wound in the battle. Before his death he wrote a letter to his wife stating “ Martinsburg Va 9 July 1863
My Dearest Wife,I telegraphed you 3 day: “Seriously wounded. Main danger over. Stay at home. Will write.”I was wounded on the 2 inst. at Gettysburg, Penn. I arrived here in an ambulance yesterday, a distance of 60 miles. Abrm, Wm. Cleveland & Cody are with me – will write soon again. The wound has done remarkably well though I traveled part of 4 days in an ambulance – which was very uncomfortable. not leaving it after being placed in it at the Hospital until I got here I now write flat of my Back in a Comfortable room in a private family who treat me with kindness.I was wounded in the leg but stopped the flow of blood in the field by a Tournequet applied by myself and drawn by one of my men of the 10 Ga & lost but little blood.Col Mann—Lee Chambers Hd—killed—Jack Jones kill—& a long list.My Brigade suffered severely and behaved well.Much love to all. Your affec Hd. Paul J. Semmes. Ellis escaped—God will fully spare my life(Semmes, 1863). We all have cause to be thankful to Him. The generals handwriting is a clear sign he was struggling and that his wounds were severe.
A Cemetery was dedicated by President Lincoln several months after the Battle of Gettysburg took place. The speech delivered by the president had great power and his words would be forever remembered. “Four score and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived, and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battlefield of that war. We come to dedicate a portion of it, as a final resting place for those who died here, that the nation might live. This we may, in all propriety do.”(Lincoln, 1863) It was a eulogy to the dead. Lincoln did not realize the effect that his words would have on the people. He did not think that his speech would be remembered let alone influential. “But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate we cannot consecrate we cannot hallow, this ground The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have hallowed it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here; while it can never forget what they did here.”(Lincoln, 1863) He thought that the war, and the Battle of Gettysburg itself would be the only thing that anyone remembered. The destruction and carnage had made most of Gettysburg a burial ground. Lincoln’s speech changed the macabre into something rich. His famous address honored those who fought, and died during the gruesome assault. He honored the sacrifices made by both sides. “It is rather for us, the living, we here be dedicated to the great task remaining before us that, from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they here, gave the last full measure of devotion that we here highly resolve these dead shall not have died in vain; that the nation, shall have a new birth of freedom, and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth.”(Lincoln, 1863).
The Battle of Gettysburg marked a turning point in the Civil War, in favor of the Union. The Confederate army was comprised of superior military leaders and a powerful military force. This War of the States started out strong for the south and they were building momentum until the Battle of Gettysburg. The pendulum turned after the Union took this battle and in the end of the battle, as in the end of the Civil War, the Confederates were defeated.
We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper | 1,995 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Every poem is appreciated by a certain group of people. It is hard to define who they are as the beholders of their beauty differ according to time and genre. Normally, most of them used to be the intelligent or noble. Chinese poetry represents the Joseon Dynasty, which implies that only those sophisticatedly skilled at Chinese letters were capable of writing and enjoying the works.
Over time, the number of people who enjoyed poetry rose as the Korean alphabet came to play a greater role as a poetic language tool. Under Japanese rule, poems were secretively written in the Korean language. More and more people were able to write and enjoy poetic literature. Furthermore, some argued that poems are supposed to be enjoyed and promoted much more widely, adding that every human being deserves to be described in poetry. Public lyric poetry back in the 1970s is a prime example. Korean poet Kim Myung-soo then appeared in the literal field.
Kim wrote about us, our lives and the ground where we live. The poet hoped many more audiences to appreciate poetry. Poems describe each of us, our country, spring and flowers that cover the homeland in spring. Furthermore, they portray our ancestors who gave a saddening name to a flower as well as every desperate soul who waited for spring to come reciting the name of that flower.
Flowers are a mere type of a plant. They signify us, our history and our hope. They blossom and invite spring to the land even if they look trivial and fragile. It deserves to be recalled once again this spring on the 100th anniversary of the March 1st Movement. | <urn:uuid:f7faa715-3037-4536-8912-9251dbffde74> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.donga.com/en/article/all/20190302/1655419/1/To-the-flowers-in-Korea | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00513.warc.gz | en | 0.981899 | 325 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.284821033477783... | 2 | Every poem is appreciated by a certain group of people. It is hard to define who they are as the beholders of their beauty differ according to time and genre. Normally, most of them used to be the intelligent or noble. Chinese poetry represents the Joseon Dynasty, which implies that only those sophisticatedly skilled at Chinese letters were capable of writing and enjoying the works.
Over time, the number of people who enjoyed poetry rose as the Korean alphabet came to play a greater role as a poetic language tool. Under Japanese rule, poems were secretively written in the Korean language. More and more people were able to write and enjoy poetic literature. Furthermore, some argued that poems are supposed to be enjoyed and promoted much more widely, adding that every human being deserves to be described in poetry. Public lyric poetry back in the 1970s is a prime example. Korean poet Kim Myung-soo then appeared in the literal field.
Kim wrote about us, our lives and the ground where we live. The poet hoped many more audiences to appreciate poetry. Poems describe each of us, our country, spring and flowers that cover the homeland in spring. Furthermore, they portray our ancestors who gave a saddening name to a flower as well as every desperate soul who waited for spring to come reciting the name of that flower.
Flowers are a mere type of a plant. They signify us, our history and our hope. They blossom and invite spring to the land even if they look trivial and fragile. It deserves to be recalled once again this spring on the 100th anniversary of the March 1st Movement. | 328 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Zachary Taylor Facts
- Presidency: 12th President of the United States (1849-1850)
- Nickname: Old Rough and Ready
- Political Party: Whig 1818
- Accomplishments: A war hero during the Indian Wars and annexation of Mexico
- Began As: Career Officer and decorated war veteran
- Birthplace: Barboursville, Virginia
- Born: November 24, 1784
- Wife: Margaret Smith
- Children: 3 daughters and a son
- Death: July 9, 1850
- Ancestry: Zachary Taylor Could Trace His Ancestors to the Mayflower
- Relations: Zachary Taylor was Related to Another US President
- Upbringing: Zachary Taylor Came from a Rich Family
- Career: Zachary Taylor Joined the Army Because of the British
- Personal Life: Zachary Taylor was a Slave Owner
- Achievement: Zachary Taylor was the Hero of the Second Seminole War
- Brutality: Zachary Taylor Wanted to Exterminate the Seminoles
- Reputation: Zachary Taylor was a Mexican War Hero
- History: Zachary Taylor May Not Have Been Serious about Becoming President
- Political Stance: Zachary Taylor was Politically Ambiguous
- Zachary Taylor didn’t Know about His Own Presidential Nomination
- Zachary Taylor Rode His Horse Sidesaddle When in Battle
- Zachary Taylor Didn’t Want His Daughter to Marry a Military Man
- Zachary Taylor Could Read but Barely Write
- Doctors Thought Zachary Taylor was Killed by Cherries and Milk
Zachary Taylor Could Trace His Ancestors to the Mayflower
The first of our Zachary Taylor facts has to do with his ancestry. One of his direct forebears was Elder William Brewster, one of the pilgrims who arrived aboard the Mayflower. Although America had been settled by Europeans since 1492, its English history, heritage, and culture began with the Mayflower’s landing in 1620. Brewster was an English separatist who called for independence from Britain. Taylor’s father, Richard, served as a lieutenant colonel during the American Revolution which brought that independence about.
Zachary Taylor was Related to Another US President
One of our little-known Zachary Taylor facts is that he was related to another American president. Two of his other ancestors who came over on the Mayflower were Isaac Allerton and Fear Brewster. From their line, came Taylor’s second cousin, James Madison, who would become the country’s 4th President, serving from 1809 to 1817. Madison is considered to be the “Father of the US Constitution,” since he was the one who drafted it. He also authored and championed the Bill of Rights.
Zachary Taylor Came from a Rich Family
Taylor’s genealogy ensured that he was born well-off. By the time of his birth, his family had become successful plantation owners in Orange County, Virginia. Since the region was already over-farmed, however, his father decided to move the family to Louisville, Kentucky, in search of better opportunities. As that state developed and its economy grew, the family became even richer, moving from a log cabin into a brick house. They eventually owned 10,000 acres of land and had 26 slaves to manage it.
Zachary Taylor Joined the Army Because of the British
Taylor joined the military in 1808 at the age of 24 in response to British naval attacks on American ships. He rose quickly through the ranks, and, by 1811, he was given control over Fort Knox after its previous commander abandoned it. He saw action the following year in the War of 1812 at Fort Harrison in Indiana, fighting not just the British, but their Amerindian allies as well. He conducted himself so well that he was promoted to colonel.
Zachary Taylor was a Slave Owner
Although America was founded on the basis of an egalitarian society free of European class hierarchy, and though its Bill of Rights ensured everyone had legal protection, such ideas of equality and fairness were never intended for Amerindians, Africans, and the country’s other minorities. Despite his military career, Taylor still had enough time to engage in business. Using his family’s wealth, he bought more land, and an increasing number of slaves to manage it. At the peak of his private career, he owned over 200 slaves.
Zachary Taylor was the Hero of the Second Seminole War
One of the more contentious of our Zachary Taylor facts involves his success against the Seminole Indians in 1837. He defeated them at the Battle of Lake Okeechobee in Florida on Christmas Day. This was one of the biggest conflicts between the US and the Amerindians in the 19th century, and was known as the Second Seminole War. Although Taylor’s forces were prevented from moving further south and expelling the Seminoles, he was promoted to the rank of Brigadier General.
Zachary Taylor Wanted to Exterminate the Seminoles
Although the Second Seminole War blocked America’s southward expansion, it also kept the Seminoles from rising up again. As such, Taylor became a household name and people started calling him “Old Rough and Ready.” To make sure that there would be no third war, however, Taylor wanted to exterminate all the Seminoles. He therefore asked the government to bring in Cuban bloodhounds to hunt the last of them down, but they refused his request and condemned him for it.
Zachary Taylor was a Mexican War Hero
In 1846, President James K. Polk sent Taylor to the Rio Grande to protect the Union against attacks from Mexico. Despite having fewer men, Taylor defeated a larger Mexican force before attacking their city of Monterrey. It fell, but Taylor showed them mercy by giving them a two-month ceasefire. Taylor’s 4,600 men then went on to defeat Mexican General Santa Anna’s 15,000 troops. This made Taylor a hero, and, riding on his popularity, he put his name up for the upcoming presidential elections.
Zachary Taylor May Not Have Been Serious about Becoming President
One of our little-known Zachary Taylor facts is that he may not have wanted to become President at all. His military victories had earned him a broad support base, not just from his own Whig Party, but from the others as well. Historians believe he was pressured into the elections, since Taylor’s response was that he would run, but not as a partisan loyalist. Other sources suggest that while he did submit a nomination, he didn’t think he had a chance of winning it.
Zachary Taylor was Politically Ambiguous
Taylor owned slaves, but did not support policies which would have extended the scope of slavery in those states where it was legal, nor did he believe in legalizing slavery in the new western territories since he felt they were not ideal for cotton and sugar production. Upon becoming President, he spent the first few months at his military post. When he finally set up his cabinet, he failed to appoint several of the most prominent Whigs of the time, choosing to set up a more diverse government instead.
Zachary Taylor didn’t Know about His Own Presidential Nomination
Perhaps the most amusing of our Zachary Taylor facts involves how he was nominated without even being told. The Whig Party chose him to be President, even though he wasn’t at their convention. They sent him a letter to tell him of the nomination, but didn’t pay for the postage. When the letter arrived, Taylor refused to pay for the stamp, so the postman wouldn’t give him the letter. He therefore didn’t know about his own nomination until several weeks later!
Zachary Taylor Rode His Horse Sidesaddle When in Battle
Most people ride horses by placing their legs on either side of the animal’s body, squeezing their legs together to stay on. One of our most curious Zachary Taylor facts, therefore, is that he rode sidesaddle (when the rider puts both legs on the same side of the horse) when fighting. Taylor did this because his legs were very short, and he needed help to get on a horse. To save time, he rode sidesaddle, especially useful when he needed to mount quickly.
Zachary Taylor Didn’t Want His Daughter to Marry a Military Man
Taylor was a military man who still found time to conduct his business and raise a family. So, it’s strange that he would ban his own daughter from marrying another military man, but he did just that in 1832. His 17-year-old daughter, Sarah Knox, was being courted by Lieutenant Jefferson Davis (who would later become the President of the Confederate States of America). Taylor opposed the courtship because he wanted to spare his daughter from the difficulties of a military life.
Zachary Taylor Could Read but Barely Write
Another of our little-known Zachary Taylor facts is that he never fully mastered the art of writing. When his family moved to Kentucky, there were few very schools in the state. This meant that while his parents were well-educated by the standards of the time, Taylor’s own education was sporadic, as teachers came and went. Though described as intelligent, he never mastered spelling and grammar. Taylor was literate – it’s just that he was a terrible writer and his penmanship was barely legible.
Doctors Thought Zachary Taylor was Killed by Cherries and Milk
Doctors today think Taylor died of cholera, but, back then, they had other ideas. Taylor died on the Fourth of July while at the Washington Monument during a fund raising event. He had consumed cherries and milk before he fell ill. Taylor died several days later, and his doctors therefore blamed his death on eating cherries with milk. This gave rise to the enduring American myth that cherries and milk are a lethal combination, despite modern doctors insisting this isn’t true.
Zachary Taylor Facts – Facts about Zachary Taylor Summary
Zachary Taylor was a direct descendant of the very first English pilgrims who arrived aboard the Mayflower in 1620. Taylor may not have wanted to become the country’s 12th president, but when he did, he set up a diverse government, not one devoted exclusively to his Whig Party. He was also a businessman and a slave owner, but did not expand the scope of slavery in the USA. He was instrumental in the Indian Wars, which increased America’s territory at the expense of the Amerindians and the Mexicans. His death also created the myth that milk and cherries are a poisonous combination. | <urn:uuid:c83dc351-4ce7-4b60-9611-a7bd627cf864> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://facts.net/people/politicians/zachary-taylor-facts | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00293.warc.gz | en | 0.985784 | 2,231 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.2188505083... | 1 | Zachary Taylor Facts
- Presidency: 12th President of the United States (1849-1850)
- Nickname: Old Rough and Ready
- Political Party: Whig 1818
- Accomplishments: A war hero during the Indian Wars and annexation of Mexico
- Began As: Career Officer and decorated war veteran
- Birthplace: Barboursville, Virginia
- Born: November 24, 1784
- Wife: Margaret Smith
- Children: 3 daughters and a son
- Death: July 9, 1850
- Ancestry: Zachary Taylor Could Trace His Ancestors to the Mayflower
- Relations: Zachary Taylor was Related to Another US President
- Upbringing: Zachary Taylor Came from a Rich Family
- Career: Zachary Taylor Joined the Army Because of the British
- Personal Life: Zachary Taylor was a Slave Owner
- Achievement: Zachary Taylor was the Hero of the Second Seminole War
- Brutality: Zachary Taylor Wanted to Exterminate the Seminoles
- Reputation: Zachary Taylor was a Mexican War Hero
- History: Zachary Taylor May Not Have Been Serious about Becoming President
- Political Stance: Zachary Taylor was Politically Ambiguous
- Zachary Taylor didn’t Know about His Own Presidential Nomination
- Zachary Taylor Rode His Horse Sidesaddle When in Battle
- Zachary Taylor Didn’t Want His Daughter to Marry a Military Man
- Zachary Taylor Could Read but Barely Write
- Doctors Thought Zachary Taylor was Killed by Cherries and Milk
Zachary Taylor Could Trace His Ancestors to the Mayflower
The first of our Zachary Taylor facts has to do with his ancestry. One of his direct forebears was Elder William Brewster, one of the pilgrims who arrived aboard the Mayflower. Although America had been settled by Europeans since 1492, its English history, heritage, and culture began with the Mayflower’s landing in 1620. Brewster was an English separatist who called for independence from Britain. Taylor’s father, Richard, served as a lieutenant colonel during the American Revolution which brought that independence about.
Zachary Taylor was Related to Another US President
One of our little-known Zachary Taylor facts is that he was related to another American president. Two of his other ancestors who came over on the Mayflower were Isaac Allerton and Fear Brewster. From their line, came Taylor’s second cousin, James Madison, who would become the country’s 4th President, serving from 1809 to 1817. Madison is considered to be the “Father of the US Constitution,” since he was the one who drafted it. He also authored and championed the Bill of Rights.
Zachary Taylor Came from a Rich Family
Taylor’s genealogy ensured that he was born well-off. By the time of his birth, his family had become successful plantation owners in Orange County, Virginia. Since the region was already over-farmed, however, his father decided to move the family to Louisville, Kentucky, in search of better opportunities. As that state developed and its economy grew, the family became even richer, moving from a log cabin into a brick house. They eventually owned 10,000 acres of land and had 26 slaves to manage it.
Zachary Taylor Joined the Army Because of the British
Taylor joined the military in 1808 at the age of 24 in response to British naval attacks on American ships. He rose quickly through the ranks, and, by 1811, he was given control over Fort Knox after its previous commander abandoned it. He saw action the following year in the War of 1812 at Fort Harrison in Indiana, fighting not just the British, but their Amerindian allies as well. He conducted himself so well that he was promoted to colonel.
Zachary Taylor was a Slave Owner
Although America was founded on the basis of an egalitarian society free of European class hierarchy, and though its Bill of Rights ensured everyone had legal protection, such ideas of equality and fairness were never intended for Amerindians, Africans, and the country’s other minorities. Despite his military career, Taylor still had enough time to engage in business. Using his family’s wealth, he bought more land, and an increasing number of slaves to manage it. At the peak of his private career, he owned over 200 slaves.
Zachary Taylor was the Hero of the Second Seminole War
One of the more contentious of our Zachary Taylor facts involves his success against the Seminole Indians in 1837. He defeated them at the Battle of Lake Okeechobee in Florida on Christmas Day. This was one of the biggest conflicts between the US and the Amerindians in the 19th century, and was known as the Second Seminole War. Although Taylor’s forces were prevented from moving further south and expelling the Seminoles, he was promoted to the rank of Brigadier General.
Zachary Taylor Wanted to Exterminate the Seminoles
Although the Second Seminole War blocked America’s southward expansion, it also kept the Seminoles from rising up again. As such, Taylor became a household name and people started calling him “Old Rough and Ready.” To make sure that there would be no third war, however, Taylor wanted to exterminate all the Seminoles. He therefore asked the government to bring in Cuban bloodhounds to hunt the last of them down, but they refused his request and condemned him for it.
Zachary Taylor was a Mexican War Hero
In 1846, President James K. Polk sent Taylor to the Rio Grande to protect the Union against attacks from Mexico. Despite having fewer men, Taylor defeated a larger Mexican force before attacking their city of Monterrey. It fell, but Taylor showed them mercy by giving them a two-month ceasefire. Taylor’s 4,600 men then went on to defeat Mexican General Santa Anna’s 15,000 troops. This made Taylor a hero, and, riding on his popularity, he put his name up for the upcoming presidential elections.
Zachary Taylor May Not Have Been Serious about Becoming President
One of our little-known Zachary Taylor facts is that he may not have wanted to become President at all. His military victories had earned him a broad support base, not just from his own Whig Party, but from the others as well. Historians believe he was pressured into the elections, since Taylor’s response was that he would run, but not as a partisan loyalist. Other sources suggest that while he did submit a nomination, he didn’t think he had a chance of winning it.
Zachary Taylor was Politically Ambiguous
Taylor owned slaves, but did not support policies which would have extended the scope of slavery in those states where it was legal, nor did he believe in legalizing slavery in the new western territories since he felt they were not ideal for cotton and sugar production. Upon becoming President, he spent the first few months at his military post. When he finally set up his cabinet, he failed to appoint several of the most prominent Whigs of the time, choosing to set up a more diverse government instead.
Zachary Taylor didn’t Know about His Own Presidential Nomination
Perhaps the most amusing of our Zachary Taylor facts involves how he was nominated without even being told. The Whig Party chose him to be President, even though he wasn’t at their convention. They sent him a letter to tell him of the nomination, but didn’t pay for the postage. When the letter arrived, Taylor refused to pay for the stamp, so the postman wouldn’t give him the letter. He therefore didn’t know about his own nomination until several weeks later!
Zachary Taylor Rode His Horse Sidesaddle When in Battle
Most people ride horses by placing their legs on either side of the animal’s body, squeezing their legs together to stay on. One of our most curious Zachary Taylor facts, therefore, is that he rode sidesaddle (when the rider puts both legs on the same side of the horse) when fighting. Taylor did this because his legs were very short, and he needed help to get on a horse. To save time, he rode sidesaddle, especially useful when he needed to mount quickly.
Zachary Taylor Didn’t Want His Daughter to Marry a Military Man
Taylor was a military man who still found time to conduct his business and raise a family. So, it’s strange that he would ban his own daughter from marrying another military man, but he did just that in 1832. His 17-year-old daughter, Sarah Knox, was being courted by Lieutenant Jefferson Davis (who would later become the President of the Confederate States of America). Taylor opposed the courtship because he wanted to spare his daughter from the difficulties of a military life.
Zachary Taylor Could Read but Barely Write
Another of our little-known Zachary Taylor facts is that he never fully mastered the art of writing. When his family moved to Kentucky, there were few very schools in the state. This meant that while his parents were well-educated by the standards of the time, Taylor’s own education was sporadic, as teachers came and went. Though described as intelligent, he never mastered spelling and grammar. Taylor was literate – it’s just that he was a terrible writer and his penmanship was barely legible.
Doctors Thought Zachary Taylor was Killed by Cherries and Milk
Doctors today think Taylor died of cholera, but, back then, they had other ideas. Taylor died on the Fourth of July while at the Washington Monument during a fund raising event. He had consumed cherries and milk before he fell ill. Taylor died several days later, and his doctors therefore blamed his death on eating cherries with milk. This gave rise to the enduring American myth that cherries and milk are a lethal combination, despite modern doctors insisting this isn’t true.
Zachary Taylor Facts – Facts about Zachary Taylor Summary
Zachary Taylor was a direct descendant of the very first English pilgrims who arrived aboard the Mayflower in 1620. Taylor may not have wanted to become the country’s 12th president, but when he did, he set up a diverse government, not one devoted exclusively to his Whig Party. He was also a businessman and a slave owner, but did not expand the scope of slavery in the USA. He was instrumental in the Indian Wars, which increased America’s territory at the expense of the Amerindians and the Mexicans. His death also created the myth that milk and cherries are a poisonous combination. | 2,240 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Agincourt was not the last of Henry's victories. He brought a second army of forty thousand men over to France . Town after town was captured, and at last Henry and his victorious troops laid siege to Rouen , which was then the largest and richest city in France .
The fortifications were so strong that Henry could not storm them, so he determined to take the place by starving the garrison. He said, "War has three handmaidens — fire, blood, and famine. I have chosen the meekest of the three."
He had trenches dug round the town and placed soldiers in them to prevent citizens from going out of the city for supplies, and to prevent the country people from taking provisions in.
A great number of the country people had left their homes when they heard that the English army was marching towards Rouen , and had taken refuge within the city walls. After the siege had gone on for six months there was so little food left in the place that the commander of the garrison ordered these poor people to go back to their homes.
Twelve thousand were put outside the gates, but Henry would not allow them to pass through his lines; so they starved to death between the walls of the French and the trenches of the English.
As winter came on the suffering of the citizens was terrible. At last they determined to set fire to the city, open their gates, and make a last desperate attack on the English.
Henry wished to preserve the city and offered such generous terms of surrender that the people accepted them. Not only Rouen but the whole of Normandy , which the French had held for two hundred years, was now forced to submit to Henry.
The war continued for about two years more, and the English gained possession of such a large part of France that at Christmas Henry entered Paris itself in triumph.
But, strange to say, the king against whom he had been fighting and over whom he was triumphing sat by his side as he rode through the streets. What did this mean? It meant that the French were so terrified by the many victories of Henry that all — king and people — were willing to give him whatever he asked. A treaty was made that as the king was feeble Henry should be regent of the kingdom and that when the king died Henry should succeed him as king of France .
In the treaty the French king also agreed to give to Henry his daughter, the Princess Katherine, in marriage. She became the mother of the English King, Henry VI.
The arrangement that an English sovereign should be king of France was never put into effect; for in less than two years after the treaty was signed the reign of the great conqueror came to an end. Henry died.
In the reign of his son all his work in gaining French territory was undone. By the time that Henry VI was twenty years old England , as you will read in the story of Joan of Arc, had nothing left of all that had been won by so many years of war except the single town of Calais . | <urn:uuid:217e3870-73a2-433e-9156-051d27521b1e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://e-reading.mobi/chapter.php/70959/100/Haaren_-_Famous_Men_of_The_Middle_Ages.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00534.warc.gz | en | 0.992345 | 618 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.215888544... | 1 | Agincourt was not the last of Henry's victories. He brought a second army of forty thousand men over to France . Town after town was captured, and at last Henry and his victorious troops laid siege to Rouen , which was then the largest and richest city in France .
The fortifications were so strong that Henry could not storm them, so he determined to take the place by starving the garrison. He said, "War has three handmaidens — fire, blood, and famine. I have chosen the meekest of the three."
He had trenches dug round the town and placed soldiers in them to prevent citizens from going out of the city for supplies, and to prevent the country people from taking provisions in.
A great number of the country people had left their homes when they heard that the English army was marching towards Rouen , and had taken refuge within the city walls. After the siege had gone on for six months there was so little food left in the place that the commander of the garrison ordered these poor people to go back to their homes.
Twelve thousand were put outside the gates, but Henry would not allow them to pass through his lines; so they starved to death between the walls of the French and the trenches of the English.
As winter came on the suffering of the citizens was terrible. At last they determined to set fire to the city, open their gates, and make a last desperate attack on the English.
Henry wished to preserve the city and offered such generous terms of surrender that the people accepted them. Not only Rouen but the whole of Normandy , which the French had held for two hundred years, was now forced to submit to Henry.
The war continued for about two years more, and the English gained possession of such a large part of France that at Christmas Henry entered Paris itself in triumph.
But, strange to say, the king against whom he had been fighting and over whom he was triumphing sat by his side as he rode through the streets. What did this mean? It meant that the French were so terrified by the many victories of Henry that all — king and people — were willing to give him whatever he asked. A treaty was made that as the king was feeble Henry should be regent of the kingdom and that when the king died Henry should succeed him as king of France .
In the treaty the French king also agreed to give to Henry his daughter, the Princess Katherine, in marriage. She became the mother of the English King, Henry VI.
The arrangement that an English sovereign should be king of France was never put into effect; for in less than two years after the treaty was signed the reign of the great conqueror came to an end. Henry died.
In the reign of his son all his work in gaining French territory was undone. By the time that Henry VI was twenty years old England , as you will read in the story of Joan of Arc, had nothing left of all that had been won by so many years of war except the single town of Calais . | 611 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Chulalongkorn was born September 20, 1853 in Bangkok as the oldest son of King Mongkut (Rama IV) and Queen Debsirinda. His father made sure his son got very good education, including European tutors like Anna Leonowens. At age 15 he joined a Buddhist monastery.
His father died when Chulalongkorn was seventeen, and on October 1, 1868, he succeeded him, however as he was still too young to rule, the chief minister Chao Praya Srisuriyawongse served as regent for four years. During this time Chulalongkorn did travel to other countries like Singapore, Java and India, to study western lifestyle and colonialism, which made him the first thai king to leave the country. Later during his reign he also visited Europe twice in 1897 and 1907.
On November 16, 1873, he was crowned for the second time. During his travels he had learned about many reforms needed to modernize his country. He managed to keep his country independent even though both France and Great Britain were colonizing most of Southeast Asia. However he had to cede some territory to these two powers, for example Laos or northern parts of Malaysia belonged to Thailand before.
King Chulalongkorn modernized the government by introducing a cabinet system, and the semi-feudal provincial administration was changed into a modern administration with provinces (changwat) and districts (amphoe) it still has today. He also abolished slavery. The first railroad of Thailand was opened in his reign in 1896 from Bangkok to Ayutthaya. He also adopted the western calendar by abolishing the tradition lunar calendar. The modern coin and banknote system was also introduced by him.
The Chulalongkorn University, founded in 1917 as the first university of Thailand, was named in his honor. | <urn:uuid:e8e1d36e-bc8a-4fdc-912d-b06f694f4d42> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.fact-index.com/c/ch/chulalongkorn.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00083.warc.gz | en | 0.991599 | 382 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.4633798599243164... | 3 | Chulalongkorn was born September 20, 1853 in Bangkok as the oldest son of King Mongkut (Rama IV) and Queen Debsirinda. His father made sure his son got very good education, including European tutors like Anna Leonowens. At age 15 he joined a Buddhist monastery.
His father died when Chulalongkorn was seventeen, and on October 1, 1868, he succeeded him, however as he was still too young to rule, the chief minister Chao Praya Srisuriyawongse served as regent for four years. During this time Chulalongkorn did travel to other countries like Singapore, Java and India, to study western lifestyle and colonialism, which made him the first thai king to leave the country. Later during his reign he also visited Europe twice in 1897 and 1907.
On November 16, 1873, he was crowned for the second time. During his travels he had learned about many reforms needed to modernize his country. He managed to keep his country independent even though both France and Great Britain were colonizing most of Southeast Asia. However he had to cede some territory to these two powers, for example Laos or northern parts of Malaysia belonged to Thailand before.
King Chulalongkorn modernized the government by introducing a cabinet system, and the semi-feudal provincial administration was changed into a modern administration with provinces (changwat) and districts (amphoe) it still has today. He also abolished slavery. The first railroad of Thailand was opened in his reign in 1896 from Bangkok to Ayutthaya. He also adopted the western calendar by abolishing the tradition lunar calendar. The modern coin and banknote system was also introduced by him.
The Chulalongkorn University, founded in 1917 as the first university of Thailand, was named in his honor. | 408 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ruins of Gold Dredge in Sumpter, Oregon
There were three gold dredges in Sumpter, Oregon that were used to rip up the river bed and extract gold. Two of them are complete ruins, while the third one is now a restored museum.
The first picture is all that remains of one of the ruined dredges. The second picture shows a complete dredge and just how huge it really is. It’s amazing to me that the thing floats at all, much less in only a couple of feet of water.
How these worked was actually very interesting. They would be placed upon a river, in this case the Powder River in what is now the Umatilla National Forest. The buckets on the front would pickup sand, rocks, mud and hopefully gold, from the river bottom. It would dig all the way down to the bedrock. Everything that was not gold was ejected out the rear of the dredge in a long trail. The dredge would snake back and forth across the entire flood plain in an effort to find gold.
The ironic part is that most of the gold is still there. The dredge could not pick up flakes and small chunks that lay directly on the bedrock. Nor did they crush the tailings to extract gold from the granite that is now laying in those tailing piles.
Several towns, among them Sumpter, sprung up to exploit the gold here. The Sumpter Valley Railway was built to move supplies and people between all these towns, while gold was shipped to Baker City, and lumber was moved from Whitney and Austin to support the building needs of these boom towns. | <urn:uuid:6f5cb97b-63ea-48d6-8cfe-c1bf513edab2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://pnwphotoblog.com/ruins-of-gold-dredge-in-sumpter-oregon/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00155.warc.gz | en | 0.980878 | 335 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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There were three gold dredges in Sumpter, Oregon that were used to rip up the river bed and extract gold. Two of them are complete ruins, while the third one is now a restored museum.
The first picture is all that remains of one of the ruined dredges. The second picture shows a complete dredge and just how huge it really is. It’s amazing to me that the thing floats at all, much less in only a couple of feet of water.
How these worked was actually very interesting. They would be placed upon a river, in this case the Powder River in what is now the Umatilla National Forest. The buckets on the front would pickup sand, rocks, mud and hopefully gold, from the river bottom. It would dig all the way down to the bedrock. Everything that was not gold was ejected out the rear of the dredge in a long trail. The dredge would snake back and forth across the entire flood plain in an effort to find gold.
The ironic part is that most of the gold is still there. The dredge could not pick up flakes and small chunks that lay directly on the bedrock. Nor did they crush the tailings to extract gold from the granite that is now laying in those tailing piles.
Several towns, among them Sumpter, sprung up to exploit the gold here. The Sumpter Valley Railway was built to move supplies and people between all these towns, while gold was shipped to Baker City, and lumber was moved from Whitney and Austin to support the building needs of these boom towns. | 327 | ENGLISH | 1 |
1955 in the Vietnam War
In 1955, the Prime Minister of South Vietnam Ngô Đình Diệm faced a severe challenge to his rule over South Vietnam from the Bình Xuyên criminal gang and the Cao Đài and Hòa Hảo religious sects. In the Battle of Saigon in April, Diệm's army eliminated the Bình Xuyên as a rival and soon also reduced the power of the sects. The United States, which had been wavering in its support of Diệm before the battle, strongly supported him afterwards.Diệm declined to enter into talks with North Vietnam concerning an election in 1956 to unify the country. Diệm called a national election in October and easily defeated Head of State Bảo Đại, thus becoming President of South Vietnam. In communist North Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh initiated a land reform program that was accomplished with many executions and imprisonments of ""landlords."" Ho was unable to get the support of China and the Soviet Union to press for preliminary talks that would lead to the 1956 elections called for in the Geneva Accord. | <urn:uuid:d863c9d1-24c9-4ae9-8859-0334274982b9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studyres.com/concepts/18555/1955-in-the-vietnam-war | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00388.warc.gz | en | 0.984962 | 260 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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0.477536737918... | 5 | 1955 in the Vietnam War
In 1955, the Prime Minister of South Vietnam Ngô Đình Diệm faced a severe challenge to his rule over South Vietnam from the Bình Xuyên criminal gang and the Cao Đài and Hòa Hảo religious sects. In the Battle of Saigon in April, Diệm's army eliminated the Bình Xuyên as a rival and soon also reduced the power of the sects. The United States, which had been wavering in its support of Diệm before the battle, strongly supported him afterwards.Diệm declined to enter into talks with North Vietnam concerning an election in 1956 to unify the country. Diệm called a national election in October and easily defeated Head of State Bảo Đại, thus becoming President of South Vietnam. In communist North Vietnam, Ho Chi Minh initiated a land reform program that was accomplished with many executions and imprisonments of ""landlords."" Ho was unable to get the support of China and the Soviet Union to press for preliminary talks that would lead to the 1956 elections called for in the Geneva Accord. | 223 | ENGLISH | 1 |
If Leonardo da Vinci Were An Open Water SwimmerCourtesy of WOWSA, Venice, Italy.
Thinking imaginatively, the great scientist, painter, inventor, engineer and sculptor Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) would have enjoyed open water swimming in modern times. There are various hints in his writing, drawings, quotes and thinking that led us to believe so.
Based on his most famous drawing, the Vitruvian Man is where he presented the ideal proportions of the human body. It would have been interesting to see a study by Leonardo on the Vitruvian Swimmer, the ideal proportions for an open water swimmer.
During Leonardo’s life during the Renaissance, the study of art and science was not perceived as mutually exclusive. Both build upon the other. This combination of art and science seems to be where the global open water swimming community currently finds itself. While we know the distance, average water temperature and wind speed of any given open water course at any time (the ‘science’ of open water swimming), there are other issue to consider (the ‘art’ of open water swimming like selecting a coach or members of escort crew or the type of hydration) in order to finish the swim as quickly and efficiently as possible.
As a scientist, Leonardo’s approach to science was one of intense observation and detailed recording. His tools of investigation were almost exclusively based on his vision while his journals give insight into his investigative processes. In the modern world, Leonardo undoubtedly would have observed the motion of water and the progress and technique of the swimmer, written carefully in an Observer’s Log, in order to make suggestions on how to swim faster or select a better course or pace.
Leonardo’s integrated, holistic views of science would have enabled him to not only paint and draw gorgeous artwork but would have advanced the current schools of thought of open water swimming where research using modern technology and tools is still in its infancy.
Leonardo’s series of journals in which he wrote almost daily, as well as separate notes and sheets of observations, comments and plans would have found their modern-day equivalent in blogs and websites enabling conversations and comments on online social network that would have enhanced his reputation.
Leonardo’s study of the motion of water led him to design machinery that utilized its force. His study of hydrodynamics was also consistent with his tinkering of the idea of swim fins. If he lived during the era of the modern Olympics where success in the field of athlete competition can bring fame and money, it is entirely plausible to imagine Leonardo would have further develop aids for training and in the propulsion of swimming.
But what may be the biggest hint of all that Leonardo would have been interested in swimming is his quote, “Simplicity is the ultimate sophistication.”
Swimming from point to point or along a shoreline is a ideal example of simplicity: humans working with or against nature under their own power, both physical and mental. However, if a swimmer considers the water temperature fluctuations throughout the year, lateral and oncoming currents, waves and swells, the battle against marine life, tidal flows, and competition against the clock and other athletes, there is a level of sophistication that open water swimming has that would be fascinating for Leonardo to consider.
Copyright © 2008 – 2019 by World Open Water Swimming Association | <urn:uuid:96a01b92-8b78-4326-818f-8a9af3e9767e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://openwaterswimming.com/2019/12/if-leonardo-da-vinci-were-an-open-water-swimmer/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00278.warc.gz | en | 0.980141 | 699 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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0.435224890708923... | 1 | If Leonardo da Vinci Were An Open Water SwimmerCourtesy of WOWSA, Venice, Italy.
Thinking imaginatively, the great scientist, painter, inventor, engineer and sculptor Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) would have enjoyed open water swimming in modern times. There are various hints in his writing, drawings, quotes and thinking that led us to believe so.
Based on his most famous drawing, the Vitruvian Man is where he presented the ideal proportions of the human body. It would have been interesting to see a study by Leonardo on the Vitruvian Swimmer, the ideal proportions for an open water swimmer.
During Leonardo’s life during the Renaissance, the study of art and science was not perceived as mutually exclusive. Both build upon the other. This combination of art and science seems to be where the global open water swimming community currently finds itself. While we know the distance, average water temperature and wind speed of any given open water course at any time (the ‘science’ of open water swimming), there are other issue to consider (the ‘art’ of open water swimming like selecting a coach or members of escort crew or the type of hydration) in order to finish the swim as quickly and efficiently as possible.
As a scientist, Leonardo’s approach to science was one of intense observation and detailed recording. His tools of investigation were almost exclusively based on his vision while his journals give insight into his investigative processes. In the modern world, Leonardo undoubtedly would have observed the motion of water and the progress and technique of the swimmer, written carefully in an Observer’s Log, in order to make suggestions on how to swim faster or select a better course or pace.
Leonardo’s integrated, holistic views of science would have enabled him to not only paint and draw gorgeous artwork but would have advanced the current schools of thought of open water swimming where research using modern technology and tools is still in its infancy.
Leonardo’s series of journals in which he wrote almost daily, as well as separate notes and sheets of observations, comments and plans would have found their modern-day equivalent in blogs and websites enabling conversations and comments on online social network that would have enhanced his reputation.
Leonardo’s study of the motion of water led him to design machinery that utilized its force. His study of hydrodynamics was also consistent with his tinkering of the idea of swim fins. If he lived during the era of the modern Olympics where success in the field of athlete competition can bring fame and money, it is entirely plausible to imagine Leonardo would have further develop aids for training and in the propulsion of swimming.
But what may be the biggest hint of all that Leonardo would have been interested in swimming is his quote, “Simplicity is the ultimate sophistication.”
Swimming from point to point or along a shoreline is a ideal example of simplicity: humans working with or against nature under their own power, both physical and mental. However, if a swimmer considers the water temperature fluctuations throughout the year, lateral and oncoming currents, waves and swells, the battle against marine life, tidal flows, and competition against the clock and other athletes, there is a level of sophistication that open water swimming has that would be fascinating for Leonardo to consider.
Copyright © 2008 – 2019 by World Open Water Swimming Association | 673 | ENGLISH | 1 |
He was born on 25th December,
At home, his family talked in Gujarati languageand the children also came to speak Kutchi and English. Jinnah was the eldest of the seven children of Jinnah Poonja and Mithibai.
His family had migrated to Sindh from the Kathiawar area of Gujarat, India. Early working years[ change change source ] In when he was fifteenJinnah went to London and worked for few years for a company. Before going to London, he was married to Emibai.
She was his distant relative. At the time of her marriage, Emibai was around 14 or 16 years old. But, Emibai died shortly after Jinnah had gone to London.
At around the same time, his mother also died. InJinnah quit his job to study law. While still in London, he also started to participate in politics.
Gradually Jinnah was developing his own political outlook. He was thinking on the line that India should have a constitutional self-government. Around this time, his father lost his business. This put Jinnah under great difficulty. In the meantime, he had started to practice as a lawyer in Mumbai.
The house is now known as Jinnah House.
He became a successful lawyer. Tilak was facing charges of sedition against the British Raj. Jinnah pleaded the case well, but Tilak was sent to prison.
Early years as a politician[ change change source ] Jinnah had already joined the Indian National Congress in when he started his politics.
The Congress was the largest political organization in India. Many members and leaders of the Indian National Congress favoured a limited self-government for India.
Jinnah also held the same view. At that time, his role model was Gopal Krishna Gokhale. He was an active member of the Council.
The leaders had supported the Great Britain thinking that after the war, Great Britain would grant India political freedom. Muslims had formed the League in InJinnah became a member of the Muslim League. Inhe became the president of the Muslim League. The agreement tried to present a united front to the British for giving India self-government dominion status in the British Empire.
This was similar to the dominion status which Canada, New Zealand and Australia had at that time. InJinnah married again. His second wife was Rattanbai Petit.Quaid-e-Azam is a phrase which, in the Urdu language, means "the great leader". People also called him Baba-I-Quam, another phrase in the Urdu language which means "the father of the nation".
The day of his birth is a national holiday in . Urdu (/ ˈ ʊər d uː /; Urdu: اُردُو ALA-LC: Urdū (listen))—or, more precisely, Modern Standard Urdu—is a Persianised standard register of the Hindustani language.
It is the official national language and lingua franca of ashio-midori.com India, it is one of the 22 official languages recognized in the Constitution of India, having official status in the six states of Jammu and. Free Notes, MCQs, Online Test, Guess Papers and Past Papers for Class 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th.
A library is a collection of sources of information and similar resources, made accessible to a defined community for reference or borrowing.
It provides physical or digital access to material, and may be a physical building or room, or a virtual space, or both. A library's collection can include books, periodicals, newspapers, manuscripts, films, maps, prints, documents, microform, CDs.
Quaid e Azam University admissions were offered twice in a year.
Purely on merit bases so that the eligible students get the admission. And for its selection entry test will . English Essay on Quaid-e-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah Quaid-e-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah was born in Karachi on the 25th December,. His father, Jinnah Poonah, was a big merchant of Karachi. With this organization, you initially write everything regarding the first item and after a person finishes with it, you progress to the second. | <urn:uuid:bdb8a736-8578-4f5d-b371-572e09d4db3d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://solujib.ashio-midori.com/essay-about-quaid-e-azam-essay-in-english-20324tq.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00012.warc.gz | en | 0.984749 | 901 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.36852219700... | 2 | He was born on 25th December,
At home, his family talked in Gujarati languageand the children also came to speak Kutchi and English. Jinnah was the eldest of the seven children of Jinnah Poonja and Mithibai.
His family had migrated to Sindh from the Kathiawar area of Gujarat, India. Early working years[ change change source ] In when he was fifteenJinnah went to London and worked for few years for a company. Before going to London, he was married to Emibai.
She was his distant relative. At the time of her marriage, Emibai was around 14 or 16 years old. But, Emibai died shortly after Jinnah had gone to London.
At around the same time, his mother also died. InJinnah quit his job to study law. While still in London, he also started to participate in politics.
Gradually Jinnah was developing his own political outlook. He was thinking on the line that India should have a constitutional self-government. Around this time, his father lost his business. This put Jinnah under great difficulty. In the meantime, he had started to practice as a lawyer in Mumbai.
The house is now known as Jinnah House.
He became a successful lawyer. Tilak was facing charges of sedition against the British Raj. Jinnah pleaded the case well, but Tilak was sent to prison.
Early years as a politician[ change change source ] Jinnah had already joined the Indian National Congress in when he started his politics.
The Congress was the largest political organization in India. Many members and leaders of the Indian National Congress favoured a limited self-government for India.
Jinnah also held the same view. At that time, his role model was Gopal Krishna Gokhale. He was an active member of the Council.
The leaders had supported the Great Britain thinking that after the war, Great Britain would grant India political freedom. Muslims had formed the League in InJinnah became a member of the Muslim League. Inhe became the president of the Muslim League. The agreement tried to present a united front to the British for giving India self-government dominion status in the British Empire.
This was similar to the dominion status which Canada, New Zealand and Australia had at that time. InJinnah married again. His second wife was Rattanbai Petit.Quaid-e-Azam is a phrase which, in the Urdu language, means "the great leader". People also called him Baba-I-Quam, another phrase in the Urdu language which means "the father of the nation".
The day of his birth is a national holiday in . Urdu (/ ˈ ʊər d uː /; Urdu: اُردُو ALA-LC: Urdū (listen))—or, more precisely, Modern Standard Urdu—is a Persianised standard register of the Hindustani language.
It is the official national language and lingua franca of ashio-midori.com India, it is one of the 22 official languages recognized in the Constitution of India, having official status in the six states of Jammu and. Free Notes, MCQs, Online Test, Guess Papers and Past Papers for Class 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th.
A library is a collection of sources of information and similar resources, made accessible to a defined community for reference or borrowing.
It provides physical or digital access to material, and may be a physical building or room, or a virtual space, or both. A library's collection can include books, periodicals, newspapers, manuscripts, films, maps, prints, documents, microform, CDs.
Quaid e Azam University admissions were offered twice in a year.
Purely on merit bases so that the eligible students get the admission. And for its selection entry test will . English Essay on Quaid-e-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah Quaid-e-Azam Mohammad Ali Jinnah was born in Karachi on the 25th December,. His father, Jinnah Poonah, was a big merchant of Karachi. With this organization, you initially write everything regarding the first item and after a person finishes with it, you progress to the second. | 888 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A Hermitage Slave Dwelling:
This log cabin is an example of the housing provided for the Hermitage slave community. This building is arranged as a duplex, with each 20x20 foot half intended as the home of one family. Most slave husbands and wives at The Hermitage had more than five and sometimes as many as ten children, guaranteeing crowded conditions within these buildings. Use of the attic loft as a sleeping space and the outside as the primary living area in good weather lessened the cramped conditions to some degree. There were at least ten similar dwellings, many made of brick, scattered around The Hermitage property during the 1820s through the 1840s.
By undocumented tradition, this building was moved here from another site on the Hermitage property in the 1850s. At some point after emancipation, it became the home of a freedman, Alfred Jackson, who had been born into slavery at The Hermitage about 1812. Alfred stayed on as caretaker and tour guide after The Ladies' Hermitage Association took over administration of the property in 1889. Upon his death in 1901, he was buried, at his request, in the garden beside the Jackson tomb. | <urn:uuid:a033d69e-1600-429c-8e6c-64b27ed6b165> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.bguthriephotos.com/graphlib.nsf/popIdentShow?OpenForm&FileName=HERMIT_070124_274.JPG&FileLink=/Graphlib/GraphData7.nsf/Images/2007_TN_Hermitage_0640/$File/HERMIT_070124_274.JPG | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00067.warc.gz | en | 0.985142 | 244 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.678569555... | 2 | A Hermitage Slave Dwelling:
This log cabin is an example of the housing provided for the Hermitage slave community. This building is arranged as a duplex, with each 20x20 foot half intended as the home of one family. Most slave husbands and wives at The Hermitage had more than five and sometimes as many as ten children, guaranteeing crowded conditions within these buildings. Use of the attic loft as a sleeping space and the outside as the primary living area in good weather lessened the cramped conditions to some degree. There were at least ten similar dwellings, many made of brick, scattered around The Hermitage property during the 1820s through the 1840s.
By undocumented tradition, this building was moved here from another site on the Hermitage property in the 1850s. At some point after emancipation, it became the home of a freedman, Alfred Jackson, who had been born into slavery at The Hermitage about 1812. Alfred stayed on as caretaker and tour guide after The Ladies' Hermitage Association took over administration of the property in 1889. Upon his death in 1901, he was buried, at his request, in the garden beside the Jackson tomb. | 269 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The propagation of Buddhism in Sri Lanka in the third century B.C. as witnessed by the lithic records and the chronicles was due to the efforts of the Buddhist monks who spread Theravada or the orthodox tradition of the religion in the first few centuries. Its spread went parallel with the growth of monastic institutions in the island.
At first the patronage extended by the kings and the people towards the Buddhist monks was to safeguard the religion. They were endowed with dwellings and requisites for their maintenance. To make them self-sufficient the monks were endowed with permanent and valuable gifts consisting of land, tanks, revenue from taxes and so forth. When these endowments were made, the monks became landholders and gained a role of leadership in society. On the one hand, the relationship with the masses made the Sangha an institution which dominated society in its own way. On the other, it became a major factor to check the royal power.
The monks generally regarded themselves as having a two-fold task; striving for their own salvation and preaching the Dhamma to lead others to find their salvation. It was the scholar and the preacher in them that were useful to society.
Buddhism was flourishing in the entire island by the second century A.D. Even before that dissensions among members of the Sangha were visible in the premiere establishments such as Mahāvihara and Abhayagirivihära. Some individuals struggled for power and tried to gain favours from the kings. By about the third century A.D. new trends of thought in Buddhism, coming from the subcontinent of India were making headway in the island. By contact with these new movements, the monks of the Abhayagirivihara were becoming liberal in their views. The new schools of thought such as Vaitulyavāda, described as heresies in the chronicles, divided them into sects. These schools of new thought had the backing of some kings through the Mahāvihăra vehemently opposed them.
By about the fourth century, there were three fraternities, namely, Mahāvihāra, Abhayagiri, and Jetavana. The inscriptions and the chronicles bear clear evidence to the manifestation of Mahāyāna ideals such as the Bodhisattva worship. The sixth and seventh-century inscriptions attach great importance to the merit-making rituals that accompanied them. Here we find the Sangha in the role of the priest invoking blessings on the masses and becoming an indispensable figure in society. | <urn:uuid:9cb88928-2b66-4866-8be1-0a01fa9d1dff> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.archaeology.lk/product/the-growth-of-buddhist-monastic-institutions-in-sri-lanka-from-brahmi-inscriptions-epigraphia-zeylanica-volume-viii-dr-malani-dias | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00448.warc.gz | en | 0.981719 | 526 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.284968614578... | 9 | The propagation of Buddhism in Sri Lanka in the third century B.C. as witnessed by the lithic records and the chronicles was due to the efforts of the Buddhist monks who spread Theravada or the orthodox tradition of the religion in the first few centuries. Its spread went parallel with the growth of monastic institutions in the island.
At first the patronage extended by the kings and the people towards the Buddhist monks was to safeguard the religion. They were endowed with dwellings and requisites for their maintenance. To make them self-sufficient the monks were endowed with permanent and valuable gifts consisting of land, tanks, revenue from taxes and so forth. When these endowments were made, the monks became landholders and gained a role of leadership in society. On the one hand, the relationship with the masses made the Sangha an institution which dominated society in its own way. On the other, it became a major factor to check the royal power.
The monks generally regarded themselves as having a two-fold task; striving for their own salvation and preaching the Dhamma to lead others to find their salvation. It was the scholar and the preacher in them that were useful to society.
Buddhism was flourishing in the entire island by the second century A.D. Even before that dissensions among members of the Sangha were visible in the premiere establishments such as Mahāvihara and Abhayagirivihära. Some individuals struggled for power and tried to gain favours from the kings. By about the third century A.D. new trends of thought in Buddhism, coming from the subcontinent of India were making headway in the island. By contact with these new movements, the monks of the Abhayagirivihara were becoming liberal in their views. The new schools of thought such as Vaitulyavāda, described as heresies in the chronicles, divided them into sects. These schools of new thought had the backing of some kings through the Mahāvihăra vehemently opposed them.
By about the fourth century, there were three fraternities, namely, Mahāvihāra, Abhayagiri, and Jetavana. The inscriptions and the chronicles bear clear evidence to the manifestation of Mahāyāna ideals such as the Bodhisattva worship. The sixth and seventh-century inscriptions attach great importance to the merit-making rituals that accompanied them. Here we find the Sangha in the role of the priest invoking blessings on the masses and becoming an indispensable figure in society. | 516 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Approximately 81,500 Indians live in Jamaica today, maintaining their own cultural organizations and roots but assimilated into the wider community.
Traditional Indian foods such as curry goat and roti have become part of the national cuisine and are now seen as ‘Jamaican’.
More than 36,000 Indians were taken to Jamaica as indentured workers between 1845 and 1917. The first ship the “Blundell”, landed at Old Harbour Bay in 1845.
Labourers were each given one suit of clothing, agricultural tools and cooking pots on their arrival, divided into groups of 20 or 40 and sent, first by mule cart and in later years on overcrowded freight trains to the plantations in Portland, St. Thomas, St. Mary, Clarendon and Westmoreland.
Here they worked for a shilling a day and lived in rudimentary barracks, with several families having to share a single room. Two shillings and six pence were deducted from their meagre wages for the rice, flour, dried fish or goat, peas and seasoning which constituted their rations.
The overwhelming majority of the immigrant labourers were Hindu but little provision was made for their faith and cultural practices. They were not allowed to leave the plantation without a permit. Many of the workers and their families suffered from yaws, hookworm and malaria.
Most of the workers originally planned to return to India but planters lobbied the Government to allow them to stay and defray their settlement costs. Money and land were used as incentives, with time expired Indians were offered 10 or 12 acres of Crown land. Often the land was mountainous and infertile so many chose to take the cash in hand.
After 70 years of indentured labour, over half of the Indians who arrived in Jamaica between 1845 and 1916 remained and the Indian community on the island developed and strengthened. There was much inter-marriage between Africans and Indians, as well as Chinese Jamaicans . BLESS!
Remember to share this article on Facebook and other Social Media Platforms. To submit your own articles or to advertise with us please send us an EMAIL at: [email protected] | <urn:uuid:07e411d2-1f6b-4cde-8739-4c5cb3ea43af> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://jablogz.com/2020/01/how-the-indians-came-to-jamaica/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=how-the-indians-came-to-jamaica | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00194.warc.gz | en | 0.981886 | 444 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.070444934... | 6 | Approximately 81,500 Indians live in Jamaica today, maintaining their own cultural organizations and roots but assimilated into the wider community.
Traditional Indian foods such as curry goat and roti have become part of the national cuisine and are now seen as ‘Jamaican’.
More than 36,000 Indians were taken to Jamaica as indentured workers between 1845 and 1917. The first ship the “Blundell”, landed at Old Harbour Bay in 1845.
Labourers were each given one suit of clothing, agricultural tools and cooking pots on their arrival, divided into groups of 20 or 40 and sent, first by mule cart and in later years on overcrowded freight trains to the plantations in Portland, St. Thomas, St. Mary, Clarendon and Westmoreland.
Here they worked for a shilling a day and lived in rudimentary barracks, with several families having to share a single room. Two shillings and six pence were deducted from their meagre wages for the rice, flour, dried fish or goat, peas and seasoning which constituted their rations.
The overwhelming majority of the immigrant labourers were Hindu but little provision was made for their faith and cultural practices. They were not allowed to leave the plantation without a permit. Many of the workers and their families suffered from yaws, hookworm and malaria.
Most of the workers originally planned to return to India but planters lobbied the Government to allow them to stay and defray their settlement costs. Money and land were used as incentives, with time expired Indians were offered 10 or 12 acres of Crown land. Often the land was mountainous and infertile so many chose to take the cash in hand.
After 70 years of indentured labour, over half of the Indians who arrived in Jamaica between 1845 and 1916 remained and the Indian community on the island developed and strengthened. There was much inter-marriage between Africans and Indians, as well as Chinese Jamaicans . BLESS!
Remember to share this article on Facebook and other Social Media Platforms. To submit your own articles or to advertise with us please send us an EMAIL at: [email protected] | 467 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Sargon II (r. 722-705 BCE) was one of the most important kings of the Neo-Assyrian Empire as founder of the Sargonid Dynasty which would rule the empire for the next century until its fall. He was a great military leader, tactician, patron of the arts and culture, and a prolific builder of monuments, temples, and even a city. His greatest building project was the city of Dur-Sharrukin (`Fortress of Sargon’, modern day Khorsabad, Iraq) which became the capital of the Assyrian Empire under his reign.
He was the son of Tiglath Pileser III (r. 745-727 BCE) and possibly the younger brother of Shalmaneser V (r. 727-722 BCE). He was not the chosen heir but took the throne from his brother under circumstances which remain unclear. It is likely, however, that he orchestrated a coup after he had grown tired of what he saw as his brother’s inept reign. Like the great Sargon of Akkad (r. 2334-2279 BCE), founder of the Akkadian Empire, whom he modeled himself after, his throne name of Sargon means `true king’ which scholars have interpreted as his means of legitimizing himself following the coup.
His birth name is unknown as is whatever position he held at court prior to assuming the throne. Although regions of the empire revolted when he took control, and he does not seem to have had the support of the court, Sargon II maintained the policies and strategies initiated by his father, improved the military and economy, and brought the Assyrian Empire to its greatest height politically and militarily. His reign is considered the peak of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.
Early Reign & Conquests
Sargon II was middle-aged when he came to the throne. What role he played in his father’s administration is unknown as no inscriptions identify Tiglath Pileser III’s younger son by name. The only reason scholars know Sargon II was Tiglath Pileser III’s son is from Sargon II’s own inscriptions and court documents from his reign. Sargon II also refers to Shalmaneser V as his brother by blood and not `brother’ as an honorary title.
Shalmaneser V tried hard to hold his father’s empire together and expand on it, which he succeeded in to a degree, but his military exploits were not carried out with the speed and efficiency that had marked his father’s reign and his taxation and labor policies were unpopular with the people. The Assyrian records are silent on how he died. Scholar Susan Wise Bauer comments on this, writing:
At this point [in history] the Assyrian accounts blink. When they reopen, Shalmaneser V – only five years on the throne and carrying on two sieges simultaneously – is dead. A new king has taken the throne under the royal name Sargon II. If Shalmaneser had died in battle [the records] would likely have said so. Most likely his successor Sargon II was a younger son of Tiglath Pileser, taking advantage of his brother’s weakness to seize power; those long and apparently fruitless sieges cannot have been popular with the army and Shalmaneser V had also made himself unpopular back home by trying to introduce an obligation of forced labor to the people of Assur. This had not gone over well. (374)
Sargon II took the throne, abolished the taxation and labor policies, and ended the sieges his brother’s administration had prolonged. He conquered Samaria and destroyed the kingdom of Israel. Sargon’s inscriptions record that he deported 27,290 Israelites from their homeland and re-settled them to regions throughout the empire from Anatolia across to the Zagros Mountains (the extent of the Assyrian Empire under his reign, cited in Pritchard, p. 195). In doing so, he was simply following Assyrian political and military procedure which had been initiated by the king Adad-Nirari I (r. 1307-1275 BCE) and practiced ever since. This particular incident involving the Assyrian re-settlement policy resulted in the famous loss of the Ten Tribes of Israel. Bauer notes that, however well cared for the deportees may or may not have been treated:
Deportation was a kind of genocide, murder not of persons, but of a nation’s sense of itself. These Israelites became known as the `lost ten tribes’ not because the people themselves were lost, but because their identity as descendants of Abraham and worshippers of Yahweh was dissipated into the new wild areas where they were now forced to make their homes. (375)
With Israel conquered and his brother’s military campaigns brought to a conclusion, Sargon II turned his attention to the regions of the empire which had revolted against him.
In 720 BCE he marched on the city of Hamat (in the region of Syria) and destroyed it. He then continued on to crush the other cities which had joined the rebellion, Damascus and Arpad, at the Battle of Qarqar. With order restored in the Syrian regions, he marched back to his capital at Kalhu and ordered the deportation and resettlement of those Assyrian communities in the region which had failed to support his ascent to the throne or had actively rebelled against him. Over 6,000 “ungrateful citizens” were deported to Syria to rebuild Hamat and the other settlements and cities destroyed in Sargon II’s campaign.
At this time, word reached the court that a tribal chief named Merodach-Baladan had seized control in the city of Babylon. Sargon II left Kalhu at the head of his army and met the combined forces of Babylon and Elam in battle on the plains outside of the city of Dur. Sargon II’s army was repelled by the Elamites (the Babylonians arrived too late to have any effect) and left the field; and so he lost the city of Babylon and the regions of the south.
Sargon II again returned to Kalhu and set his administration in order. In c. 717 BCE he first conceived of the idea of his own capital city built on virgin land and commissioned that it be built. This city would become Dur-Sharrukin, a central preoccupation of the king throughout his reign. He personally designed the city and chose the location but then again was drawn away by military matters. He appointed his son, the crown prince Sennacherib, as his administrator and then set out on campaign.
The city of Carchemish was the capital of a very wealthy kingdom which had long enjoyed prosperity due to its location on a trade route. In 717 BCE, Sargon II accused the king of Carchemish of intrigue with the enemies of Assyria and invaded the city with his entire army. There was no army to speak of which Carchemish could field and so the city was easily taken. Sargon II sent captives and the massive treasury of the city back to Kalhu.
So rich was this treasury in silver that it “changed the Assyrian economy from a bronze-based to a silver-based financial economy which relied on silver according to the standard of Carchemish” (Radner, 1). In 716 BCE he conquered the Mannaeans (a people of present-day Iran) and looted their temples and, in 715 BCE, he marched through Media conquering those cities and settlements and sending wealth and captives back to Kalhu.
All during this time, however, a persistent problem had been presenting itself in the north. The Kingdom of Urartu had been conquered by his father but never completely so. During the reign of Shalmaneser V, Urartu had risen again and was making incursions into Assyria from bases along the border. In 719 and 717 BCE Sargon II had to send troops at his borders against the Urartians who had invaded and instigated conflict among the settlements. In 715 BCE Urartu mounted a full-scale invasion and took 22 Assyrian cities along the border. Sargon II retaliated by re-taking the cities, driving the Urartian forces out of Assyrian lands, and razing their southern provinces along the border.
He understood, however, that these kinds of invasions would continue and he would have to repeatedly expend time and resources in dealing with them. In order to secure his empire against future incursions, Sargon II had to decisively defeat Urartu. The difficulty lay in their strategically located kingdom which was nestled in the foothills of the Taurus Mountains and heavily defended. It was for this reason that the previous Assyrian kings who had fought against Urartu had never fully defeated them. The Urartian forces were always able to slip away into the mountains after an engagement, re-group, and then return to harass the empire.
The Urartu Campaign of 714 BCE
The Kingdom of Urartu (also known as the biblical Kingdom of Ararat and Kingdom of Van) had grown in power throughout the 13th to the 11th century BCE. The Temple of Haldi, in the holy city of Mushashir in Urartu, had been an important pilgrimage center since the 3rd millennium BCE and the offerings from kings, princes, nobility, and merchants filled its treasury. The Urartians had grown in wealth from trade and from caravans of pilgrims coming to visit Mushashir. To ensure continued prosperity, the Urartians tried to keep the lowlands around their kingdom under their control. From their fortress in the mountains they continually raided and annexed territories in the lowlands.
The Urartians were fierce warriors who bred some of the best horses in the region and raised them specifically for combat. Shalmaneser I (r. 1274-1245 BCE) first mentioned Urartu in Assyrian inscriptions in relating his conquest of the kingdom but, since his time, the Urartians showed themselves resilient and resourceful in that, each time they were beaten, they rose again. Sargon II writes of them respectfully, even though they were his enemies, as noted by Bauer:
Sargon’s own accounts speak admiringly of the Urartian king Rusas and the network of canals and wells which he built; of the herds of well-bred and guarded horses, raised in protected valleys until they were needed for war; of the splendid efficiency of Urartian communication, with watchtowers built high on mountain peaks, guarding heaps of fuel that could be lit at a moment’s notice. One beacon, lit, flared up on its mountaintop into an enormous bonfire that appeared as a spark to the next distant post, where the next bonfire could then be lit. They shone like `stars on mountaintops,’ in Sargon’s own words, and spread news of invasion faster than a messenger could ride. (376)
In these same inscriptions, Sargon II notes the existence of the qanat system of irrigation which would become instrumental in the later Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus II (the Great, r. c. 550-530 BCE). Although the qanat system - a brilliant innovation bringing deep ground water to the surface - is often attributed to Cyrus the Great, it was actually an earlier Persian invention.
Sargon II understood that the only way to defeat the Urartians would be to surprise them. He therefore launched his invasion of Urartu in 714 BCE to carefully avoid an obvious frontal attack. Leading the army himself, he marched east, skirting the Urartu stronghold, and hoping to bring his forces, unnoticed, up through the flat lands to surprise Urartu from the rear.
The Assyrians were a lowland people with no experience in mountain warfare. The previous Assyrian kings who had fought Urartu drove them from the lowlands but never ascended the slopes into the mountains. Sargon II’s forces encountered:
Looming and unfamiliar slopes covered with thick forests where unknown enemies waited…The cedar forests on the mountain slopes, like those into which Gilgamesh had ventured so many years ago, sheltered an enemy which was more terrifying because it was unseen. (Bauer, 376)
Sargon II, therefore, set the vanguard of his army to clearing a path for his forces to proceed. Sargon II describes this himself in a letter he wrote to the god Ashur in which he also makes clear the great challenges he faced in his campaign:
Mount Simirria, a great mountain peak that points upwards like the blade of a lance, and raises its head over the mountain where the goddess Belet-ili lives, whose two peaks lean against heaven on high, whose foundations reach into the midst of the netherworld below, which, like the back of a fish, has no road from one side to the other and whose ascent is difficult from front or back, ravines and chasms are deeply cut in its side, and seen from afar, it is shrouded in fear, it is not good to climb in a chariot or with galloping horses, and it is very hard to make infantry progress in it; yet, with the intelligence and wisdom that the gods Ea and Belet-ili destined for me and who broadened my stride to level the enemy land, I made my engineers carry heavy bronze axes, and they smashed the peaks of the high mountain as if it were limestone and made the road smooth. I took the head of my army and made the chariots, cavalry, and battle troops that accompany me fly over it like eagles. I made the support troops and foot solders follow them, and the camels and pack mules jumped over the peaks like goats raised in the mountains. I made the surging flood of Assyrians easily cross over its difficult height and on top of that mountain I set up camp. (Van De Mieroop, 216)
The army had, by this time, been marching through hard terrain in early summer and, though they had been resupplied and watered by previously conquered Medes, they were exhausted by the time they made final camp. Sargon writes how, “their morale turned mutinous. I could give no ease to their weariness, no water to quench their thirst.” He selected a battlefield and deployed his troops just as King Rusas arrived with his forces for battle; but Sargon’s army would not fight. They had traveled too far and endured too much on the march and now, with the objective before them, they refused to engage the enemy.
Sargon II had come too far and expended too many resources to simply retreat or surrender. He called his personal bodyguard around him and then, as Bauer writes:
He led them in a frantic and suicidal attack on the nearest wing of Rusas’s force. The wing gave ground in the face of his desperate savagery; and according to his own account, Sargon’s army, seeing him fling himself into the line, took courage and followed him in. The Urartian army wavered, broke, and began to retreat. The retreat turned into a rout. The Assyrian army chased the disintegrating enemy westwards, past Lake Urmia and into their own territory. Rusas abandoned any attempt to hold his own capital city, Turushpa, and fled into the mountains. (377)
With Urartu defeated, and fearing that his troops would mutiny if he led them further into the mountains in pursuit, Sargon II turned his forces around and headed back towards Assyria. He paused at the city of Mushashir, however, sacked it, and plundered the holy temple of Haldi carrying off literally tons of gold, silver, and precious gems.
Sargon writes that, when King Rusas heard of the sack of Mushashir, “The splendor of Assur overwhelmed him and with his own iron dagger he stabbed himself through the heart, like a pig, and ended his own life.” The Urartians were defeated, and in less than six months of campaign, and so Sargon II returned to Kalhu at the head of his army in glory, carrying with him the immense wealth of Mushashir.
Dur-Sharrukin & Babylon
To celebrate his victory, and create a lasting monument to his campaign, he turned his attention to the construction and adornment of his city Dur-Sharrukin in the year 713 BCE. The city would be decorated with reliefs depicting Sargon II’s conquests and, especially, the sack of Mushashir. He took personal interest in every aspect of the city’s construction. His official letters, which were found in the archives of Kalhu and Nineveh, make the level of his involvement in the project clear. In one letter he writes:
The king’s word to the governor of Kalhu: 700 bales of straw and 700 bundles of reed, each bundle more than a donkey can carry, must arrive in Dur-Sharrukin by the first of the month Kislev. Should one day pass by, you will die.
For three years, Sargon II supervised the building of Dur-Sharrukin while also entertaining envoys from Egypt, Nubia, and other nations at his palace in Kalhu. He controlled the whole north of Mesopotamia, Anatolia, and had subdued the Kingdom of Urartu; but he had not yet taken Babylon and the lands of the south back from Merodach-Baladan. The last time he had marched on Babylon and her Elamite allies, he had taken a straight-forward approach and been defeated; this time he decided on another tactic.
In 710 BCE, Sargon II left the building of Dur-Sharrukin and the administration of the empire in the hands of Sennacherib and marched at the head of his army east into Elam. He lay waste the villages and cities and then turned in a half-circle to come at Babylon from the southeast. Merodach-Baladan fled the city with as many riches as he could carry including his royal furniture: a silver bed, throne, table, the royal ablution-pitcher, and his own necklace (Bauer, 379). He sent these as gifts to the king of Elam asking for sanctuary.
Sargon II’s inscription regarding what followed reads: "The Elamite scoundrel accepted his bribe but feared my military power; so he blocked Merodach-Baladan’s way and forbade him to go into Elam.” Merodach-Baladan fled to his native city of Bit-Yakin on the Persian Gulf where Sargon II’s forces followed him, attacked, and destroyed the city. Sargon II reports, “I burned it with fire and even its foundations were torn up."
He allowed Merodach-Baladan to live, however, and this decision has mystified historians and scholars ever since. This same Chaldean chief would later emerge to cause trouble for Sargon II’s successor, Sennacherib.
Final Years & Legacy
Having conquered the south, Sargon II marched to Babylon and claimed kingship. He now ruled all of Mesopotamia and the Assyrian Empire was at its greatest expanse, wealth, and might to date. He chose to reside at Babylon and entertained the envoys of other kings and nations, including those of the king Mita of Phrygia who is identified by some scholars as King Midas, famed for his golden touch.
For three years Sargon II remained in Babylon, regularly receiving updates from Sennacherib back in Kalhu on the progress of Dur-Sharrukin and then, in 707 BCE, he received word his city was completed. He left Babylon and moved into his palace at Dur-Sharrukin in 706 BCE. He made his new city the Assyrian capital and engaged in building projects, commissioning art work, and writing of his conquests. Bauer notes:
The reliefs in his new palace at [Dur-Sharrukin] show his greatness; his huge figure pushes even the forms of the gods into the background. He was the second Sargon, the second founder of the empire, the king of a second Assyria with new borders, a new capital city, and a newly fearsome power. (381)
He finally had the city which he had wanted built in his honor; but he would not enjoy it for long.
The people of Tabal, a province in central Anatolia, had broken away from the empire and Sargon II needed to bring the region back under control. Instead of sending someone else to handle the campaign, Sargon II again left Sennacherib in charge of the government and led his army across Mesopotamia and into Anatolia.
Tabal put up a strong resistance to the Assyrian forces and Sargon II was killed in battle. The fighting was so fierce that his body could not be retrieved and was lost to the enemy. The Assyrians were driven from the field and returned home without their leader.
The death of the king and loss of his body were considered an enormous tragedy and an evil omen. Somehow, it was thought, Sargon II had committed some sin in order for the gods to have abandoned him so completely on the battlefield. Dur-Sharrukin was abandoned immediately and the capital moved to Nineveh by Sargon’s successor, Sennacherib. The new king, who had been repeatedly left at home while Sargon II embarked on glorious campaigns, clearly resented his father as he wrote nothing and built nothing to honor his memory. None of Sennacherib’s inscriptions mention his father at all and no building or monument was raised in his name.
Sargon’s skill as a military leader and politician enlarged the Assyrian Empire and brought it to its peak as the greatest empire of the Near East and yet his death in battle, and his son’s refusal to acknowledge him after his death, marred his accomplishments for those who came immediately after him. Dur-Sharrukin with its great reliefs and paintings stood empty as everything which could be moved was brought to Nineveh. It is from Sargon’s own inscriptions and the writings of later chroniclers that the exploits and achievements of King Sargon II are known today and it is from these that his legacy as a great king have come to be recognized. Directly after his death, however, the people seem to have been encouraged to forget that such a king had ever reigned. | <urn:uuid:acc07c20-39a2-4cf1-b5ab-b7bccdffed83> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ancient.eu/Sargon_II/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00420.warc.gz | en | 0.984887 | 4,741 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.431050240993499... | 5 | Sargon II (r. 722-705 BCE) was one of the most important kings of the Neo-Assyrian Empire as founder of the Sargonid Dynasty which would rule the empire for the next century until its fall. He was a great military leader, tactician, patron of the arts and culture, and a prolific builder of monuments, temples, and even a city. His greatest building project was the city of Dur-Sharrukin (`Fortress of Sargon’, modern day Khorsabad, Iraq) which became the capital of the Assyrian Empire under his reign.
He was the son of Tiglath Pileser III (r. 745-727 BCE) and possibly the younger brother of Shalmaneser V (r. 727-722 BCE). He was not the chosen heir but took the throne from his brother under circumstances which remain unclear. It is likely, however, that he orchestrated a coup after he had grown tired of what he saw as his brother’s inept reign. Like the great Sargon of Akkad (r. 2334-2279 BCE), founder of the Akkadian Empire, whom he modeled himself after, his throne name of Sargon means `true king’ which scholars have interpreted as his means of legitimizing himself following the coup.
His birth name is unknown as is whatever position he held at court prior to assuming the throne. Although regions of the empire revolted when he took control, and he does not seem to have had the support of the court, Sargon II maintained the policies and strategies initiated by his father, improved the military and economy, and brought the Assyrian Empire to its greatest height politically and militarily. His reign is considered the peak of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.
Early Reign & Conquests
Sargon II was middle-aged when he came to the throne. What role he played in his father’s administration is unknown as no inscriptions identify Tiglath Pileser III’s younger son by name. The only reason scholars know Sargon II was Tiglath Pileser III’s son is from Sargon II’s own inscriptions and court documents from his reign. Sargon II also refers to Shalmaneser V as his brother by blood and not `brother’ as an honorary title.
Shalmaneser V tried hard to hold his father’s empire together and expand on it, which he succeeded in to a degree, but his military exploits were not carried out with the speed and efficiency that had marked his father’s reign and his taxation and labor policies were unpopular with the people. The Assyrian records are silent on how he died. Scholar Susan Wise Bauer comments on this, writing:
At this point [in history] the Assyrian accounts blink. When they reopen, Shalmaneser V – only five years on the throne and carrying on two sieges simultaneously – is dead. A new king has taken the throne under the royal name Sargon II. If Shalmaneser had died in battle [the records] would likely have said so. Most likely his successor Sargon II was a younger son of Tiglath Pileser, taking advantage of his brother’s weakness to seize power; those long and apparently fruitless sieges cannot have been popular with the army and Shalmaneser V had also made himself unpopular back home by trying to introduce an obligation of forced labor to the people of Assur. This had not gone over well. (374)
Sargon II took the throne, abolished the taxation and labor policies, and ended the sieges his brother’s administration had prolonged. He conquered Samaria and destroyed the kingdom of Israel. Sargon’s inscriptions record that he deported 27,290 Israelites from their homeland and re-settled them to regions throughout the empire from Anatolia across to the Zagros Mountains (the extent of the Assyrian Empire under his reign, cited in Pritchard, p. 195). In doing so, he was simply following Assyrian political and military procedure which had been initiated by the king Adad-Nirari I (r. 1307-1275 BCE) and practiced ever since. This particular incident involving the Assyrian re-settlement policy resulted in the famous loss of the Ten Tribes of Israel. Bauer notes that, however well cared for the deportees may or may not have been treated:
Deportation was a kind of genocide, murder not of persons, but of a nation’s sense of itself. These Israelites became known as the `lost ten tribes’ not because the people themselves were lost, but because their identity as descendants of Abraham and worshippers of Yahweh was dissipated into the new wild areas where they were now forced to make their homes. (375)
With Israel conquered and his brother’s military campaigns brought to a conclusion, Sargon II turned his attention to the regions of the empire which had revolted against him.
In 720 BCE he marched on the city of Hamat (in the region of Syria) and destroyed it. He then continued on to crush the other cities which had joined the rebellion, Damascus and Arpad, at the Battle of Qarqar. With order restored in the Syrian regions, he marched back to his capital at Kalhu and ordered the deportation and resettlement of those Assyrian communities in the region which had failed to support his ascent to the throne or had actively rebelled against him. Over 6,000 “ungrateful citizens” were deported to Syria to rebuild Hamat and the other settlements and cities destroyed in Sargon II’s campaign.
At this time, word reached the court that a tribal chief named Merodach-Baladan had seized control in the city of Babylon. Sargon II left Kalhu at the head of his army and met the combined forces of Babylon and Elam in battle on the plains outside of the city of Dur. Sargon II’s army was repelled by the Elamites (the Babylonians arrived too late to have any effect) and left the field; and so he lost the city of Babylon and the regions of the south.
Sargon II again returned to Kalhu and set his administration in order. In c. 717 BCE he first conceived of the idea of his own capital city built on virgin land and commissioned that it be built. This city would become Dur-Sharrukin, a central preoccupation of the king throughout his reign. He personally designed the city and chose the location but then again was drawn away by military matters. He appointed his son, the crown prince Sennacherib, as his administrator and then set out on campaign.
The city of Carchemish was the capital of a very wealthy kingdom which had long enjoyed prosperity due to its location on a trade route. In 717 BCE, Sargon II accused the king of Carchemish of intrigue with the enemies of Assyria and invaded the city with his entire army. There was no army to speak of which Carchemish could field and so the city was easily taken. Sargon II sent captives and the massive treasury of the city back to Kalhu.
So rich was this treasury in silver that it “changed the Assyrian economy from a bronze-based to a silver-based financial economy which relied on silver according to the standard of Carchemish” (Radner, 1). In 716 BCE he conquered the Mannaeans (a people of present-day Iran) and looted their temples and, in 715 BCE, he marched through Media conquering those cities and settlements and sending wealth and captives back to Kalhu.
All during this time, however, a persistent problem had been presenting itself in the north. The Kingdom of Urartu had been conquered by his father but never completely so. During the reign of Shalmaneser V, Urartu had risen again and was making incursions into Assyria from bases along the border. In 719 and 717 BCE Sargon II had to send troops at his borders against the Urartians who had invaded and instigated conflict among the settlements. In 715 BCE Urartu mounted a full-scale invasion and took 22 Assyrian cities along the border. Sargon II retaliated by re-taking the cities, driving the Urartian forces out of Assyrian lands, and razing their southern provinces along the border.
He understood, however, that these kinds of invasions would continue and he would have to repeatedly expend time and resources in dealing with them. In order to secure his empire against future incursions, Sargon II had to decisively defeat Urartu. The difficulty lay in their strategically located kingdom which was nestled in the foothills of the Taurus Mountains and heavily defended. It was for this reason that the previous Assyrian kings who had fought against Urartu had never fully defeated them. The Urartian forces were always able to slip away into the mountains after an engagement, re-group, and then return to harass the empire.
The Urartu Campaign of 714 BCE
The Kingdom of Urartu (also known as the biblical Kingdom of Ararat and Kingdom of Van) had grown in power throughout the 13th to the 11th century BCE. The Temple of Haldi, in the holy city of Mushashir in Urartu, had been an important pilgrimage center since the 3rd millennium BCE and the offerings from kings, princes, nobility, and merchants filled its treasury. The Urartians had grown in wealth from trade and from caravans of pilgrims coming to visit Mushashir. To ensure continued prosperity, the Urartians tried to keep the lowlands around their kingdom under their control. From their fortress in the mountains they continually raided and annexed territories in the lowlands.
The Urartians were fierce warriors who bred some of the best horses in the region and raised them specifically for combat. Shalmaneser I (r. 1274-1245 BCE) first mentioned Urartu in Assyrian inscriptions in relating his conquest of the kingdom but, since his time, the Urartians showed themselves resilient and resourceful in that, each time they were beaten, they rose again. Sargon II writes of them respectfully, even though they were his enemies, as noted by Bauer:
Sargon’s own accounts speak admiringly of the Urartian king Rusas and the network of canals and wells which he built; of the herds of well-bred and guarded horses, raised in protected valleys until they were needed for war; of the splendid efficiency of Urartian communication, with watchtowers built high on mountain peaks, guarding heaps of fuel that could be lit at a moment’s notice. One beacon, lit, flared up on its mountaintop into an enormous bonfire that appeared as a spark to the next distant post, where the next bonfire could then be lit. They shone like `stars on mountaintops,’ in Sargon’s own words, and spread news of invasion faster than a messenger could ride. (376)
In these same inscriptions, Sargon II notes the existence of the qanat system of irrigation which would become instrumental in the later Achaemenid Empire under Cyrus II (the Great, r. c. 550-530 BCE). Although the qanat system - a brilliant innovation bringing deep ground water to the surface - is often attributed to Cyrus the Great, it was actually an earlier Persian invention.
Sargon II understood that the only way to defeat the Urartians would be to surprise them. He therefore launched his invasion of Urartu in 714 BCE to carefully avoid an obvious frontal attack. Leading the army himself, he marched east, skirting the Urartu stronghold, and hoping to bring his forces, unnoticed, up through the flat lands to surprise Urartu from the rear.
The Assyrians were a lowland people with no experience in mountain warfare. The previous Assyrian kings who had fought Urartu drove them from the lowlands but never ascended the slopes into the mountains. Sargon II’s forces encountered:
Looming and unfamiliar slopes covered with thick forests where unknown enemies waited…The cedar forests on the mountain slopes, like those into which Gilgamesh had ventured so many years ago, sheltered an enemy which was more terrifying because it was unseen. (Bauer, 376)
Sargon II, therefore, set the vanguard of his army to clearing a path for his forces to proceed. Sargon II describes this himself in a letter he wrote to the god Ashur in which he also makes clear the great challenges he faced in his campaign:
Mount Simirria, a great mountain peak that points upwards like the blade of a lance, and raises its head over the mountain where the goddess Belet-ili lives, whose two peaks lean against heaven on high, whose foundations reach into the midst of the netherworld below, which, like the back of a fish, has no road from one side to the other and whose ascent is difficult from front or back, ravines and chasms are deeply cut in its side, and seen from afar, it is shrouded in fear, it is not good to climb in a chariot or with galloping horses, and it is very hard to make infantry progress in it; yet, with the intelligence and wisdom that the gods Ea and Belet-ili destined for me and who broadened my stride to level the enemy land, I made my engineers carry heavy bronze axes, and they smashed the peaks of the high mountain as if it were limestone and made the road smooth. I took the head of my army and made the chariots, cavalry, and battle troops that accompany me fly over it like eagles. I made the support troops and foot solders follow them, and the camels and pack mules jumped over the peaks like goats raised in the mountains. I made the surging flood of Assyrians easily cross over its difficult height and on top of that mountain I set up camp. (Van De Mieroop, 216)
The army had, by this time, been marching through hard terrain in early summer and, though they had been resupplied and watered by previously conquered Medes, they were exhausted by the time they made final camp. Sargon writes how, “their morale turned mutinous. I could give no ease to their weariness, no water to quench their thirst.” He selected a battlefield and deployed his troops just as King Rusas arrived with his forces for battle; but Sargon’s army would not fight. They had traveled too far and endured too much on the march and now, with the objective before them, they refused to engage the enemy.
Sargon II had come too far and expended too many resources to simply retreat or surrender. He called his personal bodyguard around him and then, as Bauer writes:
He led them in a frantic and suicidal attack on the nearest wing of Rusas’s force. The wing gave ground in the face of his desperate savagery; and according to his own account, Sargon’s army, seeing him fling himself into the line, took courage and followed him in. The Urartian army wavered, broke, and began to retreat. The retreat turned into a rout. The Assyrian army chased the disintegrating enemy westwards, past Lake Urmia and into their own territory. Rusas abandoned any attempt to hold his own capital city, Turushpa, and fled into the mountains. (377)
With Urartu defeated, and fearing that his troops would mutiny if he led them further into the mountains in pursuit, Sargon II turned his forces around and headed back towards Assyria. He paused at the city of Mushashir, however, sacked it, and plundered the holy temple of Haldi carrying off literally tons of gold, silver, and precious gems.
Sargon writes that, when King Rusas heard of the sack of Mushashir, “The splendor of Assur overwhelmed him and with his own iron dagger he stabbed himself through the heart, like a pig, and ended his own life.” The Urartians were defeated, and in less than six months of campaign, and so Sargon II returned to Kalhu at the head of his army in glory, carrying with him the immense wealth of Mushashir.
Dur-Sharrukin & Babylon
To celebrate his victory, and create a lasting monument to his campaign, he turned his attention to the construction and adornment of his city Dur-Sharrukin in the year 713 BCE. The city would be decorated with reliefs depicting Sargon II’s conquests and, especially, the sack of Mushashir. He took personal interest in every aspect of the city’s construction. His official letters, which were found in the archives of Kalhu and Nineveh, make the level of his involvement in the project clear. In one letter he writes:
The king’s word to the governor of Kalhu: 700 bales of straw and 700 bundles of reed, each bundle more than a donkey can carry, must arrive in Dur-Sharrukin by the first of the month Kislev. Should one day pass by, you will die.
For three years, Sargon II supervised the building of Dur-Sharrukin while also entertaining envoys from Egypt, Nubia, and other nations at his palace in Kalhu. He controlled the whole north of Mesopotamia, Anatolia, and had subdued the Kingdom of Urartu; but he had not yet taken Babylon and the lands of the south back from Merodach-Baladan. The last time he had marched on Babylon and her Elamite allies, he had taken a straight-forward approach and been defeated; this time he decided on another tactic.
In 710 BCE, Sargon II left the building of Dur-Sharrukin and the administration of the empire in the hands of Sennacherib and marched at the head of his army east into Elam. He lay waste the villages and cities and then turned in a half-circle to come at Babylon from the southeast. Merodach-Baladan fled the city with as many riches as he could carry including his royal furniture: a silver bed, throne, table, the royal ablution-pitcher, and his own necklace (Bauer, 379). He sent these as gifts to the king of Elam asking for sanctuary.
Sargon II’s inscription regarding what followed reads: "The Elamite scoundrel accepted his bribe but feared my military power; so he blocked Merodach-Baladan’s way and forbade him to go into Elam.” Merodach-Baladan fled to his native city of Bit-Yakin on the Persian Gulf where Sargon II’s forces followed him, attacked, and destroyed the city. Sargon II reports, “I burned it with fire and even its foundations were torn up."
He allowed Merodach-Baladan to live, however, and this decision has mystified historians and scholars ever since. This same Chaldean chief would later emerge to cause trouble for Sargon II’s successor, Sennacherib.
Final Years & Legacy
Having conquered the south, Sargon II marched to Babylon and claimed kingship. He now ruled all of Mesopotamia and the Assyrian Empire was at its greatest expanse, wealth, and might to date. He chose to reside at Babylon and entertained the envoys of other kings and nations, including those of the king Mita of Phrygia who is identified by some scholars as King Midas, famed for his golden touch.
For three years Sargon II remained in Babylon, regularly receiving updates from Sennacherib back in Kalhu on the progress of Dur-Sharrukin and then, in 707 BCE, he received word his city was completed. He left Babylon and moved into his palace at Dur-Sharrukin in 706 BCE. He made his new city the Assyrian capital and engaged in building projects, commissioning art work, and writing of his conquests. Bauer notes:
The reliefs in his new palace at [Dur-Sharrukin] show his greatness; his huge figure pushes even the forms of the gods into the background. He was the second Sargon, the second founder of the empire, the king of a second Assyria with new borders, a new capital city, and a newly fearsome power. (381)
He finally had the city which he had wanted built in his honor; but he would not enjoy it for long.
The people of Tabal, a province in central Anatolia, had broken away from the empire and Sargon II needed to bring the region back under control. Instead of sending someone else to handle the campaign, Sargon II again left Sennacherib in charge of the government and led his army across Mesopotamia and into Anatolia.
Tabal put up a strong resistance to the Assyrian forces and Sargon II was killed in battle. The fighting was so fierce that his body could not be retrieved and was lost to the enemy. The Assyrians were driven from the field and returned home without their leader.
The death of the king and loss of his body were considered an enormous tragedy and an evil omen. Somehow, it was thought, Sargon II had committed some sin in order for the gods to have abandoned him so completely on the battlefield. Dur-Sharrukin was abandoned immediately and the capital moved to Nineveh by Sargon’s successor, Sennacherib. The new king, who had been repeatedly left at home while Sargon II embarked on glorious campaigns, clearly resented his father as he wrote nothing and built nothing to honor his memory. None of Sennacherib’s inscriptions mention his father at all and no building or monument was raised in his name.
Sargon’s skill as a military leader and politician enlarged the Assyrian Empire and brought it to its peak as the greatest empire of the Near East and yet his death in battle, and his son’s refusal to acknowledge him after his death, marred his accomplishments for those who came immediately after him. Dur-Sharrukin with its great reliefs and paintings stood empty as everything which could be moved was brought to Nineveh. It is from Sargon’s own inscriptions and the writings of later chroniclers that the exploits and achievements of King Sargon II are known today and it is from these that his legacy as a great king have come to be recognized. Directly after his death, however, the people seem to have been encouraged to forget that such a king had ever reigned. | 4,732 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Prussian King FREDERICK II, was born. Interested primarily in the arts during his youth, Frederick unsuccessfully attempted to flee from his authoritarian father, the “Soldier-King” Frederick William I. Young Frederick persuaded his lover, Hans von Katte, to help him flee the prince’s ruthless father. They were captured and sentenced to death. The prince was ordered to be present at von Katte’s execution.
Frederick was a proponent of enlightened absolutism. For years he was a correspondent of Voltaire, with whom the king had a turbulent friendship. The works of Niccolò Machiavelli, such as “The Prince,” were considered a guideline for the behavior of a king in Frederick’s age. In 1749, Frederick finished his Anti-Machiavel — an idealistic writing in which he opposes Machiavelli. It was published anonymously in 1740, but Voltaire distributed it in Amsterdam to great popularity. Immanuel Kant published religious writings in Berlin which would have been censored elsewhere in Europe.
Frederick had famous buildings constructed in his capital, Berlin, most of which still exist today, such as the Berlin State Opera, the Royal Library, St. Hedwig’s Cathedral, the French and German Cathedrals on the Gendarmenmarkt, and Prince Henry’s Palace (now the site of Humboldt University). However, the king preferred spending his time in his summer residence Potsdam, where he built the palace of Sanssouci, the most important work of Northern German rococo. Sanssouci, which translates from French as “carefree” or “without worry”, was a refuge for Frederick.
Some historians have speculated that Frederick the Great was homosexual, bisexual or celibate, but what is known is that he showed no interest in his wife, and his relationship with Katte was widely speculated in the Prussian court to be romantic. Voltaire implied that Frederick was homosexual. Frederick is buried at his favorite residence, Sanssouci in Potsdam. He died childless. | <urn:uuid:ef6ab138-cb07-471b-a615-833ec56bdefb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.whitecraneinstitute.org/tdih_event/1712-01-24 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00546.warc.gz | en | 0.98594 | 447 | 4.1875 | 4 | [
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-0.04742121696472... | 8 | The Prussian King FREDERICK II, was born. Interested primarily in the arts during his youth, Frederick unsuccessfully attempted to flee from his authoritarian father, the “Soldier-King” Frederick William I. Young Frederick persuaded his lover, Hans von Katte, to help him flee the prince’s ruthless father. They were captured and sentenced to death. The prince was ordered to be present at von Katte’s execution.
Frederick was a proponent of enlightened absolutism. For years he was a correspondent of Voltaire, with whom the king had a turbulent friendship. The works of Niccolò Machiavelli, such as “The Prince,” were considered a guideline for the behavior of a king in Frederick’s age. In 1749, Frederick finished his Anti-Machiavel — an idealistic writing in which he opposes Machiavelli. It was published anonymously in 1740, but Voltaire distributed it in Amsterdam to great popularity. Immanuel Kant published religious writings in Berlin which would have been censored elsewhere in Europe.
Frederick had famous buildings constructed in his capital, Berlin, most of which still exist today, such as the Berlin State Opera, the Royal Library, St. Hedwig’s Cathedral, the French and German Cathedrals on the Gendarmenmarkt, and Prince Henry’s Palace (now the site of Humboldt University). However, the king preferred spending his time in his summer residence Potsdam, where he built the palace of Sanssouci, the most important work of Northern German rococo. Sanssouci, which translates from French as “carefree” or “without worry”, was a refuge for Frederick.
Some historians have speculated that Frederick the Great was homosexual, bisexual or celibate, but what is known is that he showed no interest in his wife, and his relationship with Katte was widely speculated in the Prussian court to be romantic. Voltaire implied that Frederick was homosexual. Frederick is buried at his favorite residence, Sanssouci in Potsdam. He died childless. | 425 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Found guilty of high treason and sentenced to die in a multitude of nasty ways, William Prendergast had just a month to live. His wife, Mehetibal, had already made plans to save her husband’s life.
Immediately after the trial, which took place in early August 1766, Mehetibal met in private with Chief Justice Horsmanden. He advised her that Governor Sir Henry Moore was the only one who could save William. The Governor could stay the execution while a letter of request for pardon was sent to the King. However, Governor Moore was leaving on a long journey, and it was already too late.
Mehetibal first warned a small crowd of angry farmers outside the courthouse in Poughkeepsie not to attempt any action involving her husband until her return. She rode to Beekman where her wealthier, older sister Abigail lived. Mehetibal borrowed Abigail’s most elegant dress, retrieved a lantern, and gathered food. With these in hand, she mounted her horse and struck out for New York City, 80 miles away.
This was not a trip an unaccompanied 28-year-old woman would lightly take. The roads were extremely dangerous. She could meet thieves or wild beasts along the dark road. The moon was only four days past new and provided very little light. Rocks and fallen trees would not be easily seen. Mehetibal rode down the King’s Road past Fishkill and the waters of the Oscawanna Creek, then past Tarrytown.
The road wound through the dark, terrifying forests made infamous by a century of stories about haunted burying grounds, bridge trolls, and other ghouls. These were the same forests later made famous by Washington Irving in the Legend of Sleepy Hollow. She even rode past Philipse Manor Hall in Yonkers before reaching the bridge over the Harlem River at the top of Manhattan Island.
She covered the full length of Manhattan Island in just two hours. Mehetibal had made it to the doors of Fort George and was told the Governor had retired for the night. He needed rest for a long trip in the morning and could not be disturbed. She explained why she was there. This was the first news anyone at the fort had heard about the outcome of Prendergast’s trial. She was then granted an audience with the Royal Governor of the Province of New York.
Despite her lack of sleep, Mehetibal’s eloquence, logic, and persuasion were not diminished. According to the Wing family archives, she told Sir Henry her husband’s story as she strode up and down in front of him wearing her sister’s best blue-and-white striped linen dress. She explained that, while her husband was impetuous and headstrong, he always did what he thought was right. She also explained that if her husband were executed, all of his supporters would lose any hope for justice. There would be no peace in the Hudson Valley unless there was justice. She was so convincing that the governor exclaimed through tears, “Your husband shall not suffer.”
Moore wrote a reprieve to suspend the execution “until His Majesty, King George III’s pleasure should be known.” He then helped her write a petition for a royal pardon. With the reprieve in hand, Mehetibal mounted her horse again and rode back to Poughkeepsie in the greatest haste. She knew Prendergast’s followers would attempt to storm the jail at some point. This would destroy all hope for a pardon. Going on four days without sleep, and having ridden 160 miles, Mehetibal was nearly incoherent when she gave the document to the Sheriff and headed for the courthouse jail. She told William the news, and she along with William convinced his supporters not attempt a release until the results of the pardon became known.
Note: The final chapter of “The Heroine of Quaker Hill” will appear in The Pawling Record on October 26. To read previous installments of “The Heroine,” visit PawlingRecord.org online and click on “Lifestyle.”
Read PART 1
Read PART 2
Read PART 3
Read PART 4
Read PART 5 | <urn:uuid:9746b5fa-5de0-495e-80d0-2ba20b10cf20> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.pawlingrecord.org/single-post/2018/10/12/The-Heroine-of-Quaker-Hill---Part-IV-%E2%80%93-The-Ride-for-His-Life | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00531.warc.gz | en | 0.98111 | 876 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.29163429... | 3 | Found guilty of high treason and sentenced to die in a multitude of nasty ways, William Prendergast had just a month to live. His wife, Mehetibal, had already made plans to save her husband’s life.
Immediately after the trial, which took place in early August 1766, Mehetibal met in private with Chief Justice Horsmanden. He advised her that Governor Sir Henry Moore was the only one who could save William. The Governor could stay the execution while a letter of request for pardon was sent to the King. However, Governor Moore was leaving on a long journey, and it was already too late.
Mehetibal first warned a small crowd of angry farmers outside the courthouse in Poughkeepsie not to attempt any action involving her husband until her return. She rode to Beekman where her wealthier, older sister Abigail lived. Mehetibal borrowed Abigail’s most elegant dress, retrieved a lantern, and gathered food. With these in hand, she mounted her horse and struck out for New York City, 80 miles away.
This was not a trip an unaccompanied 28-year-old woman would lightly take. The roads were extremely dangerous. She could meet thieves or wild beasts along the dark road. The moon was only four days past new and provided very little light. Rocks and fallen trees would not be easily seen. Mehetibal rode down the King’s Road past Fishkill and the waters of the Oscawanna Creek, then past Tarrytown.
The road wound through the dark, terrifying forests made infamous by a century of stories about haunted burying grounds, bridge trolls, and other ghouls. These were the same forests later made famous by Washington Irving in the Legend of Sleepy Hollow. She even rode past Philipse Manor Hall in Yonkers before reaching the bridge over the Harlem River at the top of Manhattan Island.
She covered the full length of Manhattan Island in just two hours. Mehetibal had made it to the doors of Fort George and was told the Governor had retired for the night. He needed rest for a long trip in the morning and could not be disturbed. She explained why she was there. This was the first news anyone at the fort had heard about the outcome of Prendergast’s trial. She was then granted an audience with the Royal Governor of the Province of New York.
Despite her lack of sleep, Mehetibal’s eloquence, logic, and persuasion were not diminished. According to the Wing family archives, she told Sir Henry her husband’s story as she strode up and down in front of him wearing her sister’s best blue-and-white striped linen dress. She explained that, while her husband was impetuous and headstrong, he always did what he thought was right. She also explained that if her husband were executed, all of his supporters would lose any hope for justice. There would be no peace in the Hudson Valley unless there was justice. She was so convincing that the governor exclaimed through tears, “Your husband shall not suffer.”
Moore wrote a reprieve to suspend the execution “until His Majesty, King George III’s pleasure should be known.” He then helped her write a petition for a royal pardon. With the reprieve in hand, Mehetibal mounted her horse again and rode back to Poughkeepsie in the greatest haste. She knew Prendergast’s followers would attempt to storm the jail at some point. This would destroy all hope for a pardon. Going on four days without sleep, and having ridden 160 miles, Mehetibal was nearly incoherent when she gave the document to the Sheriff and headed for the courthouse jail. She told William the news, and she along with William convinced his supporters not attempt a release until the results of the pardon became known.
Note: The final chapter of “The Heroine of Quaker Hill” will appear in The Pawling Record on October 26. To read previous installments of “The Heroine,” visit PawlingRecord.org online and click on “Lifestyle.”
Read PART 1
Read PART 2
Read PART 3
Read PART 4
Read PART 5 | 856 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Education Corner 27
- Category: Education Corner
- Published: Wednesday, 07 December 2016 15:12
- Written by Richard Womack, Ed.D
- Hits: 4196
06 DEC 2016
First we do apologize for missing the Kaselehlie Press last edition and our case studies about our beginning teacher Navarro Navarro.
We last had our young teacher Navarro reviewing the textbooks he was to use on his first day of teaching the 5th grade. He found a Teacher’s Edition for English and he was grateful for it. The Teacher’s Edition showed him some ways to teach English. This is where Navarro had no training. He reviewed the textbooks and was confident he knew the entire curriculum or what he would teach. But now he had decided that that was not enough. He needed to learn about how to teach the material. All of the critical thinking questions have been about this. Navarro has already decided that a teacher must know both the curriculum and the ways to teach or methods of teaching.
In the last case study Navarro reviewed the science he was to teach. It was about animal science and plant science. But Navarro decided he would also like to teach what he had learned in environmental science in college and from his own observations. He thought it was important to teach 5th graders about sustaining our environment but he found very little in the 5th grade science book. So he decided he would teach it anyway. So the critical thinking question is this. Should a teacher teach about subjects not found in the established outlines and curriculum? Readers should not be surprised that rarely is this a Yes or No. And then when we ask for explanations or reasons the critical thinking process begins.
With all the books before him he opened the Our American History book first and saw the first chapter Columbus Discovers America. He noted the picture that was on page two. It showed a man who was supposed to be Christopher Columbus putting a Spanish flag on some beach with a couple of Native Americans looking on. The young man smiled when he saw the word Indians. Everyone knew that Christopher Columbus misnamed these early inhabitants when he mistakenly bumped into North America and thought he had made it to India or the Indies....at any rate, the young teacher told himself that he would point this fact out to the 5th graders the next day. And while the word “Indian” was necessary to clear up, this did not bother him nearly as much as the word discovers. He thought again to himself “I must clear this up and at once!”
The next day he began the history lesson by having the 5th graders take out the Our American History books and told them all to look at the picture on page two. He noticed that the class was very obedient and immediately took the books out without further prompting. He thanked the 4th grade teacher to himself as these 5th graders followed directions and busied themselves opening their books and they appeared to be looking at the picture. The young teacher then asked “Does anyone see anything wrong with this picture?” he began. There were no replies so he tried again. “What about the word ‘Discover’?—Does anyone see anything wrong with that?” Still there was no answer. With that the young teacher directed a young boy in the front row to go and get a dictionary from the bookshelf at the back of the room. He instructed the boy to look up the word ‘discovery’ and read it to the whole class. “To be the first to find or learn of” the boy began and the teacher stopped him. “Read that again, please Mark—I want to be sure everyone heard that” the teacher said. Mark repeated again “To be the first to find ...” and the teacher stopped him once more. “Everyone look at the picture” and “Look at what it says—Columbus Discovers America.” Finally, after further coaxing a light bulb seemed to go on over a boy called Pharis. Pharis said “Hey—how can Columbus be discovering a place and there are already people sitting there?” The young teacher smiled—they got it. In fact, the class seemed very proud of themselves. They nodded to each other and some even laughed. But the laughter stopped when Navarro said:
“Now take out your pens and cross out in ink where it says Columbus Discovers America.” No one moved. They had followed the directions he had given earlier and taken out their books in short order but now the entire class was frozen like statues. “What’s wrong?” the young man asked. “Cross out the ‘Columbus Discovers America’ so that no one can see it”. No one moved but a shy looking girl did raise her hand. “Yes Cathy?” said Navarro. He said the girls name while glancing at the name cards a boy named Scott had suggested they all make so Navarro could learn their names. Scott’s idea was a good one and Navarro was happy he had taken the student’s suggestion.
“Teacher,” began Cathy. “The Sisters never ... never ever let us write in the books” and then everyone was nodding. “Especially in pen ... never in pen.”
The young Navarro was not quite sure what he should do. The 5th graders had told him of the school rules and this one had made sense. No writing in textbooks and of course never in pen. “Go ahead and do it this one time” the young man said and assuredly added, “I am sure that the Sisters would want us to make corrections if we find errors, and I will tell them that I said it was o.k.” And he continued “If you like I will come around and do the corrections myself.” Pharis said that he would do it himself and most of the others nodded and agreed to make the changes. The young teacher went ahead and did the crossing out for three girls who kept shaking their heads back and forth and mumbling “Never in pen.”
With all the Discovers now crossed out, Navarro went around and put his own initials right next to the scratch outs. He proclaimed that now for sure they would not get in trouble as the initials would show the Sisters that he had authorized the change. With this done he said, “We must do more than cross out. We need to put in something better.” He then wrote on the blackboard—“One of the First Europeans to Come to North America.”
The class dutifully copied the phrase in their books after he assured the three worry warts that he would be around and initial the additions they were making. As he went from desk to desk making the changes official with his initials NN, he thought about school rules. He had better find out about the sch ool rules.
Plenty of good critical thinking questions here beginning with—Should Navarro have broken the official school rule? More to think about on this question in two weeks. | <urn:uuid:0eb43706-9fe7-4592-85a6-3ad9fde40fe7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.kpress.info/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=472:education-corner-27&catid=2&Itemid=115 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00262.warc.gz | en | 0.987009 | 1,494 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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- Category: Education Corner
- Published: Wednesday, 07 December 2016 15:12
- Written by Richard Womack, Ed.D
- Hits: 4196
06 DEC 2016
First we do apologize for missing the Kaselehlie Press last edition and our case studies about our beginning teacher Navarro Navarro.
We last had our young teacher Navarro reviewing the textbooks he was to use on his first day of teaching the 5th grade. He found a Teacher’s Edition for English and he was grateful for it. The Teacher’s Edition showed him some ways to teach English. This is where Navarro had no training. He reviewed the textbooks and was confident he knew the entire curriculum or what he would teach. But now he had decided that that was not enough. He needed to learn about how to teach the material. All of the critical thinking questions have been about this. Navarro has already decided that a teacher must know both the curriculum and the ways to teach or methods of teaching.
In the last case study Navarro reviewed the science he was to teach. It was about animal science and plant science. But Navarro decided he would also like to teach what he had learned in environmental science in college and from his own observations. He thought it was important to teach 5th graders about sustaining our environment but he found very little in the 5th grade science book. So he decided he would teach it anyway. So the critical thinking question is this. Should a teacher teach about subjects not found in the established outlines and curriculum? Readers should not be surprised that rarely is this a Yes or No. And then when we ask for explanations or reasons the critical thinking process begins.
With all the books before him he opened the Our American History book first and saw the first chapter Columbus Discovers America. He noted the picture that was on page two. It showed a man who was supposed to be Christopher Columbus putting a Spanish flag on some beach with a couple of Native Americans looking on. The young man smiled when he saw the word Indians. Everyone knew that Christopher Columbus misnamed these early inhabitants when he mistakenly bumped into North America and thought he had made it to India or the Indies....at any rate, the young teacher told himself that he would point this fact out to the 5th graders the next day. And while the word “Indian” was necessary to clear up, this did not bother him nearly as much as the word discovers. He thought again to himself “I must clear this up and at once!”
The next day he began the history lesson by having the 5th graders take out the Our American History books and told them all to look at the picture on page two. He noticed that the class was very obedient and immediately took the books out without further prompting. He thanked the 4th grade teacher to himself as these 5th graders followed directions and busied themselves opening their books and they appeared to be looking at the picture. The young teacher then asked “Does anyone see anything wrong with this picture?” he began. There were no replies so he tried again. “What about the word ‘Discover’?—Does anyone see anything wrong with that?” Still there was no answer. With that the young teacher directed a young boy in the front row to go and get a dictionary from the bookshelf at the back of the room. He instructed the boy to look up the word ‘discovery’ and read it to the whole class. “To be the first to find or learn of” the boy began and the teacher stopped him. “Read that again, please Mark—I want to be sure everyone heard that” the teacher said. Mark repeated again “To be the first to find ...” and the teacher stopped him once more. “Everyone look at the picture” and “Look at what it says—Columbus Discovers America.” Finally, after further coaxing a light bulb seemed to go on over a boy called Pharis. Pharis said “Hey—how can Columbus be discovering a place and there are already people sitting there?” The young teacher smiled—they got it. In fact, the class seemed very proud of themselves. They nodded to each other and some even laughed. But the laughter stopped when Navarro said:
“Now take out your pens and cross out in ink where it says Columbus Discovers America.” No one moved. They had followed the directions he had given earlier and taken out their books in short order but now the entire class was frozen like statues. “What’s wrong?” the young man asked. “Cross out the ‘Columbus Discovers America’ so that no one can see it”. No one moved but a shy looking girl did raise her hand. “Yes Cathy?” said Navarro. He said the girls name while glancing at the name cards a boy named Scott had suggested they all make so Navarro could learn their names. Scott’s idea was a good one and Navarro was happy he had taken the student’s suggestion.
“Teacher,” began Cathy. “The Sisters never ... never ever let us write in the books” and then everyone was nodding. “Especially in pen ... never in pen.”
The young Navarro was not quite sure what he should do. The 5th graders had told him of the school rules and this one had made sense. No writing in textbooks and of course never in pen. “Go ahead and do it this one time” the young man said and assuredly added, “I am sure that the Sisters would want us to make corrections if we find errors, and I will tell them that I said it was o.k.” And he continued “If you like I will come around and do the corrections myself.” Pharis said that he would do it himself and most of the others nodded and agreed to make the changes. The young teacher went ahead and did the crossing out for three girls who kept shaking their heads back and forth and mumbling “Never in pen.”
With all the Discovers now crossed out, Navarro went around and put his own initials right next to the scratch outs. He proclaimed that now for sure they would not get in trouble as the initials would show the Sisters that he had authorized the change. With this done he said, “We must do more than cross out. We need to put in something better.” He then wrote on the blackboard—“One of the First Europeans to Come to North America.”
The class dutifully copied the phrase in their books after he assured the three worry warts that he would be around and initial the additions they were making. As he went from desk to desk making the changes official with his initials NN, he thought about school rules. He had better find out about the sch ool rules.
Plenty of good critical thinking questions here beginning with—Should Navarro have broken the official school rule? More to think about on this question in two weeks. | 1,430 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Although early medieval monasteries were commonly very small houses lived in by small groups of monks, they rapidly developed to become some of the most impressive buildings in Medieval England built around communities of monks.
As monasteries grew in size, it was vital that the monastery remained disciplined to ensure efficiently while focusing on the worship of God. The writings of St Benedict on how best to run a medieval monastery were particularly influential, and in 530 AD he even created a rule book that stated the appropriate behaviour for monks with a focus on taking vows.
According to St Benedict, every monk should be required to take a vow of poverty and should live just as the poor did. This also meant dressing as though they had taken this vow, wearing only functional clothing that was warm in the winter and cool in the summer. Monks were also required to obey an abbot, take a vow of chastity and not marry, and should also live amongst other monks as part of a community. The books created by St Benedict were written in Latin, and as such this became the language in which monks would write.
The working day was commonly split into three parts: the working section where certain tasks should be performed, the studying sections where monks would have to read and learn, and the prayer section. This last part required monks to pray, listen to the abbot or read the bible. All sections of the day were thought to reflect St Benedict’s belief that monks should have a lifestyle that represented the simple essentials.
An abbot would take charge of the monastery, and on significant days such as Saints Days he would wear a hat very similar to a bishop’s mitre. An abbot would also carry a crozier to symbolise his authority.
Each medieval monastery would be blessed by a patron - wealthy men able to spare money to cover the construction costs. King Edward the Confessor, for example, contributed to the costs of building Westminster Abbey, while French kings were patrons of the abbey as it was built in St. Denis’ honour. Patrons were also expected to help protect the monastery if it was threatened by an intruder as monasteries frequently contained very valuable treasures.
As well as having patrons, individual monasteries would dedicate themselves to a saint. This name may they be reflected in the town in which the monastery resided, such as in St. Albans or Bury St. Edmunds.
Life inside the monastery
Each day in a monastery was very structured and revolved around prayer. Service times differed but most named the first service ‘Vigils’, and this would be held at 2am. The service that followed would take place at dawn and was known as ‘Matins’, although the timing for this would change with the seasons. ‘Prime’ was held at 6am, followed by ‘Tierce’ at 9am and ‘Sext’ at 12 noon. Monks would they pray at 3pm for ‘Nones’, at dusk for ‘Vespers’ and at nightfall for ‘Compline’.
The layout and facilities inside a medieval monastery was unique to England, with the size of the buildings far greater than the typical peasant home. Monks would be provided with dormitories where they could sleep, along with study areas in covered cloisters or a library. Larger monasteries also contained kitchens and benefited from flowing water and toilets. The church would always be the central point of the monastery, while a chapter house would be placed within its walls to provide a place for monks to hear a chapter of monastic rules each day.
Other than religious prayer and duties, monks also had other work to complete each day. This included working in the kitchen, tending to livestock, brewing beer - which was healthier than water - producing books, tending to guests or helping in the infirmary.
St Benedict also suggested that monks should look after the poor in a building known as an almonry. Inside the almonry, ‘almoners’ would feed the poor left over food and also tend to their feet if they were on a long pilgrimage. ‘Hostellers’ were responsible for looking after visitors with a higher social ranking, who would often provide the monastery with gifts of thanks. Although when King John stayed at the monastery in St. Albans for 10 days, he famously only left them 13 pence.
Some monasteries became very wealthy as a result of the gifts they received, and many also benefited from free labour from local peasants. These peasants felt they were more likely to get into Heaven if they helped the monks, which saved the monasteries a great deal of money each year.
Monasteries could even gather treasure over time, with some owning gold, silver and jewelled boxes containing religious relics. Examples of some of these treasures include the bones of saints, which Harold of Wessex would have had to swear on in front of William the Conqueror before the Battle of Hastings, or the clothing of saints. Glastonbury’s monastery in particular was thought to be one of the wealthiest in England during the Middle Ages.
"The Organisation within a Monastery". HistoryLearning.com. 2015. Web. | <urn:uuid:d4a92b22-3e08-4d20-a5c2-4a183e464870> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://historylearning.com/medieval-england/organisation-in-a-monastery/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00377.warc.gz | en | 0.987156 | 1,080 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.142282292246... | 7 | Although early medieval monasteries were commonly very small houses lived in by small groups of monks, they rapidly developed to become some of the most impressive buildings in Medieval England built around communities of monks.
As monasteries grew in size, it was vital that the monastery remained disciplined to ensure efficiently while focusing on the worship of God. The writings of St Benedict on how best to run a medieval monastery were particularly influential, and in 530 AD he even created a rule book that stated the appropriate behaviour for monks with a focus on taking vows.
According to St Benedict, every monk should be required to take a vow of poverty and should live just as the poor did. This also meant dressing as though they had taken this vow, wearing only functional clothing that was warm in the winter and cool in the summer. Monks were also required to obey an abbot, take a vow of chastity and not marry, and should also live amongst other monks as part of a community. The books created by St Benedict were written in Latin, and as such this became the language in which monks would write.
The working day was commonly split into three parts: the working section where certain tasks should be performed, the studying sections where monks would have to read and learn, and the prayer section. This last part required monks to pray, listen to the abbot or read the bible. All sections of the day were thought to reflect St Benedict’s belief that monks should have a lifestyle that represented the simple essentials.
An abbot would take charge of the monastery, and on significant days such as Saints Days he would wear a hat very similar to a bishop’s mitre. An abbot would also carry a crozier to symbolise his authority.
Each medieval monastery would be blessed by a patron - wealthy men able to spare money to cover the construction costs. King Edward the Confessor, for example, contributed to the costs of building Westminster Abbey, while French kings were patrons of the abbey as it was built in St. Denis’ honour. Patrons were also expected to help protect the monastery if it was threatened by an intruder as monasteries frequently contained very valuable treasures.
As well as having patrons, individual monasteries would dedicate themselves to a saint. This name may they be reflected in the town in which the monastery resided, such as in St. Albans or Bury St. Edmunds.
Life inside the monastery
Each day in a monastery was very structured and revolved around prayer. Service times differed but most named the first service ‘Vigils’, and this would be held at 2am. The service that followed would take place at dawn and was known as ‘Matins’, although the timing for this would change with the seasons. ‘Prime’ was held at 6am, followed by ‘Tierce’ at 9am and ‘Sext’ at 12 noon. Monks would they pray at 3pm for ‘Nones’, at dusk for ‘Vespers’ and at nightfall for ‘Compline’.
The layout and facilities inside a medieval monastery was unique to England, with the size of the buildings far greater than the typical peasant home. Monks would be provided with dormitories where they could sleep, along with study areas in covered cloisters or a library. Larger monasteries also contained kitchens and benefited from flowing water and toilets. The church would always be the central point of the monastery, while a chapter house would be placed within its walls to provide a place for monks to hear a chapter of monastic rules each day.
Other than religious prayer and duties, monks also had other work to complete each day. This included working in the kitchen, tending to livestock, brewing beer - which was healthier than water - producing books, tending to guests or helping in the infirmary.
St Benedict also suggested that monks should look after the poor in a building known as an almonry. Inside the almonry, ‘almoners’ would feed the poor left over food and also tend to their feet if they were on a long pilgrimage. ‘Hostellers’ were responsible for looking after visitors with a higher social ranking, who would often provide the monastery with gifts of thanks. Although when King John stayed at the monastery in St. Albans for 10 days, he famously only left them 13 pence.
Some monasteries became very wealthy as a result of the gifts they received, and many also benefited from free labour from local peasants. These peasants felt they were more likely to get into Heaven if they helped the monks, which saved the monasteries a great deal of money each year.
Monasteries could even gather treasure over time, with some owning gold, silver and jewelled boxes containing religious relics. Examples of some of these treasures include the bones of saints, which Harold of Wessex would have had to swear on in front of William the Conqueror before the Battle of Hastings, or the clothing of saints. Glastonbury’s monastery in particular was thought to be one of the wealthiest in England during the Middle Ages.
"The Organisation within a Monastery". HistoryLearning.com. 2015. Web. | 1,054 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How did the beliefs and practices of Islam create unity among Muslims?
First of all, we have to recognize the fact that the beliefs and practices of Islam did not create complete unity among Muslims for any significant length of time. We know that, upon the death of the prophet Muhammad, Muslims disagreed on who should lead them. This disagreement led to the split between Shi’a and Sunni Islam, a split which continues to be relevant today. Therefore, we must be somewhat cautious about saying that Muslims experienced unity.
That said, we can say that there are aspects of Muslim belief and practice that did tend to unify the Muslim community. Perhaps the most important of these is the idea that there is only one God and that all Muslims are equal under that God. This idea encouraged many people who were of low status in Arabian society to become Muslims. It helped ensure that Muslims would identify and feel a connection with one another. This helped encourage a feeling of unity among Muslims. One aspect of Muslim practice that encouraged unity was the requirement that all Muslims pray at five specified times during the day. This requirement ensured that many Muslims would pray together in public at various times. By engaging in this ritual together, they were able to create more of a feeling of unity than might have been present if worship were private and/or less frequent. A final aspect of Muslim practice that promoted unity was the requirement that Muslims give alms or charity to those who were less fortunate. This requirement encouraged Muslims to feel compassionate to their coreligionists who were poor, weak, or defenseless. This made it more likely that Muslims of various social classes and statuses would identify with one another instead of feeling distinct and separate.
All of these beliefs and practices helped to make Muslims feel unified, but they did not create absolute unity among Muslims.
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | <urn:uuid:9fded198-5bbc-4fa3-83b9-0b2e4bc09a9b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/how-beliefs-practices-islam-created-unity-471183?en_action=hh-question_click&en_label=hh-sidebar&en_category=internal_campaign | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00040.warc.gz | en | 0.981149 | 375 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
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0.17414666712... | 1 | How did the beliefs and practices of Islam create unity among Muslims?
First of all, we have to recognize the fact that the beliefs and practices of Islam did not create complete unity among Muslims for any significant length of time. We know that, upon the death of the prophet Muhammad, Muslims disagreed on who should lead them. This disagreement led to the split between Shi’a and Sunni Islam, a split which continues to be relevant today. Therefore, we must be somewhat cautious about saying that Muslims experienced unity.
That said, we can say that there are aspects of Muslim belief and practice that did tend to unify the Muslim community. Perhaps the most important of these is the idea that there is only one God and that all Muslims are equal under that God. This idea encouraged many people who were of low status in Arabian society to become Muslims. It helped ensure that Muslims would identify and feel a connection with one another. This helped encourage a feeling of unity among Muslims. One aspect of Muslim practice that encouraged unity was the requirement that all Muslims pray at five specified times during the day. This requirement ensured that many Muslims would pray together in public at various times. By engaging in this ritual together, they were able to create more of a feeling of unity than might have been present if worship were private and/or less frequent. A final aspect of Muslim practice that promoted unity was the requirement that Muslims give alms or charity to those who were less fortunate. This requirement encouraged Muslims to feel compassionate to their coreligionists who were poor, weak, or defenseless. This made it more likely that Muslims of various social classes and statuses would identify with one another instead of feeling distinct and separate.
All of these beliefs and practices helped to make Muslims feel unified, but they did not create absolute unity among Muslims.
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | 364 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Macbeth Cause and Effect
Megan Sigurdson Period 4 11/24/12 Macbeth Cause and Effect Essay Macbeth’s untimely death was due to his unfortunate, tragic downfall; and all because he wanted to be a King. The causes and the effects of Macbeth becoming king are not that of a well mannered, or righteous king. But surprisingly, Macbeth was once a well-mannered, righteous man of the king himself. He was a victorious fighter in battle and an honorable solider whom people looked up to. But isn’t it funny how someone can change in a split second?
The causes of Macbeth becoming king were him being told by “witches” who foretold his future, and from that sprung the power hungry Macbeth. The effects of Macbeth becoming king were his tragic downfall and a heavy conscience that ultimately killed him. The first cause of Macbeth becoming king is that the witches told him that he would, in fact, be king. The witches had a vision of Macbeth being crowned, and when they summoned him he was taken up by the shocking news.
He went home and told his wife. She, on the other hand, became quite aroused by the idea of royalty, and cursed herself to kill her conscience causing her to have a self-destructing thirst for hunger. Thus, rubbing off on Macbeth, leading to the second cause, which is a lust for power. After Lady Macbeth convinced Macbeth to kill Duncan (the current king ) and he succeeded at the task, Macbeth was one step closer to becoming king, there was nothing to lose.
He soon went to drastic measure, making sure his men were killing anyone who posed as a threat to his throne. This was the peak of his downfall, complete and utter hubris. Macbeth had what he wanted. He was a king, not a very good one, and not one that anyone else wanted, but he had power. And it felt good. Until, he was heavy with guilt. One effect of Macbeth being king was he experienced the most outrageous tragic downfalls in Shakespearian writing.
Macbeth started off as a humble, gallant and noble solider who was know for his heroic fighting and victories in battle. As soon as he let his ego spin out of control, he too spun, but downwards. After realizing all of the chaos and pain he had caused (which did not take long) he was sick with guilt. When he was faced with his conqueror, he was so guilt ridden that we was looking for anyway to be free of it. In the end he accepted his consequence of death, knowing it would rid him of the unhealthy weight of his tragic flaws.
The causes and affects of Macbeth becoming king is the perfect example of a tragic hero’s traits leading to his downfall. Him believing the witches and taking it all into his own hands so he could be sure he could have that power, was selfish and egotistical of him. One redeeming factor of Macbeth was how he accepted his final outcome. He knew he was going to be killed, but he fought anyways. For the person that he used to be. | <urn:uuid:10858f46-10a6-4848-a647-84b064d681f7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://freebooksummary.com/macbeth-cause-and-effect-20972 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00358.warc.gz | en | 0.993956 | 678 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.12955908477306... | 1 | Macbeth Cause and Effect
Megan Sigurdson Period 4 11/24/12 Macbeth Cause and Effect Essay Macbeth’s untimely death was due to his unfortunate, tragic downfall; and all because he wanted to be a King. The causes and the effects of Macbeth becoming king are not that of a well mannered, or righteous king. But surprisingly, Macbeth was once a well-mannered, righteous man of the king himself. He was a victorious fighter in battle and an honorable solider whom people looked up to. But isn’t it funny how someone can change in a split second?
The causes of Macbeth becoming king were him being told by “witches” who foretold his future, and from that sprung the power hungry Macbeth. The effects of Macbeth becoming king were his tragic downfall and a heavy conscience that ultimately killed him. The first cause of Macbeth becoming king is that the witches told him that he would, in fact, be king. The witches had a vision of Macbeth being crowned, and when they summoned him he was taken up by the shocking news.
He went home and told his wife. She, on the other hand, became quite aroused by the idea of royalty, and cursed herself to kill her conscience causing her to have a self-destructing thirst for hunger. Thus, rubbing off on Macbeth, leading to the second cause, which is a lust for power. After Lady Macbeth convinced Macbeth to kill Duncan (the current king ) and he succeeded at the task, Macbeth was one step closer to becoming king, there was nothing to lose.
He soon went to drastic measure, making sure his men were killing anyone who posed as a threat to his throne. This was the peak of his downfall, complete and utter hubris. Macbeth had what he wanted. He was a king, not a very good one, and not one that anyone else wanted, but he had power. And it felt good. Until, he was heavy with guilt. One effect of Macbeth being king was he experienced the most outrageous tragic downfalls in Shakespearian writing.
Macbeth started off as a humble, gallant and noble solider who was know for his heroic fighting and victories in battle. As soon as he let his ego spin out of control, he too spun, but downwards. After realizing all of the chaos and pain he had caused (which did not take long) he was sick with guilt. When he was faced with his conqueror, he was so guilt ridden that we was looking for anyway to be free of it. In the end he accepted his consequence of death, knowing it would rid him of the unhealthy weight of his tragic flaws.
The causes and affects of Macbeth becoming king is the perfect example of a tragic hero’s traits leading to his downfall. Him believing the witches and taking it all into his own hands so he could be sure he could have that power, was selfish and egotistical of him. One redeeming factor of Macbeth was how he accepted his final outcome. He knew he was going to be killed, but he fought anyways. For the person that he used to be. | 651 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mahatma Gandhi has been an integral part of India’s freedom struggle. He may not have pleased everyone with his methods but they laid the groundwork for an effective movement against colonial rule. His beliefs continue to inspire and influence the world. With his birth anniversary imminent, there’s no better time to revisit his life.
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born in Porbandar, British India (now Gujarat) on October 2, 1869. His father, Karamchand Uttamchand Gandhi was a diwan and his mother, Putlibai Gandhi, belonged to an affluent Vaishnava family. She was his father’s fourth wife. Gandhiji was a naughty child but was shy in school. As a young adult, Gandhi started smoking, eating meat despite being raised in a vegetarian family and stealing money from family and servants. At fifteen, he confessed his misdeeds to his father and rectified his ways.
Gandhiji was timid in school and hated public speaking. AT 9, he moved with his family to Rajkot and continued with his schooling. Gandhiji missed a year of school when he got married but returned to academics and completed high school. He wanted to study medicine but his father wanted him to work for the government. He went to University College London to fulfill his father’s desires. In London, he started studying sacred texts, to learn more about world religion.
At 13, Gandhiji married Kasturba Makhanji, a merchant’s daughter. They had five sons over the course of their marriage. Their first son died, as a baby, in 1885. His death deeply affected Gandhiji. It turned him against child marriage and he openly voiced his thoughts on the subject. His four surviving sons were Harilal Gandhi, Manilal Gandhi, Ramdas Gandhi, and Devdas Gandhi.
Gandhiji grew up a Vishnu worshipper but practiced Jainism, a religion rooted in non-violent beliefs. During his time in South Africa, he studied the ancient Indian text, ‘Tirukkural’ and learned about the concept of Satyagraha (devotion to truth). His exposure to ancient Indian teachings helped him implement non-violent protests, in 1906. His fight for civil rights in South Africa transformed him into a new person. After 21 years away, he returned to India in 1915 where he continued his non-violent protests and began the fight for freedom from British rule.
Gandhiji was assassinated on January 30, 1948, at a prayer meeting. He was 78. Nathuram Godse, a Hindu extremist, shot him point blank. He was upset with Gandhiji’s tolerance towards Muslims. Godse was sentenced and hung the following year. It is ironic, Gandhi, a noble soul who always fought oppression with peace, died in a violent manner.
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0.42320871353... | 6 | Mahatma Gandhi has been an integral part of India’s freedom struggle. He may not have pleased everyone with his methods but they laid the groundwork for an effective movement against colonial rule. His beliefs continue to inspire and influence the world. With his birth anniversary imminent, there’s no better time to revisit his life.
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born in Porbandar, British India (now Gujarat) on October 2, 1869. His father, Karamchand Uttamchand Gandhi was a diwan and his mother, Putlibai Gandhi, belonged to an affluent Vaishnava family. She was his father’s fourth wife. Gandhiji was a naughty child but was shy in school. As a young adult, Gandhi started smoking, eating meat despite being raised in a vegetarian family and stealing money from family and servants. At fifteen, he confessed his misdeeds to his father and rectified his ways.
Gandhiji was timid in school and hated public speaking. AT 9, he moved with his family to Rajkot and continued with his schooling. Gandhiji missed a year of school when he got married but returned to academics and completed high school. He wanted to study medicine but his father wanted him to work for the government. He went to University College London to fulfill his father’s desires. In London, he started studying sacred texts, to learn more about world religion.
At 13, Gandhiji married Kasturba Makhanji, a merchant’s daughter. They had five sons over the course of their marriage. Their first son died, as a baby, in 1885. His death deeply affected Gandhiji. It turned him against child marriage and he openly voiced his thoughts on the subject. His four surviving sons were Harilal Gandhi, Manilal Gandhi, Ramdas Gandhi, and Devdas Gandhi.
Gandhiji grew up a Vishnu worshipper but practiced Jainism, a religion rooted in non-violent beliefs. During his time in South Africa, he studied the ancient Indian text, ‘Tirukkural’ and learned about the concept of Satyagraha (devotion to truth). His exposure to ancient Indian teachings helped him implement non-violent protests, in 1906. His fight for civil rights in South Africa transformed him into a new person. After 21 years away, he returned to India in 1915 where he continued his non-violent protests and began the fight for freedom from British rule.
Gandhiji was assassinated on January 30, 1948, at a prayer meeting. He was 78. Nathuram Godse, a Hindu extremist, shot him point blank. He was upset with Gandhiji’s tolerance towards Muslims. Godse was sentenced and hung the following year. It is ironic, Gandhi, a noble soul who always fought oppression with peace, died in a violent manner.
READ MORE: COLLEGE DROPOUT SETS AN EXAMPLE | 625 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In a study conducted by the University of Birmingham, it appears that there is an evolutionary reason why people tend to eat more when they are with friends than when they eat alone.
The research, published on October 4th 2019, in the The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition looked at 42 other studies on the subject of food consumption and the influence of social factors.
In a study by the British Psychological Society, it was found that if someone ate with friends their meals would be around 29-48% larger. In other studies, it was found that calorie consumption also increased by 23% compared to the calorie intake when someone ate alone.
This is known as the ‘social facilitation’ effect and there were other influences on consumption too. For example, if someone knew they could be seen by strangers they would often choose smaller portions to avoid negative perceptions.
Sharing Our Food Sources
On the other hand, once people are with those they know well they have a tendency to eat a lot more and it is suggested that this may be a throwback to when our ancestors were living in hunter-gatherer communities. Prehistoric humans were likely, like their modern counterparts, to share their food source.
However, it would seem that the survival strategy that worked so well for our ancestors is now working against us. In what is called an ‘evolutionary mismatch’ these same strategies are now leading to excess food intake.
Other factors that influence how much food we consume includes our gender and also how much we weigh. For example, a woman is likely to eat less food if she is eating with men and this is unchanged by her relationship with them. The supposition is that this could be because she wishes to impress the men in the group. It is also noted that people who carry excess weight will eat up to 18% less in the company of others than when they are alone, perhaps because they want to avoid negative judgments about their eating habits. | <urn:uuid:6ccfff35-4036-43d8-9d49-4dd4a84c2edc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.parentsdome.com/why-do-we-eat-less-when-we-eat-alone/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00491.warc.gz | en | 0.99088 | 397 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.1817970722913742... | 8 | In a study conducted by the University of Birmingham, it appears that there is an evolutionary reason why people tend to eat more when they are with friends than when they eat alone.
The research, published on October 4th 2019, in the The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition looked at 42 other studies on the subject of food consumption and the influence of social factors.
In a study by the British Psychological Society, it was found that if someone ate with friends their meals would be around 29-48% larger. In other studies, it was found that calorie consumption also increased by 23% compared to the calorie intake when someone ate alone.
This is known as the ‘social facilitation’ effect and there were other influences on consumption too. For example, if someone knew they could be seen by strangers they would often choose smaller portions to avoid negative perceptions.
Sharing Our Food Sources
On the other hand, once people are with those they know well they have a tendency to eat a lot more and it is suggested that this may be a throwback to when our ancestors were living in hunter-gatherer communities. Prehistoric humans were likely, like their modern counterparts, to share their food source.
However, it would seem that the survival strategy that worked so well for our ancestors is now working against us. In what is called an ‘evolutionary mismatch’ these same strategies are now leading to excess food intake.
Other factors that influence how much food we consume includes our gender and also how much we weigh. For example, a woman is likely to eat less food if she is eating with men and this is unchanged by her relationship with them. The supposition is that this could be because she wishes to impress the men in the group. It is also noted that people who carry excess weight will eat up to 18% less in the company of others than when they are alone, perhaps because they want to avoid negative judgments about their eating habits. | 400 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In ancient times the hides of animals were depended on for clothing, blankets, and covering for structures. Once an animal was killed, the skin (hide) would be removed, staked to the ground, and then the fat that remained on the underside of the skin had to be removed in order for the hide to be cured. Depending on the animal, some hides have very little fat, such as rabbits, squirrels and deer - while others have a significantly thick layer of fat such as raccoons, o'possums and buffalo. If the fat was not removed properly, the hide would not cure properly, and thus scraping hides was a daily task that had to be done, and couldnt be rushed. I spent much of my youth hunting and trapping and working on mink ranches in the late 70's and then working for a fur company in Minnesota in the early 80's. Thus, I am pretty familiar with hide preparation. Let me tell you - it is not a fun job, and it is time consuming. It also requires a bit of skill as applying too much pressure with your scraping tool can easily cut into or through the hide itself.
Most collectors are familiar with prehistoric flint hide scraping tools. They come in different sizes and styles with some being hafted, some hand held, some uniface, some biface - plenty of different varieties, but all designed with the task-at-hand in mind, to remove fat from the underside of a skin.
When we say "scraper" we generally think of a flint scraper. Usually hand held, and not very large. However, other scrapers were used in ancient times that were made from Bone, wood and stone. The below example is a historic era scraper style from the 1800's that are commonly seen.
The hash marks on the handle are said to represent how many buffalo hides the user scraped. This one has over 40 marks.
What is often not known about this style scraper, is that this is simply a piece of the total scraper tool, which had a bit fastened to the end as seen in the below example
The example shown here has a bit made from metal, probably traded for, or salvaged from a pot, kettle or similar such item. Often seen, especially in Alaskan artifacts of the same time period and earlier, were bits made from stone that were flat in design and had a bit end, often made from slate.
I think it is quite likely that many of the thin, flat stone celts that are found in the midwest may well have been used as hide scraping tools in a fashion similar to the design shown above, while the thicker rounder style celts were used for daily chopping tasks.
Just an interesting set of photos that I had laying around, so I thought I would post them and offer my opinion on how flat celts may have been used on similar such scraping tools in earlier times.
Phone (419) 207-8787
SPECIALIZING IN COLLECTIBLES
25+ YEARS IN BUSINESS
LICENSED / BONDED | <urn:uuid:65518f3f-d3d1-41fd-8930-1b699da93791> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.premiereauctionsgroup.com/hide-scrapers.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00070.warc.gz | en | 0.980114 | 642 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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-0.00250590965... | 2 | In ancient times the hides of animals were depended on for clothing, blankets, and covering for structures. Once an animal was killed, the skin (hide) would be removed, staked to the ground, and then the fat that remained on the underside of the skin had to be removed in order for the hide to be cured. Depending on the animal, some hides have very little fat, such as rabbits, squirrels and deer - while others have a significantly thick layer of fat such as raccoons, o'possums and buffalo. If the fat was not removed properly, the hide would not cure properly, and thus scraping hides was a daily task that had to be done, and couldnt be rushed. I spent much of my youth hunting and trapping and working on mink ranches in the late 70's and then working for a fur company in Minnesota in the early 80's. Thus, I am pretty familiar with hide preparation. Let me tell you - it is not a fun job, and it is time consuming. It also requires a bit of skill as applying too much pressure with your scraping tool can easily cut into or through the hide itself.
Most collectors are familiar with prehistoric flint hide scraping tools. They come in different sizes and styles with some being hafted, some hand held, some uniface, some biface - plenty of different varieties, but all designed with the task-at-hand in mind, to remove fat from the underside of a skin.
When we say "scraper" we generally think of a flint scraper. Usually hand held, and not very large. However, other scrapers were used in ancient times that were made from Bone, wood and stone. The below example is a historic era scraper style from the 1800's that are commonly seen.
The hash marks on the handle are said to represent how many buffalo hides the user scraped. This one has over 40 marks.
What is often not known about this style scraper, is that this is simply a piece of the total scraper tool, which had a bit fastened to the end as seen in the below example
The example shown here has a bit made from metal, probably traded for, or salvaged from a pot, kettle or similar such item. Often seen, especially in Alaskan artifacts of the same time period and earlier, were bits made from stone that were flat in design and had a bit end, often made from slate.
I think it is quite likely that many of the thin, flat stone celts that are found in the midwest may well have been used as hide scraping tools in a fashion similar to the design shown above, while the thicker rounder style celts were used for daily chopping tasks.
Just an interesting set of photos that I had laying around, so I thought I would post them and offer my opinion on how flat celts may have been used on similar such scraping tools in earlier times.
Phone (419) 207-8787
SPECIALIZING IN COLLECTIBLES
25+ YEARS IN BUSINESS
LICENSED / BONDED | 639 | ENGLISH | 1 |
LONDON (AP) — The remains of a noted Royal Navy explorer who led the first known circumnavigation of Australia have been found by archeologists excavating a burial ground where a railway station is planned.
The archeologists identified the remains of Captain Matthew Flinders by the lead plate placed on top of his coffin. He was buried at St. James’s burial ground in 1814 but the headstone was removed in the 1840s, leaving the precise location of his grave a mystery.
Flinders made a number of important journeys and was commander of HMS Investigator when he navigated the entire coast of Australia, confirming it was a continent.
A number of places in Australia have been named after him, including Flinders Station in Melbourne and the town of Flinders in Victoria. A statue honoring him was unveiled in London by Prince William on the bicentenary of his death in 2014.
Officials believe other notables are in the burial ground, including Bill Richmond, a slave born in New York who as a free Londoner gained prominence as a boxer, and James Christie, a naval officer who in 1766 founded the auction house that bears his name.
Experts plan to remove tens of thousands of skeletons from the burial ground, where a rail station for a new high-speed rail line will be built.
HS2, which is building the rail line from London to Birmingham, said the remains of Flinders and roughly 40,000 others will be re-buried at a location to be announced.
Helen Wass, heritage director at HS2, hailed the discovery.
“Given the number of human remains at St. James’s, we weren’t confident that we were going to find him,” she said Friday. “We were very lucky that Captain Flinders had a breastplate made of lead, meaning it would not have corroded.”
She said his skeleton will now be studied, in part to gauge what impact a life at sea had on him. | <urn:uuid:0a001663-6b73-4b7b-ab04-ec17110e4861> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://federalnewsnetwork.com/science-news/2019/01/remains-of-explorer-who-first-rounded-australia-found-in-uk/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00109.warc.gz | en | 0.985178 | 412 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.71584922075... | 1 | LONDON (AP) — The remains of a noted Royal Navy explorer who led the first known circumnavigation of Australia have been found by archeologists excavating a burial ground where a railway station is planned.
The archeologists identified the remains of Captain Matthew Flinders by the lead plate placed on top of his coffin. He was buried at St. James’s burial ground in 1814 but the headstone was removed in the 1840s, leaving the precise location of his grave a mystery.
Flinders made a number of important journeys and was commander of HMS Investigator when he navigated the entire coast of Australia, confirming it was a continent.
A number of places in Australia have been named after him, including Flinders Station in Melbourne and the town of Flinders in Victoria. A statue honoring him was unveiled in London by Prince William on the bicentenary of his death in 2014.
Officials believe other notables are in the burial ground, including Bill Richmond, a slave born in New York who as a free Londoner gained prominence as a boxer, and James Christie, a naval officer who in 1766 founded the auction house that bears his name.
Experts plan to remove tens of thousands of skeletons from the burial ground, where a rail station for a new high-speed rail line will be built.
HS2, which is building the rail line from London to Birmingham, said the remains of Flinders and roughly 40,000 others will be re-buried at a location to be announced.
Helen Wass, heritage director at HS2, hailed the discovery.
“Given the number of human remains at St. James’s, we weren’t confident that we were going to find him,” she said Friday. “We were very lucky that Captain Flinders had a breastplate made of lead, meaning it would not have corroded.”
She said his skeleton will now be studied, in part to gauge what impact a life at sea had on him. | 409 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Scholar, African traditionalist poet, and Senegal’s first president, Léopold Sédar Senghor was born on October 9, 1906 in Joal, Senegal. His father, Basie Diogoye Senghor, was a Malinké landowner. His mother, Gnilane Bakhoum, came from a Christian Fulani family. They gave Senghor a European name to reflect both the noble Serer culture they identified with, as well as their Catholic faith. Senghor grew up with his father’s four wives and his twenty-four siblings.
At the age of seven, Senghor was sent to a Catholic mission school, where he first learned French. At 13, he decided to enter the Catholic priesthood. He attended Libermann seminary in Dakar but in 1926, dissuaded by the seminary, switched to the secondary school Lycée Van Vollenhoven. He graduated from high school with honors and his classical languages teacher persuaded the colonial administration to grant Senghor a scholarship to pursue literary studies in France.
After arriving in Paris in 1928, he enrolled in Lycée Louis-le-Grand. There he met some of his closest friends, including George Pompidou, future president of France, and Aimé Césaire, fellow poet and intellectual. After becoming a French citizen, Senghor completed his military duties. He was drafted during World War II into the 3rd Regiment of the Colonial Infantry, where he fought against the Germans at La Charité-sur-Loire. He was taken prisoner in 1940 and spent two years in a camp, where he wrote his poems for Hosties Noire (Black Hosts, 1948).
Before the war, Senghor worked to create an ideological framework that would encompass his French-ness and his African-ness. As time progressed he increasingly became more attached to his African traditions and less interested in assimilation. These ideas, along with the ideas of Aimé Césaire and other black intellectuals in France, would turn into the Negritude movement. In 1948 French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre wrote a preface to Senghor’s first major publication, The Anthology of New Black and Malagasy Poetry in the French language | <urn:uuid:219a54c9-b566-4999-aa86-9d3a8111f740> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://blackfacts.com/fact/senghor-l-opold-s-dar-1906-2001 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00232.warc.gz | en | 0.981473 | 472 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.3568986356258... | 2 | Scholar, African traditionalist poet, and Senegal’s first president, Léopold Sédar Senghor was born on October 9, 1906 in Joal, Senegal. His father, Basie Diogoye Senghor, was a Malinké landowner. His mother, Gnilane Bakhoum, came from a Christian Fulani family. They gave Senghor a European name to reflect both the noble Serer culture they identified with, as well as their Catholic faith. Senghor grew up with his father’s four wives and his twenty-four siblings.
At the age of seven, Senghor was sent to a Catholic mission school, where he first learned French. At 13, he decided to enter the Catholic priesthood. He attended Libermann seminary in Dakar but in 1926, dissuaded by the seminary, switched to the secondary school Lycée Van Vollenhoven. He graduated from high school with honors and his classical languages teacher persuaded the colonial administration to grant Senghor a scholarship to pursue literary studies in France.
After arriving in Paris in 1928, he enrolled in Lycée Louis-le-Grand. There he met some of his closest friends, including George Pompidou, future president of France, and Aimé Césaire, fellow poet and intellectual. After becoming a French citizen, Senghor completed his military duties. He was drafted during World War II into the 3rd Regiment of the Colonial Infantry, where he fought against the Germans at La Charité-sur-Loire. He was taken prisoner in 1940 and spent two years in a camp, where he wrote his poems for Hosties Noire (Black Hosts, 1948).
Before the war, Senghor worked to create an ideological framework that would encompass his French-ness and his African-ness. As time progressed he increasingly became more attached to his African traditions and less interested in assimilation. These ideas, along with the ideas of Aimé Césaire and other black intellectuals in France, would turn into the Negritude movement. In 1948 French philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre wrote a preface to Senghor’s first major publication, The Anthology of New Black and Malagasy Poetry in the French language | 488 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Fate in Romeo and Juliet
In Romeo and Juliet, Shakespeare extends the theme of fate by having his characters foreshadow the inevitable outcomes of the story. Throughout the play, numerous characters have lines that can resemble premonitions that (if not directly stated) foreshadows the tragedies to come and it is especially around the demise of Romeo and Juliet. When Mercutio shouts “a plague on both your houses” in (3. 1. 59) This scene is the first to give us and idea f what fate has in store, and is the beginning of the tragedy to come of Romeo and Juliet’s deaths.
Fate pre-determines the events and speeches in the play. Is it fate for that after the death of the two teenagers, the Capulets and the Montagues find peace with each other? Is it fate that Romeo kills himself when he does? Shakespeare does this to give you an idea of what’s to come in almost a comical manner to think that it was previously stated in the play. For example, in (1. 4. 111-113), Romeo says “By some vile forfeit of untimely death. But He, that hath the steerage of my course, Direct my sail! On, lusty gentlemen.
Here, Romeo is basically giving full control to whoever controls his destiny and can steer him wherever they want but what makes this really interesting, is that this is when Benvolio and Mercutio try to convince Romeo to visit the Capulet party which they succeed in doing. Since the Capulet Party is where these chain of events started it is interesting how this line may been Romeo’s death sentence since he was giving full consent to what fate had in store for him, it was fate that brought Romeo to the party where he met Juliet.
Shakespeare brings out the irony in fate with each prediction of each tragedy early on in the story. Shakespeare uses the character Romeo to represent someone who is being tortured by fate. Throughout the play there have been several nods to the belief of fate, but they mostly invoke Romeo whether fate is in his favor or not. It can be seen that Romeo views fate as a supernatural being rather than just a simple occurrence, for the fact that when he feels fate is not in his favor, he shows an emotional speech of anger and curses at fate.
This is best seen when Mercutio dies in (3. 1. 19-20 and 136) because we are reminded again that fate is ruling his life. He says “This day’s black fate on mo days doth depend; This but begins the woe others must end. ” “O I am fortunes fool”. It is important because not only is this warning about the tragedy to come but saying that he is “fortunes fool” shows that Romeo views himself as being fates toy, as nothing can go his way. Even though Romeo, is angered by the way fate is playing out his life, he doesn’t try to defy it until in (5. 1. 24) Romeo says “I defy you stars” which means he disbelieves Juliet’s death and he wants to change fate.
Romeo is truly tortured by fate but it may have been his own actions that caused not only his but Juliets death. This is impossible for him to do but all that matters to him is Juliet. However he is correct at believing the fraud of Juliets death but he still decides to kill himself in order to be with her. This act was done in vain, and this explains even more why Romeo is being punished by fate but it can also be seen as when Romeo tries to defy fates plan it lead to his death. Shakespeare shows the beauty and cruelty of fate on the one soul of a human being.
Fate exploits the flaws and mistakes of each character to reach destiny. Everybody makes stupid decisions (whether fate was involved or not) but they are usually forgivable but in Romeo and Juliet, every decision made may have caused the terrible outcome. Romeo and Juliets flaw is their rational decision making. From the beginning, Romeo acts without thinking of the repercussions to come. For example, in (3. 1) Romeo kills Tybalt out of rage, even though he knows that this will cause a high amount of friction with the feud between the two families and especially with the one he loves and also Tybalt’s cousin, Juliet.
Secondly, if Romeo had maybe heard the full story on Juliet’s death from the Friar (who seems to help them throughout this whole situation) rather than just getting the perspective of Balthasar, before he resorted to suicide, he could have done what was plan and spend the rest of his life with Juliet. Juliet best shows this flaw when during the balcony scene in (2. 2. 143-144) Juliet almost manipulates Romeo into marrying her. She constantly questions his love for her and rushes him into marriage by saying things like, “If thy purpose marriage, send me word tomorrow.
This means, she believes if Romeo truly loves her, he’ll marry her tomorrow, however it can’t be said that this was all Juliet’s idea but it can be said that it seems like she really didn’t think it through since her parents are trying to set her up with Paris (who she later is scheduled to marry), so why didn’t she at least tell him to possibly wait a while plus she also knows that he is her family’s rival. Finally, both Romeo and Juliet kill themselves over what most people would see as just an overdramatic act.
Both are no older than a teenager, how could she know that this boy would be her only love? The Friar, who can be seen as possible the innovation behind this tragedy. It’s obvious that what went through his mind was the belief that he could set up young love and end a family war and be a hero but as the reader knows, this does not happen. To begin with, the Friar decides to marry Romeo and Juliet, even though he knows how rational and silly it seems but his main motivation for saying yes was the hope that this would mend the family feud.
Although the Friar is determined to stop the feuding, he should have better judgement than to bring these two teens into such a serious dilemma. In addition, the Friar gives Juliet the potion for a short-time death like trance, which complicates things even more. Romeo and Juliet’s teenage rationality and the Friar’s determination of peace were all weakness’s that Fate used against them to get its way. Shakespeare brings fate to life but creates the image of a supernatural being split in half whether it ‘s actions may be seen for the greater good or bad.
People today question the idea of fate and believe it is free will that decides our future however in the 1500’s fate is believed to be far from a myth. In Romeo and Juliet’s case, fate can be seen as what brought the pair together and what led them to their demise. It may have been fate itself that brought Juliet to Romeo and they may have been destined to die to end the family feud. Even though I don’t believe in fate, I can believe that Shakespeare did and his message about fate could be unclear.
Anyone can assume he was trying to say how fate can be cruel and forgiving (evidence with Juliet and Romeos death) but was he also saying that we defy it, everything becomes unbalanced (evidence of Romeo’s defiance of fate leading to his death). Shakespeare shows the beauty and cruelty of fate on the one soul of a human being. Although it may have brought young love, it also lead them to their deaths, and if fate does exist, it gives us great happiness but also great sadness. | <urn:uuid:09fe121b-d136-42a6-b177-3df7ff53fe63> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://freebooksummary.com/fate-in-romeo-and-juliet-9-120556 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00230.warc.gz | en | 0.982092 | 1,631 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.26122885942... | 1 | Fate in Romeo and Juliet
In Romeo and Juliet, Shakespeare extends the theme of fate by having his characters foreshadow the inevitable outcomes of the story. Throughout the play, numerous characters have lines that can resemble premonitions that (if not directly stated) foreshadows the tragedies to come and it is especially around the demise of Romeo and Juliet. When Mercutio shouts “a plague on both your houses” in (3. 1. 59) This scene is the first to give us and idea f what fate has in store, and is the beginning of the tragedy to come of Romeo and Juliet’s deaths.
Fate pre-determines the events and speeches in the play. Is it fate for that after the death of the two teenagers, the Capulets and the Montagues find peace with each other? Is it fate that Romeo kills himself when he does? Shakespeare does this to give you an idea of what’s to come in almost a comical manner to think that it was previously stated in the play. For example, in (1. 4. 111-113), Romeo says “By some vile forfeit of untimely death. But He, that hath the steerage of my course, Direct my sail! On, lusty gentlemen.
Here, Romeo is basically giving full control to whoever controls his destiny and can steer him wherever they want but what makes this really interesting, is that this is when Benvolio and Mercutio try to convince Romeo to visit the Capulet party which they succeed in doing. Since the Capulet Party is where these chain of events started it is interesting how this line may been Romeo’s death sentence since he was giving full consent to what fate had in store for him, it was fate that brought Romeo to the party where he met Juliet.
Shakespeare brings out the irony in fate with each prediction of each tragedy early on in the story. Shakespeare uses the character Romeo to represent someone who is being tortured by fate. Throughout the play there have been several nods to the belief of fate, but they mostly invoke Romeo whether fate is in his favor or not. It can be seen that Romeo views fate as a supernatural being rather than just a simple occurrence, for the fact that when he feels fate is not in his favor, he shows an emotional speech of anger and curses at fate.
This is best seen when Mercutio dies in (3. 1. 19-20 and 136) because we are reminded again that fate is ruling his life. He says “This day’s black fate on mo days doth depend; This but begins the woe others must end. ” “O I am fortunes fool”. It is important because not only is this warning about the tragedy to come but saying that he is “fortunes fool” shows that Romeo views himself as being fates toy, as nothing can go his way. Even though Romeo, is angered by the way fate is playing out his life, he doesn’t try to defy it until in (5. 1. 24) Romeo says “I defy you stars” which means he disbelieves Juliet’s death and he wants to change fate.
Romeo is truly tortured by fate but it may have been his own actions that caused not only his but Juliets death. This is impossible for him to do but all that matters to him is Juliet. However he is correct at believing the fraud of Juliets death but he still decides to kill himself in order to be with her. This act was done in vain, and this explains even more why Romeo is being punished by fate but it can also be seen as when Romeo tries to defy fates plan it lead to his death. Shakespeare shows the beauty and cruelty of fate on the one soul of a human being.
Fate exploits the flaws and mistakes of each character to reach destiny. Everybody makes stupid decisions (whether fate was involved or not) but they are usually forgivable but in Romeo and Juliet, every decision made may have caused the terrible outcome. Romeo and Juliets flaw is their rational decision making. From the beginning, Romeo acts without thinking of the repercussions to come. For example, in (3. 1) Romeo kills Tybalt out of rage, even though he knows that this will cause a high amount of friction with the feud between the two families and especially with the one he loves and also Tybalt’s cousin, Juliet.
Secondly, if Romeo had maybe heard the full story on Juliet’s death from the Friar (who seems to help them throughout this whole situation) rather than just getting the perspective of Balthasar, before he resorted to suicide, he could have done what was plan and spend the rest of his life with Juliet. Juliet best shows this flaw when during the balcony scene in (2. 2. 143-144) Juliet almost manipulates Romeo into marrying her. She constantly questions his love for her and rushes him into marriage by saying things like, “If thy purpose marriage, send me word tomorrow.
This means, she believes if Romeo truly loves her, he’ll marry her tomorrow, however it can’t be said that this was all Juliet’s idea but it can be said that it seems like she really didn’t think it through since her parents are trying to set her up with Paris (who she later is scheduled to marry), so why didn’t she at least tell him to possibly wait a while plus she also knows that he is her family’s rival. Finally, both Romeo and Juliet kill themselves over what most people would see as just an overdramatic act.
Both are no older than a teenager, how could she know that this boy would be her only love? The Friar, who can be seen as possible the innovation behind this tragedy. It’s obvious that what went through his mind was the belief that he could set up young love and end a family war and be a hero but as the reader knows, this does not happen. To begin with, the Friar decides to marry Romeo and Juliet, even though he knows how rational and silly it seems but his main motivation for saying yes was the hope that this would mend the family feud.
Although the Friar is determined to stop the feuding, he should have better judgement than to bring these two teens into such a serious dilemma. In addition, the Friar gives Juliet the potion for a short-time death like trance, which complicates things even more. Romeo and Juliet’s teenage rationality and the Friar’s determination of peace were all weakness’s that Fate used against them to get its way. Shakespeare brings fate to life but creates the image of a supernatural being split in half whether it ‘s actions may be seen for the greater good or bad.
People today question the idea of fate and believe it is free will that decides our future however in the 1500’s fate is believed to be far from a myth. In Romeo and Juliet’s case, fate can be seen as what brought the pair together and what led them to their demise. It may have been fate itself that brought Juliet to Romeo and they may have been destined to die to end the family feud. Even though I don’t believe in fate, I can believe that Shakespeare did and his message about fate could be unclear.
Anyone can assume he was trying to say how fate can be cruel and forgiving (evidence with Juliet and Romeos death) but was he also saying that we defy it, everything becomes unbalanced (evidence of Romeo’s defiance of fate leading to his death). Shakespeare shows the beauty and cruelty of fate on the one soul of a human being. Although it may have brought young love, it also lead them to their deaths, and if fate does exist, it gives us great happiness but also great sadness. | 1,596 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The court was established in 1952, by the Treaty of Paris (1951) as part of the European Coal and Steel Community. It was established with seven judges, allowing both representation of each of the six member States and being an odd number of judges in case of a tie. One judge was appointed from each member state and the seventh seat rotated between the "large Member States" (West Germany, France and Italy). It became an institution of two additional Communities in 1957 when the (EEC), and the (Euratom) were created, sharing the same courts with the European Coal and Steel Community.
The Maastricht Treaty was ratified in 1993, and created the European Union. The name of the Court did not change unlike the other institutions. The power of the Court resided in the Community pillar (the first pillar).
The Court gained power in 1997 with the signing of the Amsterdam Treaty. Issues from the third pillar were transferred to the first pillar. Previously, these issues were settled between the member states.
Following the entrance into force of the Treaty of Lisbon on 1 December 2009, the ECJ's official name was changed from the "Court of Justice of the European Communities" to the "Court of Justice" although in English it is still most common to refer to the Court as the European Court of Justice. The Court of First Instance was renamed as the "General Court", and the term "Court of Justice of the European Union" will officially designate the two courts, as along with its specialised tribunals, taken together. | <urn:uuid:a301a08d-7021-4667-8abe-ad67fd447ae3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://i.luna.ovh/planeta/en/European_Court_of_Justice | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00118.warc.gz | en | 0.9873 | 314 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.171248465... | 1 | The court was established in 1952, by the Treaty of Paris (1951) as part of the European Coal and Steel Community. It was established with seven judges, allowing both representation of each of the six member States and being an odd number of judges in case of a tie. One judge was appointed from each member state and the seventh seat rotated between the "large Member States" (West Germany, France and Italy). It became an institution of two additional Communities in 1957 when the (EEC), and the (Euratom) were created, sharing the same courts with the European Coal and Steel Community.
The Maastricht Treaty was ratified in 1993, and created the European Union. The name of the Court did not change unlike the other institutions. The power of the Court resided in the Community pillar (the first pillar).
The Court gained power in 1997 with the signing of the Amsterdam Treaty. Issues from the third pillar were transferred to the first pillar. Previously, these issues were settled between the member states.
Following the entrance into force of the Treaty of Lisbon on 1 December 2009, the ECJ's official name was changed from the "Court of Justice of the European Communities" to the "Court of Justice" although in English it is still most common to refer to the Court as the European Court of Justice. The Court of First Instance was renamed as the "General Court", and the term "Court of Justice of the European Union" will officially designate the two courts, as along with its specialised tribunals, taken together. | 333 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Power to fix wages and services
The administrative duties of JP's began to develop in the closing years of the 14th Century and continued until 1888. As early as 1389 they acquired powers to regulate wages and control the cost of living by fixing prices. The Act provided that victuallers 'shall have reasonable gains according to the discretion and limitations of the said Justices'. So long as the economy was predominantly rural, the pressure on both wages and prices came from such natural causes as inclement weather and poor harvests. Such factors as the cost of land and buildings hardly entered into the reckoning. The establishment of industries in the medieval 'wool' towns brought new problems with which the JP's were ill equipped to deal. Most of the new employers were in competition with the landowners for labour.
17 May 1999
Legal Qualifications of JP's
Much has been said about JP's being untrained until recently but, in fact, many landowners were members of the Inns of Court. This, however, was not to assist them in administering the criminal law but to equip them for the prudent management of their estates. Usually their study of the law did not go very deep. Shakespeare's Master Shallow and Falstaff were typical. They were roistering fellows whose fondest memories are summed up in Faistaffs line 'we have heard the chimes at midnight, Master Shallow'. For all that, at least 50 editions of works for the guidance of Justices had been published by 1600, and so effective had their rule become, that Sir Edward Coke described it as "such a form of subordinate government for security and quiet of the realm as no part of the Christian world hath the like".
In 1576, JP's were required to build 'houses of correction' in which rogues and vagabonds could be detained. These were apprehended by village constables - unpaid parishioners conscripted for service annually.
The Reformation, followed by alternating Catholic and Protestant ascendancy, affected the Justices as well as every other section of the community. JP's had their names removed from the Commission for non-attendance at their parish church. A screening operation carried out by the bishops in 1564 revealed that of 850 JP's examined, more than half were suspected of being recusants. A purge followed, and in 1579 every JP was required to swear fidelity to the established religion. Confidence was temporarily restored, and when the Spanish Armada threatened England, the Justices again proved fully capable of maintaining the Queen's peace. | <urn:uuid:3118f48b-3193-4f25-b5ca-95ca56fa096e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.lowestoftheritage.org/research/prominent-personalities/12-the-history-of-justices-of-the-peace?start=1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00079.warc.gz | en | 0.985561 | 520 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.1264622509479... | 1 | Power to fix wages and services
The administrative duties of JP's began to develop in the closing years of the 14th Century and continued until 1888. As early as 1389 they acquired powers to regulate wages and control the cost of living by fixing prices. The Act provided that victuallers 'shall have reasonable gains according to the discretion and limitations of the said Justices'. So long as the economy was predominantly rural, the pressure on both wages and prices came from such natural causes as inclement weather and poor harvests. Such factors as the cost of land and buildings hardly entered into the reckoning. The establishment of industries in the medieval 'wool' towns brought new problems with which the JP's were ill equipped to deal. Most of the new employers were in competition with the landowners for labour.
17 May 1999
Legal Qualifications of JP's
Much has been said about JP's being untrained until recently but, in fact, many landowners were members of the Inns of Court. This, however, was not to assist them in administering the criminal law but to equip them for the prudent management of their estates. Usually their study of the law did not go very deep. Shakespeare's Master Shallow and Falstaff were typical. They were roistering fellows whose fondest memories are summed up in Faistaffs line 'we have heard the chimes at midnight, Master Shallow'. For all that, at least 50 editions of works for the guidance of Justices had been published by 1600, and so effective had their rule become, that Sir Edward Coke described it as "such a form of subordinate government for security and quiet of the realm as no part of the Christian world hath the like".
In 1576, JP's were required to build 'houses of correction' in which rogues and vagabonds could be detained. These were apprehended by village constables - unpaid parishioners conscripted for service annually.
The Reformation, followed by alternating Catholic and Protestant ascendancy, affected the Justices as well as every other section of the community. JP's had their names removed from the Commission for non-attendance at their parish church. A screening operation carried out by the bishops in 1564 revealed that of 850 JP's examined, more than half were suspected of being recusants. A purge followed, and in 1579 every JP was required to swear fidelity to the established religion. Confidence was temporarily restored, and when the Spanish Armada threatened England, the Justices again proved fully capable of maintaining the Queen's peace. | 549 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Vikings built their houses from local material such as wood, stone or blocks of Viking houses were often one room homes with a cooking fire in the middle. Viking houses were built of wood. The longhouses had bowed walls in plan, forming a ship-like outline. The walls were lined with clay or consisted of wooden . On a farm like this the main building was typically the longhouse, here, the Houses were built by using wood from oak trees in the Viking age.
viking house names
The Viking longhouse was a long, narrow building with timber frames, walls of wattle and daub and Vikings lived in a long, narrow building called a longhouse. Longhouses on a Viking farm were larger than houses in a Viking town. In the. The inside of a viking house like this reconstruction at the Trelleborg Viking Fortress illustrates the inside Viking houses were adapted to the surrounding area. Find out answers to questions like: How big were their homes? Can you describe a Vikings Home? What were their homes made of? What was cooking in a.
The Viking house and home, like in many societies would vary somewhat depending on the area and materials available. However there were popular designs. Viking homes called longhouses were simple log houses. Houses were usually one big, long, rectangular room with a central open fire, and a hole in the roof to. Their houses were built of wood, stone or blocks of turf, with thatched or turf roofs. Most houses had only one room. There was a small window.
The Vikings built longhouses all over Scandinavia. Porridge and stew were eaten almost every day in Viking homes, along with bread. The walls were made of wood, in areas where it was plentiful, and the roof was covered with turf. Here is a photo of a Viking house in Denmark. In areas such as . In much of the Norse region, the longhouses were built around wooden Ashes from the fires of the house were spread on this area to act as an absorbent. The stone footings are typically the only part of Norse era turf houses that Long strips of turf were cut with turf knives (the scythe-like blade in the photo to the. TopicPod Vikings gives you simple information about the Vikings for schools and children such as What were Viking houses like?. There are reconstruction of archeological houses in several places, one example is The history of Birka The Viking City – Stockholm Sweden. In this clip the presenter describes what living in a Viking longhouse was like. Longhouses were usually made of wood, stone or earth and turf, which kept out. The Vikings were not all bloodthirsty raiders. Some came to fight, but others came to Britain to live peacefully. Their longships brought families who settled in. Below is a quote from a book called What life was like when longships. Explore Vanessa Bunton's board Viking Houses on Pinterest. See more ideas It was a time in which trading in everything from slaves to silk and iron flourished. Finds of Arabic Viking Hall-- I like this for color pallet and texture. Old Norse.
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- What solder to use for circuit boards | <urn:uuid:a4375569-df9a-4530-9977-3306e847ed4e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://luminescent.me/adventure/what-were-viking-houses-like.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00498.warc.gz | en | 0.987983 | 718 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.0993554741144180... | 1 | The Vikings built their houses from local material such as wood, stone or blocks of Viking houses were often one room homes with a cooking fire in the middle. Viking houses were built of wood. The longhouses had bowed walls in plan, forming a ship-like outline. The walls were lined with clay or consisted of wooden . On a farm like this the main building was typically the longhouse, here, the Houses were built by using wood from oak trees in the Viking age.
viking house names
The Viking longhouse was a long, narrow building with timber frames, walls of wattle and daub and Vikings lived in a long, narrow building called a longhouse. Longhouses on a Viking farm were larger than houses in a Viking town. In the. The inside of a viking house like this reconstruction at the Trelleborg Viking Fortress illustrates the inside Viking houses were adapted to the surrounding area. Find out answers to questions like: How big were their homes? Can you describe a Vikings Home? What were their homes made of? What was cooking in a.
The Viking house and home, like in many societies would vary somewhat depending on the area and materials available. However there were popular designs. Viking homes called longhouses were simple log houses. Houses were usually one big, long, rectangular room with a central open fire, and a hole in the roof to. Their houses were built of wood, stone or blocks of turf, with thatched or turf roofs. Most houses had only one room. There was a small window.
The Vikings built longhouses all over Scandinavia. Porridge and stew were eaten almost every day in Viking homes, along with bread. The walls were made of wood, in areas where it was plentiful, and the roof was covered with turf. Here is a photo of a Viking house in Denmark. In areas such as . In much of the Norse region, the longhouses were built around wooden Ashes from the fires of the house were spread on this area to act as an absorbent. The stone footings are typically the only part of Norse era turf houses that Long strips of turf were cut with turf knives (the scythe-like blade in the photo to the. TopicPod Vikings gives you simple information about the Vikings for schools and children such as What were Viking houses like?. There are reconstruction of archeological houses in several places, one example is The history of Birka The Viking City – Stockholm Sweden. In this clip the presenter describes what living in a Viking longhouse was like. Longhouses were usually made of wood, stone or earth and turf, which kept out. The Vikings were not all bloodthirsty raiders. Some came to fight, but others came to Britain to live peacefully. Their longships brought families who settled in. Below is a quote from a book called What life was like when longships. Explore Vanessa Bunton's board Viking Houses on Pinterest. See more ideas It was a time in which trading in everything from slaves to silk and iron flourished. Finds of Arabic Viking Hall-- I like this for color pallet and texture. Old Norse.
- Doctor who 2016
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- What solder to use for circuit boards | 709 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The early twentieth century was an era of social reform in the United States. The labor movement, women’s suffrage, and better opportunities for those less fortunate were among the causes that defined the period. In Colorado, one of the state’s most active reformers was Ben Lindsey, who pioneered the juvenile court system.
Originally from Tennessee, Benjamin Barr Lindsey moved to Denver as a child when his father took a job as a telegraph operator. Ben briefly returned to his home state to attend preparatory school at Southwestern Baptist University. Back in Denver after graduation, he decided to study law. But then his father, deeply in debt, committed suicide, leaving Ben – still a teenager – to support his mother and younger siblings. At one point, Ben, too, attempted suicide, but then resolved to “crush the circumstances that had almost crushed me.” He worked various jobs, including as a newsboy, a janitor, and a clerk at a real estate office, reading law in his spare time.
Ben Lindsey’s first exposure to juvenile law came while working as a clerk in a Denver law office, which handled some juvenile defense cases. Lindsey found that by talking to the accused children, he could get their side of the story. Many of the children were orphans or lived in poverty, so they roamed the streets, surviving as best they could – which sometimes got them into trouble. Lindsey learned from visiting with these children that in many cases what they needed was help, not punishment.
After several years of studying, Lindsey was admitted to the bar in 1894. Five years later he was appointed as a public administrator, serving as a legal guardian for orphaned children. In 1901 Lindsey was appointed county judge (Denver was at that time still part of Arapahoe County), and he used his new position to advocate for children. As a judge, he continued his practice of visiting with them and their families to learn about their circumstances.
During this era, juvenile delinquents were often sentenced as adults, even being jailed alongside adult offenders. In his own courtroom Lindsey typically sentenced juvenile offenders to probation or reform school instead of being sent to jail. But Lindsey began to wonder if something could be changed in state law that would allow the courts to treat juveniles differently from adults. An 1899 school law strictly defined truancy as criminal and disorderly behavior, which led to more children coming through the court system. As a result, Lindsey asked the District Attorney to send all juvenile cases to his courtroom, and the D.A. was glad to oblige. This was an informal arrangement, however, so Lindsey worked to codify the juvenile court in state law.
In 1907, Lindsey’s efforts led the State Legislature to pass an Act establishing a juvenile court in every Colorado county with a population greater than 100,000. At that time, Denver was the only such county, but the act allowed for future growth in other places in the state. The juvenile courts would have jurisdiction over all cases involving minors, including juvenile delinquency as well as family law cases such as custody, or for adults charged with crimes against children. The law also specified that a judge would be elected or appointed specifically to the juvenile court. The first such appointment in Denver was, of course, Ben Lindsey.
Lindsey held the post for twenty years, from 1907 to 1927. During his time as judge, Lindsey advocated for the rehabilitation of children, not just their punishment. He pioneered the use of parole officers for minors, brought awareness to child neglect, encouraged school attendance, and fought for better working conditions for child laborers. He also worked toward creation of a state law that provided assistance to mothers who were having difficulty caring for their children.
Judge Lindsey was not without enemies, however. Denver was rife with corruption during his era. In 1910 he published The Beast, a book about his struggles against the Denver political machine. (A new edition from University Press of Colorado was released in 2009, and can be checked out from our library). Then in 1924, when Lindsey ran for re-election, his opponent was a member of the Ku Klux Klan, which swept many state offices that year. Lindsey won the election, but the Klan contested it, dragging out the case for several years. Also during this time, Lindsey made the mistake of accepting payment for providing counsel in an inheritance case in another state, which he was not allowed to do as a judge. As a result, the Colorado Supreme Court disbarred Lindsey in 1929. (He was later readmitted).
Following this disgraceful period, Lindsey, his wife, Henrietta, and their adopted daughter relocated to California. In the 1930s he became a Los Angeles Superior Court Judge. He died of a heart attack in 1943, and his ashes were scattered around the juvenile court building in Denver. In spite of his later controversies, Lindsey is fondly remembered in Colorado for his untiring work on behalf of children. Today, Denver’s Lindsey-Flanigan Courthouse commemorates “The Kid’s Judge.”
The work of the Juvenile Court in Denver continued as well. In 1933 Stanley H. Johnson, the new judge of the Denver Juvenile Court, published The Juvenile Court of Denver, Colorado: Digest and Analysis of Its Laws and Work. This volume has recently been digitized and made available online from our library. It contains a brief history of the establishment of the juvenile court in Denver and Lindsey’s role. It also provides statistics, a summary of state law regarding juveniles, and “comment upon the nature and procedure of the case work done.” As the first “thoroughly published analysis of the work of the Juvenile Court,” this is an important primary source document for anyone researching the history of the juvenile court in Colorado. Another useful resource, also digitized by our library, is the early-1900s reports of the State Bureau of Child and Animal Protection, which include discussions on laws relating to juveniles and juvenile delinquency. Discover more Colorado history resources by searching our library’s online catalog. | <urn:uuid:f8d979a7-094f-4a5c-b19a-8af8ce3077a6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.coloradovirtuallibrary.org/resource-sharing/state-pubs-blog/time-machine-tuesday-judge-ben-lindsey-and-the-juvenile-court/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00517.warc.gz | en | 0.985292 | 1,244 | 3.96875 | 4 | [
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-0.04113801568... | 5 | The early twentieth century was an era of social reform in the United States. The labor movement, women’s suffrage, and better opportunities for those less fortunate were among the causes that defined the period. In Colorado, one of the state’s most active reformers was Ben Lindsey, who pioneered the juvenile court system.
Originally from Tennessee, Benjamin Barr Lindsey moved to Denver as a child when his father took a job as a telegraph operator. Ben briefly returned to his home state to attend preparatory school at Southwestern Baptist University. Back in Denver after graduation, he decided to study law. But then his father, deeply in debt, committed suicide, leaving Ben – still a teenager – to support his mother and younger siblings. At one point, Ben, too, attempted suicide, but then resolved to “crush the circumstances that had almost crushed me.” He worked various jobs, including as a newsboy, a janitor, and a clerk at a real estate office, reading law in his spare time.
Ben Lindsey’s first exposure to juvenile law came while working as a clerk in a Denver law office, which handled some juvenile defense cases. Lindsey found that by talking to the accused children, he could get their side of the story. Many of the children were orphans or lived in poverty, so they roamed the streets, surviving as best they could – which sometimes got them into trouble. Lindsey learned from visiting with these children that in many cases what they needed was help, not punishment.
After several years of studying, Lindsey was admitted to the bar in 1894. Five years later he was appointed as a public administrator, serving as a legal guardian for orphaned children. In 1901 Lindsey was appointed county judge (Denver was at that time still part of Arapahoe County), and he used his new position to advocate for children. As a judge, he continued his practice of visiting with them and their families to learn about their circumstances.
During this era, juvenile delinquents were often sentenced as adults, even being jailed alongside adult offenders. In his own courtroom Lindsey typically sentenced juvenile offenders to probation or reform school instead of being sent to jail. But Lindsey began to wonder if something could be changed in state law that would allow the courts to treat juveniles differently from adults. An 1899 school law strictly defined truancy as criminal and disorderly behavior, which led to more children coming through the court system. As a result, Lindsey asked the District Attorney to send all juvenile cases to his courtroom, and the D.A. was glad to oblige. This was an informal arrangement, however, so Lindsey worked to codify the juvenile court in state law.
In 1907, Lindsey’s efforts led the State Legislature to pass an Act establishing a juvenile court in every Colorado county with a population greater than 100,000. At that time, Denver was the only such county, but the act allowed for future growth in other places in the state. The juvenile courts would have jurisdiction over all cases involving minors, including juvenile delinquency as well as family law cases such as custody, or for adults charged with crimes against children. The law also specified that a judge would be elected or appointed specifically to the juvenile court. The first such appointment in Denver was, of course, Ben Lindsey.
Lindsey held the post for twenty years, from 1907 to 1927. During his time as judge, Lindsey advocated for the rehabilitation of children, not just their punishment. He pioneered the use of parole officers for minors, brought awareness to child neglect, encouraged school attendance, and fought for better working conditions for child laborers. He also worked toward creation of a state law that provided assistance to mothers who were having difficulty caring for their children.
Judge Lindsey was not without enemies, however. Denver was rife with corruption during his era. In 1910 he published The Beast, a book about his struggles against the Denver political machine. (A new edition from University Press of Colorado was released in 2009, and can be checked out from our library). Then in 1924, when Lindsey ran for re-election, his opponent was a member of the Ku Klux Klan, which swept many state offices that year. Lindsey won the election, but the Klan contested it, dragging out the case for several years. Also during this time, Lindsey made the mistake of accepting payment for providing counsel in an inheritance case in another state, which he was not allowed to do as a judge. As a result, the Colorado Supreme Court disbarred Lindsey in 1929. (He was later readmitted).
Following this disgraceful period, Lindsey, his wife, Henrietta, and their adopted daughter relocated to California. In the 1930s he became a Los Angeles Superior Court Judge. He died of a heart attack in 1943, and his ashes were scattered around the juvenile court building in Denver. In spite of his later controversies, Lindsey is fondly remembered in Colorado for his untiring work on behalf of children. Today, Denver’s Lindsey-Flanigan Courthouse commemorates “The Kid’s Judge.”
The work of the Juvenile Court in Denver continued as well. In 1933 Stanley H. Johnson, the new judge of the Denver Juvenile Court, published The Juvenile Court of Denver, Colorado: Digest and Analysis of Its Laws and Work. This volume has recently been digitized and made available online from our library. It contains a brief history of the establishment of the juvenile court in Denver and Lindsey’s role. It also provides statistics, a summary of state law regarding juveniles, and “comment upon the nature and procedure of the case work done.” As the first “thoroughly published analysis of the work of the Juvenile Court,” this is an important primary source document for anyone researching the history of the juvenile court in Colorado. Another useful resource, also digitized by our library, is the early-1900s reports of the State Bureau of Child and Animal Protection, which include discussions on laws relating to juveniles and juvenile delinquency. Discover more Colorado history resources by searching our library’s online catalog. | 1,277 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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