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I’ve often said “The good old days really weren’t all that good.”
Professor Joanna Bourke wrote “Agonizing toothache, horrifying extractions and barbaric tools have cast a large shadow over our dental past.” No truer words were ever spoken.
Trained dentists didn’t exist until the 1800s and prior to that the care of the nation’s mouths was in the hands of blacksmiths and barbers who doubled as surgeons.
Like something right out of the Spanish Inquisition, they wielded pliers for pulling teeth or devices resembling bottle openers which relied on the hapless patient’s jaw for leverage. It wasn’t uncommon to accidentally dislodge the patient’s jaw during a “procedure.”
The profession was a back-street horror show for hundreds of years, run by ham-fisted amateurs who were sure to leave their patients in agony that is, if they survived.
The arrival of affordable sugar from the West Indies in the mid-1600s led to soaring cases of tooth decay.
Extraction was almost the only treatment available for a toothache until the middle of the 19th century and it wasn’t something to look forward to.
Thousands of people died from botched treatment, infections and other complications so it was hardly surprising that the dentist’s chair was regarded with sheer terror.
For a time in the 18th century transplanting teeth from dead to the living was popular. A small fortune could be earned by grave robbers converging upon battlefields and pulling teeth from dead and selling them to be used as transplants.
If you were lucky there might be a shot of whisky to numb the pain but otherwise all that was offered was a prayer. Until relatively recently rotten and neglected teeth were part of daily life.
The invention of the mass-produced toothbrush in 1780 helped but it was too expensive for the poor and was often a “community toothbrush.”
The first chemical used for pain relief was nitrous oxide, also known as laughing gas was invented in 1799.
The drill was invented during the Victorian Era. Operated by a foot pedal and a belt that turned the drill, the process was slow but it sometimes enabled dentists to drill away the decayed part eliminating the painful extraction.
Out West one of the hazards a dentist had to deal with were temperamental gunfighters. Outlaw Clay Allison, suffering from a toothache, visited a dentist in Cheyenne, Wyoming, who began drilling on the wrong tooth. After having his bad tooth repaired by a different doctor, Allison returned to the offending dentist, pinned him down, and extracted a tooth with a pair of pliers.
Dental patients of the early 20th century had a magic bullet: cocaine-laden toothache drops. Cocaine was also used as a painkiller. It was injected into the jaw in liquid form.
In the early 20th century dentistry was still so expensive that some people chose to have all their teeth pulled to spare themselves a lifetime of pain. Having all your teeth removed was considered the perfect gift for a 21st birthday or a newly married bride. | <urn:uuid:8e130def-0038-4d13-9924-6149803f96c9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://truewestmagazine.com/article/frontier-dentistry/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00049.warc.gz | en | 0.981388 | 664 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.1543179303407669... | 9 | I’ve often said “The good old days really weren’t all that good.”
Professor Joanna Bourke wrote “Agonizing toothache, horrifying extractions and barbaric tools have cast a large shadow over our dental past.” No truer words were ever spoken.
Trained dentists didn’t exist until the 1800s and prior to that the care of the nation’s mouths was in the hands of blacksmiths and barbers who doubled as surgeons.
Like something right out of the Spanish Inquisition, they wielded pliers for pulling teeth or devices resembling bottle openers which relied on the hapless patient’s jaw for leverage. It wasn’t uncommon to accidentally dislodge the patient’s jaw during a “procedure.”
The profession was a back-street horror show for hundreds of years, run by ham-fisted amateurs who were sure to leave their patients in agony that is, if they survived.
The arrival of affordable sugar from the West Indies in the mid-1600s led to soaring cases of tooth decay.
Extraction was almost the only treatment available for a toothache until the middle of the 19th century and it wasn’t something to look forward to.
Thousands of people died from botched treatment, infections and other complications so it was hardly surprising that the dentist’s chair was regarded with sheer terror.
For a time in the 18th century transplanting teeth from dead to the living was popular. A small fortune could be earned by grave robbers converging upon battlefields and pulling teeth from dead and selling them to be used as transplants.
If you were lucky there might be a shot of whisky to numb the pain but otherwise all that was offered was a prayer. Until relatively recently rotten and neglected teeth were part of daily life.
The invention of the mass-produced toothbrush in 1780 helped but it was too expensive for the poor and was often a “community toothbrush.”
The first chemical used for pain relief was nitrous oxide, also known as laughing gas was invented in 1799.
The drill was invented during the Victorian Era. Operated by a foot pedal and a belt that turned the drill, the process was slow but it sometimes enabled dentists to drill away the decayed part eliminating the painful extraction.
Out West one of the hazards a dentist had to deal with were temperamental gunfighters. Outlaw Clay Allison, suffering from a toothache, visited a dentist in Cheyenne, Wyoming, who began drilling on the wrong tooth. After having his bad tooth repaired by a different doctor, Allison returned to the offending dentist, pinned him down, and extracted a tooth with a pair of pliers.
Dental patients of the early 20th century had a magic bullet: cocaine-laden toothache drops. Cocaine was also used as a painkiller. It was injected into the jaw in liquid form.
In the early 20th century dentistry was still so expensive that some people chose to have all their teeth pulled to spare themselves a lifetime of pain. Having all your teeth removed was considered the perfect gift for a 21st birthday or a newly married bride. | 642 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Twelve good men and true
What's the meaning of the phrase 'Twelve good men and true'?
What's the origin of the phrase 'Twelve good men and true'?
When this phrase was coined, in the early 17th century, 'good' implied distinguished rank or valour. These days people aren't required to be valiant or of high rank in order to be part of a jury. They aren't even required to be men, as women have been called for jury in both the UK and USA since around 1920. This was a consequence of the women's suffrage movement. Prior to the 1920s the opponents of the movement were appalled by the fact that, if women could vote, they could also sit on juries. This was considered worse by some than the right to vote itself. In 1915, the Massachusetts Anti-Suffrage Committee argued, "Jury duty for your wife or your daughter is almost unthinkable. Yet it will be part of her legal duty as a voter."
The 'twelve good men and true' have been referred to since at least the 17th century; for example, in Thomas Randolph's Poems: with The muses looking-glasse; and Amyntas, circa 1635:
"I had rather... haue his twelve Godvathers, good men and true, contemne him to the Gallowes." | <urn:uuid:bc8ce110-20ec-4618-bd42-7aa47772bfc1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/393400.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00349.warc.gz | en | 0.980977 | 284 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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-0.30814... | 13 | Twelve good men and true
What's the meaning of the phrase 'Twelve good men and true'?
What's the origin of the phrase 'Twelve good men and true'?
When this phrase was coined, in the early 17th century, 'good' implied distinguished rank or valour. These days people aren't required to be valiant or of high rank in order to be part of a jury. They aren't even required to be men, as women have been called for jury in both the UK and USA since around 1920. This was a consequence of the women's suffrage movement. Prior to the 1920s the opponents of the movement were appalled by the fact that, if women could vote, they could also sit on juries. This was considered worse by some than the right to vote itself. In 1915, the Massachusetts Anti-Suffrage Committee argued, "Jury duty for your wife or your daughter is almost unthinkable. Yet it will be part of her legal duty as a voter."
The 'twelve good men and true' have been referred to since at least the 17th century; for example, in Thomas Randolph's Poems: with The muses looking-glasse; and Amyntas, circa 1635:
"I had rather... haue his twelve Godvathers, good men and true, contemne him to the Gallowes." | 300 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Corinthian War was an ancient Greek conflict lasting from 395 BC until 387 BC, pitting Sparta against a coalition of four allied states, Thebes, Athens, Corinth, and Argos, who were initially backed by Persia. The immediate cause of the war was a local conflict in northwest Greece in which both Thebes and Sparta intervened. The deeper cause was hostility towards Sparta provoked by that city's ""expansionism in Asia Minor, central and northern Greece and even the west"".The war was fought on two fronts, on land near Corinth (hence the name) and Thebes and at sea in the Aegean. On land, the Spartans achieved several early successes in major battles, but were unable to capitalize on their advantage, and the fighting soon became stalemated. At sea, the Spartan fleet was decisively defeated by a Persian fleet early in the war, an event that effectively ended Sparta's attempts to become a naval power. Taking advantage of this fact, Athens launched several naval campaigns in the later years of the war, recapturing a number of islands that had been part of the original Athenian Empire during the 5th century BC.Alarmed by these Athenian successes, the Persians stopped backing the allies and began supporting Sparta. This defection forced the allies to seek peace. The Peace of Antalcidas, commonly known as the King's Peace, was signed in 387 BC, ending the war. This treaty declared that Persia would control all of Ionia, and that all other Greek cities would be independent. Sparta was to be the guardian of the peace, with the power to enforce its clauses. The effects of the war, therefore, were to establish Persia's ability to interfere successfully in Greek politics and to affirm Sparta's hegemonic position in the Greek political system. | <urn:uuid:d9a4a8f9-cedc-46ad-b5ce-08f05647c68c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studyres.com/concepts/5517/corinthian-war | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00508.warc.gz | en | 0.981989 | 371 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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0.94577890634... | 3 | The Corinthian War was an ancient Greek conflict lasting from 395 BC until 387 BC, pitting Sparta against a coalition of four allied states, Thebes, Athens, Corinth, and Argos, who were initially backed by Persia. The immediate cause of the war was a local conflict in northwest Greece in which both Thebes and Sparta intervened. The deeper cause was hostility towards Sparta provoked by that city's ""expansionism in Asia Minor, central and northern Greece and even the west"".The war was fought on two fronts, on land near Corinth (hence the name) and Thebes and at sea in the Aegean. On land, the Spartans achieved several early successes in major battles, but were unable to capitalize on their advantage, and the fighting soon became stalemated. At sea, the Spartan fleet was decisively defeated by a Persian fleet early in the war, an event that effectively ended Sparta's attempts to become a naval power. Taking advantage of this fact, Athens launched several naval campaigns in the later years of the war, recapturing a number of islands that had been part of the original Athenian Empire during the 5th century BC.Alarmed by these Athenian successes, the Persians stopped backing the allies and began supporting Sparta. This defection forced the allies to seek peace. The Peace of Antalcidas, commonly known as the King's Peace, was signed in 387 BC, ending the war. This treaty declared that Persia would control all of Ionia, and that all other Greek cities would be independent. Sparta was to be the guardian of the peace, with the power to enforce its clauses. The effects of the war, therefore, were to establish Persia's ability to interfere successfully in Greek politics and to affirm Sparta's hegemonic position in the Greek political system. | 383 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Virginia Poe, as painted after her death
Virginia Eliza Clemm
August 15, 1822
|Died||January 30, 1847 (aged 24)|
|Cause of death||Tuberculosis|
|Resting place||Westminster Hall and Burying Ground, Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.|
Edgar Allan Poe (m. 1835)
Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe (née Clemm; August 15, 1822 – January 30, 1847) was the wife of American writer Edgar Allan Poe. The couple were first cousins and publicly married when Virginia Clemm was 13 and Poe was 27. Biographers disagree as to the nature of the couple's relationship. Though their marriage was loving, some biographers suggest they viewed one another more like a brother and sister. In January 1842, she contracted tuberculosis, growing worse for five years until she died of the disease at the age of 24 in the family's cottage, at that time outside New York City.
Along with other family members, Virginia Clemm and Edgar Allan Poe lived together off and on for several years before their marriage. The couple often moved to accommodate Poe's employment, living intermittently in Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York. A few years after their wedding, Poe was involved in a substantial scandal involving Frances Sargent Osgood and Elizabeth F. Ellet. Rumors about amorous improprieties on her husband's part affected Virginia Poe so much that on her deathbed she claimed that Ellet had murdered her. After her death, her body was eventually placed under the same memorial marker as her husband's in Westminster Hall and Burying Ground in Baltimore, Maryland. Only one image of Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe has been authenticated: a watercolor portrait painted several hours after her death.
The disease and eventual death of his wife had a substantial effect on Edgar Allan Poe, who became despondent and turned to alcohol to cope. Her struggles with illness and death are believed to have affected his poetry and prose, where dying young women appear as a frequent motif, as in "Annabel Lee", "The Raven", and "Ligeia".
Virginia Eliza Clemm was born in 1822 and named after an older sister who had died at age two only ten days earlier. Her father William Clemm, Jr. was a hardware merchant in Baltimore. He had married Maria Poe, Virginia's mother, on July 12, 1817, after the death of his first wife, Maria's first cousin Harriet. Clemm had five children from his previous marriage and went on to have three more with Maria. After his death in 1826, he left very little to the family and relatives offered no financial support because they had opposed the marriage. Maria supported the family by sewing and taking in boarders, aided with an annual $240 pension granted to her mother Elizabeth Cairnes, who was paralyzed and bedridden. Elizabeth received this pension on behalf of her late husband, "General" David Poe, a former quartermaster in Maryland who had loaned money to the state.
Edgar Poe first met his cousin Virginia in August 1829, four months after his discharge from the Army. She was seven at the time. In 1832, the family – made up of Elizabeth, Maria, Virginia, and Virginia's brother Henry – was able to use Elizabeth's pension to rent a home at what was then 3 North Amity Street in Baltimore. Poe's older brother William Henry Leonard Poe, who had been living with the family, had recently died on August 1, 1831. Poe joined the household in 1833 and was soon smitten by a neighbor named Mary Devereaux. The young Virginia served as a messenger between the two, at one point retrieving a lock of Devereaux's hair to give to Poe. Elizabeth Cairnes Poe died on July 7, 1835, effectively ending the family's income and making their financial situation even more difficult. Henry died around this time, sometime before 1836, leaving Virginia as Maria Clemm's only surviving child.
In August 1835, Poe left the destitute family behind and moved to Richmond, Virginia to take a job at the Southern Literary Messenger. While Poe was away from Baltimore, another cousin, Neilson Poe, the husband of Virginia's half-sister Josephine Clemm, heard that Edgar was considering marrying Virginia. Neilson offered to take her in and have her educated in an attempt to prevent the girl's marriage to Edgar at such a young age, though suggesting that the option could be reconsidered later. Edgar called Neilson, the owner of a newspaper in Baltimore, Maryland, his "bitterest enemy" and interpreted his cousin's actions as an attempt at breaking his connection with Virginia. On August 29, 1835, Edgar wrote an emotional letter to Maria, declaring that he was "blinded with tears while writing", and pleading that she allow Virginia to make her own decision. Encouraged by his employment at the Southern Literary Messenger, Poe offered to provide financially for Maria, Virginia and Henry if they moved to Richmond.
Marriage plans were confirmed and Poe returned to Baltimore to file for a marriage license on September 22, 1835. The couple might have been quietly married as well, though accounts are unclear. Their only public ceremony was in Richmond on May 16, 1836, when they were married by a Presbyterian minister named Rev. Amasa Converse. Poe was 27 and Virginia was 13, though her age was listed as 21. This marriage bond was filed in Richmond and included an affidavit from Thomas W. Cleland confirming the bride's alleged age. The ceremony was held in the evening at the home of a Mrs. James Yarrington, the owner of the boarding house in which Poe, Virginia, and Virginia's mother Maria Clemm were staying. Yarrington helped Maria Clemm bake the wedding cake and prepared a wedding meal. The couple then had a short honeymoon in Petersburg, Virginia.
Debate has raged regarding how unusual this pairing was based on the couple's age and blood relationship. Noted Poe biographer Arthur Hobson Quinn argues it was not particularly unusual, nor was Poe's nicknaming his wife "Sissy" or "Sis". Another Poe biographer, Kenneth Silverman, contends that though their first-cousin marriage was not unusual, her young age was. It has been suggested that Clemm and Poe had a relationship more like that between brother and sister than between husband and wife. Biographer Arthur Hobson Quinn disagreed with this view, citing a fervent love letter to argue that Poe "loved his little cousin not only with the affection of a brother, but also with the passionate devotion of a lover and prospective husband." Some scholars, including Marie Bonaparte, have read many of Poe's works as autobiographical and have concluded that Virginia died a virgin. It has been speculated that she and her husband never consummated their marriage, although no evidence is given. This interpretation often assumes that Virginia is represented by the title character in the poem "Annabel Lee": a "maiden... by the name of Annabel Lee". Poe biographer Joseph Wood Krutch suggests that Poe did not need women "in the way that normal men need them", but only as a source of inspiration and care, and that Poe was never interested in women sexually. Friends of Poe suggested that the couple did not share a bed for at least the first two years of their marriage but that, from the time she turned 16, they had a "normal" married life until the onset of her illness.
Virginia and Poe were by all accounts a happy and devoted couple. Poe's one-time employer George Rex Graham wrote of their relationship: "His love for his wife was a sort of rapturous worship of the spirit of beauty." Poe once wrote to a friend, "I see no one among the living as beautiful as my little wife." She, in turn, by many contemporary accounts, nearly idolized her husband. She often sat close to him while he wrote, kept his pens in order, and folded and addressed his manuscripts. She showed her love for Poe in an acrostic poem she composed when she was 23, dated February 14, 1846:
Ever with thee I wish to roam —
Dearest my life is thine.
Give me a cottage for my home
And a rich old cypress vine,
Removed from the world with its sin and care
And the tattling of many tongues.
Love alone shall guide us when we are there —
Love shall heal my weakened lungs;
And Oh, the tranquil hours we'll spend,
Never wishing that others may see!
Perfect ease we'll enjoy, without thinking to lend
Ourselves to the world and its glee —
Ever peaceful and blissful we'll be.
The "tattling of many tongues" in Virginia's Valentine poem was a reference to actual incidents. In 1845, Poe had begun a flirtation with Frances Sargent Osgood, a married 34-year-old poet. Virginia was aware of the friendship and might even have encouraged it. She often invited Osgood to visit them at home, believing that the older woman had a "restraining" effect on Poe, who had made a promise to "give up the use of stimulants" and was never drunk in Osgood's presence.
At the same time, another poet, Elizabeth F. Ellet, became enamored of Poe and jealous of Osgood. Though, in a letter to Sarah Helen Whitman, Poe called her love for him "loathsome" and wrote that he "could do nothing but repel [it] with scorn", he printed many of her poems to him in the Broadway Journal while he was its editor. Ellet was known for being meddlesome and vindictive, and, while visiting the Poe household in late January 1846, she saw one of Osgood's personal letters to Poe. According to Ellet, Virginia pointed out "fearful paragraphs" in Osgood's letter. Ellet contacted Osgood and suggested she should beware of her indiscretions and asked Poe to return her letters, motivated either by jealousy or by a desire to cause scandal. Osgood then sent Margaret Fuller and Anne Lynch Botta to ask Poe on her behalf to return the letters. Angered by their interference, Poe called them "Busy-bodies" and said that Ellet had better "look after her own letters", suggesting indiscretion on her part. He then gathered up these letters from Ellet and left them at her house.
Though these letters had already been returned to her, Ellet asked her brother "to demand of me the letters". Her brother, Colonel William Lummis, did not believe that Poe had already returned them and threatened to kill him. In order to defend himself, Poe requested a pistol from Thomas Dunn English. English, Poe's friend and a minor writer who was also a trained doctor and lawyer, likewise did not believe that Poe had already returned the letters and even questioned their existence. The easiest way out of the predicament, he said, "was a retraction of unfounded charges". Angered at being called a liar, Poe pushed English into a fistfight. Poe later claimed he was triumphant in the fight, though English claimed otherwise, and Poe's face was badly cut by one of English's rings. In Poe's version, he said, "I gave E. a flogging which he will remember to the day of his death." Either way, the fight further sparked gossip over the Osgood affair.
Osgood's husband stepped in and threatened to sue Ellet unless she formally apologized for her insinuations. She retracted her statements in a letter to Osgood saying, "The letter shown me by Mrs Poe must have been a forgery" created by Poe himself. She put all the blame on Poe, suggesting the incident was because Poe was "intemperate and subject to acts of lunacy". Ellet spread the rumor of Poe's insanity, which was taken up by other enemies of Poe and reported in newspapers. The St. Louis Reveille reported: "A rumor is in circulation in New York, to the effect that Mr. Edgar A. Poe, the poet and author, has been deranged, and his friends are about to place him under the charge of Dr. Brigham of the Insane Retreat at Utica." The scandal eventually died down only when Osgood reunited with her husband. Virginia, however, had been very affected by the whole affair. She had received anonymous letters about her husband's alleged indiscretions as early as July 1845. It is presumed that Ellet was involved with these letters, and they so disturbed Virginia that she allegedly declared on her deathbed that "Mrs. E. had been her murderer."
By this time, Virginia had developed consumption, first seen sometime in the middle of January 1842. While singing and playing the piano, Virginia began to bleed from the mouth, though Poe said she merely "ruptured a blood-vessel". Her health declined and she became an invalid, which drove Poe into a deep depression, especially as she occasionally showed signs of improvement. In a letter to a friend, Poe described his resulting mental state: "Each time I felt all the agonies of her death—and at each accession of the disorder I loved her more dearly & clung to her life with more desperate pertinacity. But I am constitutionally sensitive—nervous in a very unusual degree. I became insane, with long intervals of horrible sanity."
Virginia's condition might have been what prompted the Poe family to move, in the hopes of finding a healthier environment for her. They moved several times within Philadelphia in the early 1840s and their last home in that city is now preserved as the Edgar Allan Poe National Historic Site in Spring Garden. In this home, Virginia was well enough to tend the flower garden and entertain visitors by playing the harp or the piano and singing. The family then moved to New York sometime in early April 1844, traveling by train and steamboat. Virginia waited on board the ship while her husband secured space at a boarding house on Greenwich Street. By early 1846, family friend Elizabeth Oakes Smith said that Virginia admitted, "I know I shall die soon; I know I can't get well; but I want to be as happy as possible, and make Edgar happy." She promised her husband that after her death she would be his guardian angel.
In May 1846, the family (Poe, Virginia, and her mother, Maria) moved to a small cottage in Fordham, about fourteen miles outside the city, a home which is still standing today. In what is the only surviving letter from Poe to Virginia, dated June 12, 1846, he urged her to remain optimistic: "Keep up your heart in all hopelessness, and trust yet a little longer." Of his recent loss of the Broadway Journal, the only magazine Poe ever owned, he said, "I should have lost my courage but for you—my darling little wife you are my greatest and only stimulus now to battle with this uncongenial, unsatisfactory and ungrateful life." But by November of that year, Virginia's condition was hopeless. Her symptoms included irregular appetite, flushed cheeks, unstable pulse, night sweats, high fever, sudden chills, shortness of breath, chest pains, coughing and spitting up blood.
Illness of Edgar A. Poe. —We regret to learn that this gentleman and his wife are both dangerously ill with the consumption, and that the hand of misfortune lies heavily on their temporal affairs. We are sorry to mention the fact that they are so far reduced as to be barely able to obtain the necessaries of life. That is, indeed, a hard lot, and we do hope that the friends and admirers of Mr. Poe will come promptly to his assistance in his bitterest hour of need.
Willis, who had not corresponded with Poe for two years and had since lost his own wife, was one of his greatest supporters in this period. He sent Poe and his wife an inspirational Christmas book, The Marriage Ring; or How to Make a Home Happy.
The announcement was similar to one made for Poe's mother, Eliza Poe, during her last stages of tuberculosis. Other newspapers picked up on the story: "Great God!", said one, "is it possible, that the literary people of the Union, will let poor Poe perish by starvation and lean faced beggary in New York? For so we are led to believe, from frequent notices in the papers, stating that Poe and his wife are both down upon a bed of misery, death, and disease, with not a ducat in the world." The Saturday Evening Post asserted that Virginia was in a hopeless condition and that Poe was bereft: "It is said that Edgar A. Poe is lying dangerously with brain fever, and that his wife is in the last stages of consumption—they are without money and without friends." Even editor Hiram Fuller, whom Poe had previously sued for libel, attempted in the New York Mirror to garner support for Poe and his wife: "We, whom he has quarrelled with, will take the lead", he wrote.
Virginia was described as having dark hair and violet eyes, with skin so pale it was called "pure white", causing a "bad complexion that spoiled her looks". One visitor to the Poe family noted that "the rose-tint upon her cheek was too bright", possibly a symptom of her illness. Another visitor in Fordham wrote, "Mrs. Poe looked very young; she had large black eyes, and a pearly whiteness of complexion, which was a perfect pallor. Her pale face, her brilliant eyes, and her raven hair gave her an unearthly look." That unearthly look was mentioned by others who suggested it made her look not quite human. William Gowans, who once lodged with the family, described Virginia as a woman of "matchless beauty and loveliness, her eye could match that of any houri, and her face defy the genius of a Canova to imitate". She might have been a little plump. Many contemporary accounts as well as modern biographers remark on her childlike appearance even in the last years of her life.
While dying, Virginia asked her mother: "Darling... will you console and take care of my poor Eddy—you will never never leave him?" Her mother stayed with Poe until his own death in 1849. As Virginia was dying, the family received many visitors, including an old friend named Mary Starr. At one point Virginia put Starr's hand in Poe's and asked her to "be a friend to Eddy, and don't forsake him". Virginia was tended to by 25-year-old Marie Louise Shew. Shew, who served as a nurse, knew medical care from her father and her husband, both doctors. She provided Virginia with a comforter as her only other cover was Poe's old military cloak, as well as bottles of wine, which the invalid drank "smiling, even when difficult to get it down". Virginia also showed Poe a letter from Louisa Patterson, second wife of Poe's foster-father John Allan, which she had kept for years and which suggested that Patterson had purposely caused the break between Allan and Poe.
On January 29, 1847, Poe wrote to Marie Louise Shew: "My poor Virginia still lives, although failing fast and now suffering much pain." Virginia died the following day, January 30, after five years of illness. Shew helped in organizing her funeral, even purchasing the coffin. Death notices appeared in several newspapers. On February 1, The New York Daily Tribune and the Herald carried the simple obituary: "On Saturday, the 30th ult., of pulmonary consumption, in the 25th year of her age, VIRGINIA ELIZA, wife of EDGAR A. POE." The funeral was February 2, 1847. Attendees included Nathaniel Parker Willis, Ann S. Stephens, and publisher George Pope Morris. Poe refused to look at his dead wife's face, saying he preferred to remember her living. Though now buried at Westminster Hall and Burying Ground, Virginia was originally buried in a vault owned by the Valentine family, from whom the Poes rented their Fordham cottage.
Only one image of Virginia is known to exist, for which the painter had to take her corpse as model. A few hours after her death, Poe realized he had no image of Virginia and so commissioned a portrait in watercolor. She is shown wearing "beautiful linen" that Shew said she had dressed her in; Shew might have been the portrait's artist, though this is uncertain. The image depicts her with a slight double chin and with hazel eyes. The image was passed down to the family of Virginia's half-sister Josephine, wife of Neilson Poe.
In 1875, the same year in which her husband's body was reburied, the cemetery in which she lay was destroyed and her remains were almost forgotten. An early Poe biographer, William Gill, gathered the bones and stored them in a box he hid under his bed. Gill's story was reported in the Boston Herald twenty-seven years after the event: he says that he had visited the Fordham cemetery in 1883 at exactly the moment that the sexton Dennis Valentine held Virginia's bones in his shovel, ready to throw them away as unclaimed. Poe himself had died in 1849, and so Gill took Virginia's remains and, after corresponding with Neilson Poe and John Prentiss Poe in Baltimore, arranged to bring the box down to be laid on Poe's left side in a small bronze casket. Virginia's remains were finally buried with her husband's on January 19, 1885—the seventy-sixth anniversary of her husband's birth and nearly ten years after his current monument was erected. The same man who served as sexton during Poe's original burial and his exhumations and reburials was also present at the rites which brought his body to rest with Virginia and Virginia's mother Maria Clemm.
Virginia's death had a significant effect on Poe. After her death, Poe was deeply saddened for several months. A friend said of him, "the loss of his wife was a sad blow to him. He did not seem to care, after she was gone, whether he lived an hour, a day, a week or a year; she was his all." A year after her death, he wrote to a friend that he had experienced the greatest evil a man can suffer when, he said, "a wife, whom I loved as no man ever loved before", had fallen ill. While Virginia was still struggling to recover, Poe turned to alcohol after abstaining for quite some time. How often and how much he drank is a controversial issue, debated in Poe's lifetime and also by modern biographers. Poe referred to his emotional response to his wife's sickness as his own illness, and that he found the cure to it "in the death of my wife. This I can & do endure as becomes a man—it was the horrible never-ending oscillation between hope & despair which I could not longer have endured without the total loss of reason".
Poe regularly visited Virginia's grave. As his friend Charles Chauncey Burr wrote, "Many times, after the death of his beloved wife, was he found at the dead hour of a winter night, sitting beside her tomb almost frozen in the snow". Shortly after Virginia's death, Poe courted several other women, including Nancy Richmond of Lowell, Massachusetts, Sarah Helen Whitman of Providence, Rhode Island, and childhood sweetheart Sarah Elmira Royster in Richmond. Even so, Frances Sargent Osgood, whom Poe also attempted to woo, believed "that [Virginia] was the only woman whom he ever loved".
Many of Poe's works are interpreted autobiographically, with much of his work believed to reflect Virginia's long struggle with tuberculosis and her eventual death. The most discussed example is "Annabel Lee". This poem, which depicts a dead young bride and her mourning lover, is often assumed to have been inspired by Virginia, though other women in Poe's life are potential candidates including Frances Sargent Osgood and Sarah Helen Whitman. A similar poem, "Ulalume", is also believed to be a memorial tribute to Virginia, as is "Lenore", whose title character is described as "the most lovely dead that ever died so young!" After Poe's death, George Gilfillan of the London-based Critic said Poe was responsible for his wife's death, "hurrying her to a premature grave, that he might write 'Annabel Lee' and 'The Raven'". However, "The Raven" was written and published two years before Virginia's death.
Virginia is also seen in Poe's prose. The short story "Eleonora" (1842)—which features a narrator preparing to marry his cousin, with whom he lives alongside her mother—may also refer to Virginia's illness. When Poe wrote it, his wife had just begun to show signs of her illness. It was shortly thereafter that the couple moved to New York City by boat and Poe published "The Oblong Box" (1844). This story, which shows a man mourning his young wife while transporting her corpse by boat, seems to suggest Poe's feelings about Virginia's impending death. As the ship sinks, the husband would rather die than be separated from his wife's corpse. The short story "Ligeia", whose title character suffers a slow and lingering death, may also be inspired by Virginia. After his wife's death, Poe edited his first published story, "Metzengerstein", to remove the narrator's line, "I would wish all I love to perish of that gentle disease", a reference to tuberculosis.
In track 9 of their 2008 debut album Le Pop, Norwegian band Katzenjammer performed a song entitled "Virginia Clemm". Set to the tune of a musical clock, the song's lyrics refer to Virginia's early marriage at 13 years of age ("He was a child I was a child / Sentimental and wild"), to her husband's alleged affairs ("The other woman to explain / Her letters I deplore"), to her untimely death ("For twelve short years / We lived out of health"), to the band's perceived obsessions of Poe's subsequent obsession with his wife's death ("Heir of my illness / Writer of all the stories and the words / That I'm haunting / That I'm haunting") as well as alluding, in the last verse ("And I'll leave you nevermore"), to the poem "The Raven".
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0.11485605686903... | 3 | Virginia Poe, as painted after her death
Virginia Eliza Clemm
August 15, 1822
|Died||January 30, 1847 (aged 24)|
|Cause of death||Tuberculosis|
|Resting place||Westminster Hall and Burying Ground, Baltimore, Maryland, U.S.|
Edgar Allan Poe (m. 1835)
Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe (née Clemm; August 15, 1822 – January 30, 1847) was the wife of American writer Edgar Allan Poe. The couple were first cousins and publicly married when Virginia Clemm was 13 and Poe was 27. Biographers disagree as to the nature of the couple's relationship. Though their marriage was loving, some biographers suggest they viewed one another more like a brother and sister. In January 1842, she contracted tuberculosis, growing worse for five years until she died of the disease at the age of 24 in the family's cottage, at that time outside New York City.
Along with other family members, Virginia Clemm and Edgar Allan Poe lived together off and on for several years before their marriage. The couple often moved to accommodate Poe's employment, living intermittently in Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York. A few years after their wedding, Poe was involved in a substantial scandal involving Frances Sargent Osgood and Elizabeth F. Ellet. Rumors about amorous improprieties on her husband's part affected Virginia Poe so much that on her deathbed she claimed that Ellet had murdered her. After her death, her body was eventually placed under the same memorial marker as her husband's in Westminster Hall and Burying Ground in Baltimore, Maryland. Only one image of Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe has been authenticated: a watercolor portrait painted several hours after her death.
The disease and eventual death of his wife had a substantial effect on Edgar Allan Poe, who became despondent and turned to alcohol to cope. Her struggles with illness and death are believed to have affected his poetry and prose, where dying young women appear as a frequent motif, as in "Annabel Lee", "The Raven", and "Ligeia".
Virginia Eliza Clemm was born in 1822 and named after an older sister who had died at age two only ten days earlier. Her father William Clemm, Jr. was a hardware merchant in Baltimore. He had married Maria Poe, Virginia's mother, on July 12, 1817, after the death of his first wife, Maria's first cousin Harriet. Clemm had five children from his previous marriage and went on to have three more with Maria. After his death in 1826, he left very little to the family and relatives offered no financial support because they had opposed the marriage. Maria supported the family by sewing and taking in boarders, aided with an annual $240 pension granted to her mother Elizabeth Cairnes, who was paralyzed and bedridden. Elizabeth received this pension on behalf of her late husband, "General" David Poe, a former quartermaster in Maryland who had loaned money to the state.
Edgar Poe first met his cousin Virginia in August 1829, four months after his discharge from the Army. She was seven at the time. In 1832, the family – made up of Elizabeth, Maria, Virginia, and Virginia's brother Henry – was able to use Elizabeth's pension to rent a home at what was then 3 North Amity Street in Baltimore. Poe's older brother William Henry Leonard Poe, who had been living with the family, had recently died on August 1, 1831. Poe joined the household in 1833 and was soon smitten by a neighbor named Mary Devereaux. The young Virginia served as a messenger between the two, at one point retrieving a lock of Devereaux's hair to give to Poe. Elizabeth Cairnes Poe died on July 7, 1835, effectively ending the family's income and making their financial situation even more difficult. Henry died around this time, sometime before 1836, leaving Virginia as Maria Clemm's only surviving child.
In August 1835, Poe left the destitute family behind and moved to Richmond, Virginia to take a job at the Southern Literary Messenger. While Poe was away from Baltimore, another cousin, Neilson Poe, the husband of Virginia's half-sister Josephine Clemm, heard that Edgar was considering marrying Virginia. Neilson offered to take her in and have her educated in an attempt to prevent the girl's marriage to Edgar at such a young age, though suggesting that the option could be reconsidered later. Edgar called Neilson, the owner of a newspaper in Baltimore, Maryland, his "bitterest enemy" and interpreted his cousin's actions as an attempt at breaking his connection with Virginia. On August 29, 1835, Edgar wrote an emotional letter to Maria, declaring that he was "blinded with tears while writing", and pleading that she allow Virginia to make her own decision. Encouraged by his employment at the Southern Literary Messenger, Poe offered to provide financially for Maria, Virginia and Henry if they moved to Richmond.
Marriage plans were confirmed and Poe returned to Baltimore to file for a marriage license on September 22, 1835. The couple might have been quietly married as well, though accounts are unclear. Their only public ceremony was in Richmond on May 16, 1836, when they were married by a Presbyterian minister named Rev. Amasa Converse. Poe was 27 and Virginia was 13, though her age was listed as 21. This marriage bond was filed in Richmond and included an affidavit from Thomas W. Cleland confirming the bride's alleged age. The ceremony was held in the evening at the home of a Mrs. James Yarrington, the owner of the boarding house in which Poe, Virginia, and Virginia's mother Maria Clemm were staying. Yarrington helped Maria Clemm bake the wedding cake and prepared a wedding meal. The couple then had a short honeymoon in Petersburg, Virginia.
Debate has raged regarding how unusual this pairing was based on the couple's age and blood relationship. Noted Poe biographer Arthur Hobson Quinn argues it was not particularly unusual, nor was Poe's nicknaming his wife "Sissy" or "Sis". Another Poe biographer, Kenneth Silverman, contends that though their first-cousin marriage was not unusual, her young age was. It has been suggested that Clemm and Poe had a relationship more like that between brother and sister than between husband and wife. Biographer Arthur Hobson Quinn disagreed with this view, citing a fervent love letter to argue that Poe "loved his little cousin not only with the affection of a brother, but also with the passionate devotion of a lover and prospective husband." Some scholars, including Marie Bonaparte, have read many of Poe's works as autobiographical and have concluded that Virginia died a virgin. It has been speculated that she and her husband never consummated their marriage, although no evidence is given. This interpretation often assumes that Virginia is represented by the title character in the poem "Annabel Lee": a "maiden... by the name of Annabel Lee". Poe biographer Joseph Wood Krutch suggests that Poe did not need women "in the way that normal men need them", but only as a source of inspiration and care, and that Poe was never interested in women sexually. Friends of Poe suggested that the couple did not share a bed for at least the first two years of their marriage but that, from the time she turned 16, they had a "normal" married life until the onset of her illness.
Virginia and Poe were by all accounts a happy and devoted couple. Poe's one-time employer George Rex Graham wrote of their relationship: "His love for his wife was a sort of rapturous worship of the spirit of beauty." Poe once wrote to a friend, "I see no one among the living as beautiful as my little wife." She, in turn, by many contemporary accounts, nearly idolized her husband. She often sat close to him while he wrote, kept his pens in order, and folded and addressed his manuscripts. She showed her love for Poe in an acrostic poem she composed when she was 23, dated February 14, 1846:
Ever with thee I wish to roam —
Dearest my life is thine.
Give me a cottage for my home
And a rich old cypress vine,
Removed from the world with its sin and care
And the tattling of many tongues.
Love alone shall guide us when we are there —
Love shall heal my weakened lungs;
And Oh, the tranquil hours we'll spend,
Never wishing that others may see!
Perfect ease we'll enjoy, without thinking to lend
Ourselves to the world and its glee —
Ever peaceful and blissful we'll be.
The "tattling of many tongues" in Virginia's Valentine poem was a reference to actual incidents. In 1845, Poe had begun a flirtation with Frances Sargent Osgood, a married 34-year-old poet. Virginia was aware of the friendship and might even have encouraged it. She often invited Osgood to visit them at home, believing that the older woman had a "restraining" effect on Poe, who had made a promise to "give up the use of stimulants" and was never drunk in Osgood's presence.
At the same time, another poet, Elizabeth F. Ellet, became enamored of Poe and jealous of Osgood. Though, in a letter to Sarah Helen Whitman, Poe called her love for him "loathsome" and wrote that he "could do nothing but repel [it] with scorn", he printed many of her poems to him in the Broadway Journal while he was its editor. Ellet was known for being meddlesome and vindictive, and, while visiting the Poe household in late January 1846, she saw one of Osgood's personal letters to Poe. According to Ellet, Virginia pointed out "fearful paragraphs" in Osgood's letter. Ellet contacted Osgood and suggested she should beware of her indiscretions and asked Poe to return her letters, motivated either by jealousy or by a desire to cause scandal. Osgood then sent Margaret Fuller and Anne Lynch Botta to ask Poe on her behalf to return the letters. Angered by their interference, Poe called them "Busy-bodies" and said that Ellet had better "look after her own letters", suggesting indiscretion on her part. He then gathered up these letters from Ellet and left them at her house.
Though these letters had already been returned to her, Ellet asked her brother "to demand of me the letters". Her brother, Colonel William Lummis, did not believe that Poe had already returned them and threatened to kill him. In order to defend himself, Poe requested a pistol from Thomas Dunn English. English, Poe's friend and a minor writer who was also a trained doctor and lawyer, likewise did not believe that Poe had already returned the letters and even questioned their existence. The easiest way out of the predicament, he said, "was a retraction of unfounded charges". Angered at being called a liar, Poe pushed English into a fistfight. Poe later claimed he was triumphant in the fight, though English claimed otherwise, and Poe's face was badly cut by one of English's rings. In Poe's version, he said, "I gave E. a flogging which he will remember to the day of his death." Either way, the fight further sparked gossip over the Osgood affair.
Osgood's husband stepped in and threatened to sue Ellet unless she formally apologized for her insinuations. She retracted her statements in a letter to Osgood saying, "The letter shown me by Mrs Poe must have been a forgery" created by Poe himself. She put all the blame on Poe, suggesting the incident was because Poe was "intemperate and subject to acts of lunacy". Ellet spread the rumor of Poe's insanity, which was taken up by other enemies of Poe and reported in newspapers. The St. Louis Reveille reported: "A rumor is in circulation in New York, to the effect that Mr. Edgar A. Poe, the poet and author, has been deranged, and his friends are about to place him under the charge of Dr. Brigham of the Insane Retreat at Utica." The scandal eventually died down only when Osgood reunited with her husband. Virginia, however, had been very affected by the whole affair. She had received anonymous letters about her husband's alleged indiscretions as early as July 1845. It is presumed that Ellet was involved with these letters, and they so disturbed Virginia that she allegedly declared on her deathbed that "Mrs. E. had been her murderer."
By this time, Virginia had developed consumption, first seen sometime in the middle of January 1842. While singing and playing the piano, Virginia began to bleed from the mouth, though Poe said she merely "ruptured a blood-vessel". Her health declined and she became an invalid, which drove Poe into a deep depression, especially as she occasionally showed signs of improvement. In a letter to a friend, Poe described his resulting mental state: "Each time I felt all the agonies of her death—and at each accession of the disorder I loved her more dearly & clung to her life with more desperate pertinacity. But I am constitutionally sensitive—nervous in a very unusual degree. I became insane, with long intervals of horrible sanity."
Virginia's condition might have been what prompted the Poe family to move, in the hopes of finding a healthier environment for her. They moved several times within Philadelphia in the early 1840s and their last home in that city is now preserved as the Edgar Allan Poe National Historic Site in Spring Garden. In this home, Virginia was well enough to tend the flower garden and entertain visitors by playing the harp or the piano and singing. The family then moved to New York sometime in early April 1844, traveling by train and steamboat. Virginia waited on board the ship while her husband secured space at a boarding house on Greenwich Street. By early 1846, family friend Elizabeth Oakes Smith said that Virginia admitted, "I know I shall die soon; I know I can't get well; but I want to be as happy as possible, and make Edgar happy." She promised her husband that after her death she would be his guardian angel.
In May 1846, the family (Poe, Virginia, and her mother, Maria) moved to a small cottage in Fordham, about fourteen miles outside the city, a home which is still standing today. In what is the only surviving letter from Poe to Virginia, dated June 12, 1846, he urged her to remain optimistic: "Keep up your heart in all hopelessness, and trust yet a little longer." Of his recent loss of the Broadway Journal, the only magazine Poe ever owned, he said, "I should have lost my courage but for you—my darling little wife you are my greatest and only stimulus now to battle with this uncongenial, unsatisfactory and ungrateful life." But by November of that year, Virginia's condition was hopeless. Her symptoms included irregular appetite, flushed cheeks, unstable pulse, night sweats, high fever, sudden chills, shortness of breath, chest pains, coughing and spitting up blood.
Illness of Edgar A. Poe. —We regret to learn that this gentleman and his wife are both dangerously ill with the consumption, and that the hand of misfortune lies heavily on their temporal affairs. We are sorry to mention the fact that they are so far reduced as to be barely able to obtain the necessaries of life. That is, indeed, a hard lot, and we do hope that the friends and admirers of Mr. Poe will come promptly to his assistance in his bitterest hour of need.
Willis, who had not corresponded with Poe for two years and had since lost his own wife, was one of his greatest supporters in this period. He sent Poe and his wife an inspirational Christmas book, The Marriage Ring; or How to Make a Home Happy.
The announcement was similar to one made for Poe's mother, Eliza Poe, during her last stages of tuberculosis. Other newspapers picked up on the story: "Great God!", said one, "is it possible, that the literary people of the Union, will let poor Poe perish by starvation and lean faced beggary in New York? For so we are led to believe, from frequent notices in the papers, stating that Poe and his wife are both down upon a bed of misery, death, and disease, with not a ducat in the world." The Saturday Evening Post asserted that Virginia was in a hopeless condition and that Poe was bereft: "It is said that Edgar A. Poe is lying dangerously with brain fever, and that his wife is in the last stages of consumption—they are without money and without friends." Even editor Hiram Fuller, whom Poe had previously sued for libel, attempted in the New York Mirror to garner support for Poe and his wife: "We, whom he has quarrelled with, will take the lead", he wrote.
Virginia was described as having dark hair and violet eyes, with skin so pale it was called "pure white", causing a "bad complexion that spoiled her looks". One visitor to the Poe family noted that "the rose-tint upon her cheek was too bright", possibly a symptom of her illness. Another visitor in Fordham wrote, "Mrs. Poe looked very young; she had large black eyes, and a pearly whiteness of complexion, which was a perfect pallor. Her pale face, her brilliant eyes, and her raven hair gave her an unearthly look." That unearthly look was mentioned by others who suggested it made her look not quite human. William Gowans, who once lodged with the family, described Virginia as a woman of "matchless beauty and loveliness, her eye could match that of any houri, and her face defy the genius of a Canova to imitate". She might have been a little plump. Many contemporary accounts as well as modern biographers remark on her childlike appearance even in the last years of her life.
While dying, Virginia asked her mother: "Darling... will you console and take care of my poor Eddy—you will never never leave him?" Her mother stayed with Poe until his own death in 1849. As Virginia was dying, the family received many visitors, including an old friend named Mary Starr. At one point Virginia put Starr's hand in Poe's and asked her to "be a friend to Eddy, and don't forsake him". Virginia was tended to by 25-year-old Marie Louise Shew. Shew, who served as a nurse, knew medical care from her father and her husband, both doctors. She provided Virginia with a comforter as her only other cover was Poe's old military cloak, as well as bottles of wine, which the invalid drank "smiling, even when difficult to get it down". Virginia also showed Poe a letter from Louisa Patterson, second wife of Poe's foster-father John Allan, which she had kept for years and which suggested that Patterson had purposely caused the break between Allan and Poe.
On January 29, 1847, Poe wrote to Marie Louise Shew: "My poor Virginia still lives, although failing fast and now suffering much pain." Virginia died the following day, January 30, after five years of illness. Shew helped in organizing her funeral, even purchasing the coffin. Death notices appeared in several newspapers. On February 1, The New York Daily Tribune and the Herald carried the simple obituary: "On Saturday, the 30th ult., of pulmonary consumption, in the 25th year of her age, VIRGINIA ELIZA, wife of EDGAR A. POE." The funeral was February 2, 1847. Attendees included Nathaniel Parker Willis, Ann S. Stephens, and publisher George Pope Morris. Poe refused to look at his dead wife's face, saying he preferred to remember her living. Though now buried at Westminster Hall and Burying Ground, Virginia was originally buried in a vault owned by the Valentine family, from whom the Poes rented their Fordham cottage.
Only one image of Virginia is known to exist, for which the painter had to take her corpse as model. A few hours after her death, Poe realized he had no image of Virginia and so commissioned a portrait in watercolor. She is shown wearing "beautiful linen" that Shew said she had dressed her in; Shew might have been the portrait's artist, though this is uncertain. The image depicts her with a slight double chin and with hazel eyes. The image was passed down to the family of Virginia's half-sister Josephine, wife of Neilson Poe.
In 1875, the same year in which her husband's body was reburied, the cemetery in which she lay was destroyed and her remains were almost forgotten. An early Poe biographer, William Gill, gathered the bones and stored them in a box he hid under his bed. Gill's story was reported in the Boston Herald twenty-seven years after the event: he says that he had visited the Fordham cemetery in 1883 at exactly the moment that the sexton Dennis Valentine held Virginia's bones in his shovel, ready to throw them away as unclaimed. Poe himself had died in 1849, and so Gill took Virginia's remains and, after corresponding with Neilson Poe and John Prentiss Poe in Baltimore, arranged to bring the box down to be laid on Poe's left side in a small bronze casket. Virginia's remains were finally buried with her husband's on January 19, 1885—the seventy-sixth anniversary of her husband's birth and nearly ten years after his current monument was erected. The same man who served as sexton during Poe's original burial and his exhumations and reburials was also present at the rites which brought his body to rest with Virginia and Virginia's mother Maria Clemm.
Virginia's death had a significant effect on Poe. After her death, Poe was deeply saddened for several months. A friend said of him, "the loss of his wife was a sad blow to him. He did not seem to care, after she was gone, whether he lived an hour, a day, a week or a year; she was his all." A year after her death, he wrote to a friend that he had experienced the greatest evil a man can suffer when, he said, "a wife, whom I loved as no man ever loved before", had fallen ill. While Virginia was still struggling to recover, Poe turned to alcohol after abstaining for quite some time. How often and how much he drank is a controversial issue, debated in Poe's lifetime and also by modern biographers. Poe referred to his emotional response to his wife's sickness as his own illness, and that he found the cure to it "in the death of my wife. This I can & do endure as becomes a man—it was the horrible never-ending oscillation between hope & despair which I could not longer have endured without the total loss of reason".
Poe regularly visited Virginia's grave. As his friend Charles Chauncey Burr wrote, "Many times, after the death of his beloved wife, was he found at the dead hour of a winter night, sitting beside her tomb almost frozen in the snow". Shortly after Virginia's death, Poe courted several other women, including Nancy Richmond of Lowell, Massachusetts, Sarah Helen Whitman of Providence, Rhode Island, and childhood sweetheart Sarah Elmira Royster in Richmond. Even so, Frances Sargent Osgood, whom Poe also attempted to woo, believed "that [Virginia] was the only woman whom he ever loved".
Many of Poe's works are interpreted autobiographically, with much of his work believed to reflect Virginia's long struggle with tuberculosis and her eventual death. The most discussed example is "Annabel Lee". This poem, which depicts a dead young bride and her mourning lover, is often assumed to have been inspired by Virginia, though other women in Poe's life are potential candidates including Frances Sargent Osgood and Sarah Helen Whitman. A similar poem, "Ulalume", is also believed to be a memorial tribute to Virginia, as is "Lenore", whose title character is described as "the most lovely dead that ever died so young!" After Poe's death, George Gilfillan of the London-based Critic said Poe was responsible for his wife's death, "hurrying her to a premature grave, that he might write 'Annabel Lee' and 'The Raven'". However, "The Raven" was written and published two years before Virginia's death.
Virginia is also seen in Poe's prose. The short story "Eleonora" (1842)—which features a narrator preparing to marry his cousin, with whom he lives alongside her mother—may also refer to Virginia's illness. When Poe wrote it, his wife had just begun to show signs of her illness. It was shortly thereafter that the couple moved to New York City by boat and Poe published "The Oblong Box" (1844). This story, which shows a man mourning his young wife while transporting her corpse by boat, seems to suggest Poe's feelings about Virginia's impending death. As the ship sinks, the husband would rather die than be separated from his wife's corpse. The short story "Ligeia", whose title character suffers a slow and lingering death, may also be inspired by Virginia. After his wife's death, Poe edited his first published story, "Metzengerstein", to remove the narrator's line, "I would wish all I love to perish of that gentle disease", a reference to tuberculosis.
In track 9 of their 2008 debut album Le Pop, Norwegian band Katzenjammer performed a song entitled "Virginia Clemm". Set to the tune of a musical clock, the song's lyrics refer to Virginia's early marriage at 13 years of age ("He was a child I was a child / Sentimental and wild"), to her husband's alleged affairs ("The other woman to explain / Her letters I deplore"), to her untimely death ("For twelve short years / We lived out of health"), to the band's perceived obsessions of Poe's subsequent obsession with his wife's death ("Heir of my illness / Writer of all the stories and the words / That I'm haunting / That I'm haunting") as well as alluding, in the last verse ("And I'll leave you nevermore"), to the poem "The Raven".
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe.| | 5,660 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Our featured artist for November is Mary Faust Carradine who has chosen print making as her chosen form of artistic expression. I have found that using the term “print” can frequently be confusing to the uninitiated (including myself, sometimes) so I decided to do a little research into what exactly does “print making” involve. I want to give credit to Wikipedia and Venice Beedenbender of Washington Printmakers Gallery, as well as Metropolitan Museum’s “Heilbrunn Timelin of Art History” for the information below.
For most of the history of man, images were rarely seen by anyone other than the wealthy. However, around 1400 the first forms of printmaking began to develop giving man the ability to print thousands or more of the same image, opening the visual image to become an art form as well as a means of communication.
Items referred to as “prints” are not to be confused with reproductions of originals. An original print is an impression produced from a block of wood, stone, plate (such as linoleum) or screen which the artist has created. If using a fine art medium such as oil paint, watercolor, or ink, the artist can make a series of originals, each hand done by the artist. There is usually an inking, wiping, and printing of each copy in an edition.
The artist will usually determine how many of these “hand pulled” prints will be in an edition. In recent history, the limiting of these editions increases the value of each piece in the edition. The artist generally signs the print with the number of the print in the edition and the total number to be printed in the edition indicated as well.
When talking about print editions, the term “artist proof” is used and designated with “P/A”. These are the first 5-10% of prints pulled by the artist as he or she works through trial proofs to create the process for the “final proof”. These artist’s proofs record the creative process of the artist and are considered to be valuable because of this. The final proof is called the “bon a tirer” and is considered the ideal.
There are several general types of prints:
1. Relief printing started in China around AD 105 and showed up in Europe in the 15th century
Predating printing, the Chinese used stone rubbings to made holy images and create texts. Lines were carved into the flat stones, wet paper pressed into the stone, and ink was applied. The image was white lines on a black background. When they applied the images and texts to the same paper, it was called block book printing and was the foundation for printmaking today.
Woodcuts were the first form of printmaking starting in China in the 9th century, was widely used in Europe during the Middle Ages with German artist Albrecht Drurer bringing it to an expert art form. It was further developed to high art as the Japanese used woodblock printing in daily activities such as newspapers and flyers but also developed incredible wood block prints influencing well loved artists such as Manet, Degas, and Van Gogh. The design is carved into the wood with the part sticking up or in relief treated with the paint or ink. Each color used has a separate plate carved in the design that is to be inked and printed. Then the paper is printed in layers of each color to give the final design.
One of the gallery artist who does woodblock prints is Daryl Howard. Daryl studied in Japan with the masters and is well known as one of the premier American woodblock artists. As Daryl lives in the Austin area, we are very fortunate to be able to offer her work to our customers.
Linoleum cuts are a relief print carved into linoleum rather than wood. As the linoleum does not take the more delicate cuts known in woodcuts, it has a more poster like or blocky look and is generally not as valuable as a woodblock print.
Engraving is a form of print making in which the artist uses a hardened steel tool called a burin to cut a design into a metal plate. It is characterized by a deliberate look and clean edges. This technique was started in Germany by goldsmiths.
Etching was begun in Germany by Daniel Hopfer in late 15th/early 16th century but Duhrer was the first to have a dated one recorded. It is considered to be easier than engraving and became more popular because of that. It is opposite of a woodcut in that the raised portions of the etching remain blank because the ink goes into the crevices. The artist may coat the plate with a waxy or acrylic ground and then carve into that ground. These exposed lines are then dipped in an acid bath which then leaves the lines on the plate.
Collagraphs are made with a combination of relief and print. A collage of materials is made on a plate, usually linoleum, building the relief which is then printed. Gallery artist Kathleen Stafford uses this technique in her editions of prints showing the peoples of Africa where she has lived for most of her husband’s diplomatic career.
Our featured artist for November, Mary Faust Carradine, prints lithographs, serigraphs, and monotypes:
Lithography is based on the chemical repulsion of oil and water and dates back to 1798. The image is drawn on a porous surface, usually limestone and covered with a greasy medium. When acid is applied to the surface, the grease transfers to the surface, burning the image into the surface. Then the surface that is not covered by the drawing medium is sealed. When water is applied to the stone, it only adhers to the surface not covered by the greasy medium. Oil ink is rolled on the surface where it adhers to the greasy parts. Paper is applied and the image is transferred using the pressure from a printing press. Some of the artists using this method include Van Gogh, Toulouse-Latrec, and Willem de Kooning.
Serigraphy, also called silk-screen printing or screen printing, was developed in the 20th century in America and was introduced as fine art at the New York World’s Fair in 1939. While the origin of screen printing may have been in Japan, the term “serigraphy” was coined by Anthony Velonis of NYC. He was head of the Fine Arts Project in the WPA. Unemployed artists were hired by the government project to produce commercial works, mostly posters and mass media work. He noticed that the artists were suffering from depression and lack of self-esteem so he worked with a gallery owner and came up with the idea for the artists to do creative work that was differentiated from the commercial applications and called them serigraphs. This was successful in elevating the feelings of the artists.
Serigraphy in its simple concept is forcing ink through a stencil that is attached to a silk or mesh screen. The thick ink is forced through a tightly stretched screen and deposited on the paper. A separate screen is used for each color and then hung to dry.
Monotypes or Monoprints refer to any print made in a particular version but incapable of being exactly replicated. They can’t be editioned and are unique prints or variations on a theme. The designs are applied directly to the plate using a slow drying paint. The image is transferred before the ink dries and is printed with a press or by hand. There is only one strong impression made. The ink may be reworked but the next print will not be an exact replica.
Photography also refers to its final product as prints. There are various levels within that definition. Some photographers print unlimited copies of the same image using commercial printers. These are usually much lower priced that those photographs printed in editions and by the artist himself or herself. These limited edition and artist select prints are much higher in value. David Johnson is one of our artists who prints his own work himself in limited editions.
Many of us own framed items that we may refer to as “prints” but, in actuality, they are “reproductions” made digitally from a photograph of the original. They may be printed on paper, canvas, metal, or any printable surface and sometimes may be hard to distinguish from the real thing. It is important that the art collector makes sure they know what they are buying before they pay a high price for a piece of art labeled “print”.
Roy Brown has been involved in the Arts for more than 40 years. With a Masters Degree in Fine Arts from Southern Methodist University, he has pursued his passion for pottery and its elevation to an art form. This has been through a continuous process of past and present influences from his surrounding environments and its impact on his work.
He has expanded his work to include metal that is hand forged to fit the designs of his pottery. From finials on lids to bases for his larger vases and platters, Roy searches for the forms that will enhance his work.
After moving from New Mexico, he now lives in Texas on a 200 acre farm and ranch where he draws new ideas from his surroundings.
A CONVERSATION WITH THE ARTIST
Tell us a little bit about your life before you became an artist.
I was raised on a farm and ranch and didn’t do much of any art until I went to college.
I took my first ceramics class along with painting and jewelry making classes while in college at SMU. I was more fascinated with clay than painting or jewelry. I entered a juried exhibition my second semester for a show in Denver and was accepted. It took off from there. I have a BFA from New Mexico State and an MFA from SMU.
Where do you get your inspiration for each piece? How do you approach your work?
My inspiration comes from the local areas where I have lived. My work requires me to challenge it, hence the addition of hand wrought metal and mosaics to my pieces. I have an eye for design as well.
A CONVERSATION WITH KATHY CALLAWAY
Tell us a little bit about your life before you became an artist.
I grew up in Texas: El Paso, Odessa, and Houston. I swam competitively and was always horse crazy. I got a horse for my 11th birthday in Odessa, trained and showed him all over Texas and the US. We moved to Houston and I graduated from Kinkaid High School. I attended SMU getting a degree in Early Education and Art. After graduation, I married Charles and had two sons Clayton and Blake. I was a stay at home mom and moved to Austin living there while our kids were in school. We purchased property in Fayette County in 2000 and built a home moving permanently in 2004. We purchased horses and I showed them until health issues made that impossible to continue. I started painting there and am happily settled.
Did you do art or “artsy” things growing up?
Always! I loved drawing horses especially! The only painting I had done was for a play room that we added to our home.
In high school, we had a well known sculptor, Pat Foley, teach art. We had a 4 hour 6 week class in sculpting and I loved it. He taught us about expression, gesture, movement, and stories in a piece. We used wax that was hard on our hands. I later found classic clay which is part wax and part clay. It is still hard but easier to work with. After having my children, I had decided to sculpt them. But what really occurred is that I see something, some event, that sticks in my head and I think that I want to sculpt that. Sometimes it’s a long ago event that I remember and work out how to produce in clay what I see in my head. The challenges are fun and sometimes frustrating. I love the finishing challenges of mounting the pieces creatively.
When did you start to paint and why or how did you make the decision to do this?
I began painting in 2011. I had met Mary Quiros and been invited to a girls’ week in Steamboat at her house. She had a studio there also. I watched her paint—it looked so easy and fun. She asked if I would like to try and, of course, I said “Oh, yes!”. So she put together a local workshop and I am hooked.
I also found out that it just looks easy when Mary paints. It is challenging, invigorating, amazing, frustrating, exciting, and flexible. You can achieve looks that can only be created with water and no other medium. It would be impossible to copy as every time that you paint, it comes out a little different. Above all I love color! And I love the brilliance, transparency, and the mix of the colors. Watercolor is also easier and more cost friendly than sculpting. As Mary says, “It is only a piece of paper.”
Who was your first mentor or person of inspiration?
I would say that my father was my first person of inspiration. He was General Counsel of El Paso Products Company and he travelled the world negotiating and writing oil contracts. He loved art. When he traveled he always went to museums and galleries and loved to walk the streets where artists painted. He would buy art, oil paintings mostly, and bring them home, hang them, and explain what he admired about them.
Then came my love of sculpture. Where we lived in Houston, there were quite a lot of large outdoor pieces that fascinated me. Around the same time as that I got to know a cutting horse trainer named Jim Reno, who happened to be an amazing horse sculptor. He sculpted Secretariat, most of the AQHA trophies at that time, and pieces that were in numerous galleries in Houston and around the US. He explained a lot about movement to me.
Who is your favorite artist?
As far as painting, my first favorite is Jerry Ruthven who paints gorgeous Texas landscapes. Mary Quiros, of course, because her colors and compositions are vibrant and engaging. There are so many others around here, it is hard to decide—Bill Anzalone, Mark Kohler, Kenny Minzenmeyer, Karen Vernon, Sally Maxwell. I very much admire and appreciate their work.
As for sculpture, I adore every piece that Jim Reno has ever created.
Where have you studied or learned to do what you do?
In sculpture, initially it was Pat Foley. He taught us but also let us help him with his life size pieces. At Kinkaid, there are a few sculptures of children. He allowed us to watch and help apply initial wax, all the while instructing, explaining and giving direction.
Painting has been all Mary Quiros. Her lesson plans, ideas, techniques, directions, and encouragement have been amazing. Her kindness and time are unrivaled. No one is luckier than our class.
Where do you get your inspiration for each piece? How do you decide what to paint? Tell us a little bit about how you approach a new piece and the process that you use to work through one.
I have talked some about how an event or memory can inspire a new sculpture.
In painting, it is sometimes from pictures I have taken or places I have been. Pretty flowers always draw me and art magazines give me ideas. I draw on the watercolor paper and refer to the photos. I try to balance my colors, warm next to cool, making sure that the colors are repeated throughout the painting. I utilize different techniques to create interesting areas that are unique to watercolor and I include complementary colors. Other times, I am more experimental and pour colors, letting the paint flow, blend and mix. I also use some of the interesting techniques that Mary has taught in class. | <urn:uuid:aaa040a1-e1c6-43e3-963f-9a72edbc242e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.artconnectionsgallery.com/blog/previous/2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00548.warc.gz | en | 0.981773 | 3,303 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.22461751103401184... | 2 | Our featured artist for November is Mary Faust Carradine who has chosen print making as her chosen form of artistic expression. I have found that using the term “print” can frequently be confusing to the uninitiated (including myself, sometimes) so I decided to do a little research into what exactly does “print making” involve. I want to give credit to Wikipedia and Venice Beedenbender of Washington Printmakers Gallery, as well as Metropolitan Museum’s “Heilbrunn Timelin of Art History” for the information below.
For most of the history of man, images were rarely seen by anyone other than the wealthy. However, around 1400 the first forms of printmaking began to develop giving man the ability to print thousands or more of the same image, opening the visual image to become an art form as well as a means of communication.
Items referred to as “prints” are not to be confused with reproductions of originals. An original print is an impression produced from a block of wood, stone, plate (such as linoleum) or screen which the artist has created. If using a fine art medium such as oil paint, watercolor, or ink, the artist can make a series of originals, each hand done by the artist. There is usually an inking, wiping, and printing of each copy in an edition.
The artist will usually determine how many of these “hand pulled” prints will be in an edition. In recent history, the limiting of these editions increases the value of each piece in the edition. The artist generally signs the print with the number of the print in the edition and the total number to be printed in the edition indicated as well.
When talking about print editions, the term “artist proof” is used and designated with “P/A”. These are the first 5-10% of prints pulled by the artist as he or she works through trial proofs to create the process for the “final proof”. These artist’s proofs record the creative process of the artist and are considered to be valuable because of this. The final proof is called the “bon a tirer” and is considered the ideal.
There are several general types of prints:
1. Relief printing started in China around AD 105 and showed up in Europe in the 15th century
Predating printing, the Chinese used stone rubbings to made holy images and create texts. Lines were carved into the flat stones, wet paper pressed into the stone, and ink was applied. The image was white lines on a black background. When they applied the images and texts to the same paper, it was called block book printing and was the foundation for printmaking today.
Woodcuts were the first form of printmaking starting in China in the 9th century, was widely used in Europe during the Middle Ages with German artist Albrecht Drurer bringing it to an expert art form. It was further developed to high art as the Japanese used woodblock printing in daily activities such as newspapers and flyers but also developed incredible wood block prints influencing well loved artists such as Manet, Degas, and Van Gogh. The design is carved into the wood with the part sticking up or in relief treated with the paint or ink. Each color used has a separate plate carved in the design that is to be inked and printed. Then the paper is printed in layers of each color to give the final design.
One of the gallery artist who does woodblock prints is Daryl Howard. Daryl studied in Japan with the masters and is well known as one of the premier American woodblock artists. As Daryl lives in the Austin area, we are very fortunate to be able to offer her work to our customers.
Linoleum cuts are a relief print carved into linoleum rather than wood. As the linoleum does not take the more delicate cuts known in woodcuts, it has a more poster like or blocky look and is generally not as valuable as a woodblock print.
Engraving is a form of print making in which the artist uses a hardened steel tool called a burin to cut a design into a metal plate. It is characterized by a deliberate look and clean edges. This technique was started in Germany by goldsmiths.
Etching was begun in Germany by Daniel Hopfer in late 15th/early 16th century but Duhrer was the first to have a dated one recorded. It is considered to be easier than engraving and became more popular because of that. It is opposite of a woodcut in that the raised portions of the etching remain blank because the ink goes into the crevices. The artist may coat the plate with a waxy or acrylic ground and then carve into that ground. These exposed lines are then dipped in an acid bath which then leaves the lines on the plate.
Collagraphs are made with a combination of relief and print. A collage of materials is made on a plate, usually linoleum, building the relief which is then printed. Gallery artist Kathleen Stafford uses this technique in her editions of prints showing the peoples of Africa where she has lived for most of her husband’s diplomatic career.
Our featured artist for November, Mary Faust Carradine, prints lithographs, serigraphs, and monotypes:
Lithography is based on the chemical repulsion of oil and water and dates back to 1798. The image is drawn on a porous surface, usually limestone and covered with a greasy medium. When acid is applied to the surface, the grease transfers to the surface, burning the image into the surface. Then the surface that is not covered by the drawing medium is sealed. When water is applied to the stone, it only adhers to the surface not covered by the greasy medium. Oil ink is rolled on the surface where it adhers to the greasy parts. Paper is applied and the image is transferred using the pressure from a printing press. Some of the artists using this method include Van Gogh, Toulouse-Latrec, and Willem de Kooning.
Serigraphy, also called silk-screen printing or screen printing, was developed in the 20th century in America and was introduced as fine art at the New York World’s Fair in 1939. While the origin of screen printing may have been in Japan, the term “serigraphy” was coined by Anthony Velonis of NYC. He was head of the Fine Arts Project in the WPA. Unemployed artists were hired by the government project to produce commercial works, mostly posters and mass media work. He noticed that the artists were suffering from depression and lack of self-esteem so he worked with a gallery owner and came up with the idea for the artists to do creative work that was differentiated from the commercial applications and called them serigraphs. This was successful in elevating the feelings of the artists.
Serigraphy in its simple concept is forcing ink through a stencil that is attached to a silk or mesh screen. The thick ink is forced through a tightly stretched screen and deposited on the paper. A separate screen is used for each color and then hung to dry.
Monotypes or Monoprints refer to any print made in a particular version but incapable of being exactly replicated. They can’t be editioned and are unique prints or variations on a theme. The designs are applied directly to the plate using a slow drying paint. The image is transferred before the ink dries and is printed with a press or by hand. There is only one strong impression made. The ink may be reworked but the next print will not be an exact replica.
Photography also refers to its final product as prints. There are various levels within that definition. Some photographers print unlimited copies of the same image using commercial printers. These are usually much lower priced that those photographs printed in editions and by the artist himself or herself. These limited edition and artist select prints are much higher in value. David Johnson is one of our artists who prints his own work himself in limited editions.
Many of us own framed items that we may refer to as “prints” but, in actuality, they are “reproductions” made digitally from a photograph of the original. They may be printed on paper, canvas, metal, or any printable surface and sometimes may be hard to distinguish from the real thing. It is important that the art collector makes sure they know what they are buying before they pay a high price for a piece of art labeled “print”.
Roy Brown has been involved in the Arts for more than 40 years. With a Masters Degree in Fine Arts from Southern Methodist University, he has pursued his passion for pottery and its elevation to an art form. This has been through a continuous process of past and present influences from his surrounding environments and its impact on his work.
He has expanded his work to include metal that is hand forged to fit the designs of his pottery. From finials on lids to bases for his larger vases and platters, Roy searches for the forms that will enhance his work.
After moving from New Mexico, he now lives in Texas on a 200 acre farm and ranch where he draws new ideas from his surroundings.
A CONVERSATION WITH THE ARTIST
Tell us a little bit about your life before you became an artist.
I was raised on a farm and ranch and didn’t do much of any art until I went to college.
I took my first ceramics class along with painting and jewelry making classes while in college at SMU. I was more fascinated with clay than painting or jewelry. I entered a juried exhibition my second semester for a show in Denver and was accepted. It took off from there. I have a BFA from New Mexico State and an MFA from SMU.
Where do you get your inspiration for each piece? How do you approach your work?
My inspiration comes from the local areas where I have lived. My work requires me to challenge it, hence the addition of hand wrought metal and mosaics to my pieces. I have an eye for design as well.
A CONVERSATION WITH KATHY CALLAWAY
Tell us a little bit about your life before you became an artist.
I grew up in Texas: El Paso, Odessa, and Houston. I swam competitively and was always horse crazy. I got a horse for my 11th birthday in Odessa, trained and showed him all over Texas and the US. We moved to Houston and I graduated from Kinkaid High School. I attended SMU getting a degree in Early Education and Art. After graduation, I married Charles and had two sons Clayton and Blake. I was a stay at home mom and moved to Austin living there while our kids were in school. We purchased property in Fayette County in 2000 and built a home moving permanently in 2004. We purchased horses and I showed them until health issues made that impossible to continue. I started painting there and am happily settled.
Did you do art or “artsy” things growing up?
Always! I loved drawing horses especially! The only painting I had done was for a play room that we added to our home.
In high school, we had a well known sculptor, Pat Foley, teach art. We had a 4 hour 6 week class in sculpting and I loved it. He taught us about expression, gesture, movement, and stories in a piece. We used wax that was hard on our hands. I later found classic clay which is part wax and part clay. It is still hard but easier to work with. After having my children, I had decided to sculpt them. But what really occurred is that I see something, some event, that sticks in my head and I think that I want to sculpt that. Sometimes it’s a long ago event that I remember and work out how to produce in clay what I see in my head. The challenges are fun and sometimes frustrating. I love the finishing challenges of mounting the pieces creatively.
When did you start to paint and why or how did you make the decision to do this?
I began painting in 2011. I had met Mary Quiros and been invited to a girls’ week in Steamboat at her house. She had a studio there also. I watched her paint—it looked so easy and fun. She asked if I would like to try and, of course, I said “Oh, yes!”. So she put together a local workshop and I am hooked.
I also found out that it just looks easy when Mary paints. It is challenging, invigorating, amazing, frustrating, exciting, and flexible. You can achieve looks that can only be created with water and no other medium. It would be impossible to copy as every time that you paint, it comes out a little different. Above all I love color! And I love the brilliance, transparency, and the mix of the colors. Watercolor is also easier and more cost friendly than sculpting. As Mary says, “It is only a piece of paper.”
Who was your first mentor or person of inspiration?
I would say that my father was my first person of inspiration. He was General Counsel of El Paso Products Company and he travelled the world negotiating and writing oil contracts. He loved art. When he traveled he always went to museums and galleries and loved to walk the streets where artists painted. He would buy art, oil paintings mostly, and bring them home, hang them, and explain what he admired about them.
Then came my love of sculpture. Where we lived in Houston, there were quite a lot of large outdoor pieces that fascinated me. Around the same time as that I got to know a cutting horse trainer named Jim Reno, who happened to be an amazing horse sculptor. He sculpted Secretariat, most of the AQHA trophies at that time, and pieces that were in numerous galleries in Houston and around the US. He explained a lot about movement to me.
Who is your favorite artist?
As far as painting, my first favorite is Jerry Ruthven who paints gorgeous Texas landscapes. Mary Quiros, of course, because her colors and compositions are vibrant and engaging. There are so many others around here, it is hard to decide—Bill Anzalone, Mark Kohler, Kenny Minzenmeyer, Karen Vernon, Sally Maxwell. I very much admire and appreciate their work.
As for sculpture, I adore every piece that Jim Reno has ever created.
Where have you studied or learned to do what you do?
In sculpture, initially it was Pat Foley. He taught us but also let us help him with his life size pieces. At Kinkaid, there are a few sculptures of children. He allowed us to watch and help apply initial wax, all the while instructing, explaining and giving direction.
Painting has been all Mary Quiros. Her lesson plans, ideas, techniques, directions, and encouragement have been amazing. Her kindness and time are unrivaled. No one is luckier than our class.
Where do you get your inspiration for each piece? How do you decide what to paint? Tell us a little bit about how you approach a new piece and the process that you use to work through one.
I have talked some about how an event or memory can inspire a new sculpture.
In painting, it is sometimes from pictures I have taken or places I have been. Pretty flowers always draw me and art magazines give me ideas. I draw on the watercolor paper and refer to the photos. I try to balance my colors, warm next to cool, making sure that the colors are repeated throughout the painting. I utilize different techniques to create interesting areas that are unique to watercolor and I include complementary colors. Other times, I am more experimental and pour colors, letting the paint flow, blend and mix. I also use some of the interesting techniques that Mary has taught in class. | 3,239 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Standing tall above the soil of Mayo are five Round Towers, situated at Aughagower, Balla, Killala, Meelick and Turlough. These enigmatic monuments were built between the 9th and 12th centuries and all were associated with ecclesiastical sites.
There is some speculation that, because the doorways are set several feet above ground level, the towers were intended as places of refuge in times of trouble. Others speculate that they might be bell-towers from where the faithful were called to prayer by the ringing of a bell, or watch-towers from which residents were warned of the approach of raiders.
The Round Towers range in height from approximately 20 metres to 40 metres. The doorways can be round-headed (Romanesque) or lintelled while the windows are small and set high in the building. The interior of the towers was divided into several floors, each one reached by climbing a ladder inside the building. The roof was conical in shape.
Whatever their former uses, the towers now stand as impressive and imposing monuments in the landscape, occasionally lit up at times of celebration to remind of Mayo’s heritage.
All Rights Reserved. Copyright 2020. Mayo.ie | <urn:uuid:8aa60e41-051f-4a9e-a8f8-e665d5e7efad> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mayo.ie/visit/history/monastic-sites/five-round-towers-of-mayo | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00108.warc.gz | en | 0.982977 | 248 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.03941299... | 2 | Standing tall above the soil of Mayo are five Round Towers, situated at Aughagower, Balla, Killala, Meelick and Turlough. These enigmatic monuments were built between the 9th and 12th centuries and all were associated with ecclesiastical sites.
There is some speculation that, because the doorways are set several feet above ground level, the towers were intended as places of refuge in times of trouble. Others speculate that they might be bell-towers from where the faithful were called to prayer by the ringing of a bell, or watch-towers from which residents were warned of the approach of raiders.
The Round Towers range in height from approximately 20 metres to 40 metres. The doorways can be round-headed (Romanesque) or lintelled while the windows are small and set high in the building. The interior of the towers was divided into several floors, each one reached by climbing a ladder inside the building. The roof was conical in shape.
Whatever their former uses, the towers now stand as impressive and imposing monuments in the landscape, occasionally lit up at times of celebration to remind of Mayo’s heritage.
All Rights Reserved. Copyright 2020. Mayo.ie | 252 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Salem Witch trials were a series of hearings in the Counties and these hearings were carried out with the aim of prosecuting people who were accused of engaging in witchcraft. Although they were known as the Salem trials, they were carried across different provinces in the counties of Essex, Suffolk and Middlesex. Most people believed in witches and there were probably practicing witches in Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1692. Witches have existed in Salem and Andover since 1692 until today. There were 58 cases of witchcraft in the England colonies from 1645 to 1662 (Buckland, 2002). The trials led to more than 200 people who were accused of practicing witchcraft being imprisoned with twenty of them being executed. It was only later that the colony admitted that the trials were a mistake and compensated families of victims of the trials.
The size in the Salem witchcraft trials differed greatly and that is what made them famous. Several centuries ago, majority of practicing Christians, and those of other religions strongly believed that the Devil could give certain people power to harm others in exchange for their loyalty and they were referred to as witches. Europe witnessed a witchcraft craze form the 13th to the 16th centuries with the Salem trials being the most notable (Boyer & Wissenbaum, 1993). These trials were carried out and led to the imprisonment of more than two hundred suspected witches with 20 of them being hanged (P. 122). Among the hundreds of thousands of people executed for supposedly being witches most of them were mostly women.
After the trials ended, and the families of those convicted compensated, the colony admitted the trials were a mistake. The trials continue to captivate people’s imagination more than 300 hundred years after they happened and they have come to represent a perfect case of injustice and paranoia. The activities that happened and the events witnessed in Salem during the trials depicts mass hysteria at its highest level and they continue to serve as reference in current political and popular literature discourse to point out the dangers that can occur as a result of isolation, accusations that are false, lack of due process, infringement of individual liberties by the local government and religious extremism (Sutter, 2003). According to American history classes, Salem Village outside Boston was settled in l629 by a Puritan religious group who came to America from England and settled in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. They did this to escape religious persecution. A few years later in 1641 witchcraft was made a capital crime in England. A crime that was punishable by hanging. The English colonies in America were not spared from this declaration as they were subject to those same laws. Anyone convicted of practicing witchcraft was taken to the gallows and hang (Sypniewska, 2005)
The first incident involving witchcraft was in the Goodwin family of Massachusetts Bay, and the Puritan Minister Cotton Mathew who was a very prominent leader in his day. A 13-year old had an argument with an Irish laundry woman, Goody Glover, who worked in the Goodwin household, after which she started experiencing behavioral activities that bordered on the bizarre. After a few days, her younger brother and two sisters started experiencing the same behavior. The woman was accused of being a witch and was tried out of suspicion of casting a spell on the Goodwin children. Reverend Cotton Mather met Glover twice trying to persuade her to repent her witchcraft. She strongly denied she is a witch or that she had cast a spell on the Glover children Buckland, 2002). Nevertheless, Glover was tried and convicted of witchcraft in the American colony after which she was hanged for engaging in witchcraft activities.
The beginning of the witchcraft craze in Salem Village, Massachusetts was in January 1692 when a group of young girls began showing bizarre behavior (Langley, 2003). The behaviors were unexplainable to the people and the physicians called to examine the girls could not find natural causes for them. Some of the bizarre behaviors exhibited by the girls included screaming blasphemous words, having compulsive seizures and getting into trace-like states (Sypniewska, 2005). If a physical problem was the cause a person’s affliction, the community then concluded that Satan was working in the community and the bizarre happenings were attributed to him. Thus according to the community members, they concluded that their county had been invaded by people who were engaging in witchcraft activities. As a result of these community members started organizing prayer sessions and others fasted with the aim freeing the community from satanic influences.
The young girls who exhibited strange behavior pointed their fingers to three women called Tituba, Sarah Good and Sarah Osborne who were brought before the county magistrates.
Many of the residents of Salem attended the trials and this forced the examinations to be moved to the meeting house. During their interrogation, the young girls described the attacks they believed were planned by the three women. They claimed that they sometimes fell into their bizarre behavior in the presence of one of the suspects. The trials of the suspects were biased from the start since the magistrates asked the accused questions which pointed to the fact that the magistrates assumed that the suspects were already guilty of the charges. Thus, considering the style and form of the questions, it was obvious that the magistrates had preconceived thoughts that the women were guilty even before the trials had concluded. (Synpniewski, 2005).
In spite the two women pleading innocent, all three of them were put in jail. Special courts were also established in the counties of Essex, Suffolk and Middlesex to hear and decide cases related to witchcraft activities. After completion of these courts, the first case to come forward was Bridget Bishop, an older woman who was known for being gossipy and promiscuous. She pleaded innocent of witchcraft saying, “I am as innocent as the child unborn.” She was however found guilty despite her defense, she was hanged and therefore becoming the first person to be killed as a result of the trials (Langley, 2003). The evidence against them was spectral and unconvincing. The son of the then famed minister and Harvard president, Cotton Mather finally spoke out against spectral evidence. He felt that this evidence was unreliable because according to him, “the Devil could take the form of an innocent person and carry out evil activities” (Sutter, 2003). This was taken into consideration as the Royal Governor William Phips established the special courts.
The three women previously accused as colluding with the devil accused Martha Corey, who was a highly reputed member of the local puritan church. Therefore, her revelation as a witch demonstrated that Satan’s influence had penetrated to the very core of the community.
Major events occurred including a number of people being accused of witchcraft, tried and many of them jailed while the others were condemned to death. The hangings of the witches began in June through September with the death of Bridget Bishop. As winter approached, criticism grew of the whole procedure of trying suspected people engaging in witchcraft and towards the end of the year, the local court formed to inquire into the accusations were dissolved by the colonial governor. This led to the convictions and condemnations for witchery finally coming to a halt. During the witch-hunt nineteen of the victims had so far been killed through hanging with one being stoned to death and 4 died while under incarceration as they waited to be tried.
The Trial’s Aftermath
The aftermath of the Salem witch trials was very severe. Many of the victims in jail were unable to pay for their release even with the trials over. According to the law, costs incurred in while jailed were to be borne by the prisoners and these included food and accommodation.
They stayed in jail and were not freed unless they or someone else could pay for these expenses. Additionally, the government confiscated the properties of those who were incarcerated. Their families were left without money and, in some cases, a home (Buckland, 2002).
The land and structures did not escape the effects of the trials either. During the trials, many of the residents attended leaving their houses and fields untended, and the planting season was interrupted. None of the planted fields was cultivated or harvested. In addition, the Salem Meetinghouse was left decrepit due to the distraction of the trials. The Puritans felt that the crop failure and epidemics that bothered them for years was God’s punishment for the injustices done to innocent people killed for falsely being accused of witchcraft. They then organized a day of fasting and prayer for forgiveness that was ordered for January 13, 1697 (Sutter, 2003).
It did not matter if the witchcraft was “black” or “white” magic, they were both considered a capital crime, even if no harm came from it. It was a secular heresy (Boyer & Nissenbaum, 1993). Colonial law was based on the Biblical injunction not to let a witch live. If the law had been followed every person convicted of being a witch would have been executed.
The whole event was a senseless irrational justice system based on three little girls who did not know what they were doing. After a ruthless punishment of hangings, the government realized their mistake and apologized to the families of the accused. The families of the victims were compensated and a day was instituted for people to fast and also remember the events. Clearly, the men and women convicted as witches in Salem were innocent ‐ of witchcraft, at least. With the harsh punishment that the accused underwent, no one used the word witch openly. Today witchcraft accusations are considered slander and could easily end up in court. Current society can draw lessons from the Salem witch trials, especially of the issue of condemning the innocent without sufficient facts or evidence. It is apparent that the trials were based on rumors, ignorance and hysteria.
Buckland, R (2002). The Witch Book: The Encyclopedia of Witchcraft, Wicca, and
Neo-paganism. Chicago: McGraw Hill. .
Boyer, P and Nissenbaum, S (1993). Salem Village Witchcraft: A Documentary Record of Local
Conflict in Colonial New England. New York: Bantam Books
Langley, M (2003). The Salem Witchcraft Trials. Junior Scholastic. Vol. 106 Issue 2, pp 14-17.
Sypniewska, M (2005). The Salem Witch Trials. Retrieved from
Sutter, T (2003). Salem Witchcraft: The Events and Causes of the Salem Witch Trials. Retrieved | <urn:uuid:943f2924-b42e-4a1e-b983-c78962b0efb7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.wowessays.com/free-samples/the-salem-witch-trials-research-paper/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00087.warc.gz | en | 0.985115 | 2,129 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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0.2153278142213821... | 2 | The Salem Witch trials were a series of hearings in the Counties and these hearings were carried out with the aim of prosecuting people who were accused of engaging in witchcraft. Although they were known as the Salem trials, they were carried across different provinces in the counties of Essex, Suffolk and Middlesex. Most people believed in witches and there were probably practicing witches in Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1692. Witches have existed in Salem and Andover since 1692 until today. There were 58 cases of witchcraft in the England colonies from 1645 to 1662 (Buckland, 2002). The trials led to more than 200 people who were accused of practicing witchcraft being imprisoned with twenty of them being executed. It was only later that the colony admitted that the trials were a mistake and compensated families of victims of the trials.
The size in the Salem witchcraft trials differed greatly and that is what made them famous. Several centuries ago, majority of practicing Christians, and those of other religions strongly believed that the Devil could give certain people power to harm others in exchange for their loyalty and they were referred to as witches. Europe witnessed a witchcraft craze form the 13th to the 16th centuries with the Salem trials being the most notable (Boyer & Wissenbaum, 1993). These trials were carried out and led to the imprisonment of more than two hundred suspected witches with 20 of them being hanged (P. 122). Among the hundreds of thousands of people executed for supposedly being witches most of them were mostly women.
After the trials ended, and the families of those convicted compensated, the colony admitted the trials were a mistake. The trials continue to captivate people’s imagination more than 300 hundred years after they happened and they have come to represent a perfect case of injustice and paranoia. The activities that happened and the events witnessed in Salem during the trials depicts mass hysteria at its highest level and they continue to serve as reference in current political and popular literature discourse to point out the dangers that can occur as a result of isolation, accusations that are false, lack of due process, infringement of individual liberties by the local government and religious extremism (Sutter, 2003). According to American history classes, Salem Village outside Boston was settled in l629 by a Puritan religious group who came to America from England and settled in the Massachusetts Bay Colony. They did this to escape religious persecution. A few years later in 1641 witchcraft was made a capital crime in England. A crime that was punishable by hanging. The English colonies in America were not spared from this declaration as they were subject to those same laws. Anyone convicted of practicing witchcraft was taken to the gallows and hang (Sypniewska, 2005)
The first incident involving witchcraft was in the Goodwin family of Massachusetts Bay, and the Puritan Minister Cotton Mathew who was a very prominent leader in his day. A 13-year old had an argument with an Irish laundry woman, Goody Glover, who worked in the Goodwin household, after which she started experiencing behavioral activities that bordered on the bizarre. After a few days, her younger brother and two sisters started experiencing the same behavior. The woman was accused of being a witch and was tried out of suspicion of casting a spell on the Goodwin children. Reverend Cotton Mather met Glover twice trying to persuade her to repent her witchcraft. She strongly denied she is a witch or that she had cast a spell on the Glover children Buckland, 2002). Nevertheless, Glover was tried and convicted of witchcraft in the American colony after which she was hanged for engaging in witchcraft activities.
The beginning of the witchcraft craze in Salem Village, Massachusetts was in January 1692 when a group of young girls began showing bizarre behavior (Langley, 2003). The behaviors were unexplainable to the people and the physicians called to examine the girls could not find natural causes for them. Some of the bizarre behaviors exhibited by the girls included screaming blasphemous words, having compulsive seizures and getting into trace-like states (Sypniewska, 2005). If a physical problem was the cause a person’s affliction, the community then concluded that Satan was working in the community and the bizarre happenings were attributed to him. Thus according to the community members, they concluded that their county had been invaded by people who were engaging in witchcraft activities. As a result of these community members started organizing prayer sessions and others fasted with the aim freeing the community from satanic influences.
The young girls who exhibited strange behavior pointed their fingers to three women called Tituba, Sarah Good and Sarah Osborne who were brought before the county magistrates.
Many of the residents of Salem attended the trials and this forced the examinations to be moved to the meeting house. During their interrogation, the young girls described the attacks they believed were planned by the three women. They claimed that they sometimes fell into their bizarre behavior in the presence of one of the suspects. The trials of the suspects were biased from the start since the magistrates asked the accused questions which pointed to the fact that the magistrates assumed that the suspects were already guilty of the charges. Thus, considering the style and form of the questions, it was obvious that the magistrates had preconceived thoughts that the women were guilty even before the trials had concluded. (Synpniewski, 2005).
In spite the two women pleading innocent, all three of them were put in jail. Special courts were also established in the counties of Essex, Suffolk and Middlesex to hear and decide cases related to witchcraft activities. After completion of these courts, the first case to come forward was Bridget Bishop, an older woman who was known for being gossipy and promiscuous. She pleaded innocent of witchcraft saying, “I am as innocent as the child unborn.” She was however found guilty despite her defense, she was hanged and therefore becoming the first person to be killed as a result of the trials (Langley, 2003). The evidence against them was spectral and unconvincing. The son of the then famed minister and Harvard president, Cotton Mather finally spoke out against spectral evidence. He felt that this evidence was unreliable because according to him, “the Devil could take the form of an innocent person and carry out evil activities” (Sutter, 2003). This was taken into consideration as the Royal Governor William Phips established the special courts.
The three women previously accused as colluding with the devil accused Martha Corey, who was a highly reputed member of the local puritan church. Therefore, her revelation as a witch demonstrated that Satan’s influence had penetrated to the very core of the community.
Major events occurred including a number of people being accused of witchcraft, tried and many of them jailed while the others were condemned to death. The hangings of the witches began in June through September with the death of Bridget Bishop. As winter approached, criticism grew of the whole procedure of trying suspected people engaging in witchcraft and towards the end of the year, the local court formed to inquire into the accusations were dissolved by the colonial governor. This led to the convictions and condemnations for witchery finally coming to a halt. During the witch-hunt nineteen of the victims had so far been killed through hanging with one being stoned to death and 4 died while under incarceration as they waited to be tried.
The Trial’s Aftermath
The aftermath of the Salem witch trials was very severe. Many of the victims in jail were unable to pay for their release even with the trials over. According to the law, costs incurred in while jailed were to be borne by the prisoners and these included food and accommodation.
They stayed in jail and were not freed unless they or someone else could pay for these expenses. Additionally, the government confiscated the properties of those who were incarcerated. Their families were left without money and, in some cases, a home (Buckland, 2002).
The land and structures did not escape the effects of the trials either. During the trials, many of the residents attended leaving their houses and fields untended, and the planting season was interrupted. None of the planted fields was cultivated or harvested. In addition, the Salem Meetinghouse was left decrepit due to the distraction of the trials. The Puritans felt that the crop failure and epidemics that bothered them for years was God’s punishment for the injustices done to innocent people killed for falsely being accused of witchcraft. They then organized a day of fasting and prayer for forgiveness that was ordered for January 13, 1697 (Sutter, 2003).
It did not matter if the witchcraft was “black” or “white” magic, they were both considered a capital crime, even if no harm came from it. It was a secular heresy (Boyer & Nissenbaum, 1993). Colonial law was based on the Biblical injunction not to let a witch live. If the law had been followed every person convicted of being a witch would have been executed.
The whole event was a senseless irrational justice system based on three little girls who did not know what they were doing. After a ruthless punishment of hangings, the government realized their mistake and apologized to the families of the accused. The families of the victims were compensated and a day was instituted for people to fast and also remember the events. Clearly, the men and women convicted as witches in Salem were innocent ‐ of witchcraft, at least. With the harsh punishment that the accused underwent, no one used the word witch openly. Today witchcraft accusations are considered slander and could easily end up in court. Current society can draw lessons from the Salem witch trials, especially of the issue of condemning the innocent without sufficient facts or evidence. It is apparent that the trials were based on rumors, ignorance and hysteria.
Buckland, R (2002). The Witch Book: The Encyclopedia of Witchcraft, Wicca, and
Neo-paganism. Chicago: McGraw Hill. .
Boyer, P and Nissenbaum, S (1993). Salem Village Witchcraft: A Documentary Record of Local
Conflict in Colonial New England. New York: Bantam Books
Langley, M (2003). The Salem Witchcraft Trials. Junior Scholastic. Vol. 106 Issue 2, pp 14-17.
Sypniewska, M (2005). The Salem Witch Trials. Retrieved from
Sutter, T (2003). Salem Witchcraft: The Events and Causes of the Salem Witch Trials. Retrieved | 2,231 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In February 2019 we held our first Tree Planting day for St Michael’s Zone, with the intention of repeating this project each February but first of all we needed to monitor how effective our pilot was.
We chose February for the Tree Planting Day for two main reasons, firstly it was in the middle of the rainy season and secondly there were no exams on in school and the learners were able to take time out to prepare the land, collect the trees and plant them.
We discovered that in some instances the survival rate for the trees was as low as 50%, a figure we believed was much too low. Conversations with a Malawian forester ensued and he gave us two pieces of advice
- To bring Tree Planting Day forward to the beginning of December, to coincide with the start of the rains and that way leaving a longer time for the tree seedlings to flourish during the rainy season
- To ensure that teachers and learners received training in how to plant and care for trees
This advice we carefully followed and in the last few weeks another 3000+ trees have been planted.
In encouraging schools and the community to plant trees we are working to reduce deforestation whilst providing a source of indigenous timber. The fruit trees serve to increase the nutritional content of local peoples diets with many of our hybrid trees fruiting after only 18 months.
In schools, the education about trees is essential as a very small step towards managing Climate Change, the effect of which is so very obvious. | <urn:uuid:6b0ce65c-c34f-41d8-84ba-747d9ce81700> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://n4bw.org.uk/2019/12/17/we-are-always-learning/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00099.warc.gz | en | 0.982114 | 302 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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... | 8 | In February 2019 we held our first Tree Planting day for St Michael’s Zone, with the intention of repeating this project each February but first of all we needed to monitor how effective our pilot was.
We chose February for the Tree Planting Day for two main reasons, firstly it was in the middle of the rainy season and secondly there were no exams on in school and the learners were able to take time out to prepare the land, collect the trees and plant them.
We discovered that in some instances the survival rate for the trees was as low as 50%, a figure we believed was much too low. Conversations with a Malawian forester ensued and he gave us two pieces of advice
- To bring Tree Planting Day forward to the beginning of December, to coincide with the start of the rains and that way leaving a longer time for the tree seedlings to flourish during the rainy season
- To ensure that teachers and learners received training in how to plant and care for trees
This advice we carefully followed and in the last few weeks another 3000+ trees have been planted.
In encouraging schools and the community to plant trees we are working to reduce deforestation whilst providing a source of indigenous timber. The fruit trees serve to increase the nutritional content of local peoples diets with many of our hybrid trees fruiting after only 18 months.
In schools, the education about trees is essential as a very small step towards managing Climate Change, the effect of which is so very obvious. | 309 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The destructive World War Two, the totalitarian USSR and German occupation regimes and their repressions became the most dreadful period in the Latvian history in the 20th century.
On 23 August 1939, the USSR and Germany divided Eastern Europe in the “spheres of influence” and occupied the independent countries, according to the agreement concluded secretly. On 17 June 1940, Latvia was occupied by the USSR.
During the first year of occupation (from 1940 to 1941), systematic repressions were carried out in Latvia against citizens considered to be dangerous or possibly disloyal to the Soviet regime. It was not important to prove the guilt; the person’s affiliation to a certain professional group or former activities was sufficient reason. Due to political reasons, in 1940 and 1941, more than 7 000 people were arrested in Latvia. The largest repressive action was the deportation carried out on 14 June 1941, during which 15 424 people were deported from Latvia to the USSR. The arrested were sent to the corrective labour camps (GULAG), the ones deported due to administrative reasons were placed at the Siberian collective farms.
On 22 June 1941, Germany attacked the USSR and war broke out. After several weeks the Red Army pulled back and in the summer of 1941, the territory of Latvia was occupied by Germany. Due to policy and repressions of the Soviet regime, part of the Latvian population was expecting the change of regimes with hope. However, the Nazi Germany occupation regime was as brutal as the Soviet one. Illusions that Latvians had as to the Latvian autonomy or restoration of independence did not become reality – German rule was established in the occupied regions in order to implement Hitler’s plans and change Europe.
The largest crime committed by the Nazi Germany in Latvia was genocide against Jews or the Holocaust. As a result of the racist ideology promoted by Hitler, the Jewish community of Latvia – approximately 70 000 Jews – was systematically destroyed together with approximately 20 000 Jews from other territories of Eastern Europe. Majority of Jews were shot in 1941. The German occupation regime turned against the political opponents of the regime, as well as Soviet activists, who had not managed to escape to Russia in the beginning of the war between the USSR and Germany. It has been estimated that approximately 10 000 citizens of Latvia were killed. Therefore, during the German occupation, all together approximately 80 000 citizens of Latvia were killed.
One of the most painful tragedies for Latvians, during World War II, was mobilization of both armies involved in the war. In 1943, the Latvian Voluntary SS Legion was formed involving more than 50 000 Latvians, approximately 80% of them were mobilized. In total, approximately 110 000 Latvian soldiers were serving in the German military forces, several thousand of them died in the battle. Approximately 70 000 Latvians served in the Red Army, majority of them were either Latvians living in Russia before or those, who were mobilized in 1944 and 1945.
As of 1944, the Soviet occupation regime was restored in the territory of Latvia. The second occupation came with new political repressions. During the first years after the war, Latvians were actively involved in the national resistance movement. The goal of these national partisans was to restore independence of Latvia. In 1940s, many participants and supporters of the resistance movement were arrested, people, who had cooperated voluntarily or by force with the German occupation regime and othergroups of population, were punished. As of 1944 to 1945, approximately 38 000 people were arrested. The largest punitive action carried out during the Soviet occupation after World War II was deportation on 25 March 1949. During this deportation, 42 195 people – mainly women and children – were deported from Latvia to Siberia and other remote regions of the USSR. It has been estimated that during the first Soviet occupation as of 1940 to 1941 and afterwards as of 1945 to 1953, from 140 000 to 190 000 people suffered or died due to the Soviet repressions in Latvia.
Moreover, approximately 20 000 people escaped or emigrated to the West due to World War Two. Latvians, who had been called up for employment service or different military forces, stayed in Germany after the war, as they were afraid of repressions in their motherland. In 1944, people, who feared returning of the Soviet regime, escaped from Latvia to the West by sea and overland routes. As a result, after World War II, Latvian communities were formed in Sweden, Germany, USA, United Kingdom, Australia and other countries. | <urn:uuid:6cfe6012-f172-4518-918d-a79240f1dce9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://lnvm.lv/en/?page_id=846 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00558.warc.gz | en | 0.990258 | 921 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.44973915815... | 1 | The destructive World War Two, the totalitarian USSR and German occupation regimes and their repressions became the most dreadful period in the Latvian history in the 20th century.
On 23 August 1939, the USSR and Germany divided Eastern Europe in the “spheres of influence” and occupied the independent countries, according to the agreement concluded secretly. On 17 June 1940, Latvia was occupied by the USSR.
During the first year of occupation (from 1940 to 1941), systematic repressions were carried out in Latvia against citizens considered to be dangerous or possibly disloyal to the Soviet regime. It was not important to prove the guilt; the person’s affiliation to a certain professional group or former activities was sufficient reason. Due to political reasons, in 1940 and 1941, more than 7 000 people were arrested in Latvia. The largest repressive action was the deportation carried out on 14 June 1941, during which 15 424 people were deported from Latvia to the USSR. The arrested were sent to the corrective labour camps (GULAG), the ones deported due to administrative reasons were placed at the Siberian collective farms.
On 22 June 1941, Germany attacked the USSR and war broke out. After several weeks the Red Army pulled back and in the summer of 1941, the territory of Latvia was occupied by Germany. Due to policy and repressions of the Soviet regime, part of the Latvian population was expecting the change of regimes with hope. However, the Nazi Germany occupation regime was as brutal as the Soviet one. Illusions that Latvians had as to the Latvian autonomy or restoration of independence did not become reality – German rule was established in the occupied regions in order to implement Hitler’s plans and change Europe.
The largest crime committed by the Nazi Germany in Latvia was genocide against Jews or the Holocaust. As a result of the racist ideology promoted by Hitler, the Jewish community of Latvia – approximately 70 000 Jews – was systematically destroyed together with approximately 20 000 Jews from other territories of Eastern Europe. Majority of Jews were shot in 1941. The German occupation regime turned against the political opponents of the regime, as well as Soviet activists, who had not managed to escape to Russia in the beginning of the war between the USSR and Germany. It has been estimated that approximately 10 000 citizens of Latvia were killed. Therefore, during the German occupation, all together approximately 80 000 citizens of Latvia were killed.
One of the most painful tragedies for Latvians, during World War II, was mobilization of both armies involved in the war. In 1943, the Latvian Voluntary SS Legion was formed involving more than 50 000 Latvians, approximately 80% of them were mobilized. In total, approximately 110 000 Latvian soldiers were serving in the German military forces, several thousand of them died in the battle. Approximately 70 000 Latvians served in the Red Army, majority of them were either Latvians living in Russia before or those, who were mobilized in 1944 and 1945.
As of 1944, the Soviet occupation regime was restored in the territory of Latvia. The second occupation came with new political repressions. During the first years after the war, Latvians were actively involved in the national resistance movement. The goal of these national partisans was to restore independence of Latvia. In 1940s, many participants and supporters of the resistance movement were arrested, people, who had cooperated voluntarily or by force with the German occupation regime and othergroups of population, were punished. As of 1944 to 1945, approximately 38 000 people were arrested. The largest punitive action carried out during the Soviet occupation after World War II was deportation on 25 March 1949. During this deportation, 42 195 people – mainly women and children – were deported from Latvia to Siberia and other remote regions of the USSR. It has been estimated that during the first Soviet occupation as of 1940 to 1941 and afterwards as of 1945 to 1953, from 140 000 to 190 000 people suffered or died due to the Soviet repressions in Latvia.
Moreover, approximately 20 000 people escaped or emigrated to the West due to World War Two. Latvians, who had been called up for employment service or different military forces, stayed in Germany after the war, as they were afraid of repressions in their motherland. In 1944, people, who feared returning of the Soviet regime, escaped from Latvia to the West by sea and overland routes. As a result, after World War II, Latvian communities were formed in Sweden, Germany, USA, United Kingdom, Australia and other countries. | 1,088 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Rock County Sugar Company was constructed in 1904 and was very popular among local communities.It focused on producing sugar from beets. Farmers and migrant workers happily took the opportunities of steady work offered through this company during the agricultural off seasons that many experienced. Its is reported that, at the height of business, Rock County Sugar Company employed 500 hundred local employees. In 1939 the company succumbed to the sugar cane industry and the factory was divided up into warehouses in 1943.
Like many of Wisconsin`s traditions and notable businesses, the process of manufacturing sugar out of beets arrived when immigrants settled in the Midwest in the late 1800s and early 1900s. In this case, it was the German families who brought over the business to compete with traditional sugar cane industry that profited in the Southern States. While it was not as popular of a product as pure sugar cane, Wisconsin turned out to be the most profitable state to adopt this industry, with the city of Janesville hosting the largest company. | <urn:uuid:16a10e17-0542-4f57-a1ad-b1cde89a01e4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/43720 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00278.warc.gz | en | 0.983615 | 198 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.4579519629478... | 2 | The Rock County Sugar Company was constructed in 1904 and was very popular among local communities.It focused on producing sugar from beets. Farmers and migrant workers happily took the opportunities of steady work offered through this company during the agricultural off seasons that many experienced. Its is reported that, at the height of business, Rock County Sugar Company employed 500 hundred local employees. In 1939 the company succumbed to the sugar cane industry and the factory was divided up into warehouses in 1943.
Like many of Wisconsin`s traditions and notable businesses, the process of manufacturing sugar out of beets arrived when immigrants settled in the Midwest in the late 1800s and early 1900s. In this case, it was the German families who brought over the business to compete with traditional sugar cane industry that profited in the Southern States. While it was not as popular of a product as pure sugar cane, Wisconsin turned out to be the most profitable state to adopt this industry, with the city of Janesville hosting the largest company. | 220 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Ingleton Coalfield is in North Yorkshire, close to its border with Lancashire in north-west England. Isolated from other coal-producing areas, it is one of the smallest coalfields in Great Britain.
Mining is known to have taken place here since the early 17th century though it was the middle of the 19th century before the coalfield was further developed.
Geography and geologyEdit
The Ingleton Coalfield is about six miles long by four miles wide lying mostly in the parish of Ingleton extending into the neighbouring parishes of Burton in Lonsdale and Thornton-in-Lonsdale. The coalfield terminates at the South Craven fault. The coal measures are shallow and represent the lowest layers in the Pennine coal measures sequence. The earliest coal mining occurred along the River Greta where Four Foot and Six Foot seams outcrop. Most deep mining was at New Ingleton Pit sunk in 1913. Its sinking led to the discovery of the Ten Foot seam (house and steam coal) at 127 yards, and the Nine Foot seam (steam and house coal) at 134 yards. Beneath them are the Four Foot seam (house, gas and coking coal) at 233 yards, the Three Foot or Yard seam (house and gas coal) at 236 yards and the Six Foot seam (steam and house coal) at 260 yards. Commercially viable deposits of fireclay lay under the Three Foot seam and pottery clay beneath the Six Foot seam used to make Ingleton Bricks.
The first mention of coal extraction is in the will of Richard Lowther, Lord of the manor of Ingleton in 1645. The Lowthers who had interests in coal elsewhere took over the manor in 1605. In 1680 the colliery was leased to their relatives the Walkers. The lease was questioned by Henry Bouch who was lord of the manor in 1678, when pits were sunk at Bull Ing. There were other pits at Raygill and Faccon. In 1701, Dr Thomas Moore of Lancaster, married into the Walker family and became sole owner of Ingleton Colliery in 1711. It was managed by Cuthbert Kidd until 1730. The Foxcrofts took over the lease of the Burton and Ingleton Collieries.
Ownership passed to the Sergeantsons for four generations. George John Sergeantson found the collieries had been neglected in 1826 and employed Joseph Hunter as colliery manager. To improve the colliery he demolished the water-wheel at Parkfoot, installed the first steam engine at Ingleton and built a house at New Winning where he sank a new shaft for a pit that was worked from 1834 to 1857.
A new colliery was started at Wilson Wood to mine the Four Foot, Yard, and Six Foot seams. Its shaft was 180 feet deep, and the coal seams were inclined at 16 degrees. A steam engine pumped 560 gallons of water a minute from the shaft and 20,000 cubic feet of air circulated through the workings. On a 400-yard tramway, trains of seven tubs were pulled by ponies. There was a 100-yard inclined plane rising at an angle of 1 in 3. In October 1866 water from Wilson Brook flooded the mine which was abandoned. Workers moved to find work in Burnley and Barnsley and some were killed in the Oaks explosion of 12 December 1866. In 1872 four experienced miners sank two new shafts at Newfield and the colliery was bought by William Bracewell, a Lancashire mill-owner to supply his mills in Barnoldswick and Colne. He began draining the flooded Wilsons Wood pit and started brick production. He employed 120 men and coal was transported by horse and cart to the Midland Railway sidings from where half the coal went to his mills and the rest was used locally. After Bracewell's death the colliery suffered difficulties and was offered for sale by the trustees who had turned off the pumps at Wilsons Wood.
James Barker began working the pits on a small scale to supply the local market but was beset by litigation. Before his death from a heart attack on Ingleton Station in 1913, he had sold his interests in Ingleton Colliery to a syndicate, the New Ingleton Colliery Company. Two new shafts were sunk and the Ten Foot and Nine Foot seams were found. In 1926 the colliery employed 350 men.
The New Village was constructed. Coal mining caused subsidence and the company was unable to meet the cost of compensation and the colliery closed in 1930.
List of workingsEdit
Raygill SD678715 Raygill was first documented in 1736 although it may have been worked as early as the 15th century. Coal outcropped on Aspland Beck and the seams were worked from shallow pits. Coal from the working was pulled by donkeys over metal plates laid over the fields. Thomas Tatham bought the mining rights in 1835 and opened Low Raygill Colliery taking coal from the abandoned pillars. He dug a pit opposite the Wilson Wood Colliery to exploit the Six Foot seam in 1842 shortly before he was made bankrupt. The mining rights were bought by the Sergeantsons. Raygill was the original Ingleton Colliery.
Faccon SD666715 Faccon was a very early colliery in Bentham. Coal outcropped by the River Greta and could be worked in shallow pits on Ingleton and Bentham Moors. The pits were worked by turntrees. The workings were levelled and landscaped in 1836.
Bull Ing SD681716 Two shafts were sunk at Bull Ing in 1674 into outcrops of the Four Foot and Six Foot seams, they were hand pits. Bull Ing was known as Dr Moore's coalfield.
Gin Pit SD675720 The pit was located at Gin Meadow in Parkfoot. Name evidence and the first ordnance survey map suggests that the coal was raised using horse gins. For many years there was a large water wheel that drove pumps in a drainage shaft, and it was here that Joseph Hunter built the first steam engine for Sergeantson.
New Winning Pit SD691718 Stable End Pit was sunk in 1831 and hit the Four Foot seam at a depth of 80 yards. A 40 hp steam engine drove the pumps, and a 4 hp engine raised the coal. A second shaft was sunk next to new Winning House in 1834. It reached the Six Foot seam at a depth of 120 yards. The shaft was subsequently used as the upcast shaft by Wilson Wood Colliery. Haulage roads were driven from west to east along the strike of the coal which was worked up-dip by pillar and stall. In 1844 a drift was cut into the Four Foot seam. New Winning Pit was prone to flooding but firedamp was not a problem. New Winning employed about 100 men and boys. By 1853 it was decided to sink new shafts in Wilsons Wood.
Moorgarth Collieries SD699718 The coal at Moorgath was shallow, heavily faulted and troubled by water. It was close to the railway. It worked Yard Coal and the Four Foot seam from 1828 until 1880. Some reports of a Nine Foot seam suggest that the heavy faulting had breached into the seam or there was localised thickening of the Six Foot seam. The 1870 Newfield shafts attempted to mine the Four Foot seam and Bottom Coal (the Six Foot seam) but were not profitable.
Wilson Wood Colliery SD682721 The first shafts were sunk in 1854 just as the railway came to Ingleton. The shafts passed through the Four Foot seam and below it the Six Foot seam at 130 yards. The seam dipped to the north at a slope of 1 in 4. A 135m cross-measure drift was dug horizontally to connect with the Four Foot seam in 1858. Both seams were worked. Wilsons Wood was troubled by water ingress. A serious flood in December 1865 was followed by closure in October 1866. The only other employment in Ingleton was at the cotton mill which had burnt down two years earlier and reopened after the Cotton Famine in 1867. Men from Wilsons Wood sought work in Barnsley. After a change of ownership, extra steam engines were bought. One from Coates Old Mill in Barnoldswick. Pumping out took seven months and 58 million gallons of water was removed while 480 gallon per second continued to flow in. The mine was reopened.
Barkers Pits at Dolands SD693714 Two shafts were sunk at Dolands in 1854, and two further pits in 1867. After 1888 the coal lease was granted to Edward Danson and James Barker who were a partnership trading as "Ingleton Collieries", their first shaft was sunk 58 ft to the Four Foot seam, and coal was raised in July 1888. Two other shafts were dug- thought to be the "Nellie Pit" and the "Richard Pit". "Nellie Pit" was 6 ft in diameter and 22 yds deep, "Richard Pit" was 5 ft in diameter and 22 yards deep. These worked Cannel Coal and the Six Foot seam. The partnership dissolved in 1890, and Barker worked the colliery alone and union free until 1895 when he formed the partnership with William Haigh. This was only ever a small pit and it is speculated that he was exploiting collapsed pillars from worked out regions. He bought the clay concession from the Lord of the Manor and opened the brickworks at adjacent Great Milner, and a tramway connecting his interests to the LMS rail line at Moorgarth. After further litigation in 1903 he sold the coal lease. At various court appearances the history was retold with subtle difference in the dates and the facts.
Old Pit Working The coal lease of the Old Pit was bought in 1903 by "Ingleton Collieries Ltd" and the manager continued to be James Barker. Nellie Pit and Richard Pit were mined as the company changed its name to Inglenook and made test borings and acquired further coal rights. The rights passed to the New Ingleton Collieries Company which mined it as Old Pit. They sunk a new 22 yard deep 6 feet diameter shaft at Dolands to the Six Foot seam. In 1911 the company worked the Six Foot seam westward to a north–south fault. A cross-measures drift was dug northwards to intersect the Three Foot and Four Foot coals and between 1911 and 1914, 45 acres was worked. A Schiele fan for ventilation on Nellie Pit injected 5000 cubic feet of air a minute. In 1911 illumination was provided by naked lights. Old Pit closed in October 1914.
New Ingleton Colliery SD695723 A new pit was started in December 1909. The No 2 pit was sunk alongside the A65 road starting in summer 1912. Its 14 feet diameter shaft was 247 yards deep. Water was struck at 33 yards. Pumps working at 32,000 gallons an hour were needed to drain it, and the shaft walls were lined with segmented iron castings known as tubbing to prevent water ingress. At 124 yards and 131 yards the Ten Foot and the Nine Foot seams were discovered, the first time these seams has been found on the heavily faulted coalfield. Sinking continued and the predicted Four Foot and Yard seams were not found. The Six Foot seam was found at 247 yards and limited working started 26 September 1914. Sinking No 1 pit (the upcast shaft) started in July 1913 and terminated on reaching 156 yards at the Ten Foot seam in November 1914. It allowed coal to be recovered from the Ten Foot but left the Six Foot seam without a second point of egress which was a legal requirement. Miners wages at up to 16s 0d a day were above the industry minimum of 9s 9d. Miners were attracted to Ingleton from other coalfields and the New Village housing estate was built. Screens were built alongside the company's sidings. The Ten Foot seam was excellent steam and house coal but was small in area. It was worked by driving two headings east and west from the shaft along the strike. It dipped 1 in 5 towards the north. Barren ground was reached 100 yards to the east and 225 yards to the east: gates to the north went barren within 100 yards, and gates to the south within 250 yards. The rest of the seam had been washed out before the red rock measures were deposited. The coal was worked out in 1918. Cross measure drifts were cut to the Nine Foot seam but this was lower quality coal and difficult to work and it too was abandoned in 1918.
No 1 Pit was deepened to the Four Foot and the Yard seams at 233 and 236 yards. On reaching the Six Foot seam production recommenced producing 2200 tons a week. The northern boundary was limited by the Hollintree fault and altogether 45 acres of coal was recovered. The seam was worked until September 1921 when the colliery closed. It reopened in 1924 with new finance and working commenced on the Four Foot seam which was by far the largest, stretching from the Hollintreee fault to an unnamed fault in the south. Coal was taken from 140 acres before it was depleted in 1934. Some success was had on the Yard Coal but the face collapsed in October 1935 and the colliery closed for good in 1936. Some men worked until 1940, salvaging equipment. The colliery was abandoned 16 August 1940.
- British Geological Survey 2007 Bedrock geology: UK South 1:625,000 scale geological map, BGS, Keyworth, Notts
- Ellis (1993). "The Ingleton Coalfield—A Slumbering Dwarf?". Retrieved 14 March 2014.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, p. 79.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, pp. 17–20.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, p. 63.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, p. 66.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, pp. 35–42.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, p. 48.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, p. 50.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, p. 53.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, pp. 55–57.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, pp. 58–62.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, pp. 63–65.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, pp. 78–80.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, p. 81.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, p. 82.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, pp. 85–86.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, p. 87.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, pp. 91–94.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, pp. 94–95.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, pp. 95–112. | <urn:uuid:5effe30d-7653-4652-a81e-84d742e2ba37> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingleton_Coalfield | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00179.warc.gz | en | 0.983183 | 3,116 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.28676119446... | 1 | The Ingleton Coalfield is in North Yorkshire, close to its border with Lancashire in north-west England. Isolated from other coal-producing areas, it is one of the smallest coalfields in Great Britain.
Mining is known to have taken place here since the early 17th century though it was the middle of the 19th century before the coalfield was further developed.
Geography and geologyEdit
The Ingleton Coalfield is about six miles long by four miles wide lying mostly in the parish of Ingleton extending into the neighbouring parishes of Burton in Lonsdale and Thornton-in-Lonsdale. The coalfield terminates at the South Craven fault. The coal measures are shallow and represent the lowest layers in the Pennine coal measures sequence. The earliest coal mining occurred along the River Greta where Four Foot and Six Foot seams outcrop. Most deep mining was at New Ingleton Pit sunk in 1913. Its sinking led to the discovery of the Ten Foot seam (house and steam coal) at 127 yards, and the Nine Foot seam (steam and house coal) at 134 yards. Beneath them are the Four Foot seam (house, gas and coking coal) at 233 yards, the Three Foot or Yard seam (house and gas coal) at 236 yards and the Six Foot seam (steam and house coal) at 260 yards. Commercially viable deposits of fireclay lay under the Three Foot seam and pottery clay beneath the Six Foot seam used to make Ingleton Bricks.
The first mention of coal extraction is in the will of Richard Lowther, Lord of the manor of Ingleton in 1645. The Lowthers who had interests in coal elsewhere took over the manor in 1605. In 1680 the colliery was leased to their relatives the Walkers. The lease was questioned by Henry Bouch who was lord of the manor in 1678, when pits were sunk at Bull Ing. There were other pits at Raygill and Faccon. In 1701, Dr Thomas Moore of Lancaster, married into the Walker family and became sole owner of Ingleton Colliery in 1711. It was managed by Cuthbert Kidd until 1730. The Foxcrofts took over the lease of the Burton and Ingleton Collieries.
Ownership passed to the Sergeantsons for four generations. George John Sergeantson found the collieries had been neglected in 1826 and employed Joseph Hunter as colliery manager. To improve the colliery he demolished the water-wheel at Parkfoot, installed the first steam engine at Ingleton and built a house at New Winning where he sank a new shaft for a pit that was worked from 1834 to 1857.
A new colliery was started at Wilson Wood to mine the Four Foot, Yard, and Six Foot seams. Its shaft was 180 feet deep, and the coal seams were inclined at 16 degrees. A steam engine pumped 560 gallons of water a minute from the shaft and 20,000 cubic feet of air circulated through the workings. On a 400-yard tramway, trains of seven tubs were pulled by ponies. There was a 100-yard inclined plane rising at an angle of 1 in 3. In October 1866 water from Wilson Brook flooded the mine which was abandoned. Workers moved to find work in Burnley and Barnsley and some were killed in the Oaks explosion of 12 December 1866. In 1872 four experienced miners sank two new shafts at Newfield and the colliery was bought by William Bracewell, a Lancashire mill-owner to supply his mills in Barnoldswick and Colne. He began draining the flooded Wilsons Wood pit and started brick production. He employed 120 men and coal was transported by horse and cart to the Midland Railway sidings from where half the coal went to his mills and the rest was used locally. After Bracewell's death the colliery suffered difficulties and was offered for sale by the trustees who had turned off the pumps at Wilsons Wood.
James Barker began working the pits on a small scale to supply the local market but was beset by litigation. Before his death from a heart attack on Ingleton Station in 1913, he had sold his interests in Ingleton Colliery to a syndicate, the New Ingleton Colliery Company. Two new shafts were sunk and the Ten Foot and Nine Foot seams were found. In 1926 the colliery employed 350 men.
The New Village was constructed. Coal mining caused subsidence and the company was unable to meet the cost of compensation and the colliery closed in 1930.
List of workingsEdit
Raygill SD678715 Raygill was first documented in 1736 although it may have been worked as early as the 15th century. Coal outcropped on Aspland Beck and the seams were worked from shallow pits. Coal from the working was pulled by donkeys over metal plates laid over the fields. Thomas Tatham bought the mining rights in 1835 and opened Low Raygill Colliery taking coal from the abandoned pillars. He dug a pit opposite the Wilson Wood Colliery to exploit the Six Foot seam in 1842 shortly before he was made bankrupt. The mining rights were bought by the Sergeantsons. Raygill was the original Ingleton Colliery.
Faccon SD666715 Faccon was a very early colliery in Bentham. Coal outcropped by the River Greta and could be worked in shallow pits on Ingleton and Bentham Moors. The pits were worked by turntrees. The workings were levelled and landscaped in 1836.
Bull Ing SD681716 Two shafts were sunk at Bull Ing in 1674 into outcrops of the Four Foot and Six Foot seams, they were hand pits. Bull Ing was known as Dr Moore's coalfield.
Gin Pit SD675720 The pit was located at Gin Meadow in Parkfoot. Name evidence and the first ordnance survey map suggests that the coal was raised using horse gins. For many years there was a large water wheel that drove pumps in a drainage shaft, and it was here that Joseph Hunter built the first steam engine for Sergeantson.
New Winning Pit SD691718 Stable End Pit was sunk in 1831 and hit the Four Foot seam at a depth of 80 yards. A 40 hp steam engine drove the pumps, and a 4 hp engine raised the coal. A second shaft was sunk next to new Winning House in 1834. It reached the Six Foot seam at a depth of 120 yards. The shaft was subsequently used as the upcast shaft by Wilson Wood Colliery. Haulage roads were driven from west to east along the strike of the coal which was worked up-dip by pillar and stall. In 1844 a drift was cut into the Four Foot seam. New Winning Pit was prone to flooding but firedamp was not a problem. New Winning employed about 100 men and boys. By 1853 it was decided to sink new shafts in Wilsons Wood.
Moorgarth Collieries SD699718 The coal at Moorgath was shallow, heavily faulted and troubled by water. It was close to the railway. It worked Yard Coal and the Four Foot seam from 1828 until 1880. Some reports of a Nine Foot seam suggest that the heavy faulting had breached into the seam or there was localised thickening of the Six Foot seam. The 1870 Newfield shafts attempted to mine the Four Foot seam and Bottom Coal (the Six Foot seam) but were not profitable.
Wilson Wood Colliery SD682721 The first shafts were sunk in 1854 just as the railway came to Ingleton. The shafts passed through the Four Foot seam and below it the Six Foot seam at 130 yards. The seam dipped to the north at a slope of 1 in 4. A 135m cross-measure drift was dug horizontally to connect with the Four Foot seam in 1858. Both seams were worked. Wilsons Wood was troubled by water ingress. A serious flood in December 1865 was followed by closure in October 1866. The only other employment in Ingleton was at the cotton mill which had burnt down two years earlier and reopened after the Cotton Famine in 1867. Men from Wilsons Wood sought work in Barnsley. After a change of ownership, extra steam engines were bought. One from Coates Old Mill in Barnoldswick. Pumping out took seven months and 58 million gallons of water was removed while 480 gallon per second continued to flow in. The mine was reopened.
Barkers Pits at Dolands SD693714 Two shafts were sunk at Dolands in 1854, and two further pits in 1867. After 1888 the coal lease was granted to Edward Danson and James Barker who were a partnership trading as "Ingleton Collieries", their first shaft was sunk 58 ft to the Four Foot seam, and coal was raised in July 1888. Two other shafts were dug- thought to be the "Nellie Pit" and the "Richard Pit". "Nellie Pit" was 6 ft in diameter and 22 yds deep, "Richard Pit" was 5 ft in diameter and 22 yards deep. These worked Cannel Coal and the Six Foot seam. The partnership dissolved in 1890, and Barker worked the colliery alone and union free until 1895 when he formed the partnership with William Haigh. This was only ever a small pit and it is speculated that he was exploiting collapsed pillars from worked out regions. He bought the clay concession from the Lord of the Manor and opened the brickworks at adjacent Great Milner, and a tramway connecting his interests to the LMS rail line at Moorgarth. After further litigation in 1903 he sold the coal lease. At various court appearances the history was retold with subtle difference in the dates and the facts.
Old Pit Working The coal lease of the Old Pit was bought in 1903 by "Ingleton Collieries Ltd" and the manager continued to be James Barker. Nellie Pit and Richard Pit were mined as the company changed its name to Inglenook and made test borings and acquired further coal rights. The rights passed to the New Ingleton Collieries Company which mined it as Old Pit. They sunk a new 22 yard deep 6 feet diameter shaft at Dolands to the Six Foot seam. In 1911 the company worked the Six Foot seam westward to a north–south fault. A cross-measures drift was dug northwards to intersect the Three Foot and Four Foot coals and between 1911 and 1914, 45 acres was worked. A Schiele fan for ventilation on Nellie Pit injected 5000 cubic feet of air a minute. In 1911 illumination was provided by naked lights. Old Pit closed in October 1914.
New Ingleton Colliery SD695723 A new pit was started in December 1909. The No 2 pit was sunk alongside the A65 road starting in summer 1912. Its 14 feet diameter shaft was 247 yards deep. Water was struck at 33 yards. Pumps working at 32,000 gallons an hour were needed to drain it, and the shaft walls were lined with segmented iron castings known as tubbing to prevent water ingress. At 124 yards and 131 yards the Ten Foot and the Nine Foot seams were discovered, the first time these seams has been found on the heavily faulted coalfield. Sinking continued and the predicted Four Foot and Yard seams were not found. The Six Foot seam was found at 247 yards and limited working started 26 September 1914. Sinking No 1 pit (the upcast shaft) started in July 1913 and terminated on reaching 156 yards at the Ten Foot seam in November 1914. It allowed coal to be recovered from the Ten Foot but left the Six Foot seam without a second point of egress which was a legal requirement. Miners wages at up to 16s 0d a day were above the industry minimum of 9s 9d. Miners were attracted to Ingleton from other coalfields and the New Village housing estate was built. Screens were built alongside the company's sidings. The Ten Foot seam was excellent steam and house coal but was small in area. It was worked by driving two headings east and west from the shaft along the strike. It dipped 1 in 5 towards the north. Barren ground was reached 100 yards to the east and 225 yards to the east: gates to the north went barren within 100 yards, and gates to the south within 250 yards. The rest of the seam had been washed out before the red rock measures were deposited. The coal was worked out in 1918. Cross measure drifts were cut to the Nine Foot seam but this was lower quality coal and difficult to work and it too was abandoned in 1918.
No 1 Pit was deepened to the Four Foot and the Yard seams at 233 and 236 yards. On reaching the Six Foot seam production recommenced producing 2200 tons a week. The northern boundary was limited by the Hollintree fault and altogether 45 acres of coal was recovered. The seam was worked until September 1921 when the colliery closed. It reopened in 1924 with new finance and working commenced on the Four Foot seam which was by far the largest, stretching from the Hollintreee fault to an unnamed fault in the south. Coal was taken from 140 acres before it was depleted in 1934. Some success was had on the Yard Coal but the face collapsed in October 1935 and the colliery closed for good in 1936. Some men worked until 1940, salvaging equipment. The colliery was abandoned 16 August 1940.
- British Geological Survey 2007 Bedrock geology: UK South 1:625,000 scale geological map, BGS, Keyworth, Notts
- Ellis (1993). "The Ingleton Coalfield—A Slumbering Dwarf?". Retrieved 14 March 2014.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, p. 79.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, pp. 17–20.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, p. 63.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, p. 66.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, pp. 35–42.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, p. 48.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, p. 50.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, p. 53.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, pp. 55–57.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, pp. 58–62.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, pp. 63–65.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, pp. 78–80.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, p. 81.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, p. 82.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, pp. 85–86.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, p. 87.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, pp. 91–94.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, pp. 94–95.
- Bentley, Bond & Gill 2005, pp. 95–112. | 3,611 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Sacagawea was born sometime around 1790. She is best known for her role in assisting the Lewis and Clark expedition. She and her husband were guides from the Great Plains to the Pacific Ocean and back.
Kidnapped and Sold Into Marriage
Sacagawea was kidnapped from her Shoshone village by Hidatsa Indians when she was twelve years old. She was promptly sold into slavery. She was then sold to a French fur trapper by the name of Toussaint Charbonneau. The pair became married and had a son named Jean-Baptiste.
On the Lewis and Clark Expedition
Although there are conflicting opinions concerning how important Sacagawea was to the Lewis and Clark expedition, she did serve as the interpreter and negotiator to the Shoshone tribe - that was led by her brother Cameahwait. She helped them obtain essential supplies and horses while she carried her infant son on her back. Furthermore, Sacagawea helped identify edible plants and herbs and prevented hostile relations with other tribes simply by being with the expedition. She was even more important on the return trip because she was familiar with the areas in which the expedition was traveling. Lewis and Clark received credit for discovering hundreds of animals and plants that Sacagawea had probably seen for years. Although she received no payment for her help, her husband was rewarded with cash and land.
Death and Adoption of her Children
Six years after the journey, Sacagawea died after giving birth to her daughter Lisette. William Clark adopted both of her children, but there are no records of Lisette. To this day, there are no reliable pictures or drawings of Sacagawea. Recently, the United States government engraved her image on the new one dollar coin. Sacagawea is buried in Lander, Wyoming. | <urn:uuid:6d174ca9-4a07-4aa3-b180-3a702df946bb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mrnussbaum.com/sacagawea-biography-lewis-and-clark | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00339.warc.gz | en | 0.989912 | 373 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.084751360118389... | 1 | Sacagawea was born sometime around 1790. She is best known for her role in assisting the Lewis and Clark expedition. She and her husband were guides from the Great Plains to the Pacific Ocean and back.
Kidnapped and Sold Into Marriage
Sacagawea was kidnapped from her Shoshone village by Hidatsa Indians when she was twelve years old. She was promptly sold into slavery. She was then sold to a French fur trapper by the name of Toussaint Charbonneau. The pair became married and had a son named Jean-Baptiste.
On the Lewis and Clark Expedition
Although there are conflicting opinions concerning how important Sacagawea was to the Lewis and Clark expedition, she did serve as the interpreter and negotiator to the Shoshone tribe - that was led by her brother Cameahwait. She helped them obtain essential supplies and horses while she carried her infant son on her back. Furthermore, Sacagawea helped identify edible plants and herbs and prevented hostile relations with other tribes simply by being with the expedition. She was even more important on the return trip because she was familiar with the areas in which the expedition was traveling. Lewis and Clark received credit for discovering hundreds of animals and plants that Sacagawea had probably seen for years. Although she received no payment for her help, her husband was rewarded with cash and land.
Death and Adoption of her Children
Six years after the journey, Sacagawea died after giving birth to her daughter Lisette. William Clark adopted both of her children, but there are no records of Lisette. To this day, there are no reliable pictures or drawings of Sacagawea. Recently, the United States government engraved her image on the new one dollar coin. Sacagawea is buried in Lander, Wyoming. | 371 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In Athens were the six junior of the nine archontes, appointed annually. They were instituted in the 7th cent. bc. Thesmos is an early word for ‘law’ or ‘rule’, but it is unlikely that the thesmothetai ever made laws; their original function must have been ‘laying down the law’ in the sense of pronouncing verdicts on accusations and disputes.
After the establishment of juries, the main function of the thesmothetai was to receive charges in various legal actions and arrange for a trial by jury, over which one thesmothetēs presided. Their trials were held in the building known as the Eliaia. The public actions for which they were responsible included eisangelia for treason, probolē (see law and procedure, athenian), and graphe for many offences, including graphe paranomon. They took trials arising from dokimasia, and they also took some private actions. They could authorize the execution without trial of persons exiled for homicide who were afterwards found in Attica. In the 4th cent., after magistrates ceased to sit regularly in the same courts, it was the thesmothetai who arranged the dates for trials and allotted courts to magistrates each day.
Subjects: Classical studies | <urn:uuid:722590e8-7865-4c75-a964-aa12277a8bfe> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803103916169 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00166.warc.gz | en | 0.987118 | 276 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.46411663293... | 1 | In Athens were the six junior of the nine archontes, appointed annually. They were instituted in the 7th cent. bc. Thesmos is an early word for ‘law’ or ‘rule’, but it is unlikely that the thesmothetai ever made laws; their original function must have been ‘laying down the law’ in the sense of pronouncing verdicts on accusations and disputes.
After the establishment of juries, the main function of the thesmothetai was to receive charges in various legal actions and arrange for a trial by jury, over which one thesmothetēs presided. Their trials were held in the building known as the Eliaia. The public actions for which they were responsible included eisangelia for treason, probolē (see law and procedure, athenian), and graphe for many offences, including graphe paranomon. They took trials arising from dokimasia, and they also took some private actions. They could authorize the execution without trial of persons exiled for homicide who were afterwards found in Attica. In the 4th cent., after magistrates ceased to sit regularly in the same courts, it was the thesmothetai who arranged the dates for trials and allotted courts to magistrates each day.
Subjects: Classical studies | 269 | ENGLISH | 1 |
George Henry White
He was the last of five Blacks who were elected and served in Congress during the Jim Crow era. George Henry White born on December 18, 1852 was a Banker, Attorney, U.S. Congressman and founder of black communities in Philadelphia and New Jersey. White was born in 1852 in Rosindale, Bladen County, North Carolina, His father Wiley Franklin White was a free person of color where his natural mother may have been a slave. White started studies at Howard University and was admitted to the North Carolina bar.
In 1896 he was elected to the U.S. Congress representing the predominantly black Second District from his residence in Tarboro. In 1898 White was re-elected in a three-way race. In a period of increasing racism and disenfranchisement of blacks in the U.S., he was the last of five African Americans who served in Congress during the Jim Crow era.
White worked for civil rights and consistently highlighted issues of justice and the treatment of blacks in the South. He supported an effort for reduction legislation derived from the 14th Amendment, to reduce apportionment of Congressional delegations in proportion to the voting population that states were illegally disenfranchising. On January 20, 1900, White introduced the first bill in Congress to make lynching a federal crime to be prosecuted by federal courts; it died in committee.
White chose not to seek a third term in the 1900 elections. He told the Chicago Tribune, "I cannot live in North Carolina and be a man and be treated as a man.”
White delivered his final speech in the House on January 29, 1901:
This is perhaps the Negroes' temporary farewell to the American Congress, but let me say, Phoenix-like he will rise up some day and come again. These parting words are in behalf of an outraged, heart-broken, bruised and bleeding, but God-fearing people; faithful, industrious, loyal, rising people, full of potential force.
White died in his home in Philadelphia, December 28, 1918, and was buried in an unmarked grave at Eden Cemetery in nearby Collingdale, Pennsylvania.
Copyright Black History Mini Docs Inc. 2019 All Rights Reserved. | <urn:uuid:656d8478-9bec-4c43-ab4c-213c8d084e63> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.blackhistoryminidocs.com/george-henry-white.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00485.warc.gz | en | 0.982043 | 450 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.2655400633811950... | 1 | George Henry White
He was the last of five Blacks who were elected and served in Congress during the Jim Crow era. George Henry White born on December 18, 1852 was a Banker, Attorney, U.S. Congressman and founder of black communities in Philadelphia and New Jersey. White was born in 1852 in Rosindale, Bladen County, North Carolina, His father Wiley Franklin White was a free person of color where his natural mother may have been a slave. White started studies at Howard University and was admitted to the North Carolina bar.
In 1896 he was elected to the U.S. Congress representing the predominantly black Second District from his residence in Tarboro. In 1898 White was re-elected in a three-way race. In a period of increasing racism and disenfranchisement of blacks in the U.S., he was the last of five African Americans who served in Congress during the Jim Crow era.
White worked for civil rights and consistently highlighted issues of justice and the treatment of blacks in the South. He supported an effort for reduction legislation derived from the 14th Amendment, to reduce apportionment of Congressional delegations in proportion to the voting population that states were illegally disenfranchising. On January 20, 1900, White introduced the first bill in Congress to make lynching a federal crime to be prosecuted by federal courts; it died in committee.
White chose not to seek a third term in the 1900 elections. He told the Chicago Tribune, "I cannot live in North Carolina and be a man and be treated as a man.”
White delivered his final speech in the House on January 29, 1901:
This is perhaps the Negroes' temporary farewell to the American Congress, but let me say, Phoenix-like he will rise up some day and come again. These parting words are in behalf of an outraged, heart-broken, bruised and bleeding, but God-fearing people; faithful, industrious, loyal, rising people, full of potential force.
White died in his home in Philadelphia, December 28, 1918, and was buried in an unmarked grave at Eden Cemetery in nearby Collingdale, Pennsylvania.
Copyright Black History Mini Docs Inc. 2019 All Rights Reserved. | 484 | ENGLISH | 1 |
World Trade Center History
The Twin Towers were the centerpieces of the World Trade Center complex. At 110 stories each, 1 WTC (North Tower) and 2 WTC (South Tower) provided nearly 10 million square feet of office space for about 35,000 people and 430 companies. They were the tallest buildings in New York City, and for a brief period upon their completion, they were the tallest buildings in the world. They attracted roughly 70,000 tourists and commuters every day.
The North Tower rose 1,368 feet—1,730 feet with a large antenna—and the South Tower stood 1,362-feet high. On a clear day, views extended 45 miles from the top of the towers in every direction—far enough to see all five New York City boroughs, New Jersey, and Connecticut.
The towers were massive. Each weighed more than 250,000 tons, contained 99 elevators and had 21,800 windows. Each floor was an acre in size and there was enough concrete in the towers to build a sidewalk from New York City to Washington, D.C. The complex even had its own zip code: 10048.
The two towers were surrounded by five other buildings that comprised the WTC complex. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey had a police desk in 5 WTC, while 3 WTC was a hotel and office buildings.
The Twin Towers were completed in 1973, though tenants began to arrive in December 1970. The other buildings were built over the next 14 years.
In February 1993, terrorists with links to an Islamist extremist group detonated explosives in a van parked underneath the WTC. Six people were killed and thousands were injured. | <urn:uuid:c2284c5a-da40-4fb7-9b33-c123f8abc999> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.911memorial.org/learn/resources/world-trade-center-history | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00464.warc.gz | en | 0.984625 | 336 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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The Twin Towers were the centerpieces of the World Trade Center complex. At 110 stories each, 1 WTC (North Tower) and 2 WTC (South Tower) provided nearly 10 million square feet of office space for about 35,000 people and 430 companies. They were the tallest buildings in New York City, and for a brief period upon their completion, they were the tallest buildings in the world. They attracted roughly 70,000 tourists and commuters every day.
The North Tower rose 1,368 feet—1,730 feet with a large antenna—and the South Tower stood 1,362-feet high. On a clear day, views extended 45 miles from the top of the towers in every direction—far enough to see all five New York City boroughs, New Jersey, and Connecticut.
The towers were massive. Each weighed more than 250,000 tons, contained 99 elevators and had 21,800 windows. Each floor was an acre in size and there was enough concrete in the towers to build a sidewalk from New York City to Washington, D.C. The complex even had its own zip code: 10048.
The two towers were surrounded by five other buildings that comprised the WTC complex. The Port Authority of New York and New Jersey had a police desk in 5 WTC, while 3 WTC was a hotel and office buildings.
The Twin Towers were completed in 1973, though tenants began to arrive in December 1970. The other buildings were built over the next 14 years.
In February 1993, terrorists with links to an Islamist extremist group detonated explosives in a van parked underneath the WTC. Six people were killed and thousands were injured. | 395 | ENGLISH | 1 |
(CNN)Morgan Jones was close to starving. It was 1660 and he and his boat crew had been stranded at Oyster Point, in modern-day South Carolina, for almost eight months, running low on food with no hope of rescue.
The racist origins of the myth a Welsh prince beat Columbus to America
Eventually, Jones and five others set out "through the wilderness" for British colonies in the north, but were detained as they passed through the territory of a local indigenous tribe.
"That night they carried us to their town and shut us up close to our no small dread," Jones wrote in an account of his journey published years later.
Told they were to be executed, Jones cried out in his native language, Welsh: "Have I escaped so many dangers and must I now be knocked on the head like a dog?"
One of his captors then approached him and said, "in the British tongue" that Jones "should not die." Instead, he took him to his home, where Jones happily conversed "with them familiarly in the British (Welsh) language and did preach to them three times a week in the same language." | <urn:uuid:25624ecd-a30d-4530-83dd-9e178beaa776> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.cnn.com/2019/07/20/uk/welsh-americas-history-intl-hnk/index.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00145.warc.gz | en | 0.989394 | 238 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.0753590837121... | 2 | (CNN)Morgan Jones was close to starving. It was 1660 and he and his boat crew had been stranded at Oyster Point, in modern-day South Carolina, for almost eight months, running low on food with no hope of rescue.
The racist origins of the myth a Welsh prince beat Columbus to America
Eventually, Jones and five others set out "through the wilderness" for British colonies in the north, but were detained as they passed through the territory of a local indigenous tribe.
"That night they carried us to their town and shut us up close to our no small dread," Jones wrote in an account of his journey published years later.
Told they were to be executed, Jones cried out in his native language, Welsh: "Have I escaped so many dangers and must I now be knocked on the head like a dog?"
One of his captors then approached him and said, "in the British tongue" that Jones "should not die." Instead, he took him to his home, where Jones happily conversed "with them familiarly in the British (Welsh) language and did preach to them three times a week in the same language." | 236 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Hattie Ophelia Wyatt Caraway, a Democrat from Arkansas, becomes the first woman to be elected to the U.S. Senate. Caraway, born near Bakerville, Tennessee, had been appointed to the Senate two months earlier to fill the vacancy left by her late husband, Thaddeus Horatio Caraway. With the support of Huey Long, a powerful senator from Louisiana, Caraway was elected to the seat. In 1938, she was reelected. After failing to win renomination in 1944, she was appointed to the Federal Employees Compensation Commission by President Franklin Roosevelt.
Although she was the first freely elected female senator, Caraway was preceded in the Senate by Rebecca Latimer Felton, who was appointed in 1922 to fill a vacancy but never ran for election. Jeannette Rankin, elected to the House of Representatives as a pacifist from Montana in 1917, was the first woman to ever sit in Congress. | <urn:uuid:7bcd82da-a74d-45bf-82a2-4d13dac7077c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/first-elected-female-senator | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00399.warc.gz | en | 0.986067 | 191 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.011713687330... | 4 | Hattie Ophelia Wyatt Caraway, a Democrat from Arkansas, becomes the first woman to be elected to the U.S. Senate. Caraway, born near Bakerville, Tennessee, had been appointed to the Senate two months earlier to fill the vacancy left by her late husband, Thaddeus Horatio Caraway. With the support of Huey Long, a powerful senator from Louisiana, Caraway was elected to the seat. In 1938, she was reelected. After failing to win renomination in 1944, she was appointed to the Federal Employees Compensation Commission by President Franklin Roosevelt.
Although she was the first freely elected female senator, Caraway was preceded in the Senate by Rebecca Latimer Felton, who was appointed in 1922 to fill a vacancy but never ran for election. Jeannette Rankin, elected to the House of Representatives as a pacifist from Montana in 1917, was the first woman to ever sit in Congress. | 208 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Suffragist Alice Paul was born on January 11, 1885, in Mount Laurel, New Jersey.
The oldest of four children, she was a descendent of William Penn (the founder of Pennsylvania). Paul first became acquainted with the suffrage movement through her mother, a member of the National American Woman Suffrage Association, and would attend their meetings as a child.
Paul graduated at the top of her class before entering Swarthmore College. While there she was part of the Executive Board of Student Government. Paul also studied at the University of Pennsylvania and the University of Birmingham. She also spent some time England at the Woodbrooke Quaker Study Center and the London School of Economics.
While in England, Paul worked with women’s suffrage groups, participating in several marches and demonstrations. She was arrested multiple times for her protests, even just for speaking out about women’s rights. Paul, who had worked as a social worker at times, realized that social work wouldn’t be the most effective way to make change. Her work with British suffragists led her to believe that the best route was public protest, including civil disobedience and hunger strikes.
Paul brought these ideals back to America when she joined the National American Woman Suffrage Association in 1912. For a time she served as head of the Washington, DC chapter. However, the group sought to achieve their goal through state-by-state campaigns, while Paul believed the best course of action was to lobby Congress for an amendment. This led her and several others to form the National Woman’s Party.
Paul organized parades and protests to gain public support for women’s suffrage. The largest of these was held in Washington, DC on March 3, 1913, the day before Woodrow Wilson’s inauguration. About 8,000 women marched down Pennsylvania Avenue as about 500,000 people watched, some in support and some not. Paul and other suffragists met with president Wilson later that month and he told them he didn’t think it was time for such an amendment. That April, Paul formed the Congressional Union for Woman Suffrage with the specific goal of lobbying Congress for an amendment.
In 1917, Paul launched a vigorous 18-month campaign in which she and over 1,000 “Silent Sentinels” picketed the White House. They stood outside the gates carrying signs with messages such as “Mr. President, how long must women wait for liberty?” However, they were often subjected to verbal and physical abuse and were arrested for obstructing traffic. At one point, Paul was sent to jail for seven months, during which he held a hunger strike, but they force-fed her. Tales of Paul’s treatment were recounted in the newspaper, which helped her gain public support.
Finally in 1918, President Wilson announced his support for women’s suffrage, though it would be another two years before the Senate, House, and 36 states approved it. The 19th Amendment was officially adopted on August 26, 1920. Following that victory, Paul worked on the Equal Rights Amendment, which would guarantee women constitutional protection from discrimination. It was submitted to Congress in 1923 and passed by both houses years later, but was never ratified by enough states to become law.
Paul also contributed to the Civil Rights Act of 1964, ensuring it also prohibited discrimination based on sex. Paul continued to campaign for women’s rights, particularly the Equal Rights Amendment, until her death on July 9, 1977. | <urn:uuid:fd39f876-e572-4ad1-9a2c-50b6967beb2f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mysticstamp.com/Products/United-States/2943/USA/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00126.warc.gz | en | 0.986226 | 722 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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-0.14263543486595... | 1 | Suffragist Alice Paul was born on January 11, 1885, in Mount Laurel, New Jersey.
The oldest of four children, she was a descendent of William Penn (the founder of Pennsylvania). Paul first became acquainted with the suffrage movement through her mother, a member of the National American Woman Suffrage Association, and would attend their meetings as a child.
Paul graduated at the top of her class before entering Swarthmore College. While there she was part of the Executive Board of Student Government. Paul also studied at the University of Pennsylvania and the University of Birmingham. She also spent some time England at the Woodbrooke Quaker Study Center and the London School of Economics.
While in England, Paul worked with women’s suffrage groups, participating in several marches and demonstrations. She was arrested multiple times for her protests, even just for speaking out about women’s rights. Paul, who had worked as a social worker at times, realized that social work wouldn’t be the most effective way to make change. Her work with British suffragists led her to believe that the best route was public protest, including civil disobedience and hunger strikes.
Paul brought these ideals back to America when she joined the National American Woman Suffrage Association in 1912. For a time she served as head of the Washington, DC chapter. However, the group sought to achieve their goal through state-by-state campaigns, while Paul believed the best course of action was to lobby Congress for an amendment. This led her and several others to form the National Woman’s Party.
Paul organized parades and protests to gain public support for women’s suffrage. The largest of these was held in Washington, DC on March 3, 1913, the day before Woodrow Wilson’s inauguration. About 8,000 women marched down Pennsylvania Avenue as about 500,000 people watched, some in support and some not. Paul and other suffragists met with president Wilson later that month and he told them he didn’t think it was time for such an amendment. That April, Paul formed the Congressional Union for Woman Suffrage with the specific goal of lobbying Congress for an amendment.
In 1917, Paul launched a vigorous 18-month campaign in which she and over 1,000 “Silent Sentinels” picketed the White House. They stood outside the gates carrying signs with messages such as “Mr. President, how long must women wait for liberty?” However, they were often subjected to verbal and physical abuse and were arrested for obstructing traffic. At one point, Paul was sent to jail for seven months, during which he held a hunger strike, but they force-fed her. Tales of Paul’s treatment were recounted in the newspaper, which helped her gain public support.
Finally in 1918, President Wilson announced his support for women’s suffrage, though it would be another two years before the Senate, House, and 36 states approved it. The 19th Amendment was officially adopted on August 26, 1920. Following that victory, Paul worked on the Equal Rights Amendment, which would guarantee women constitutional protection from discrimination. It was submitted to Congress in 1923 and passed by both houses years later, but was never ratified by enough states to become law.
Paul also contributed to the Civil Rights Act of 1964, ensuring it also prohibited discrimination based on sex. Paul continued to campaign for women’s rights, particularly the Equal Rights Amendment, until her death on July 9, 1977. | 743 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By the close of the 18th century, warships were self-contained communities, capable of operating away from land for months at a time. Cook’s first voyage of exploration lasted almost three years, much of it spent in the uncharted waters of the South Pacific. In their cavernous holds, warships carried their own food, fuel, water and clothing, along with all the material and skilled craftsmen they needed to maintain and repair the fabric of their wooden world. One of those skilled craftsman was the sailmaker.
Royal Navy ships in the 18th century were not issued with a set of sails. Instead they were supplied with a sailmaker. He might work alone, if the ship was small, or he might head up a team of people. In a ship of the line, for example, he would be assisted by a sailmaker’s mate, and two sailmaker’s crew. These were busy men. A 74 gun ship needed several acres of sail to propel it through the water, divided into over thirty individual pieces of canvas. Each one had to be made by hand, to the exact dimensions of the yard and mast it was going to be attached to. Additional sets of sails were required for different weather conditions, such as small but immensely strong storm canvas, and studding sails that could be extended out on each side of the ship when the wind was light. The largest sails, the courses and topsails, could weigh over a ton – and even more when wet, which they frequently were.
To manufacture sails, the sailmaker was issued with bolts of canvas. These were long strips of material, each thirty nine yards long and about two feet wide. The material itself was graded according to its thickness and weave, number one canvas being the strongest and heaviest, and number six the lightest. The individual lengths where stitched together, edge to edge, to produce larger areas, which accounts for the slightly striped appearance of sails in contemporary paintings and prints. This method of sail making had the advantage that repairs to damaged sails was easier. If a rip was found, the damaged bolt could be cut out, and a replacement piece of canvas added.
Making sails required considerable skill. To function well, a sail needs to be both strong enough to withstand the power of the wind, but also to be light and flexible enough to be handled by sailors working aloft, often in very challenging conditions. But the stronger the type of canvas used, the heavier and more rigid the sail. The solution was to use different grades of canvas in the different parts of the sail, with lighter material in the centre, and heavier grades of canvas towards the leech (side edges), where the most strain would occur.
A square sail is a surprisingly complex thing. For a start, the sail is never really square. It generally has a head (top) with a width to match the yard it is attached to, and a wider foot (bottom) in proportion with the longer yard below. The foot itself was not straight, but curved in a gentle arc, so as to keep the canvas free of the rigging. Then the middle of the sail, called the bunt, was cut with extra material so that it would form a belly in which to catch the wind. At the edges of the sail the canvas was doubled over, to increase its strength, and then a bolt rope was stitched to the edge, to prevent it from splitting. This was always done slightly to the left of centre of the edge, so that a seaman in the dark would be able to know which way round the sail should be by touch alone. The sail then needed to have various cringles, clews and reefing points added. It has been estimated that to make a single topsail for a ship of the line would have taken over a thousand man-hours.
The sailmaker’s job was one of constant labour, working to replace sails as they wore out, were damaged, or needed to be repaired. It was also a role with considerable responsibility. A sailing warship was wholly reliant on its sails, either to escape from pursuit, or to overhaul an opponent. They need to operate effectively in extreme conditions; both in poor weather and also in battle. The huge foretopsail that the Victory used at Trafalgar is still in existence. It is at the Royal Navy Museum in Portsmouth, and resembles a Swiss cheese. It has over ninety substantial holes in it made by cannon fire as Nelson’s flagship approached the Franco-Spanish fleet. That this sail continued to propel its ship into battle, served it throughout that long day, and then through the storm that followed, is testament to how well the Victory’s sailmakers did their job. | <urn:uuid:b46d2e43-4a76-4d31-95b3-8c650756ab2d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.philipkallan.com/single-post/2018/07/09/Sails-and-the-Vanishing-Art-of-the-Sailmaker | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00204.warc.gz | en | 0.985435 | 966 | 4.25 | 4 | [
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0.4741914272308... | 3 | By the close of the 18th century, warships were self-contained communities, capable of operating away from land for months at a time. Cook’s first voyage of exploration lasted almost three years, much of it spent in the uncharted waters of the South Pacific. In their cavernous holds, warships carried their own food, fuel, water and clothing, along with all the material and skilled craftsmen they needed to maintain and repair the fabric of their wooden world. One of those skilled craftsman was the sailmaker.
Royal Navy ships in the 18th century were not issued with a set of sails. Instead they were supplied with a sailmaker. He might work alone, if the ship was small, or he might head up a team of people. In a ship of the line, for example, he would be assisted by a sailmaker’s mate, and two sailmaker’s crew. These were busy men. A 74 gun ship needed several acres of sail to propel it through the water, divided into over thirty individual pieces of canvas. Each one had to be made by hand, to the exact dimensions of the yard and mast it was going to be attached to. Additional sets of sails were required for different weather conditions, such as small but immensely strong storm canvas, and studding sails that could be extended out on each side of the ship when the wind was light. The largest sails, the courses and topsails, could weigh over a ton – and even more when wet, which they frequently were.
To manufacture sails, the sailmaker was issued with bolts of canvas. These were long strips of material, each thirty nine yards long and about two feet wide. The material itself was graded according to its thickness and weave, number one canvas being the strongest and heaviest, and number six the lightest. The individual lengths where stitched together, edge to edge, to produce larger areas, which accounts for the slightly striped appearance of sails in contemporary paintings and prints. This method of sail making had the advantage that repairs to damaged sails was easier. If a rip was found, the damaged bolt could be cut out, and a replacement piece of canvas added.
Making sails required considerable skill. To function well, a sail needs to be both strong enough to withstand the power of the wind, but also to be light and flexible enough to be handled by sailors working aloft, often in very challenging conditions. But the stronger the type of canvas used, the heavier and more rigid the sail. The solution was to use different grades of canvas in the different parts of the sail, with lighter material in the centre, and heavier grades of canvas towards the leech (side edges), where the most strain would occur.
A square sail is a surprisingly complex thing. For a start, the sail is never really square. It generally has a head (top) with a width to match the yard it is attached to, and a wider foot (bottom) in proportion with the longer yard below. The foot itself was not straight, but curved in a gentle arc, so as to keep the canvas free of the rigging. Then the middle of the sail, called the bunt, was cut with extra material so that it would form a belly in which to catch the wind. At the edges of the sail the canvas was doubled over, to increase its strength, and then a bolt rope was stitched to the edge, to prevent it from splitting. This was always done slightly to the left of centre of the edge, so that a seaman in the dark would be able to know which way round the sail should be by touch alone. The sail then needed to have various cringles, clews and reefing points added. It has been estimated that to make a single topsail for a ship of the line would have taken over a thousand man-hours.
The sailmaker’s job was one of constant labour, working to replace sails as they wore out, were damaged, or needed to be repaired. It was also a role with considerable responsibility. A sailing warship was wholly reliant on its sails, either to escape from pursuit, or to overhaul an opponent. They need to operate effectively in extreme conditions; both in poor weather and also in battle. The huge foretopsail that the Victory used at Trafalgar is still in existence. It is at the Royal Navy Museum in Portsmouth, and resembles a Swiss cheese. It has over ninety substantial holes in it made by cannon fire as Nelson’s flagship approached the Franco-Spanish fleet. That this sail continued to propel its ship into battle, served it throughout that long day, and then through the storm that followed, is testament to how well the Victory’s sailmakers did their job. | 958 | ENGLISH | 1 |
He was a philosopher, statesman, and political theorist and is of In the same year the Medici family lost its power and was forced into exile after having ruled Florence for the previous 60 years.
His parents, Bernardo and Bartolomea, had three other children, two daughters and a son. Bernardo was a lawyer and small landowner with a small salary. Some accounts say that Machiavelli spent the years from to working for a Florentine banker.
A love of books was a family value that Machiavelli shared. His writings prove that he tirelessly read the classics. In Machiavelli was named chancellor secretary to a nobleman, prince, or king and secretary of the second chancellery chief executive officer of the Florentine Republic government in Florence whose leaders were voted for by citizens.
His duties consisted chiefly of carrying out the policy decisions of others, writing diplomatic letters, reading and writing reports, and taking notes; he also went on some twenty-three diplomatic missions formal visits by a representative of a nation to foreign countries to conduct discussions on international affairs to foreign states.
These included four trips to France and two to the court of Rome. In Machiavelli married Marietta Corsini, who bore him four sons and two daughters.
In Machiavelli, inspired by his Roman history, was active in organizing a citizen militia a body of citizens, who are not soldiers by career, called to duty in a national emergency of the Florentine Republic.
In August a Spanish army entered Tuscany and sacked Prato. On November 7 Machiavelli was dismissed from his role as chancellor. Soon afterward he was arrested, imprisoned, and subjected to torture as a suspected schemer one who plots or plans against the Medici family.
Though innocent, he remained a suspect for years to come.
Unable to secure an appointment from the reinstated reestablished Medici, he turned to writing. The Prince Machiavelli had a passion for ancient history.
He had a fierce desire to rebuild the government with a stronger political and moral foundation, similar to that of the Roman Republic — B. He felt the biggest need of his day was a strong political and military leader who could bring together northern Italy, ridding it of French and Spanish influence.
At the time that he wrote The Prince he pictured such a possibility while the restored Medici ruled both Florence and the papacy system of government of the Roman Catholic Church of which the pope is the head.
This hope is played out in the final chapter of The Prince. It is a heartfelt plea to his Medici patrons people who support a specific cause, a person, or an establishment to set Italy free from the "barbarians.
Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli May – 21 June was an Italian historian, politician, diplomat, philosopher, humanist and writer based in Florence during the Renaissance. 21 June Historian Writers Authors Italian Renaissance Political Science Florence Italy Dr. Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli (Italian: ; 3 May – 21 June ) was an Italian Renaissance historian, politician, diplomat, philosopher, humanist, and writer. He has often been called the founder of modern political science. He was for many years a senior official in the Florentine Republic, with responsibilities in diplomatic and military affairs. Nov 06, · Niccolo Machiavelli - Biography Niccolo Machiavelli was born on May 3, in Florence, Italy. He is known for being a political philosopher, historian, writer, statesman, and diplomat.4/4(1).
The chapters of The Prince are written in a clear and straightforward style. Earlier political writers had treated politics as a branch of morals.
Machiavelli broke with this long tradition and treated politics on its own. Machiavellian politics described the world as it was, rather than what people imagined or were taught to believe. This was a big change in tradition. Abandoning the Christian view of history as guided by God, Machiavelli viewed events in purely human terms.
Like others in the Renaissance, Machiavelli believed that man had the ability to control his own fate. Serious critics of Machiavelli sometimes forget that he attempted to describe rather than to invent the rules of political success.
For him the state was greater than its citizens and their individual interests; its health consisted in unity, but even at its height its lifetime was expected to end at some point. He suggested that the Church might have been destroyed by its own corruption deception and lies had not St. However, Machiavelli gives a good comparison between the pagan religion of many gods religion of ancient Rome and the Christian religion.
Medici was an Italian merchant prince who, without an official title, led the Florence government until his son took over. Machiavelli stuck closely to his motto that a servant of government must be loyal and self-sacrificing.
Nowhere did he suggest that the political morality sense of right and wrong of princes is a model for day-to-day dealings between ordinary citizens. His reputation as being evil and disloyal is largely undeserved; it began not long after his death.
His works were banned in the first printed Index The primary source of this misrepresentation incorrect presentation was the translation into English by Simon Patericke in of a work popularly called Contre-Machiavel, which misrepresented Machiavelli and blamed his teachings for the St.
Bartholomew Night massacre of a night chosen by the Queen of Florence to rid the city of all non-Catholics.He was a historian, diplomat, politician, humanist, writer and philosopher. In many people’s eyes he was the founding father of modern political science and of political ethics.
His influence even today in the world of politics and power cannot be over-estimated even in today’s world.
Biography of Niccolo Machiavelli Niccolo Machiavelli was born in Florence, Italy on May 3rd As an Italian historian, statesman, political philosopher, and a diplomat during the renaissance, Machiavelli was a man who lived his life for politics and patriotism.
- Niccolo Machiavelli - Biography Niccolo Machiavelli was born on May 3, in Florence, Italy. He is known for being a political philosopher, historian, writer, statesman, and diplomat.
Machiavelli is best known for . Niccolo Machiavelli - Biography Niccolo Machiavelli was born on May 3, in Florence, Italy. He is known for being a political philosopher, historian, writer, statesman, and diplomat.
Jul 26, · Niccolo Machiavelli Biography Niccolo Machiavelli was a political philosopher, public official, diplomat and Italian writer, who was considered to be the father of modern political science, is also recognized as an important protagonist in the Italian Renaissance.
Nov 17, · Niccolo Machiavelli was a painter, political philosopher, Italian historian, an statesman for influenced many political leaders in Europe. Niccolo Machiavelli led a very political life. In , Niccolo Machiavelli became an important diplomat. | <urn:uuid:a904edad-4973-4df5-ae28-74598b22e8a5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://qemupigyfaja.pfmlures.com/a-biography-of-niccolo-machiavelli-a-political-philosopher-historian-writer-statesman-and-diplomat-21301oj.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00338.warc.gz | en | 0.983072 | 1,501 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.17025983333587646... | 1 | He was a philosopher, statesman, and political theorist and is of In the same year the Medici family lost its power and was forced into exile after having ruled Florence for the previous 60 years.
His parents, Bernardo and Bartolomea, had three other children, two daughters and a son. Bernardo was a lawyer and small landowner with a small salary. Some accounts say that Machiavelli spent the years from to working for a Florentine banker.
A love of books was a family value that Machiavelli shared. His writings prove that he tirelessly read the classics. In Machiavelli was named chancellor secretary to a nobleman, prince, or king and secretary of the second chancellery chief executive officer of the Florentine Republic government in Florence whose leaders were voted for by citizens.
His duties consisted chiefly of carrying out the policy decisions of others, writing diplomatic letters, reading and writing reports, and taking notes; he also went on some twenty-three diplomatic missions formal visits by a representative of a nation to foreign countries to conduct discussions on international affairs to foreign states.
These included four trips to France and two to the court of Rome. In Machiavelli married Marietta Corsini, who bore him four sons and two daughters.
In Machiavelli, inspired by his Roman history, was active in organizing a citizen militia a body of citizens, who are not soldiers by career, called to duty in a national emergency of the Florentine Republic.
In August a Spanish army entered Tuscany and sacked Prato. On November 7 Machiavelli was dismissed from his role as chancellor. Soon afterward he was arrested, imprisoned, and subjected to torture as a suspected schemer one who plots or plans against the Medici family.
Though innocent, he remained a suspect for years to come.
Unable to secure an appointment from the reinstated reestablished Medici, he turned to writing. The Prince Machiavelli had a passion for ancient history.
He had a fierce desire to rebuild the government with a stronger political and moral foundation, similar to that of the Roman Republic — B. He felt the biggest need of his day was a strong political and military leader who could bring together northern Italy, ridding it of French and Spanish influence.
At the time that he wrote The Prince he pictured such a possibility while the restored Medici ruled both Florence and the papacy system of government of the Roman Catholic Church of which the pope is the head.
This hope is played out in the final chapter of The Prince. It is a heartfelt plea to his Medici patrons people who support a specific cause, a person, or an establishment to set Italy free from the "barbarians.
Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli May – 21 June was an Italian historian, politician, diplomat, philosopher, humanist and writer based in Florence during the Renaissance. 21 June Historian Writers Authors Italian Renaissance Political Science Florence Italy Dr. Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli (Italian: ; 3 May – 21 June ) was an Italian Renaissance historian, politician, diplomat, philosopher, humanist, and writer. He has often been called the founder of modern political science. He was for many years a senior official in the Florentine Republic, with responsibilities in diplomatic and military affairs. Nov 06, · Niccolo Machiavelli - Biography Niccolo Machiavelli was born on May 3, in Florence, Italy. He is known for being a political philosopher, historian, writer, statesman, and diplomat.4/4(1).
The chapters of The Prince are written in a clear and straightforward style. Earlier political writers had treated politics as a branch of morals.
Machiavelli broke with this long tradition and treated politics on its own. Machiavellian politics described the world as it was, rather than what people imagined or were taught to believe. This was a big change in tradition. Abandoning the Christian view of history as guided by God, Machiavelli viewed events in purely human terms.
Like others in the Renaissance, Machiavelli believed that man had the ability to control his own fate. Serious critics of Machiavelli sometimes forget that he attempted to describe rather than to invent the rules of political success.
For him the state was greater than its citizens and their individual interests; its health consisted in unity, but even at its height its lifetime was expected to end at some point. He suggested that the Church might have been destroyed by its own corruption deception and lies had not St. However, Machiavelli gives a good comparison between the pagan religion of many gods religion of ancient Rome and the Christian religion.
Medici was an Italian merchant prince who, without an official title, led the Florence government until his son took over. Machiavelli stuck closely to his motto that a servant of government must be loyal and self-sacrificing.
Nowhere did he suggest that the political morality sense of right and wrong of princes is a model for day-to-day dealings between ordinary citizens. His reputation as being evil and disloyal is largely undeserved; it began not long after his death.
His works were banned in the first printed Index The primary source of this misrepresentation incorrect presentation was the translation into English by Simon Patericke in of a work popularly called Contre-Machiavel, which misrepresented Machiavelli and blamed his teachings for the St.
Bartholomew Night massacre of a night chosen by the Queen of Florence to rid the city of all non-Catholics.He was a historian, diplomat, politician, humanist, writer and philosopher. In many people’s eyes he was the founding father of modern political science and of political ethics.
His influence even today in the world of politics and power cannot be over-estimated even in today’s world.
Biography of Niccolo Machiavelli Niccolo Machiavelli was born in Florence, Italy on May 3rd As an Italian historian, statesman, political philosopher, and a diplomat during the renaissance, Machiavelli was a man who lived his life for politics and patriotism.
- Niccolo Machiavelli - Biography Niccolo Machiavelli was born on May 3, in Florence, Italy. He is known for being a political philosopher, historian, writer, statesman, and diplomat.
Machiavelli is best known for . Niccolo Machiavelli - Biography Niccolo Machiavelli was born on May 3, in Florence, Italy. He is known for being a political philosopher, historian, writer, statesman, and diplomat.
Jul 26, · Niccolo Machiavelli Biography Niccolo Machiavelli was a political philosopher, public official, diplomat and Italian writer, who was considered to be the father of modern political science, is also recognized as an important protagonist in the Italian Renaissance.
Nov 17, · Niccolo Machiavelli was a painter, political philosopher, Italian historian, an statesman for influenced many political leaders in Europe. Niccolo Machiavelli led a very political life. In , Niccolo Machiavelli became an important diplomat. | 1,481 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Storing computer data began with magnetic tape drives and evolved into magnetic disk and eventually solid state. However, tape is expected to thrive well into the future, primarily using Linear Tape Open cartridges (see LTO
). Following are the early storage technologies. See early memory
Magnetic Tape Was Endless
Files of any size were captured on reels of magnetic tape, and when one reel filled up, another reel was added. In the 1960s, a single data file could be contained on dozens of reels. Tape is a sequential medium, and all the records have to be sorted into some numeric or alphabetic order. To update a master file, say of customer records, both the master and transaction files are sorted into the same order and matched from A to Z in sequence (see batch processing
). Although it can be done, it is extremely time consuming to locate a record on tape reels. Robotic libraries full of tape cartridges have more direct access capability, but they came on the scene years later (see tape library
Although magnetic disk storage did not take hold until the end of the 1960s, IBM actually introduced the first disk-based computer in the mid-1950s.
Direct Access Tape Strip "Card" Storage (1960s)
Although RAMAC (above) was direct access, it was a stand-alone system that only held 5MB, and direct access to a single record in a large file was still a major goal. To that end, IBM, NCR and RCA introduced magnetic card storage that held more data than RAMAC and were peripherals to the computer systems already in use.
These mechanical marvels recorded strips of tape that were released from their cartridge, transported to a rotating drum for reading and writing and returned. Card jams were frequent, and within a few years, they were replaced with disk drives.
The RACE system was a tape strip storage system that held a total of 250 million characters. RACE was the most error prone of the three card systems. If there was no jam all day, that was a very good day. Unfortunately, we found no images of these mechanical beasts, but if you have one, please contact Alan Freedman, author of this encyclopedia. Freedman was actually a salesman with RCA at the time but had no idea he would be chronicling the industry later in life. See RACE | <urn:uuid:7e60975e-413a-40be-9cdb-c17b5e190e16> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia/term/early-storage | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00074.warc.gz | en | 0.98094 | 481 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.147686898708343... | 1 | Storing computer data began with magnetic tape drives and evolved into magnetic disk and eventually solid state. However, tape is expected to thrive well into the future, primarily using Linear Tape Open cartridges (see LTO
). Following are the early storage technologies. See early memory
Magnetic Tape Was Endless
Files of any size were captured on reels of magnetic tape, and when one reel filled up, another reel was added. In the 1960s, a single data file could be contained on dozens of reels. Tape is a sequential medium, and all the records have to be sorted into some numeric or alphabetic order. To update a master file, say of customer records, both the master and transaction files are sorted into the same order and matched from A to Z in sequence (see batch processing
). Although it can be done, it is extremely time consuming to locate a record on tape reels. Robotic libraries full of tape cartridges have more direct access capability, but they came on the scene years later (see tape library
Although magnetic disk storage did not take hold until the end of the 1960s, IBM actually introduced the first disk-based computer in the mid-1950s.
Direct Access Tape Strip "Card" Storage (1960s)
Although RAMAC (above) was direct access, it was a stand-alone system that only held 5MB, and direct access to a single record in a large file was still a major goal. To that end, IBM, NCR and RCA introduced magnetic card storage that held more data than RAMAC and were peripherals to the computer systems already in use.
These mechanical marvels recorded strips of tape that were released from their cartridge, transported to a rotating drum for reading and writing and returned. Card jams were frequent, and within a few years, they were replaced with disk drives.
The RACE system was a tape strip storage system that held a total of 250 million characters. RACE was the most error prone of the three card systems. If there was no jam all day, that was a very good day. Unfortunately, we found no images of these mechanical beasts, but if you have one, please contact Alan Freedman, author of this encyclopedia. Freedman was actually a salesman with RCA at the time but had no idea he would be chronicling the industry later in life. See RACE | 487 | ENGLISH | 1 |
October 28 is a Greek national holiday, but not without its share of criticism, as there are those who argue that it commemorates the country’s entry into a war instead of a victory or a liberation day, as is typically the case with such holidays.
However, if Greeks did not say “Oxi” and avoided the war, it is entirely possible that the consequences for Greece and the world would have been far more devastating. Greece likely would have lost portions of its territory and definitely would have lost its national pride.
On the contrary, the proud “Oxi” uttered by Prime Minister Ioannis Metaxas in the early morning of October 28, 1940, and a few hours later by the Greek people who went out on the streets celebrating, united the Greeks.
The events of that historic night united the Greeks who had previously been divided into leftists and rightists, monarchists and republicans, communists and nationalists. The division was so intense that between 1922, the year of the Asia Minor disaster, and 1936, no government could remain in power for long.
This brings us to 1940, where the man who said “Oxi” to the Italian ambassador was a dictator, who had been appointed prime minister by King George in early 1936 and who by August 4 of that year had established a military regime. Ioannis Metaxas was a monarchist who was accused of being a sympathizer of both the Nazis in Germany and the Italian fascists, yet he was a patriot first and foremost.
But what would have happened if, on that night, Metaxas had said “yes” instead? The Greek prime minister was a highly educated military man and knew quite well that a war would cost Greece thousands of lives while causing tremendous damage. He could have surrendered and allowed the Axis forces to enter Greece in an easy and relatively bloodless occupation. France, under German rule since June of that year, was a good example of such a smooth occupation.
Instead, Metaxas chose the noble, patriotic path. According to historian Miltiadis Chatzopoulos, the war with Italy and the subsequent German Occupation left about 335,000 Greeks dead, caused the destruction of virtually the country’s entire infrastructure, losses of property totaling over $7 billion in damages, and further financial losses in the form of a $3.5 billion forced loan, which in today’s value totals an estimated $500 billion. This was in addition to the psychological and moral repercussions borne by the Greek people, and the further destruction that the country’s Civil War (1946-1949) brought.
However, the total subordination to the Axis forces would have cost Greece multifold just in loss of morale and national pride alone. At the same time, Greek territories in Epirus, Macedonia, and Thrace would almost definitely have passed into the hands of the Albanians in Epirus and the Bulgarians in the northeast. Metaxas had also calculated that in the event Greece surrendered, it was highly likely that Turkey would claim the islands of the eastern Aegean, with the annexation of the Dodecanese all but certain.
The greatest benefit of “Oxi,” therefore, was the momentous moral victory of the Greek people, despite the tragic losses they sustained. Greece emerged from World War II with a tremendous moral benefit. It represented a David that resisted a Goliath. “Oxi” was a wise choice compared to the moral damage France suffered from its total surrender to the Nazis.
Unlike the French, the Greeks emerged from the war spirited and proud, ready to rebuild their country and look ahead, based on their brave decision to stand up and fight. United, they fought against the common enemy and finally washed away the memories of the Asia Minor Catastrophe of 1922 and the bitter division which that defeat had brought. | <urn:uuid:2fc1dfc0-077f-42b1-ace2-354456211efe> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://greece.greekreporter.com/2019/10/27/what-if-the-greeks-did-not-say-oxi-on-october-28-1940/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00152.warc.gz | en | 0.982043 | 798 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.7521442770957... | 3 | October 28 is a Greek national holiday, but not without its share of criticism, as there are those who argue that it commemorates the country’s entry into a war instead of a victory or a liberation day, as is typically the case with such holidays.
However, if Greeks did not say “Oxi” and avoided the war, it is entirely possible that the consequences for Greece and the world would have been far more devastating. Greece likely would have lost portions of its territory and definitely would have lost its national pride.
On the contrary, the proud “Oxi” uttered by Prime Minister Ioannis Metaxas in the early morning of October 28, 1940, and a few hours later by the Greek people who went out on the streets celebrating, united the Greeks.
The events of that historic night united the Greeks who had previously been divided into leftists and rightists, monarchists and republicans, communists and nationalists. The division was so intense that between 1922, the year of the Asia Minor disaster, and 1936, no government could remain in power for long.
This brings us to 1940, where the man who said “Oxi” to the Italian ambassador was a dictator, who had been appointed prime minister by King George in early 1936 and who by August 4 of that year had established a military regime. Ioannis Metaxas was a monarchist who was accused of being a sympathizer of both the Nazis in Germany and the Italian fascists, yet he was a patriot first and foremost.
But what would have happened if, on that night, Metaxas had said “yes” instead? The Greek prime minister was a highly educated military man and knew quite well that a war would cost Greece thousands of lives while causing tremendous damage. He could have surrendered and allowed the Axis forces to enter Greece in an easy and relatively bloodless occupation. France, under German rule since June of that year, was a good example of such a smooth occupation.
Instead, Metaxas chose the noble, patriotic path. According to historian Miltiadis Chatzopoulos, the war with Italy and the subsequent German Occupation left about 335,000 Greeks dead, caused the destruction of virtually the country’s entire infrastructure, losses of property totaling over $7 billion in damages, and further financial losses in the form of a $3.5 billion forced loan, which in today’s value totals an estimated $500 billion. This was in addition to the psychological and moral repercussions borne by the Greek people, and the further destruction that the country’s Civil War (1946-1949) brought.
However, the total subordination to the Axis forces would have cost Greece multifold just in loss of morale and national pride alone. At the same time, Greek territories in Epirus, Macedonia, and Thrace would almost definitely have passed into the hands of the Albanians in Epirus and the Bulgarians in the northeast. Metaxas had also calculated that in the event Greece surrendered, it was highly likely that Turkey would claim the islands of the eastern Aegean, with the annexation of the Dodecanese all but certain.
The greatest benefit of “Oxi,” therefore, was the momentous moral victory of the Greek people, despite the tragic losses they sustained. Greece emerged from World War II with a tremendous moral benefit. It represented a David that resisted a Goliath. “Oxi” was a wise choice compared to the moral damage France suffered from its total surrender to the Nazis.
Unlike the French, the Greeks emerged from the war spirited and proud, ready to rebuild their country and look ahead, based on their brave decision to stand up and fight. United, they fought against the common enemy and finally washed away the memories of the Asia Minor Catastrophe of 1922 and the bitter division which that defeat had brought. | 811 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Homework Question on The Rich and Poor Nations
- Suppose you are an impartial observer at the conference referred to in the first question.
- What compromises do you think are necessary on the parts of rich and poor nations in order to reach a fair and workable agreement that will be acceptable to both groups? ( At least two reference)
Homework Answer on The Rich and Poor Nations
There exists a galloping among those that are perceived to be poor and those perceived to be rich because of the social as well as the financial differences among them (Haidt 78). Likewise, nations that are poor and those that are rich have a wide range of gap that separates them. However, nations need to accommodate one another irrespective of their differences so that they can mutually benefit. This makes the rich nation and the poor nations to have some compromises that will provide a channel for agreements that are acceptable by them all.
However, it is difficult to compromise because every side has their own rights and wrongs that could probably be different from the other side. These compromises will involve each side to forego some of the things as well as decisions that they think are valuable, and will help them achieve their main objectives in relation to their relationships with the other countries, be it the rich or the poor countries. However, the decisions made finally bring some fair and true view benefits to the countries that take those compromises.
The first question regards a conference that if I were an impartial observer, I would advise both the rich and the poor countries to take some compromises so that they can reach an agreement that is fair and easy to complement as well as to work out for them to realize some benefits. First, the poor nations will have to compromise their old revolutionized democracies so that they can create some space for new ways of doing things. | <urn:uuid:3410e88b-dbbc-43a9-bc6f-21b70d56a606> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bestessayservices.com/blog/sample-engineering-paper-on-the-rich-and-poor-nations/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00148.warc.gz | en | 0.983028 | 366 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.35410818457... | 2 | Homework Question on The Rich and Poor Nations
- Suppose you are an impartial observer at the conference referred to in the first question.
- What compromises do you think are necessary on the parts of rich and poor nations in order to reach a fair and workable agreement that will be acceptable to both groups? ( At least two reference)
Homework Answer on The Rich and Poor Nations
There exists a galloping among those that are perceived to be poor and those perceived to be rich because of the social as well as the financial differences among them (Haidt 78). Likewise, nations that are poor and those that are rich have a wide range of gap that separates them. However, nations need to accommodate one another irrespective of their differences so that they can mutually benefit. This makes the rich nation and the poor nations to have some compromises that will provide a channel for agreements that are acceptable by them all.
However, it is difficult to compromise because every side has their own rights and wrongs that could probably be different from the other side. These compromises will involve each side to forego some of the things as well as decisions that they think are valuable, and will help them achieve their main objectives in relation to their relationships with the other countries, be it the rich or the poor countries. However, the decisions made finally bring some fair and true view benefits to the countries that take those compromises.
The first question regards a conference that if I were an impartial observer, I would advise both the rich and the poor countries to take some compromises so that they can reach an agreement that is fair and easy to complement as well as to work out for them to realize some benefits. First, the poor nations will have to compromise their old revolutionized democracies so that they can create some space for new ways of doing things. | 366 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Panhala literally meaning “Home of Serpents” was one of the 15 forts built by Bhoja II, the Shilhara ruler between 1178 and 1209 AD. The famous aphorism of Raja Bhoj, Gangu Teli is believed to have been associated with this fort. Apparently, when the walls of the fort repeatedly collapsed during construction, and the king’s astrologer, recommended the sacrifice of a woman and her newly born to appease the gods. This was when Gangu Teli, offered to sacrifice his wife Jakkubai and her newborn, taking it as a matter of pride.
Bhoja Raja was defeated by Singhana, the most powerful ruler of the Devagiri Yadavas, who took control of the fort. It subsequently passed through many hands, before the Adil Shahi dynasty made it one of their strategic outposts in 1589, fortifying it extensively with ramparts and gateways.
One of the largest forts in the Deccan with a perimeter of 14 Km, and 110 lookout posts, located at a height of 845m above sea level, on the Sahyadris, with numerous underground tunnels. The walls are protected by steep escarpments, reinforced by parapet with stilt holes. One of the features of the fort was a hidden well called Andhar Bavadi, built by Adil Shah, a secret source of water, which could be protected from poisoning by the enemy forces. In fact this more like an emergency shelter, with living quarters, hidden passageways, and was also the fort’s main water source.
The other structures in the fort were the Kalvanticha Mahal, the courtesan’s palace, used as a ladies quarter by the Bahmani sultans, when they occupied the fort. The Amberkhana, or the granary, built in Bijapur style, it had 3 Kothis called Ganga, Jamuna, Saraswati, which later would help Shivaji in withstanding the long siege. With stairs leading up to top, and 16 bays with it’s own flat vault, and a hole on the top for grains to be passed.
The Teen Darwaza was one of the 3 double gateways to the fort along with Char Darwaza and Wagh Darwaja. While the Char Darwaza was destroyed during the British siege, the Teen Darwaza is the main entrance to the fort, basically a double gateway with a court in between, decorated with arcades. The Wagh Darwaza, was designed to trick invaders into getting trapped in a small courtyard, and has an elaborate Ganesh motif.
Rustam Zaman was the Bijapur commander in chief who was sent to face Shivaji. He had taken part in the Battle of Pratapgarh, but was allowed to go back by Tanaji Malusare, after the rout. On 27 December, 1659 he camped at the town of Miraj, near to Kolhapur, known for its classical music tradition and manufacture of musical instruments. He was assisted by other chieftains Fazal Khan, Malik Itbar, Sadat Khan, leading a large Adilshahi army of 10,000 that had one of the best cavalry, as well as front line defence of elephants. Zaman commanded the centre, while he was flanked by Fazal Khan on the left, Malik Itbar on the right, and Fateh Khan, Mullah Yahya making up the rear.
Shivaji on the other side was assisted by Netaji Palkar, Godaji Jagtap, Sidhoji Pawar among others. Palkar was one of his finest commanders, who had led the successful campaign at Pratapgarh, where the Adil Shahis were routed. As much of a hero among people, as Shivaji was, to the extent that he was known as Prati Shivaji (image of Shivaji). He led many a successful campaign against the Adilshahis, and was responsible for the expansion of the Maratha Empire. Shivaji was at the center, flanked by Siddi Hilal and Jadhavrao on the left and Ingale and Sidhoji Pawar on the right. Netaji Palkar was off the center, while Mahadik and Wagh made up the rear end.
In quick anticipation of Zaman’s plan to move to Panhala fort, Shivaji made a sudden attack in the wee hours of December 28, 1659 on the Adil Shahi forces. He led a full frontal attack on the Adilshahi forces, targeting the centre, while 2 units of his cavalry, attacked the other two flanks. It was one of the bloodiest battles ever fought, where over 7000 men fell on the Adil Shahi side, under the rapid, lightning attacks by the Marathas, who lost around 1000 too. Zaman fled from the battlefield and it turned out to be another rout after Pratapgarh for the Adil Shahis.
The Adilshahis lost around 7000 men, 2000 horses and 12 elephants at the Battle of Kolhapur. This was an even bigger rout than that of Pratapgarh. Shivaji later targeted another strategic fort of Khelna that was located in some real tough terrain. He also had to face far tougher resistance from the Adil Shahi soldiers defending it. Faced with a long drawn campaign, Shivaji hit upon a plan, by which some Maratha soldiers pretended to defect, and gain the confidence of the Adilshahi Qiledar (fort in charge). The ruse worked, as the Marathas managed to sneak into the fort, and the very next day, they revolted, causing chaos, and opening the doors for the rest of the army to come in. The Adil Shahi defenders were overcome, and Shivaji renamed the fort as Vishalgarh.
The victory at Battle of Kolhapur and the conquest of Vishalgarh, gave Shivaji a decisive edge, as he began to occupy more and more of Adilshahi territory. It also led to Aurangzeb taking notice of him, and the rising Maratha power. | <urn:uuid:6ef4fe56-e345-48a6-81d6-e9aecaf4d184> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historyunderyourfeet.wordpress.com/2019/09/12/battle-of-kolhapur/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00445.warc.gz | en | 0.981256 | 1,308 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.36084580421447... | 2 | Panhala literally meaning “Home of Serpents” was one of the 15 forts built by Bhoja II, the Shilhara ruler between 1178 and 1209 AD. The famous aphorism of Raja Bhoj, Gangu Teli is believed to have been associated with this fort. Apparently, when the walls of the fort repeatedly collapsed during construction, and the king’s astrologer, recommended the sacrifice of a woman and her newly born to appease the gods. This was when Gangu Teli, offered to sacrifice his wife Jakkubai and her newborn, taking it as a matter of pride.
Bhoja Raja was defeated by Singhana, the most powerful ruler of the Devagiri Yadavas, who took control of the fort. It subsequently passed through many hands, before the Adil Shahi dynasty made it one of their strategic outposts in 1589, fortifying it extensively with ramparts and gateways.
One of the largest forts in the Deccan with a perimeter of 14 Km, and 110 lookout posts, located at a height of 845m above sea level, on the Sahyadris, with numerous underground tunnels. The walls are protected by steep escarpments, reinforced by parapet with stilt holes. One of the features of the fort was a hidden well called Andhar Bavadi, built by Adil Shah, a secret source of water, which could be protected from poisoning by the enemy forces. In fact this more like an emergency shelter, with living quarters, hidden passageways, and was also the fort’s main water source.
The other structures in the fort were the Kalvanticha Mahal, the courtesan’s palace, used as a ladies quarter by the Bahmani sultans, when they occupied the fort. The Amberkhana, or the granary, built in Bijapur style, it had 3 Kothis called Ganga, Jamuna, Saraswati, which later would help Shivaji in withstanding the long siege. With stairs leading up to top, and 16 bays with it’s own flat vault, and a hole on the top for grains to be passed.
The Teen Darwaza was one of the 3 double gateways to the fort along with Char Darwaza and Wagh Darwaja. While the Char Darwaza was destroyed during the British siege, the Teen Darwaza is the main entrance to the fort, basically a double gateway with a court in between, decorated with arcades. The Wagh Darwaza, was designed to trick invaders into getting trapped in a small courtyard, and has an elaborate Ganesh motif.
Rustam Zaman was the Bijapur commander in chief who was sent to face Shivaji. He had taken part in the Battle of Pratapgarh, but was allowed to go back by Tanaji Malusare, after the rout. On 27 December, 1659 he camped at the town of Miraj, near to Kolhapur, known for its classical music tradition and manufacture of musical instruments. He was assisted by other chieftains Fazal Khan, Malik Itbar, Sadat Khan, leading a large Adilshahi army of 10,000 that had one of the best cavalry, as well as front line defence of elephants. Zaman commanded the centre, while he was flanked by Fazal Khan on the left, Malik Itbar on the right, and Fateh Khan, Mullah Yahya making up the rear.
Shivaji on the other side was assisted by Netaji Palkar, Godaji Jagtap, Sidhoji Pawar among others. Palkar was one of his finest commanders, who had led the successful campaign at Pratapgarh, where the Adil Shahis were routed. As much of a hero among people, as Shivaji was, to the extent that he was known as Prati Shivaji (image of Shivaji). He led many a successful campaign against the Adilshahis, and was responsible for the expansion of the Maratha Empire. Shivaji was at the center, flanked by Siddi Hilal and Jadhavrao on the left and Ingale and Sidhoji Pawar on the right. Netaji Palkar was off the center, while Mahadik and Wagh made up the rear end.
In quick anticipation of Zaman’s plan to move to Panhala fort, Shivaji made a sudden attack in the wee hours of December 28, 1659 on the Adil Shahi forces. He led a full frontal attack on the Adilshahi forces, targeting the centre, while 2 units of his cavalry, attacked the other two flanks. It was one of the bloodiest battles ever fought, where over 7000 men fell on the Adil Shahi side, under the rapid, lightning attacks by the Marathas, who lost around 1000 too. Zaman fled from the battlefield and it turned out to be another rout after Pratapgarh for the Adil Shahis.
The Adilshahis lost around 7000 men, 2000 horses and 12 elephants at the Battle of Kolhapur. This was an even bigger rout than that of Pratapgarh. Shivaji later targeted another strategic fort of Khelna that was located in some real tough terrain. He also had to face far tougher resistance from the Adil Shahi soldiers defending it. Faced with a long drawn campaign, Shivaji hit upon a plan, by which some Maratha soldiers pretended to defect, and gain the confidence of the Adilshahi Qiledar (fort in charge). The ruse worked, as the Marathas managed to sneak into the fort, and the very next day, they revolted, causing chaos, and opening the doors for the rest of the army to come in. The Adil Shahi defenders were overcome, and Shivaji renamed the fort as Vishalgarh.
The victory at Battle of Kolhapur and the conquest of Vishalgarh, gave Shivaji a decisive edge, as he began to occupy more and more of Adilshahi territory. It also led to Aurangzeb taking notice of him, and the rising Maratha power. | 1,339 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During the 19th century, Malaya had been colonised by the British and many Chinese and Indian had migrates to Malaya. As a city, Kuala Lumpur had become the most crowded and fast development place. Many colonial and migrations stay at Kuala Lumpur. Through colonisation and migration, both knowledge and methods of house construction had been adapted to the Malaya architecture during that time. Therefore there are many heritage buildings especially the Chinese shop houses had been influence by the foreign design.
In this essay, I had make a field trip to Petaling Street to collect photographs of shophouses. Through the characteristic of the design of the shophouses I need to identify the Malaysia and foreign design
…show more content…
Apart from that, the typical Chinese shophouse was built in rows with a common wall between each unit. The walls that separate the shophouses are generally constructed by local manufactured baked clay. They are structural, load bearing walls to transfer the weight of the roof and upper floors down to the ground. Besides, the front of the shophouse on the ground floor has no walls, enabling goods to be displayed along the full width (figure 5) . Since the shophouse has no front walls, the front will be boarded up with fitted timber panels and secured with horizontal bars to lock up the shop. In addition, to ventilate the shophouse, a central courtyard can be found inside, which was later reduced to an airwell when space became more precious (figure 6). It was built to cool the building before the air-conditioning was invented. Courtyards were typically for residence all over China especially in the less densely populated areas of the north where they were located at the central of the layout, which often surrounded by high walls. Besides, a lane was also allocated at the back of the shophouse as a sanitary lane. It is a space found in between two rows of shophouses that faced back to back. This lane allows bullock carts to collect night soil as well as for safety purpose, for example, allow access for a fire truck when required.
Figure 4: Displaying their products at the five-foot way Figure 5: Ground floor of the shophouses has no | <urn:uuid:ccef09fc-85d0-4e64-8917-246856d2121a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.cram.com/essay/China-Town/P3C8CEVKXC | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00005.warc.gz | en | 0.984059 | 456 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.361349463462... | 1 | During the 19th century, Malaya had been colonised by the British and many Chinese and Indian had migrates to Malaya. As a city, Kuala Lumpur had become the most crowded and fast development place. Many colonial and migrations stay at Kuala Lumpur. Through colonisation and migration, both knowledge and methods of house construction had been adapted to the Malaya architecture during that time. Therefore there are many heritage buildings especially the Chinese shop houses had been influence by the foreign design.
In this essay, I had make a field trip to Petaling Street to collect photographs of shophouses. Through the characteristic of the design of the shophouses I need to identify the Malaysia and foreign design
…show more content…
Apart from that, the typical Chinese shophouse was built in rows with a common wall between each unit. The walls that separate the shophouses are generally constructed by local manufactured baked clay. They are structural, load bearing walls to transfer the weight of the roof and upper floors down to the ground. Besides, the front of the shophouse on the ground floor has no walls, enabling goods to be displayed along the full width (figure 5) . Since the shophouse has no front walls, the front will be boarded up with fitted timber panels and secured with horizontal bars to lock up the shop. In addition, to ventilate the shophouse, a central courtyard can be found inside, which was later reduced to an airwell when space became more precious (figure 6). It was built to cool the building before the air-conditioning was invented. Courtyards were typically for residence all over China especially in the less densely populated areas of the north where they were located at the central of the layout, which often surrounded by high walls. Besides, a lane was also allocated at the back of the shophouse as a sanitary lane. It is a space found in between two rows of shophouses that faced back to back. This lane allows bullock carts to collect night soil as well as for safety purpose, for example, allow access for a fire truck when required.
Figure 4: Displaying their products at the five-foot way Figure 5: Ground floor of the shophouses has no | 454 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When we breathe freely on free land of India, we should be grateful to the people who have fought for its freedom. Many revolutionaries have sacrificed their lives for the sake of India. One of such leaders is Lala Lajpat Rai. Known as part of ‘Lal Bal Pal’ trio, Lajpat Rai had a major role in independence movement. It is his 153rd birth anniversary. He was born on 28 January 1865 at Punjab, India.
He had pursued his initial education in Rewari and later studied law at Lahore. It was during studying at Lahore he was influenced by the Hindu reformist movement of Swami Dayanand Sarasvati. He also set up the nationalistic Dayanand Anglo-Vedic school. He was also the one who has founded the Punjab National Bank.
He also joined the Indian National Congress become part of political agitation in Punjab. He had also undergone trials. In 1920, Rai was elected President of the Indian National Congress in the Calcutta Special Session.
Due to his protest against the British rule, he earned the title of ‘Punjab Kesari’. During the police lathi-charge on the activists protesting against the arrival of Simon Commission, he suffered injuries. After few days, he was died. | <urn:uuid:7ddf4e43-9c77-43d7-b8bd-42ea6f20f421> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ohmyindia.com/birth-anniversary-punjab-kesari-lala-lajpat-rai | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00495.warc.gz | en | 0.992027 | 264 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.47839432954788... | 1 | When we breathe freely on free land of India, we should be grateful to the people who have fought for its freedom. Many revolutionaries have sacrificed their lives for the sake of India. One of such leaders is Lala Lajpat Rai. Known as part of ‘Lal Bal Pal’ trio, Lajpat Rai had a major role in independence movement. It is his 153rd birth anniversary. He was born on 28 January 1865 at Punjab, India.
He had pursued his initial education in Rewari and later studied law at Lahore. It was during studying at Lahore he was influenced by the Hindu reformist movement of Swami Dayanand Sarasvati. He also set up the nationalistic Dayanand Anglo-Vedic school. He was also the one who has founded the Punjab National Bank.
He also joined the Indian National Congress become part of political agitation in Punjab. He had also undergone trials. In 1920, Rai was elected President of the Indian National Congress in the Calcutta Special Session.
Due to his protest against the British rule, he earned the title of ‘Punjab Kesari’. During the police lathi-charge on the activists protesting against the arrival of Simon Commission, he suffered injuries. After few days, he was died. | 267 | ENGLISH | 1 |
America's Founding Fathers, admired and revered by generations of grateful Americans, have been increasingly disparaged over the past 100 years. The progressive left would have you believe the Founders were all rich, white, uncaring, racist slave owners --- but the truth is something entirely different. What did the Founding Fathers think about slavery? Were they all slave owners who refused to free their slaves? This definitive four-part series on the Founders and slavery sets the record straight.
Listen to the full segment:
Slavery and the Founders Part IV: Abolitionists
Just as some Americans refuse to believe that America's Founders built this nation on Christian-Judeo principles, there are those who can't accept they also did their best to set up the eventual abolition of slavery. The laws of the time prohibited owners from freeing their slaves. These men were playing with the hand they were dealt, until such a time they could figure out a way to obtain a new deck of cards, a new set of laws --- without toppling the game itself.
George Washington and Thomas Jefferson
Tried to abolish slavery by including abolition in the original Declaration of Independence. Delegates took it out.
Opposed the practice of slavery and sought to end it, eventually becoming president of a Philadelphia abolition society.
The second largest slaveholder in Fairfax County after George Washington and a long-time abolitionist. At the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, 1787, he said, "Every master of slaves is born a petty tyrant. Slaves bring the judgment of heaven on a country, as nations cannot be rewarded or punished in the next world. They must be in this. By an inevitable chain of causes and effects, Providence punishes national sins by national calamities." Mason, widely regarded as the father of the Bill of Rights, refused to sign the Constitution, in large part because it did not specifically and immediately end slavery.
Revolutionary war hero and author of several of the Federalist Papers. He eventually became the first Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court. As governor of New York, he signed legislation to abolish slavery in his state.
Signer of the Declaration of Independence and member of the Continental Congress who was an early advocate for ridding the nation of slavery. He published an influential anti-slavery pamphlet in 1773.
No discussion of slavery, the Founders and abolitionists would be complete without mentioning some of the black heros who were Founders themselves of the anti-slavery movement.
Born into slavery in 1822 in Maryland, she was routinely whipped and beaten by her owner, sustaining a serious head injury that caused health issues for the rest of her life. Tubman was a devout Christian and a fearless freedom firefighter. She escaped slavery in 1849, at the age of 27, and immediately headed back to Maryland time after time to rescue members of her own family and lead them to freedom. Tubman became an important member of the Underground Railroad, a network of blacks and whites who used secret routes and safe houses to help blacks escape slavery. During the Civil War, Tubman joined the Union Army as an armed scout and spy. She was the first woman to lead an armed expedition in the war, guiding a raid which liberated more than 700 slaves. Harriet Tubman lived to witness the end of slavery in the United States and died a free woman in 1913 on her own property.
Born into slavery as well in 1818, Douglass experienced the horrors of slavery during his youth and young adulthood before finally escaping from Maryland to Pennsylvania in 1838. He became a licensed preacher and began honing his oratory skills, for which he would later become famous. During his first years of freedom, Douglass studied at the feet of abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison who taught him that the Constitution was a pro-slavery document. Once Douglass read the Constitution himself and studied the words of the Founding Fathers, his entire outlook on the document and America changed. Douglass said, "I became convinced that the Constitution of the United States not only contained no guarantees in favor of slavery, but on the contrary, it is in its letter and spirit an anti-slavery instrument, demanding the abolition of slavery as a condition of its own existence as the supreme law of the land." Frederick Douglass went on to become a best-selling author, diplomat and a member of a fledgling anti-slavery, pro-abolition political party named the Republican Party.
While the Founding Fathers and courageous black leaders brought the United States to the brink of ending the evil of slavery, it was the great emancipator, Abraham Lincoln, with his steady hand, inspired leadership and resolute commitment that pushed the nation over that edge. Many say that Lincoln's willingness to go to war had little or nothing to do with slavery, but that simply isn't true. During the Civil War, Lincoln said he had always believed slavery was unjust and couldn't remember a time in his life when he thought differently. He didn't necessarily have all of the answers about what the nation would look like after slavery ended, but he did want to end it.
When virtually everyone in his administration and life insisted that he abandon the pursuit, Lincoln forged ahead. In 1863, he issued the Emancipation Proclamation which states: That all persons held as slaves within the rebellious states are and henceforward shall be free. | <urn:uuid:fe24ec99-15a1-4a2d-8c9b-9f6d70cc4a32> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.glennbeck.com/2016/06/24/slavery-and-the-founders-part-iv-abolitionists/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00269.warc.gz | en | 0.980341 | 1,092 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.11773411929607... | 7 | America's Founding Fathers, admired and revered by generations of grateful Americans, have been increasingly disparaged over the past 100 years. The progressive left would have you believe the Founders were all rich, white, uncaring, racist slave owners --- but the truth is something entirely different. What did the Founding Fathers think about slavery? Were they all slave owners who refused to free their slaves? This definitive four-part series on the Founders and slavery sets the record straight.
Listen to the full segment:
Slavery and the Founders Part IV: Abolitionists
Just as some Americans refuse to believe that America's Founders built this nation on Christian-Judeo principles, there are those who can't accept they also did their best to set up the eventual abolition of slavery. The laws of the time prohibited owners from freeing their slaves. These men were playing with the hand they were dealt, until such a time they could figure out a way to obtain a new deck of cards, a new set of laws --- without toppling the game itself.
George Washington and Thomas Jefferson
Tried to abolish slavery by including abolition in the original Declaration of Independence. Delegates took it out.
Opposed the practice of slavery and sought to end it, eventually becoming president of a Philadelphia abolition society.
The second largest slaveholder in Fairfax County after George Washington and a long-time abolitionist. At the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, 1787, he said, "Every master of slaves is born a petty tyrant. Slaves bring the judgment of heaven on a country, as nations cannot be rewarded or punished in the next world. They must be in this. By an inevitable chain of causes and effects, Providence punishes national sins by national calamities." Mason, widely regarded as the father of the Bill of Rights, refused to sign the Constitution, in large part because it did not specifically and immediately end slavery.
Revolutionary war hero and author of several of the Federalist Papers. He eventually became the first Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court. As governor of New York, he signed legislation to abolish slavery in his state.
Signer of the Declaration of Independence and member of the Continental Congress who was an early advocate for ridding the nation of slavery. He published an influential anti-slavery pamphlet in 1773.
No discussion of slavery, the Founders and abolitionists would be complete without mentioning some of the black heros who were Founders themselves of the anti-slavery movement.
Born into slavery in 1822 in Maryland, she was routinely whipped and beaten by her owner, sustaining a serious head injury that caused health issues for the rest of her life. Tubman was a devout Christian and a fearless freedom firefighter. She escaped slavery in 1849, at the age of 27, and immediately headed back to Maryland time after time to rescue members of her own family and lead them to freedom. Tubman became an important member of the Underground Railroad, a network of blacks and whites who used secret routes and safe houses to help blacks escape slavery. During the Civil War, Tubman joined the Union Army as an armed scout and spy. She was the first woman to lead an armed expedition in the war, guiding a raid which liberated more than 700 slaves. Harriet Tubman lived to witness the end of slavery in the United States and died a free woman in 1913 on her own property.
Born into slavery as well in 1818, Douglass experienced the horrors of slavery during his youth and young adulthood before finally escaping from Maryland to Pennsylvania in 1838. He became a licensed preacher and began honing his oratory skills, for which he would later become famous. During his first years of freedom, Douglass studied at the feet of abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison who taught him that the Constitution was a pro-slavery document. Once Douglass read the Constitution himself and studied the words of the Founding Fathers, his entire outlook on the document and America changed. Douglass said, "I became convinced that the Constitution of the United States not only contained no guarantees in favor of slavery, but on the contrary, it is in its letter and spirit an anti-slavery instrument, demanding the abolition of slavery as a condition of its own existence as the supreme law of the land." Frederick Douglass went on to become a best-selling author, diplomat and a member of a fledgling anti-slavery, pro-abolition political party named the Republican Party.
While the Founding Fathers and courageous black leaders brought the United States to the brink of ending the evil of slavery, it was the great emancipator, Abraham Lincoln, with his steady hand, inspired leadership and resolute commitment that pushed the nation over that edge. Many say that Lincoln's willingness to go to war had little or nothing to do with slavery, but that simply isn't true. During the Civil War, Lincoln said he had always believed slavery was unjust and couldn't remember a time in his life when he thought differently. He didn't necessarily have all of the answers about what the nation would look like after slavery ended, but he did want to end it.
When virtually everyone in his administration and life insisted that he abandon the pursuit, Lincoln forged ahead. In 1863, he issued the Emancipation Proclamation which states: That all persons held as slaves within the rebellious states are and henceforward shall be free. | 1,116 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Georg Cantor is a German mathematician who made significant advancements in set theory. He was born March 3, 1845, in St. Petersburg, Russia, of parents Georg Waldemar Cantor and Maria Anna Böhm. His father was invested in culture and the arts and his mother was very musical. Georg was an exceptional violinist, gaining considerable artistic talent from his parents. He was raised Protestant, this being the religion of his father, while his mother practiced Roman Catholicism. He had an early education at home with a private tutor then attended primary school in St. Petersburg. He lived in Russia until he was eleven after which moving to Germany in 1856 with his family due to the failing health of his father.Georg was an exceptionally good student, he excelled in trigonometry particularly. He graduated in 1860, with outstanding reports mentioning, in particular, his skills in mathematics. He enrolled to study at Zurich Polytechnic briefly, however, his studies were cut short after the death of his father in 1863. A while later Cantor began studies at the University of Berlin where he specialized in physics, philosophy, and mathematics. He was taught by multiple mathematicians including Karl Theodor who specialized in analysis and had great influence over him and Leopold Kronecker who would later oppose him. He spent a term at the University of Göttingen and wrote his dissertation on number theory in 1867. That same year, he was awarded the title of Doctor of Mathematics. After receiving his Doctorate, Georg taught at a girls school in Berlin. He soon after began teaching at the University of Halle and remained there the rest of his career, starting as a lecturer, then assistant professor, then finally full professor. Georg married in 1874 to Vally Guttmann, a friend of his sister. It was a happy marriage and eventually, they had 6 children. In his career, his first papers were on number theory, he then switched his focus onto analysis. He was the first mathematician to take a systematic look at infinity and give it mathematical precision. Cantor started with the point that if were could add any regular number it must be possible to add infinities. He discovered that it was actually possible to add and subtract infinities and that there were another larger infinity and infinities beyond that. He showed that there may be infinitely many sets of numbers, an infinity of infinities, so to speak. He coined the term “transfinite” attempting to distinguish between different levels of infinity. He published a series of articles in a mathematical journal expanding on his ideas. Some loved his theory but others seemed to hate it. Famously, Leopold Kronecker–an educator that taught Georg at Berlin as mentioned above– called him a renegade and a “corrupter of youth”. Kronecker was the most vocal in opposition to Cantors ideas, he believed a finite number of steps could create mathematical concepts for natural numbers. Cantor was further criticized as he veered into other areas besides math. He wrote highly in support of the theory that Francis Bacon had been the true author of Shakespeare’s plays. Georg Cantor suffered his first recorded breakdown in 1884. He seemed to recover quickly but his confidence was damaged. It was believed for a while that his studies and the ridicule he received were the cause of his depression, however, it’s more likely mathematical woes and complicated relationships were magnified by the illness. About this time, Cantor began to worry he may never be able to successfully prove the Continuum Hypothesis. At one point, he had believed he proved it false although he found his mistake the next day. He thought he proved it true as well but again soon found his error. Whenever Cantor had bouts of mental illness, it seemed he would turn his studies away from mathematics and towards philosophy and literary interests. In 1884, during a period of illness, he had requested to lecture on philosophy in lieu of mathematics. This pattern led some to believe that his contemplations of infinity may have brought his mental illness upon him. In October of 1896, Georg’s mother passed away, followed by the death of his youngest brother in 1899. October 1899, Cantor took a leave from teaching during that winter semester 1899-1900. Soon after, his youngest son died in December of 1899. Although suffering from mental illness he remained at work, however, taking multiple leaves from teaching over the rest of his career. He spent some time in Sanatoriums during the worst attacks of his depression. Georg was awarded the Sylvester Medal in 1904, a highly prestigious award in mathematics. He took leave for much of 1909 due to his illness but continued work at the university in 1910 and 1911. That same year, he received an invitation from the University of St. Andrews in Scotland to attend the 500th anniversary of the schools founding as a distinguished scholar. In his later years, he constantly fought his illness. He retired in 1914, and in his final years did no mathematical work at all, focusing instead on the theory of Francis Bacon having written Shakespeare’s works and that Christ was the natural son of Joseph of Arimathea. He spent long periods of time in the Halle sanitorium during attacks of his illness and it was there he died in 1918, never having finished his great project. | <urn:uuid:d69e6cd9-ab95-48c2-9000-2633acb27b40> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essays-writing-service-online.com/georg-georg-waldemar-cantor-and-maria-anna-bohm-his/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00099.warc.gz | en | 0.993885 | 1,085 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.474086999893... | 1 | Georg Cantor is a German mathematician who made significant advancements in set theory. He was born March 3, 1845, in St. Petersburg, Russia, of parents Georg Waldemar Cantor and Maria Anna Böhm. His father was invested in culture and the arts and his mother was very musical. Georg was an exceptional violinist, gaining considerable artistic talent from his parents. He was raised Protestant, this being the religion of his father, while his mother practiced Roman Catholicism. He had an early education at home with a private tutor then attended primary school in St. Petersburg. He lived in Russia until he was eleven after which moving to Germany in 1856 with his family due to the failing health of his father.Georg was an exceptionally good student, he excelled in trigonometry particularly. He graduated in 1860, with outstanding reports mentioning, in particular, his skills in mathematics. He enrolled to study at Zurich Polytechnic briefly, however, his studies were cut short after the death of his father in 1863. A while later Cantor began studies at the University of Berlin where he specialized in physics, philosophy, and mathematics. He was taught by multiple mathematicians including Karl Theodor who specialized in analysis and had great influence over him and Leopold Kronecker who would later oppose him. He spent a term at the University of Göttingen and wrote his dissertation on number theory in 1867. That same year, he was awarded the title of Doctor of Mathematics. After receiving his Doctorate, Georg taught at a girls school in Berlin. He soon after began teaching at the University of Halle and remained there the rest of his career, starting as a lecturer, then assistant professor, then finally full professor. Georg married in 1874 to Vally Guttmann, a friend of his sister. It was a happy marriage and eventually, they had 6 children. In his career, his first papers were on number theory, he then switched his focus onto analysis. He was the first mathematician to take a systematic look at infinity and give it mathematical precision. Cantor started with the point that if were could add any regular number it must be possible to add infinities. He discovered that it was actually possible to add and subtract infinities and that there were another larger infinity and infinities beyond that. He showed that there may be infinitely many sets of numbers, an infinity of infinities, so to speak. He coined the term “transfinite” attempting to distinguish between different levels of infinity. He published a series of articles in a mathematical journal expanding on his ideas. Some loved his theory but others seemed to hate it. Famously, Leopold Kronecker–an educator that taught Georg at Berlin as mentioned above– called him a renegade and a “corrupter of youth”. Kronecker was the most vocal in opposition to Cantors ideas, he believed a finite number of steps could create mathematical concepts for natural numbers. Cantor was further criticized as he veered into other areas besides math. He wrote highly in support of the theory that Francis Bacon had been the true author of Shakespeare’s plays. Georg Cantor suffered his first recorded breakdown in 1884. He seemed to recover quickly but his confidence was damaged. It was believed for a while that his studies and the ridicule he received were the cause of his depression, however, it’s more likely mathematical woes and complicated relationships were magnified by the illness. About this time, Cantor began to worry he may never be able to successfully prove the Continuum Hypothesis. At one point, he had believed he proved it false although he found his mistake the next day. He thought he proved it true as well but again soon found his error. Whenever Cantor had bouts of mental illness, it seemed he would turn his studies away from mathematics and towards philosophy and literary interests. In 1884, during a period of illness, he had requested to lecture on philosophy in lieu of mathematics. This pattern led some to believe that his contemplations of infinity may have brought his mental illness upon him. In October of 1896, Georg’s mother passed away, followed by the death of his youngest brother in 1899. October 1899, Cantor took a leave from teaching during that winter semester 1899-1900. Soon after, his youngest son died in December of 1899. Although suffering from mental illness he remained at work, however, taking multiple leaves from teaching over the rest of his career. He spent some time in Sanatoriums during the worst attacks of his depression. Georg was awarded the Sylvester Medal in 1904, a highly prestigious award in mathematics. He took leave for much of 1909 due to his illness but continued work at the university in 1910 and 1911. That same year, he received an invitation from the University of St. Andrews in Scotland to attend the 500th anniversary of the schools founding as a distinguished scholar. In his later years, he constantly fought his illness. He retired in 1914, and in his final years did no mathematical work at all, focusing instead on the theory of Francis Bacon having written Shakespeare’s works and that Christ was the natural son of Joseph of Arimathea. He spent long periods of time in the Halle sanitorium during attacks of his illness and it was there he died in 1918, never having finished his great project. | 1,160 | ENGLISH | 1 |
William Kidd supposedly buried treasure off the Connecticut coast before sailing to Boston in 1699. There, he thought, he would receive clemency for his piracy.
He was wrong about that.
The treasure was never found – nor were the uncontested facts about his career. Some considered him a vicious pirate, one of many who crowded Boston’s jails at the turn of the 18th century. Others viewed him as a privateer framed by his benefactors.
William Kidd, Captain
In 1689, Capt. William Kidd sailed the Caribbean in a French ship he’d captured as a privateer (some say pirate). England and France were embroiled in a conflict known as King William’s War in the American colonies.
Stories conflict about what happened to him in the Caribbean in 1689, but they agree Kidd’s crew abandoned him.
He returned to New York City, where in 1691 he married Sarah Bradley Cox Oort. She had married one of the wealthiest men in New York and inherited his money when he died early in their marriage. Twice widowed, she had not yet reached 30 when she married Capt. William Kidd.
Kidd lived large in New York, a respected member of society. He lived with Sarah and their two daughters in a tall house on Wall Street with Turkish carpets on the floor and wine in the cellar. He lent the runner and tackle from his ship to raise the stones for Trinity Church, where he owned a pew.
But he preferred the sea, and he sailed to London to obtain a royal commission. He wanted to fight pirates attacking British East India ships in the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. He also got financing from investors, including Richard Coote, Lord Bellomont.
In 1696, Kidd sailed out of Portsmouth, England, in one of the most famous pirate ships in history, Adventure. A galley ship with sails and oars, its crew could row it to overtake becalmed merchant ships. It had 34 big guns and more than 100 men.
Terror of the Sea
Captain Kidd spent the next two years terrorizing merchant ships. He also amassed a fortune in gold, silks and jewels from his prey. Did he do it as a privateer, taking ships he was legally entitled to? Or did he do it as a pirate? History has not settled the question.
When he refused to attack a Dutch ship, his gunner objected. They argued, and Kidd threw a bucket at the gunner’s head. It fractured his skull, and he died the next day.
In January 1698, William Kidd made his fatal mistake. He captured the Quedah Merchant, a handsome vessel loaded with treasure. Unfortunately for Kidd, a minister at the court of the Indian Grand Moghul owned the ship.
The British government wanted to stay on good terms with the Moghul Empire. They needed someone to blame for capturing the treasure-laden ship.
By then, Kidd knew he was wanted for piracy. He saved French passes he had seized as proof he was a privateer and not a pirate, and he sailed for Boston. His financial backer, Lord Bellomont, lived there then during his short tenure as governor of Massachusetts. But Bellomont believed William Kidd had turned into a liability, as people believed he’d descended into piracy. And so he falsely promised clemency to Captain Kidd.
Convicted, then Vindicated?
According to lore, William Kidd took a roundabout route to New York City, sailing around Long Island and burying his treasure. Some think he may have buried it on Charles Island off the coast of Milford, Conn.
On July 6, 1699, Kidd was arrested at the home of Lord Bellomont. Historians agree on this: Bellomont and the British government used him as a fall guy to pacify the Mogul Empire and the East India company.
William Kidd went to prison in Boston, where he languished for a year. In the meantime, he tried to negotiate his freedom by offering to tell where his treasure lay buried.
It didn’t work.
Officials put him on a ship to England. On May 8, 1701, the court convicted him of murdering his gunner and of piracy, despite his claims of innocence. Fifteen days later, he was hanged at Execution Dock. The rope broke and he fell into the mud beneath the gallows.
Eyewitnesses said he was drunk and didn’t realize what happened as the crowd cheered his fall. He was hanged again, and his body dipped in tar, wrapped in chains and put in a steel cage. There his bones hung for many years.
In 1910 at the British Public Records archives, researchers found French passes that Captain Kidd claimed would prove his innocence.
This story was updated in 2019. | <urn:uuid:bbd96297-6cf4-48a0-af06-c4be5bf247e7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/william-kidd-vicious-pirate-enterprising-privateer/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00266.warc.gz | en | 0.987857 | 1,003 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.3984036743640... | 2 | William Kidd supposedly buried treasure off the Connecticut coast before sailing to Boston in 1699. There, he thought, he would receive clemency for his piracy.
He was wrong about that.
The treasure was never found – nor were the uncontested facts about his career. Some considered him a vicious pirate, one of many who crowded Boston’s jails at the turn of the 18th century. Others viewed him as a privateer framed by his benefactors.
William Kidd, Captain
In 1689, Capt. William Kidd sailed the Caribbean in a French ship he’d captured as a privateer (some say pirate). England and France were embroiled in a conflict known as King William’s War in the American colonies.
Stories conflict about what happened to him in the Caribbean in 1689, but they agree Kidd’s crew abandoned him.
He returned to New York City, where in 1691 he married Sarah Bradley Cox Oort. She had married one of the wealthiest men in New York and inherited his money when he died early in their marriage. Twice widowed, she had not yet reached 30 when she married Capt. William Kidd.
Kidd lived large in New York, a respected member of society. He lived with Sarah and their two daughters in a tall house on Wall Street with Turkish carpets on the floor and wine in the cellar. He lent the runner and tackle from his ship to raise the stones for Trinity Church, where he owned a pew.
But he preferred the sea, and he sailed to London to obtain a royal commission. He wanted to fight pirates attacking British East India ships in the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. He also got financing from investors, including Richard Coote, Lord Bellomont.
In 1696, Kidd sailed out of Portsmouth, England, in one of the most famous pirate ships in history, Adventure. A galley ship with sails and oars, its crew could row it to overtake becalmed merchant ships. It had 34 big guns and more than 100 men.
Terror of the Sea
Captain Kidd spent the next two years terrorizing merchant ships. He also amassed a fortune in gold, silks and jewels from his prey. Did he do it as a privateer, taking ships he was legally entitled to? Or did he do it as a pirate? History has not settled the question.
When he refused to attack a Dutch ship, his gunner objected. They argued, and Kidd threw a bucket at the gunner’s head. It fractured his skull, and he died the next day.
In January 1698, William Kidd made his fatal mistake. He captured the Quedah Merchant, a handsome vessel loaded with treasure. Unfortunately for Kidd, a minister at the court of the Indian Grand Moghul owned the ship.
The British government wanted to stay on good terms with the Moghul Empire. They needed someone to blame for capturing the treasure-laden ship.
By then, Kidd knew he was wanted for piracy. He saved French passes he had seized as proof he was a privateer and not a pirate, and he sailed for Boston. His financial backer, Lord Bellomont, lived there then during his short tenure as governor of Massachusetts. But Bellomont believed William Kidd had turned into a liability, as people believed he’d descended into piracy. And so he falsely promised clemency to Captain Kidd.
Convicted, then Vindicated?
According to lore, William Kidd took a roundabout route to New York City, sailing around Long Island and burying his treasure. Some think he may have buried it on Charles Island off the coast of Milford, Conn.
On July 6, 1699, Kidd was arrested at the home of Lord Bellomont. Historians agree on this: Bellomont and the British government used him as a fall guy to pacify the Mogul Empire and the East India company.
William Kidd went to prison in Boston, where he languished for a year. In the meantime, he tried to negotiate his freedom by offering to tell where his treasure lay buried.
It didn’t work.
Officials put him on a ship to England. On May 8, 1701, the court convicted him of murdering his gunner and of piracy, despite his claims of innocence. Fifteen days later, he was hanged at Execution Dock. The rope broke and he fell into the mud beneath the gallows.
Eyewitnesses said he was drunk and didn’t realize what happened as the crowd cheered his fall. He was hanged again, and his body dipped in tar, wrapped in chains and put in a steel cage. There his bones hung for many years.
In 1910 at the British Public Records archives, researchers found French passes that Captain Kidd claimed would prove his innocence.
This story was updated in 2019. | 1,010 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Bharat Ratna Lal Bahadur Shastri, who gave the slogen “Jai Jawan Jai Kisan”, a great freedom fighter, leader of Indian National Congress Party and the second Prime Minister of independent India.
Shastri was born on 2nd October, 1904 in Mughal Sarai, Uttar Pradesh (British India). His father was a school teacher, but he passed away when Shastri was very young. Shastri’s mother took him to her parents home, Mirzapur.
Because of poor financial condition, he used to walk 8 miles and swim across the Ganga river everyday to reach school and to avoid the expense of boat.
Lal Bahadur went to Varanasi for higher education after completing his primary education from Mirzapur. He loved to read books of Guru Nanak Dev.
In 1921, at age of 17, Shastri joined non-cooperation movement by Mahatma Gandhi, against British Government. He boycotted school and did not appear in examination. Because of his participation in this movement, all of his relatives except his mother were against him.
Lal Bahadur was strictly against caste system, that’s why he dropped his surname. In 1926, he got the title of Shastri after completing his graduation from Vidyapeeth, Varanasi.
In 1928, he married Lalita Devi. He refused to accept dowry as he was strictly against of this evil system. But because of continues pressure of his in laws, he only accepted a charkha and a few yards of Khadi.
The freedom fighter became secretary of Congress Party in 1930. And in the same year he became President of Allahabad Congress Committee.
He played vital role in Salt Satyagraha Movement and was imprisoned for two and half years in 1930. He was also imprisoned untill 1946, for active participation in Quit India Movement.
Shastri was appointed as Police and Transport Minister in Pandit Govind Vallabh Pant’s cabinet and Parliament Secretary of Pant in Uttar Pradesh in 1947.
Lal Bahadur Shastri was the first minister who used jets of water to disperse crowd instead of lathi charge as Minister of Police in Uttar Pradesh.
In 1951, he was selected as General Secretary of All India Congress Committee. In 1952, he was appointed as Minister of Railways and Transport in central cabinet by Pandit Nehru.
As Transport Minister, Shastri made it possible for women to become conductors in Transportation facility for the first time in India. He later resigned from post of Railway Minister after a train accident.
In 1961, Lal Bahadur Shastri became Home Minister of India. After the sudden death of Prime Minister Jhawahar Lal Nehru, Shastri became the Prime Minister of India in 1964.
At that time, India was suffering from food shortage, droughts and poverty. Shastri appealed citizens of country to hold fast for a day in week.
The credit for Green Revolution and White Revolution goes to him. The Food Corporation of India (FCI) and National Diary Development Board (NDDB) were also set up under his leadership.
In 1965, India won war against Pakistan under leadership of PM Lal Bahadur Shastri. At that time of war and hunger, he came up with slogan “Jai Jawan Jai Kisan” (Hail the Soldier, Hail the Farmer) to encourage farmers and soldiers of nation.
On 11th January, 1996, after signing the Tashkent Declaration, Lal Bahadur Shastri left this world under mysterious circumstances. The reason behind his death is still unknown.
Lal Bahadur Shastri was the first person to be awarded with Bharat Ratna, The highest civilian award of India.
In his memory, Vijay Ghat was established. Many roads across India, Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy, Lala Bahadur Shastri Educational Trust were built after his name.
Lal Bahadur Shastri was a man of action. He was widely known for his highest integrity, ethics and morality. In very short time with his broad minded vision, he made so many positive changes in India.
He set some milestones which are still followed in our country. His leadership was admired not only in India, but also across the world. | <urn:uuid:9f812654-67ad-4294-857d-9b11cd1a1727> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.motivationnyou.com/2018/04/motivational-story-of-lal-bahadur-shastri/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00006.warc.gz | en | 0.984343 | 918 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.3108546137809... | 7 | Bharat Ratna Lal Bahadur Shastri, who gave the slogen “Jai Jawan Jai Kisan”, a great freedom fighter, leader of Indian National Congress Party and the second Prime Minister of independent India.
Shastri was born on 2nd October, 1904 in Mughal Sarai, Uttar Pradesh (British India). His father was a school teacher, but he passed away when Shastri was very young. Shastri’s mother took him to her parents home, Mirzapur.
Because of poor financial condition, he used to walk 8 miles and swim across the Ganga river everyday to reach school and to avoid the expense of boat.
Lal Bahadur went to Varanasi for higher education after completing his primary education from Mirzapur. He loved to read books of Guru Nanak Dev.
In 1921, at age of 17, Shastri joined non-cooperation movement by Mahatma Gandhi, against British Government. He boycotted school and did not appear in examination. Because of his participation in this movement, all of his relatives except his mother were against him.
Lal Bahadur was strictly against caste system, that’s why he dropped his surname. In 1926, he got the title of Shastri after completing his graduation from Vidyapeeth, Varanasi.
In 1928, he married Lalita Devi. He refused to accept dowry as he was strictly against of this evil system. But because of continues pressure of his in laws, he only accepted a charkha and a few yards of Khadi.
The freedom fighter became secretary of Congress Party in 1930. And in the same year he became President of Allahabad Congress Committee.
He played vital role in Salt Satyagraha Movement and was imprisoned for two and half years in 1930. He was also imprisoned untill 1946, for active participation in Quit India Movement.
Shastri was appointed as Police and Transport Minister in Pandit Govind Vallabh Pant’s cabinet and Parliament Secretary of Pant in Uttar Pradesh in 1947.
Lal Bahadur Shastri was the first minister who used jets of water to disperse crowd instead of lathi charge as Minister of Police in Uttar Pradesh.
In 1951, he was selected as General Secretary of All India Congress Committee. In 1952, he was appointed as Minister of Railways and Transport in central cabinet by Pandit Nehru.
As Transport Minister, Shastri made it possible for women to become conductors in Transportation facility for the first time in India. He later resigned from post of Railway Minister after a train accident.
In 1961, Lal Bahadur Shastri became Home Minister of India. After the sudden death of Prime Minister Jhawahar Lal Nehru, Shastri became the Prime Minister of India in 1964.
At that time, India was suffering from food shortage, droughts and poverty. Shastri appealed citizens of country to hold fast for a day in week.
The credit for Green Revolution and White Revolution goes to him. The Food Corporation of India (FCI) and National Diary Development Board (NDDB) were also set up under his leadership.
In 1965, India won war against Pakistan under leadership of PM Lal Bahadur Shastri. At that time of war and hunger, he came up with slogan “Jai Jawan Jai Kisan” (Hail the Soldier, Hail the Farmer) to encourage farmers and soldiers of nation.
On 11th January, 1996, after signing the Tashkent Declaration, Lal Bahadur Shastri left this world under mysterious circumstances. The reason behind his death is still unknown.
Lal Bahadur Shastri was the first person to be awarded with Bharat Ratna, The highest civilian award of India.
In his memory, Vijay Ghat was established. Many roads across India, Lal Bahadur Shastri National Academy, Lala Bahadur Shastri Educational Trust were built after his name.
Lal Bahadur Shastri was a man of action. He was widely known for his highest integrity, ethics and morality. In very short time with his broad minded vision, he made so many positive changes in India.
He set some milestones which are still followed in our country. His leadership was admired not only in India, but also across the world. | 946 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Agrarian Reform in China: Feeding the Billion-Plus
The typical procedure began with the formation of the local Land Reform Work Team, its job to raise the consciousness of the peasants. Land reform was accompanied by substantial increases in agricultural production, but in reality the major gains were political rather than economic. The primary goal of land reform was to set the peasants free from the shackles of China's feudal landownership system, and in that sense it was more of a social movement than a production system. The opponents of collectivization pointed out that the loss of the peasants' land and decisionmaking powers was unprecedented in China. In objective terms the official data released from China indicate that significant improvements were recorded in these areas by the mid 1980s. The agrarian reforms were associated with trends that were causing some unanticipated problems for China's leaders. Most observers agree that in general China's rural land is underutilized and yields are far too low. | <urn:uuid:a9629015-c7b5-4a0a-82e3-71260bf73d77> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9780429039324/chapters/10.4324/9780429039324-7 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00504.warc.gz | en | 0.980082 | 193 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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-0.07358499616384... | 1 | Agrarian Reform in China: Feeding the Billion-Plus
The typical procedure began with the formation of the local Land Reform Work Team, its job to raise the consciousness of the peasants. Land reform was accompanied by substantial increases in agricultural production, but in reality the major gains were political rather than economic. The primary goal of land reform was to set the peasants free from the shackles of China's feudal landownership system, and in that sense it was more of a social movement than a production system. The opponents of collectivization pointed out that the loss of the peasants' land and decisionmaking powers was unprecedented in China. In objective terms the official data released from China indicate that significant improvements were recorded in these areas by the mid 1980s. The agrarian reforms were associated with trends that were causing some unanticipated problems for China's leaders. Most observers agree that in general China's rural land is underutilized and yields are far too low. | 196 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Andrew Johnson (December 29, 1808 – July 31, 1875) was the 17th president of the United States, serving from 1865 to 1869. Johnson assumed the presidency as he was vice president of the United States at the time of the assassination of Abraham Lincoln. A Democrat who ran with Lincoln on the National Union ticket, Johnson came to office as the Civil War concluded. He favored quick restoration of the seceded states to the Union without protection for the former slaves. This led to conflict with the Republican-dominated Congress, culminating in his impeachment by the House of Representatives, but he was subsequently acquitted in the Senate by one vote. Johnson’s main accomplishment as president was the Alaska purchase.
Johnson was born in poverty in Raleigh, North Carolina, and never attended school. Apprenticed as a tailor, he worked in several frontier towns before settling in Greeneville, Tennessee. He served as alderman and mayor there before being elected to the Tennessee House of Representatives in 1835. After brief service in the Tennessee Senate, Johnson was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1843, where he served five two-year terms. He became Governor of Tennessee for four years, and was elected by the legislature to the U.S. Senate in 1857. In his congressional service, he sought passage of the Homestead Bill, which was enacted soon after he left his Senate seat in 1862. As Southern slave states, including Tennessee, seceded to form the Confederate States of America, Johnson remained firmly with the Union. He was the only sitting senator from a Confederate state who did not resign his seat upon learning of his state’s secession. In 1862, Lincoln appointed him as military governor of Tennessee after most of it had been retaken. In 1864, Johnson, as a War Democrat and Southern Unionist, was a logical choice as running mate for Lincoln, who wished to send a message of national unity in his reelection campaign; their ticket easily won. When Johnson was sworn in as vice president in March 1865, he gave a rambling speech, after which he secluded himself to avoid public ridicule. Six weeks later, the assassination of Lincoln made him president.
Johnson implemented his own form of Presidential Reconstruction – a series of proclamations directing the seceded states to hold conventions and elections to reform their civil governments. When Southern states returned many of their old leaders, and passed Black Codes to deprive the freedmen of many civil liberties, Congressional Republicans refused to seat legislators from those states and advanced legislation to overrule the Southern actions. Johnson vetoed their bills, and Congressional Republicans overrode him, setting a pattern for the remainder of his presidency. Johnson opposed the Fourteenth Amendment, which gave citizenship to former slaves. In 1866, Johnson went on an unprecedented national tour promoting his executive policies, seeking to break Republican opposition. As the conflict between the branches of government grew, Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act, restricting Johnson’s ability to fire Cabinet officials. When he persisted in trying to dismiss Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, he was impeached by the House of Representatives, and narrowly avoided conviction in the Senate and removal from office. After failing to win the 1868 Democratic presidential nomination, Johnson left office in 1869.
Returning to Tennessee after his presidency, Johnson sought political vindication, and gained it in his own eyes when he was elected to the Senate again in 1875, making Johnson the only former president to serve in the Senate. He died five months into his term. Johnson’s strong opposition to federally guaranteed rights for African Americans is widely criticized. He is regarded by many historians as one of the worst presidents in American history. | <urn:uuid:3f496591-c06d-4016-954d-bd39db8c318d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://goodquotes.me/authors/andrew-johnson/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00516.warc.gz | en | 0.985273 | 754 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.4107963740825653,... | 1 | Andrew Johnson (December 29, 1808 – July 31, 1875) was the 17th president of the United States, serving from 1865 to 1869. Johnson assumed the presidency as he was vice president of the United States at the time of the assassination of Abraham Lincoln. A Democrat who ran with Lincoln on the National Union ticket, Johnson came to office as the Civil War concluded. He favored quick restoration of the seceded states to the Union without protection for the former slaves. This led to conflict with the Republican-dominated Congress, culminating in his impeachment by the House of Representatives, but he was subsequently acquitted in the Senate by one vote. Johnson’s main accomplishment as president was the Alaska purchase.
Johnson was born in poverty in Raleigh, North Carolina, and never attended school. Apprenticed as a tailor, he worked in several frontier towns before settling in Greeneville, Tennessee. He served as alderman and mayor there before being elected to the Tennessee House of Representatives in 1835. After brief service in the Tennessee Senate, Johnson was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1843, where he served five two-year terms. He became Governor of Tennessee for four years, and was elected by the legislature to the U.S. Senate in 1857. In his congressional service, he sought passage of the Homestead Bill, which was enacted soon after he left his Senate seat in 1862. As Southern slave states, including Tennessee, seceded to form the Confederate States of America, Johnson remained firmly with the Union. He was the only sitting senator from a Confederate state who did not resign his seat upon learning of his state’s secession. In 1862, Lincoln appointed him as military governor of Tennessee after most of it had been retaken. In 1864, Johnson, as a War Democrat and Southern Unionist, was a logical choice as running mate for Lincoln, who wished to send a message of national unity in his reelection campaign; their ticket easily won. When Johnson was sworn in as vice president in March 1865, he gave a rambling speech, after which he secluded himself to avoid public ridicule. Six weeks later, the assassination of Lincoln made him president.
Johnson implemented his own form of Presidential Reconstruction – a series of proclamations directing the seceded states to hold conventions and elections to reform their civil governments. When Southern states returned many of their old leaders, and passed Black Codes to deprive the freedmen of many civil liberties, Congressional Republicans refused to seat legislators from those states and advanced legislation to overrule the Southern actions. Johnson vetoed their bills, and Congressional Republicans overrode him, setting a pattern for the remainder of his presidency. Johnson opposed the Fourteenth Amendment, which gave citizenship to former slaves. In 1866, Johnson went on an unprecedented national tour promoting his executive policies, seeking to break Republican opposition. As the conflict between the branches of government grew, Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act, restricting Johnson’s ability to fire Cabinet officials. When he persisted in trying to dismiss Secretary of War Edwin Stanton, he was impeached by the House of Representatives, and narrowly avoided conviction in the Senate and removal from office. After failing to win the 1868 Democratic presidential nomination, Johnson left office in 1869.
Returning to Tennessee after his presidency, Johnson sought political vindication, and gained it in his own eyes when he was elected to the Senate again in 1875, making Johnson the only former president to serve in the Senate. He died five months into his term. Johnson’s strong opposition to federally guaranteed rights for African Americans is widely criticized. He is regarded by many historians as one of the worst presidents in American history. | 794 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Writing is one of the most important inventions of humanity. It allowed us to record our history, ideas and discoveries and spread them across the globe for all to know. As the writing developed so did writing instruments and techniques.
Earliest writing tools didn’t use pigment to live mark on the surface but were made to be rigid so they could engrave texts into different materials. Chinese, for instance, carved into turtle shells.
Ancient Sumerians and Babylonians used triangular stylus to write in soft clay tablets which would be later baked. Romans wrote in wax tablets with styluses which allowed them to erase written text. These methods, of course, had their disadvantages. Clay tablets were heavy and brittle. Wax tablets were not heat resistant. Because of that people tried to find other solutions. They appeared in the form of writing tools that use pigment of some sort. Scribes of Ancient Egypt used reed pens which were made from a single reed straw, cut and shaped into a point.
As a surface for writing with these pens was used papyrus. Reed pens didn’t last long when used and were too stiff so they were replaced with quills. Quills are pens made from flight feathers of large birds. The hollow shaft of these feathers holds the ink which flows to the tip, which is cut into the shaft, by capillary action. Different materials were used to be written on with quills, like parchment and vellum. It is known that some of the Dead Sea Scrolls, dating back to 100 BC, were written with quills. First quills were cut into a square tip and rigid and were like that for many centuries imitating reed pens. From the 17th century, when writing became more popular, quills were made to be more flexible and cut to a point. Some hundred years earlier, deposits of graphite were discovered in England which marked the birth of pencils which didn’t use ink but a core of a solid pigment, graphite in the beginning and later mixture of powdered graphite and clay. They were at first covered in leather and later in thin wooden cylinder as we still do today. They became popular because they were easy to use, couldn’t spill and could be easily erased if a mistake is made, unlike ink. Some even come with an eraser on one end.
Popularity of quills lasted until 19th century when the first pens with metal nibs appeared (although there were earlier tries of metal pens but they didn’t catch on). John Mitchell from Birmingham was the first to mass-produce pens with metal nibs in 1822. These had a handle and a metal point with a split that held a small amount of ink when dipped. They worked the same as quills but lasted much longer, didn’t need to be sharpened and could be made to a much finer point. Bartholomew Folsch received a patent in England for a pen with an ink reservoir in 1809. French Government patented a fountain pen in May 1827 which was an invention of Romanian Petrache Poenaru. Ballpoint pen was invented in 1888, by John J. Loud and improved by László Bíró in 1938. Slavoljub Eduard Penkala invented mechanical pencil in 1906 and the first solid-ink fountain pen in 1907. | <urn:uuid:bb8bfd98-2cf4-4b2f-b5ff-5a1c8d8ded9f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://orangeplume.com/the-development-of-writing-tools.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00069.warc.gz | en | 0.988467 | 685 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
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0.18566623330116... | 1 | Writing is one of the most important inventions of humanity. It allowed us to record our history, ideas and discoveries and spread them across the globe for all to know. As the writing developed so did writing instruments and techniques.
Earliest writing tools didn’t use pigment to live mark on the surface but were made to be rigid so they could engrave texts into different materials. Chinese, for instance, carved into turtle shells.
Ancient Sumerians and Babylonians used triangular stylus to write in soft clay tablets which would be later baked. Romans wrote in wax tablets with styluses which allowed them to erase written text. These methods, of course, had their disadvantages. Clay tablets were heavy and brittle. Wax tablets were not heat resistant. Because of that people tried to find other solutions. They appeared in the form of writing tools that use pigment of some sort. Scribes of Ancient Egypt used reed pens which were made from a single reed straw, cut and shaped into a point.
As a surface for writing with these pens was used papyrus. Reed pens didn’t last long when used and were too stiff so they were replaced with quills. Quills are pens made from flight feathers of large birds. The hollow shaft of these feathers holds the ink which flows to the tip, which is cut into the shaft, by capillary action. Different materials were used to be written on with quills, like parchment and vellum. It is known that some of the Dead Sea Scrolls, dating back to 100 BC, were written with quills. First quills were cut into a square tip and rigid and were like that for many centuries imitating reed pens. From the 17th century, when writing became more popular, quills were made to be more flexible and cut to a point. Some hundred years earlier, deposits of graphite were discovered in England which marked the birth of pencils which didn’t use ink but a core of a solid pigment, graphite in the beginning and later mixture of powdered graphite and clay. They were at first covered in leather and later in thin wooden cylinder as we still do today. They became popular because they were easy to use, couldn’t spill and could be easily erased if a mistake is made, unlike ink. Some even come with an eraser on one end.
Popularity of quills lasted until 19th century when the first pens with metal nibs appeared (although there were earlier tries of metal pens but they didn’t catch on). John Mitchell from Birmingham was the first to mass-produce pens with metal nibs in 1822. These had a handle and a metal point with a split that held a small amount of ink when dipped. They worked the same as quills but lasted much longer, didn’t need to be sharpened and could be made to a much finer point. Bartholomew Folsch received a patent in England for a pen with an ink reservoir in 1809. French Government patented a fountain pen in May 1827 which was an invention of Romanian Petrache Poenaru. Ballpoint pen was invented in 1888, by John J. Loud and improved by László Bíró in 1938. Slavoljub Eduard Penkala invented mechanical pencil in 1906 and the first solid-ink fountain pen in 1907. | 697 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Algernon Sidney or Sydney (15 January 1623 – 7 December 1683) was an English politician and member of the middle part of the Long Parliament. A republican political theorist, colonel, and commissioner of the trial of King Charles I of England, he opposed the king’s execution. Sidney was later charged with plotting against Charles II, in part based on his most famous work, Discourses Concerning Government, used by the prosecution as a witness at his trial. He was executed for treason. After his death, Sidney was revered as a “Whig patriot–hero and martyr”.
The works of Algernon Sidney, along with those of contemporary John Locke, are considered a cornerstone of western thought. Discourses Concerning Government cost Sidney his head. However, the ideas it put forth survived and ultimately culminated in the founding of the United States. Sidney directly opposed the divine right of kings political theory by suggesting ideas such as limited government, voluntary consent of the people and the right of citizens to alter or abolish a corrupt government. Discourses Concerning Government has been called “the textbook of the American revolution.” | <urn:uuid:efefadd2-cd43-4c4e-8c9c-177853738444> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://goodquotes.me/authors/algernon-sidney/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00310.warc.gz | en | 0.98284 | 234 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.33770751... | 3 | Algernon Sidney or Sydney (15 January 1623 – 7 December 1683) was an English politician and member of the middle part of the Long Parliament. A republican political theorist, colonel, and commissioner of the trial of King Charles I of England, he opposed the king’s execution. Sidney was later charged with plotting against Charles II, in part based on his most famous work, Discourses Concerning Government, used by the prosecution as a witness at his trial. He was executed for treason. After his death, Sidney was revered as a “Whig patriot–hero and martyr”.
The works of Algernon Sidney, along with those of contemporary John Locke, are considered a cornerstone of western thought. Discourses Concerning Government cost Sidney his head. However, the ideas it put forth survived and ultimately culminated in the founding of the United States. Sidney directly opposed the divine right of kings political theory by suggesting ideas such as limited government, voluntary consent of the people and the right of citizens to alter or abolish a corrupt government. Discourses Concerning Government has been called “the textbook of the American revolution.” | 235 | ENGLISH | 1 |
REGENCY PERIOD SILVER (1811 - 1820)
In late 1810, already virtually blind with cataracts and in pain from rheumatism, George III became dangerously ill. It was clear that he was no longer fit to reign and Parliament responded by passing the Regency Act of 1811. The act created the role of Prince Regent which was assigned to The Prince of Wales and allowed him to exercise the full powers of the King. The Prince of Wales continued as Regent until his father's death in 1820, when he became King George IV.
The term Regency is used loosely, sometimes referring only to the 9 years that the Prince Regent fulfilled the duties and obligations of the King and sometimes referring to a period between 1795 and 1837 which was characterized by distinctive trends in British architecture, design, literature, fashions, politics, and culture.
The Regency style was eclectic, based on the cult of antiquity and borrowing from Roman, Greek and Egyptian designs. To these were added elements taken from nature and from French design of the mid-18th century. The Regency style was visually very rich and Regency Silver is perhaps the most elaborate and imposing of any British silver.
© I.Franks 2020. All Rights Reserved | <urn:uuid:e9197a3b-1828-4a85-9ad4-b998b0188884> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ifranks.com/regency-silver | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00256.warc.gz | en | 0.983621 | 262 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.1379511058330... | 1 | REGENCY PERIOD SILVER (1811 - 1820)
In late 1810, already virtually blind with cataracts and in pain from rheumatism, George III became dangerously ill. It was clear that he was no longer fit to reign and Parliament responded by passing the Regency Act of 1811. The act created the role of Prince Regent which was assigned to The Prince of Wales and allowed him to exercise the full powers of the King. The Prince of Wales continued as Regent until his father's death in 1820, when he became King George IV.
The term Regency is used loosely, sometimes referring only to the 9 years that the Prince Regent fulfilled the duties and obligations of the King and sometimes referring to a period between 1795 and 1837 which was characterized by distinctive trends in British architecture, design, literature, fashions, politics, and culture.
The Regency style was eclectic, based on the cult of antiquity and borrowing from Roman, Greek and Egyptian designs. To these were added elements taken from nature and from French design of the mid-18th century. The Regency style was visually very rich and Regency Silver is perhaps the most elaborate and imposing of any British silver.
© I.Franks 2020. All Rights Reserved | 283 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Communist revolutions have been attempted across the world - what were the primary reasons that the Cuban Revolution succeeded while others failed?
The Cuban revolution succeeded because it was a broad-based revolutionary movement, not a "Communist" revolution (initially, that is). For instance, in the July 26th (1953) uprising against the government's military barracks (the equivalent of John Brown's raid on Harper's Ferry before the U.S. civil war), the Castroites were only one of several revolutionary groups revolting against the unpopular dictator, Batista.
Castro was captured and condemned to 15 years' imprisonment, but was released in 1955 under a general amnesty.
In 1956, the Castro supporters fled to Mexico, where they were joined by other revolutionaries, notably a student group called the Revolutionary Directorate (RD). This group returned in Cuba in 1957, and launched a suicidal attack against Batista, while Castro bided his time and returned later.
By this time, Batista was losing most of his supporters. In 1958, the U.S. recalled its Ambassador and withdrew its diplomatic recognition of Batista, placing a key embargo on military goods. Meanwhile, one of Batista's opponents was an American "soldier of fortune, William Alexander Morgan. When Castro returned, he was joined by Morgan and the surviving RD members. Their combined efforts were enough to bring down Batista.
After the Revolution was successful, Castro's Communists "hijacked" it because they were better armed and organized than the other revolutionaries. But that is another story. | <urn:uuid:6da5f37a-dc95-45db-b461-df173a0dbc29> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://history.stackexchange.com/questions/95/why-was-the-cuban-revolution-1953-1959-ultimately-successful | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00358.warc.gz | en | 0.983318 | 316 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.263379007577896... | 1 | Communist revolutions have been attempted across the world - what were the primary reasons that the Cuban Revolution succeeded while others failed?
The Cuban revolution succeeded because it was a broad-based revolutionary movement, not a "Communist" revolution (initially, that is). For instance, in the July 26th (1953) uprising against the government's military barracks (the equivalent of John Brown's raid on Harper's Ferry before the U.S. civil war), the Castroites were only one of several revolutionary groups revolting against the unpopular dictator, Batista.
Castro was captured and condemned to 15 years' imprisonment, but was released in 1955 under a general amnesty.
In 1956, the Castro supporters fled to Mexico, where they were joined by other revolutionaries, notably a student group called the Revolutionary Directorate (RD). This group returned in Cuba in 1957, and launched a suicidal attack against Batista, while Castro bided his time and returned later.
By this time, Batista was losing most of his supporters. In 1958, the U.S. recalled its Ambassador and withdrew its diplomatic recognition of Batista, placing a key embargo on military goods. Meanwhile, one of Batista's opponents was an American "soldier of fortune, William Alexander Morgan. When Castro returned, he was joined by Morgan and the surviving RD members. Their combined efforts were enough to bring down Batista.
After the Revolution was successful, Castro's Communists "hijacked" it because they were better armed and organized than the other revolutionaries. But that is another story. | 334 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It’s been almost 52 years since Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated. As people once again take to the streets to highlight social injustice and atrocities across the country and the world, we ask: is his dream still relevant today?
Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee (U.S.), almost 52 years ago, on April 4, 1968, an event that sent shock waves reverberating around the world. It was, as described at that year’s Nobel Ceremony in Oslo, a “bitter year for human rights” and “one of the most grievous losses ever suffered by the world’s champions of peace and goodwill.”
Dr. King, had been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964 for his nonviolent campaign for equal rights. The 1968 Nobel Peace Prize was presented to René Cassin for his work on drafting the Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 10, 1948. Eleanor Roosevelt, who oversaw the writing of this milestone document had died a few years earlier and therefore could not share in the prize. The declaration presents 30 articles, each of which explains what rights we have as human beings regardless of “race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.” Importantly, Article 1 states that “all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights”.
It was Dr. King’s dream that his children would one day “live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character.” That dream was rooted in his own experiences as a child growing up under “Jim Crow Laws”: a system of racial apartheid that dominated the American South for three quarters of a century, beginning in the 1890s. The laws affected almost every aspect of daily life, mandating segregation of schools, parks, libraries, drinking fountains, restrooms, buses, trains, and restaurants. “Whites Only” and “Colored” signs were constant reminders of the enforced racial order. Those who refused to abide by these laws were arrested, or worse, ‘lynched’ by white extremist groups such as the Ku Klux Klan.
Martin Luther King, Jr., was born Michael King,Jr. on January 29, 1929, in Atlanta, Georgia (U.S.) and grew up in an area of the city reserved for people of color. His father, Michael King, Sr. (later Martin Luther King, Sr.) was a respected Baptist minister and community leader. His mother Alberta Williams King made it a point, early on in Martin’s life, to explain how young, healthy Africans were brought to the United States as slaves, and the ongoing realities of discrimination and segregation.
“You are as good as anyone,” his mother Alberta said, but Martin didn’t really understand until the day he went to school at age six. His best friend, a white boy that he had known and played with since age three, was told by his father to no longer play with him. “How could I love a race of people who hated me and who had been responsible for breaking me up with one of my best childhood friends?” Martin asked himself for a long time.
At fourteen years old Martin participated in, and won, an oratorical contest with an essay entitled The Negro and the Constitution in which he said, “If freedom is good for any it is good for all.” After receiving the prize, Martin took a bus home and unconsciously sat at the front, which was normally reserved for white people. The bus driver quickly reprimanded him. Martin recalls this incident as the angriest moment of his life!
At age 15 Martin entered Morehouse College, a historically all-male African American college established in 1867. It was during his time as a student at Morehouse that Martin would have his “first frank discussion on race” and where he would discover Henry David Thoreau’s essay on Civil Disobedience published in 1849, which tells the story of the author’s willingness to go to jail, rather than pay taxes to a government that supported slavery.
“I became convinced that non-cooperation with evil is as much a moral obligation as is cooperation with good,” said Dr. King.
Someone else who had an indelible impact on Dr. King’s beliefs and actions was the Indian activist Mahatma Gandhi, who, using nonviolent civil disobedience led India to independence from British rule in 1947. He was particularly moved by Gandhi’s 240 mile march from his ashram (religious retreat) to the coastal town of Dandi on the Arabian Sea. There, Gandhi and his supporters made salt from seawater, thereby breaking the British law that had established a monopoly on salt manufacturing.
“There is no way to peace, peace is the only way,” said Mohandas K. Gandhi (1869-1948).
Dr. King would put Gandhi’s technique of non-violence to good use in America’s own civil rights struggle. Starting in 1955 in Montgomery, Alabama he successfully led a massive bus boycott after civil rights activist Rosa Parks had refused to give up her bus seat reserved for whites. Later on in Birmingham, a place he described as “where human rights had been trampled on for so long and fear and oppression were as thick in its atmosphere as the smog from its factories,” Dr. King was arrested and put into solitary confinement for leading a protest. From his cell he wrote a letter outlining that: “Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere.”
While many nations in Africa, including Ghana (1957), had achieved independence from their former European colonial masters, the time had come for African Americans to be given full and equal rights – not only to sit at the front of a bus and attend integrated schools – but also the right to voice their opinions politically.
“Something within has reminded the Negro of his birthright of freedom, and something without has reminded him that it can be gained. Consciously or unconsciously, he has been caught up by the Zeitgeist, and his black brothers of Africa and his brown and yellow brother of Asia, South America and the Caribbean. The United States Negro is moving with a sense of urgency toward the promised land of racial justice,” he said.
And so the moment had come; a century after the abolition of slavery, marches were organized throughout the South, in Selma and Mississippi, and notably to Washington D.C., whereupon hundreds of thousands of men and women, black and white, rich and poor, marched on the United States capital demanding economic justice. Youth from all over America traveled South to join the ranks as Freedom Riders and to participate in more provoked, but still nonviolent, actions of civil disobedience.
Thanks to mass mobilization, enough pressure was brought on the United States government to bring about significant changes to federal law, notably the 1964 Civil Rights Act that ended segregation in public places and banned employment discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national origin. The 1965 Voting Rights Act was described as, “one of the most monumental laws in the history of American freedom”.
It was at this time, that Dr. King would travel to Oslo, Norway, to receive the Nobel Peace Prize on December 10, 1964. During his Nobel lecture on December 11, he said:
“The Nobel Prize is the second greatest honor given to me in my lifetime. The honor of the first importance was the response of the millions of Negroes to the doctrine of nonviolence, and their heroic employment of it to achieve equality and freedom. In a sense they earned the Nobel Prize when they stood against guns, dynamite, snarling dogs and prison without flinching, until their steadfastness muzzled the weapons of their oppressors.”
Following the Nobel Prize, Dr. King turned his attention to fighting other injustices: poverty and war. At the time, the United States was, in his opinion, wasting enormous economic resources fighting a war in Vietnam that he felt would be better spent on helping the poor.
“If we assume that life is worth living and man has a right to survive, then we must find an alternative to war,” he said. Dr. King was 39 years old at the time of his death, which occurred as he was planning a massive ‘Poor People’s Campaign,’ involving the wider participation of American Indians, Mexican Americans and other racial and ethnic minority groups.
Given the present global challenges to Human Rights, Dr. King’s message of nonviolent social and economic justice is as important today as ever before. | <urn:uuid:1c730308-2401-4072-9bab-691373f83838> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://real-leaders.com/martin-luther-king-a-right-to-freedom/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00522.warc.gz | en | 0.980729 | 1,837 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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-0.0427468158304691... | 6 | It’s been almost 52 years since Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated. As people once again take to the streets to highlight social injustice and atrocities across the country and the world, we ask: is his dream still relevant today?
Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee (U.S.), almost 52 years ago, on April 4, 1968, an event that sent shock waves reverberating around the world. It was, as described at that year’s Nobel Ceremony in Oslo, a “bitter year for human rights” and “one of the most grievous losses ever suffered by the world’s champions of peace and goodwill.”
Dr. King, had been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964 for his nonviolent campaign for equal rights. The 1968 Nobel Peace Prize was presented to René Cassin for his work on drafting the Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on December 10, 1948. Eleanor Roosevelt, who oversaw the writing of this milestone document had died a few years earlier and therefore could not share in the prize. The declaration presents 30 articles, each of which explains what rights we have as human beings regardless of “race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status.” Importantly, Article 1 states that “all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights”.
It was Dr. King’s dream that his children would one day “live in a nation where they will not be judged by the color of their skin but by the content of their character.” That dream was rooted in his own experiences as a child growing up under “Jim Crow Laws”: a system of racial apartheid that dominated the American South for three quarters of a century, beginning in the 1890s. The laws affected almost every aspect of daily life, mandating segregation of schools, parks, libraries, drinking fountains, restrooms, buses, trains, and restaurants. “Whites Only” and “Colored” signs were constant reminders of the enforced racial order. Those who refused to abide by these laws were arrested, or worse, ‘lynched’ by white extremist groups such as the Ku Klux Klan.
Martin Luther King, Jr., was born Michael King,Jr. on January 29, 1929, in Atlanta, Georgia (U.S.) and grew up in an area of the city reserved for people of color. His father, Michael King, Sr. (later Martin Luther King, Sr.) was a respected Baptist minister and community leader. His mother Alberta Williams King made it a point, early on in Martin’s life, to explain how young, healthy Africans were brought to the United States as slaves, and the ongoing realities of discrimination and segregation.
“You are as good as anyone,” his mother Alberta said, but Martin didn’t really understand until the day he went to school at age six. His best friend, a white boy that he had known and played with since age three, was told by his father to no longer play with him. “How could I love a race of people who hated me and who had been responsible for breaking me up with one of my best childhood friends?” Martin asked himself for a long time.
At fourteen years old Martin participated in, and won, an oratorical contest with an essay entitled The Negro and the Constitution in which he said, “If freedom is good for any it is good for all.” After receiving the prize, Martin took a bus home and unconsciously sat at the front, which was normally reserved for white people. The bus driver quickly reprimanded him. Martin recalls this incident as the angriest moment of his life!
At age 15 Martin entered Morehouse College, a historically all-male African American college established in 1867. It was during his time as a student at Morehouse that Martin would have his “first frank discussion on race” and where he would discover Henry David Thoreau’s essay on Civil Disobedience published in 1849, which tells the story of the author’s willingness to go to jail, rather than pay taxes to a government that supported slavery.
“I became convinced that non-cooperation with evil is as much a moral obligation as is cooperation with good,” said Dr. King.
Someone else who had an indelible impact on Dr. King’s beliefs and actions was the Indian activist Mahatma Gandhi, who, using nonviolent civil disobedience led India to independence from British rule in 1947. He was particularly moved by Gandhi’s 240 mile march from his ashram (religious retreat) to the coastal town of Dandi on the Arabian Sea. There, Gandhi and his supporters made salt from seawater, thereby breaking the British law that had established a monopoly on salt manufacturing.
“There is no way to peace, peace is the only way,” said Mohandas K. Gandhi (1869-1948).
Dr. King would put Gandhi’s technique of non-violence to good use in America’s own civil rights struggle. Starting in 1955 in Montgomery, Alabama he successfully led a massive bus boycott after civil rights activist Rosa Parks had refused to give up her bus seat reserved for whites. Later on in Birmingham, a place he described as “where human rights had been trampled on for so long and fear and oppression were as thick in its atmosphere as the smog from its factories,” Dr. King was arrested and put into solitary confinement for leading a protest. From his cell he wrote a letter outlining that: “Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere.”
While many nations in Africa, including Ghana (1957), had achieved independence from their former European colonial masters, the time had come for African Americans to be given full and equal rights – not only to sit at the front of a bus and attend integrated schools – but also the right to voice their opinions politically.
“Something within has reminded the Negro of his birthright of freedom, and something without has reminded him that it can be gained. Consciously or unconsciously, he has been caught up by the Zeitgeist, and his black brothers of Africa and his brown and yellow brother of Asia, South America and the Caribbean. The United States Negro is moving with a sense of urgency toward the promised land of racial justice,” he said.
And so the moment had come; a century after the abolition of slavery, marches were organized throughout the South, in Selma and Mississippi, and notably to Washington D.C., whereupon hundreds of thousands of men and women, black and white, rich and poor, marched on the United States capital demanding economic justice. Youth from all over America traveled South to join the ranks as Freedom Riders and to participate in more provoked, but still nonviolent, actions of civil disobedience.
Thanks to mass mobilization, enough pressure was brought on the United States government to bring about significant changes to federal law, notably the 1964 Civil Rights Act that ended segregation in public places and banned employment discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national origin. The 1965 Voting Rights Act was described as, “one of the most monumental laws in the history of American freedom”.
It was at this time, that Dr. King would travel to Oslo, Norway, to receive the Nobel Peace Prize on December 10, 1964. During his Nobel lecture on December 11, he said:
“The Nobel Prize is the second greatest honor given to me in my lifetime. The honor of the first importance was the response of the millions of Negroes to the doctrine of nonviolence, and their heroic employment of it to achieve equality and freedom. In a sense they earned the Nobel Prize when they stood against guns, dynamite, snarling dogs and prison without flinching, until their steadfastness muzzled the weapons of their oppressors.”
Following the Nobel Prize, Dr. King turned his attention to fighting other injustices: poverty and war. At the time, the United States was, in his opinion, wasting enormous economic resources fighting a war in Vietnam that he felt would be better spent on helping the poor.
“If we assume that life is worth living and man has a right to survive, then we must find an alternative to war,” he said. Dr. King was 39 years old at the time of his death, which occurred as he was planning a massive ‘Poor People’s Campaign,’ involving the wider participation of American Indians, Mexican Americans and other racial and ethnic minority groups.
Given the present global challenges to Human Rights, Dr. King’s message of nonviolent social and economic justice is as important today as ever before. | 1,816 | ENGLISH | 1 |
While the Battle of the Atlantic that took place during WWII is well known, the struggle to get troops, man and supplies to Europe from the USA during World War I was also momentous. German U-boats took a frightening toll on American ships, and their brazen raids are in fact one of the key reasons America declared war on Germany and its allies. This film is a short portrait of the struggle, showing how lookouts, convoys, and new weapons such as the depth-charge-firing "Y gun" were used to sink U-boats. Many ships are seen in the film, including battleships and troop transports. The Clemson-class destroyer USS Dale (DD-290) and Wickes-class USS Schenck (DD-159) appear in the film, which also contains footage of King George greeting the fleet in the U.K. This film is an excerpt from a much longer portrait of America in WWI, entitled "America Goes Over", that was released by Kodak in 1918. | <urn:uuid:80ee4ee0-5f4e-4f88-850d-b8619e4a9df3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://archive.org/details/FreedomOfTheSeas | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00524.warc.gz | en | 0.985847 | 206 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.4847927689552... | 3 | While the Battle of the Atlantic that took place during WWII is well known, the struggle to get troops, man and supplies to Europe from the USA during World War I was also momentous. German U-boats took a frightening toll on American ships, and their brazen raids are in fact one of the key reasons America declared war on Germany and its allies. This film is a short portrait of the struggle, showing how lookouts, convoys, and new weapons such as the depth-charge-firing "Y gun" were used to sink U-boats. Many ships are seen in the film, including battleships and troop transports. The Clemson-class destroyer USS Dale (DD-290) and Wickes-class USS Schenck (DD-159) appear in the film, which also contains footage of King George greeting the fleet in the U.K. This film is an excerpt from a much longer portrait of America in WWI, entitled "America Goes Over", that was released by Kodak in 1918. | 211 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Did You Know?
Cleopatra lived closer in time to the Moon landing than to the construction of the building of the Great Pyramid.
Cleopatra was born ~2,500 years after the Great Pyramid at Giza was built, and ~2,000 years before the first lunar landing. That fact means that Cleopatra is closer to our present time than to the times of Ancient Egypt's early dynastic past.
There are other unique facts that are both associated with the Giza Pyramids and the first lunar landing as well. The Great Pyramid at Giza took thousands of laborers to complete, and the Apollo mission also took thousands of employees to perfect and launch. Cleopatra was also served by thousands of her Egyptian subjects. Blood was shed during the building of the Great Pyramid at Giza, and the Apollo mission manned launch-pad test also killed three astronauts in a fiery accident. Cleopatra herself ruled with blood on her hands. | <urn:uuid:f60ca83e-1613-4acd-8571-d1c29db23843> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://didyouknowstuff.com/cleopatra-lived-closer-in-time-to-the-moon-landing-than-to-the-construction-of-the-building-of-the-great-pyramid | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00503.warc.gz | en | 0.980802 | 194 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.2213853150606155... | 15 | Did You Know?
Cleopatra lived closer in time to the Moon landing than to the construction of the building of the Great Pyramid.
Cleopatra was born ~2,500 years after the Great Pyramid at Giza was built, and ~2,000 years before the first lunar landing. That fact means that Cleopatra is closer to our present time than to the times of Ancient Egypt's early dynastic past.
There are other unique facts that are both associated with the Giza Pyramids and the first lunar landing as well. The Great Pyramid at Giza took thousands of laborers to complete, and the Apollo mission also took thousands of employees to perfect and launch. Cleopatra was also served by thousands of her Egyptian subjects. Blood was shed during the building of the Great Pyramid at Giza, and the Apollo mission manned launch-pad test also killed three astronauts in a fiery accident. Cleopatra herself ruled with blood on her hands. | 197 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Koalas are a marsupial and they live on the East Coast of Australia. They are bear-like in appearance and are covered with a thick coating of grey or brown fur. The Koala has large furry ears. It lives in Eucalyptus forests as these trees are their only source of food.
Koalas have many structural adaptations that help them to survive in their bushland environment. Some of these are: large thigh muscles, thick fur, a large nose, large furry ears, and pouches for their young. Koalas use their large thigh muscles and opposable thumbs to help them to climb up the sides of steep eucalyptus trees.
Their thick fur keeps them warm and also helps to repel moisture when it is raining. They have a large nose that gives them a keen sense of smell. This enables them to sniff out the right type of eucalyptus leaves. Koala’s ears are large so that they can hear the sounds of fellow koalas that are nearby. The last structural adaptation the female koala has is its pouch. The pouch is used to carry the baby koalas in until they are old enough to climb themselves. There are many behavioural adaptations that the Koala makes in order to help it survive in its environment. They tend to live in a home range, they can make deep grunting noises, and they are able to go a long time without drinking water. The koalas home range is a usually within a range of about 3 square kilometres. They tend to stay in this range and have their favourite trees within this range. Their range may overlap with other koalas range as shown in the diagram. You can see that Lulu’s range overlaps with
Arnie’s range. The Koalas also make a deep grunting noise. They do this in order to show dominance if there are other Koalas that threaten them. They also make this sound to call to other koalas during mating time. The final behavioural adaptation that Koalas have is that they are able to go a long time without water. They are able to acquire enough liquid to survive from the eucalyptus leaves that they eat. They usually only need to drink during times of drought. There are many threats to the koalas’ survival and this is an example of why they are a vulnerable species. Some of the threats that are the greatest obstacle in their survival is the deforestation of their habitat and their crossing of busy roads. Land that was once their home have had their trees removed and houses built. This loss of habitat will mean that Koalas will need to travel further to find more trees meaning they may need to cross busy highways and roads to find more trees. Many koalas are killed each year when they are crossing busy roads to find more food. Koalas are an interesting animal that have made many structural and behavioural adaptations in order to survive. The main threat to koalas’ survival are humans with their deforestation of koala habitat and the building of roads within koalas’ home ranges. The koala foundation of Australia has developed the slogan ‘NO Tree, NO me’ to highlight the plight of the Koala. | <urn:uuid:b3cafff4-c9de-4543-80a4-c8defd321c73> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://5bbiology.weebly.com/koala-example.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00351.warc.gz | en | 0.981839 | 670 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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... | 9 | Koalas are a marsupial and they live on the East Coast of Australia. They are bear-like in appearance and are covered with a thick coating of grey or brown fur. The Koala has large furry ears. It lives in Eucalyptus forests as these trees are their only source of food.
Koalas have many structural adaptations that help them to survive in their bushland environment. Some of these are: large thigh muscles, thick fur, a large nose, large furry ears, and pouches for their young. Koalas use their large thigh muscles and opposable thumbs to help them to climb up the sides of steep eucalyptus trees.
Their thick fur keeps them warm and also helps to repel moisture when it is raining. They have a large nose that gives them a keen sense of smell. This enables them to sniff out the right type of eucalyptus leaves. Koala’s ears are large so that they can hear the sounds of fellow koalas that are nearby. The last structural adaptation the female koala has is its pouch. The pouch is used to carry the baby koalas in until they are old enough to climb themselves. There are many behavioural adaptations that the Koala makes in order to help it survive in its environment. They tend to live in a home range, they can make deep grunting noises, and they are able to go a long time without drinking water. The koalas home range is a usually within a range of about 3 square kilometres. They tend to stay in this range and have their favourite trees within this range. Their range may overlap with other koalas range as shown in the diagram. You can see that Lulu’s range overlaps with
Arnie’s range. The Koalas also make a deep grunting noise. They do this in order to show dominance if there are other Koalas that threaten them. They also make this sound to call to other koalas during mating time. The final behavioural adaptation that Koalas have is that they are able to go a long time without water. They are able to acquire enough liquid to survive from the eucalyptus leaves that they eat. They usually only need to drink during times of drought. There are many threats to the koalas’ survival and this is an example of why they are a vulnerable species. Some of the threats that are the greatest obstacle in their survival is the deforestation of their habitat and their crossing of busy roads. Land that was once their home have had their trees removed and houses built. This loss of habitat will mean that Koalas will need to travel further to find more trees meaning they may need to cross busy highways and roads to find more trees. Many koalas are killed each year when they are crossing busy roads to find more food. Koalas are an interesting animal that have made many structural and behavioural adaptations in order to survive. The main threat to koalas’ survival are humans with their deforestation of koala habitat and the building of roads within koalas’ home ranges. The koala foundation of Australia has developed the slogan ‘NO Tree, NO me’ to highlight the plight of the Koala. | 659 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A polite and carefully buried burial site is found although 15 children and children have been cruelly slaughtered
An ancient burial site was found that 15 people, including children, and four families were beaten and killed in their head, but were buried in a very polite manner. In this burial site, the bodies are not random, and they were placed based on the family's relationship, such as 'the mother next to the child' and 'the brothers are next to each other'.
Unraveling ancestry, kinship, and violence in a Late Neolithic mass grave | PNAS
15 People Were Brutally Murdered 5,000 Years Ago, But the Bodies Were Buried with Care
A late Neolithic burial site was discovered in 2011 during the sewerage construction of Kosice in southern Poland. An archeologist Niels Nordea Johansen from Archaeological University of Aarhus in Denmark conducted research, and found that the 15 people buried in this burial site were those who had their heads beaten 5000 years ago and were massacred It turned out.
This is not the first time a burial site has been found full of slaughtered people. In Halberstadt, Germany, nine people slaughtered 7,000 years ago were buried, and in Kilianstetten, a “death hole” was found, where 26 people were buried after the slaughter. On the other hand, the unique point of the burial site newly investigated this time is that people were buried very carefully even though they were cruelly killed.
According to Johansen, Kosice's burial site says, 'The children are laid next to their parents, the brothers are next to each other, and the elders are near the center.' According to Johansen's research on the family, those who were buried were composed of four nuclear families, and the four families were closely related. Also, as a result of genetic analysis, people belonged to the
It is unclear who killed four family members, but it is the researchers' view that it may not be another person. 'It takes a lot of effort to do this burial. The people who buried them were familiar with the family,' said Johansen. It is possible that it was a hurry to bury the bodies separately instead of separately, but still the bodies were laid based on the relationship, and tombstones such as amphora and ornaments were buried together. In addition, it is also possible that the family was killed when the father was absent because the burial site did not include the person who corresponds to the father.
New century late step zone by the presence of the group to be moved from the east, culture of Europe had greatly transformed. It's a horrible slaughter, but researchers say it's no surprise that such a slaughter would occur in times of turmoil where territorial clashes were frequent.
Archeologist Christian Mayer, who has not participated in the study, points out that there is also a 4600-year-old burial site where the family was carefully buried in a similar place in Oirau, Germany. The two burials are very similar. Mr. Meyer stated that the burial site is one of the evidence that fatal violence often occurred in the late Neolithic period.
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An ancient burial site was found that 15 people, including children, and four families were beaten and killed in their head, but were buried in a very polite manner. In this burial site, the bodies are not random, and they were placed based on the family's relationship, such as 'the mother next to the child' and 'the brothers are next to each other'.
Unraveling ancestry, kinship, and violence in a Late Neolithic mass grave | PNAS
15 People Were Brutally Murdered 5,000 Years Ago, But the Bodies Were Buried with Care
A late Neolithic burial site was discovered in 2011 during the sewerage construction of Kosice in southern Poland. An archeologist Niels Nordea Johansen from Archaeological University of Aarhus in Denmark conducted research, and found that the 15 people buried in this burial site were those who had their heads beaten 5000 years ago and were massacred It turned out.
This is not the first time a burial site has been found full of slaughtered people. In Halberstadt, Germany, nine people slaughtered 7,000 years ago were buried, and in Kilianstetten, a “death hole” was found, where 26 people were buried after the slaughter. On the other hand, the unique point of the burial site newly investigated this time is that people were buried very carefully even though they were cruelly killed.
According to Johansen, Kosice's burial site says, 'The children are laid next to their parents, the brothers are next to each other, and the elders are near the center.' According to Johansen's research on the family, those who were buried were composed of four nuclear families, and the four families were closely related. Also, as a result of genetic analysis, people belonged to the
It is unclear who killed four family members, but it is the researchers' view that it may not be another person. 'It takes a lot of effort to do this burial. The people who buried them were familiar with the family,' said Johansen. It is possible that it was a hurry to bury the bodies separately instead of separately, but still the bodies were laid based on the relationship, and tombstones such as amphora and ornaments were buried together. In addition, it is also possible that the family was killed when the father was absent because the burial site did not include the person who corresponds to the father.
New century late step zone by the presence of the group to be moved from the east, culture of Europe had greatly transformed. It's a horrible slaughter, but researchers say it's no surprise that such a slaughter would occur in times of turmoil where territorial clashes were frequent.
Archeologist Christian Mayer, who has not participated in the study, points out that there is also a 4600-year-old burial site where the family was carefully buried in a similar place in Oirau, Germany. The two burials are very similar. Mr. Meyer stated that the burial site is one of the evidence that fatal violence often occurred in the late Neolithic period.
in Note, Posted by logq_fa | 672 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Work began on the CSS Neuse shortly after the contract was signed and its construction began on the banks of the Neuse river in Whitehall, which is now current day Seven Springs. However, a couple of months into construction, Union Gen. John Foster marched from New Bern on December 11, 1862 and captured the town of Kinston on the December 14. The next evening, he reached Whitehall and encountered Gen. Beverly Robertson’s Confederates setting fire to the bridge over the Neuse river to protect the building of the ship. A short battle occurred, known as the Engagement at Whitehall on December 16. Foster soon withdrew his force and continued marching to Goldsboro after encountering how well the Confederates forces were entrenched. The CSS Neuse was slightly damaged however, once Union forces let the area construction resumed. In late summer of 1863 the initial hull of the ship was completed and it was guided down the river to Kinston to be fitted with its fittings, machinery, and iron plating, engines, propellers, and cannons. When it arrived in Kinston, it was moored in a site referred to as the “cat hole.” This was a deep area of the river located against the steep riverbank, allowing the ship’s machinery to be lowered easily into the hull. This cat hole today is adjacent to where the King Street bridge. After months of delays the CSS Neuse was deemed ready and on April 22, 1864 it set sail from Kinston to recapture the town of New Bern. It was planned for the ship to meet her sister ship the CSS Albemarle however, the Neuse had moved one-half mile down the river when it ran aground on a sand bar. It was not until mid-May that the river rose high enough and the ship was freed. Instead of continuing to New Bern, it returned to Kinston where it would have to remain. | <urn:uuid:7f0c02ac-bb84-43ee-b539-5e0884078cd4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/41829 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00466.warc.gz | en | 0.986343 | 393 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.12907774746... | 2 | Work began on the CSS Neuse shortly after the contract was signed and its construction began on the banks of the Neuse river in Whitehall, which is now current day Seven Springs. However, a couple of months into construction, Union Gen. John Foster marched from New Bern on December 11, 1862 and captured the town of Kinston on the December 14. The next evening, he reached Whitehall and encountered Gen. Beverly Robertson’s Confederates setting fire to the bridge over the Neuse river to protect the building of the ship. A short battle occurred, known as the Engagement at Whitehall on December 16. Foster soon withdrew his force and continued marching to Goldsboro after encountering how well the Confederates forces were entrenched. The CSS Neuse was slightly damaged however, once Union forces let the area construction resumed. In late summer of 1863 the initial hull of the ship was completed and it was guided down the river to Kinston to be fitted with its fittings, machinery, and iron plating, engines, propellers, and cannons. When it arrived in Kinston, it was moored in a site referred to as the “cat hole.” This was a deep area of the river located against the steep riverbank, allowing the ship’s machinery to be lowered easily into the hull. This cat hole today is adjacent to where the King Street bridge. After months of delays the CSS Neuse was deemed ready and on April 22, 1864 it set sail from Kinston to recapture the town of New Bern. It was planned for the ship to meet her sister ship the CSS Albemarle however, the Neuse had moved one-half mile down the river when it ran aground on a sand bar. It was not until mid-May that the river rose high enough and the ship was freed. Instead of continuing to New Bern, it returned to Kinston where it would have to remain. | 401 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Children often live in their own world and as adults; parents may not be able to understand this. Adults usually become practical and their activities are logically based. However, children have their own little ways of looking at the world and they keep seeking for activities that their system demands.
Same is the case with communication. Adults have a logical way of communicating, which is based on facts and can be made to follow orders. In case of children, they can be dealt with by treating with utmost care and attention.
You can help
You might wonder that why should small children worry about their respect and self esteem. But it is not so, children are as much concerned about their self respect as you are. Hence giving them due respect while communicating with them is the key to success.
Some of the ways in which parents can help are:
- Listening to your children – Being attentive to your child’s needs is very important. When your children are talking to you, make sure you give your full attention to them and make them feel important. Many a times small children imitate elders and show that they too are busy and need to be attended at once. Try to fulfill this demand whenever possible and show that you care for what they have to share with you.
- Watch out on expressions – Children are very good at reading your expressions and body language. If they are approaching you and you happen to react in an unwelcoming way, they can easily get wrong signals and it may even lead to them not sharing things with you. This is often the complaint of many children whose parents are often busy and the children may begin to feel neglected.
- Being available – Find out situations when your children need you the most and be available for them, attend to their needs and show that your care for them. Your concern for them can make them feel happy and will help to foster a strong bonding too. Not only when they are ill and need more care but also look out for simple life experiences that they might find disturbing. Be with them and provide comfort to them and help them tackle the situation with ease.
- Talking to children – Listen to what your children have to say and provide them with ways to solve the problem and be with them. Read between lines as they may not disclose everything. Talking will help while threatening or criticizing will only worsen the condition. Avoid extreme arguments and conversations as children might end up learning the same thing. | <urn:uuid:ce69f1b1-63af-413a-9aa1-35ad57cf1fd9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://drprem.com/guide/how-to-communicate-with-your-children/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00277.warc.gz | en | 0.982119 | 492 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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Same is the case with communication. Adults have a logical way of communicating, which is based on facts and can be made to follow orders. In case of children, they can be dealt with by treating with utmost care and attention.
You can help
You might wonder that why should small children worry about their respect and self esteem. But it is not so, children are as much concerned about their self respect as you are. Hence giving them due respect while communicating with them is the key to success.
Some of the ways in which parents can help are:
- Listening to your children – Being attentive to your child’s needs is very important. When your children are talking to you, make sure you give your full attention to them and make them feel important. Many a times small children imitate elders and show that they too are busy and need to be attended at once. Try to fulfill this demand whenever possible and show that you care for what they have to share with you.
- Watch out on expressions – Children are very good at reading your expressions and body language. If they are approaching you and you happen to react in an unwelcoming way, they can easily get wrong signals and it may even lead to them not sharing things with you. This is often the complaint of many children whose parents are often busy and the children may begin to feel neglected.
- Being available – Find out situations when your children need you the most and be available for them, attend to their needs and show that your care for them. Your concern for them can make them feel happy and will help to foster a strong bonding too. Not only when they are ill and need more care but also look out for simple life experiences that they might find disturbing. Be with them and provide comfort to them and help them tackle the situation with ease.
- Talking to children – Listen to what your children have to say and provide them with ways to solve the problem and be with them. Read between lines as they may not disclose everything. Talking will help while threatening or criticizing will only worsen the condition. Avoid extreme arguments and conversations as children might end up learning the same thing. | 484 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Excess, commerce, and innovation ruled Paris in the late 19th century. In the aftermath of the French Revolution, the country struggled for political stability before establishing the Third Republic in 1871. It was a time of radical Parisian politics, and the rise of a militant working class left in the 19th century is evidenced in tales of historical anarchists.
During the 1870s, Paris was bustling with beauty, extravagance, and debauchery, as the elite celebrated progress while being increasingly disconnected from the struggles of the worker. France was divided among the aristocracy, immigrants, and newly rich, and Paris became the wealthiest and poorest city in the country. These conditions created a pressure cooker of political violence between wealthy and poor, which led to the establishment of the Paris Commune, and the formation of a revolutionary government in 1871.
The Commune lasted two months, but the anarchist movement, and radical anarchists like Ravachol, were born out of its ashes. Fiery radicals with hard line political beliefs who were disilusoined when the commune fell apart as the French army advanced, anarchists were embittered and cynical. Convinced violence was the only measure of recourse in a seemingly totalitarian society, and inspired by examples set by Russian anarchists, young radicals became a spree of 19th century anarchist bombings, which was ignited by a disaffected man turned radical left martyr, Ravachol.
The French Revolution of the late 18th century saw the rise of the democratic ideals under the National Assembly, the warping of those notions during the Reign of Terror, and led to an Emperor named Napoleon. The 19th century was characterized by a return to monarchy, a second attempt at a republic, yet another empire under Napoleon III, and finally, the establishment of the Third Republic, in 1871.
As the economic divide in France grew, the poorest citizens turned to whatever forms of employment they could to survive. From the perspective of the wealthy, the poor were lazy and avoided real work. From the point of view of the lower classes, the wealthy and the State oppressed them, took away their opportunities, and forced them to steal, lie, and fight on the margins of society. Anarchism offered a path of resistance to and escape from this dreary existence by promising a government without oppression and a society in which each person would be equally free to pursue personal goals as the next.
Francois-Claudius Ravachol experienced first-hand the type of disparity and oppression anarchists believed the State imposed upon the poor and working classes. Born in 1859 in Saint-Chamond, in central France, he and his family were abandoned by his Dutch father when he was a young boy. Poor and ashamed of his ragged clothes and shabby appearance, Ravachol grew up Catholic, worked odd jobs, and, with increasingly long terms of unemployment, turned to anarchism for solace. He played music, sold alcohol on the black market, robbed graves, and got into counterfeiting to survive.
In 1891, at the age of 32, Ravachol was supposedly arrested for the murder of an old hermit in Montbrison, a town not far from his own. He allegedly committed the crime to steal a small fortune the hermit hoarded in his residence, equivalent in 1891 to £600, or £69,957.30 in 2016 ($90,636.68), all of which was amassed begging for alms. Ravachol escape police custody as he was being transported in a wagon, and fled to Paris. This crime became a focus of his trail in the wake of his bombings.
Ravachol was tried twice in 1892, and the court really wanted to make an example of him. To this end, he was accused of all manner of crimes that had nothing to do with his political activity. For instance, he was accused of robbing the grave of a famous countess, and of the murder of a wealthy hermit. As Luc Sante mentions in his book The Other Paris, a detailed study of the history of the Parisian underclass, it's unlikely Ravachol had anything to do with either crime.
Wikipedia states Ravachol admited to the hermit murder and denied all other allegations during his trial. A biography on Marxists.org by historian Mitch Abidor corroborates this, stating Ravachol did in fact kill the famous hermit and steal his money. However, it makes no mention of his admitting it during is trial.
John M. Merriman's account of French anarchist anti-state violence, The Dynamite Club, goes into detail on Ravachol's trials. As per Merriman, Ravachol admitted to murdering the old hermit, and suggested he'd murdered a number of other people as well. Merriman quotes Ravachol as saying "See this hand? It has killed as many bourgeoisie as it had fingers." Whether or not he meant that literally or to strike fear into the heart of the anti-anarchist status quo, is unclear.
While it's possible Ravachol robbed graves and murdered a wealthy hermit, it's also possible Ravachol's contemporary biography is at least in part a product of disparaging narratives created by his enemies during a major press blitz designed to make the state look like a benevolent father and Ravachol a petulant child. | <urn:uuid:88725cee-2932-4cd9-812e-1df042885936> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ranker.com/list/avachol-aftermath-paris/melissa-sartore | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00304.warc.gz | en | 0.983681 | 1,102 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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0.25409138... | 1 | Excess, commerce, and innovation ruled Paris in the late 19th century. In the aftermath of the French Revolution, the country struggled for political stability before establishing the Third Republic in 1871. It was a time of radical Parisian politics, and the rise of a militant working class left in the 19th century is evidenced in tales of historical anarchists.
During the 1870s, Paris was bustling with beauty, extravagance, and debauchery, as the elite celebrated progress while being increasingly disconnected from the struggles of the worker. France was divided among the aristocracy, immigrants, and newly rich, and Paris became the wealthiest and poorest city in the country. These conditions created a pressure cooker of political violence between wealthy and poor, which led to the establishment of the Paris Commune, and the formation of a revolutionary government in 1871.
The Commune lasted two months, but the anarchist movement, and radical anarchists like Ravachol, were born out of its ashes. Fiery radicals with hard line political beliefs who were disilusoined when the commune fell apart as the French army advanced, anarchists were embittered and cynical. Convinced violence was the only measure of recourse in a seemingly totalitarian society, and inspired by examples set by Russian anarchists, young radicals became a spree of 19th century anarchist bombings, which was ignited by a disaffected man turned radical left martyr, Ravachol.
The French Revolution of the late 18th century saw the rise of the democratic ideals under the National Assembly, the warping of those notions during the Reign of Terror, and led to an Emperor named Napoleon. The 19th century was characterized by a return to monarchy, a second attempt at a republic, yet another empire under Napoleon III, and finally, the establishment of the Third Republic, in 1871.
As the economic divide in France grew, the poorest citizens turned to whatever forms of employment they could to survive. From the perspective of the wealthy, the poor were lazy and avoided real work. From the point of view of the lower classes, the wealthy and the State oppressed them, took away their opportunities, and forced them to steal, lie, and fight on the margins of society. Anarchism offered a path of resistance to and escape from this dreary existence by promising a government without oppression and a society in which each person would be equally free to pursue personal goals as the next.
Francois-Claudius Ravachol experienced first-hand the type of disparity and oppression anarchists believed the State imposed upon the poor and working classes. Born in 1859 in Saint-Chamond, in central France, he and his family were abandoned by his Dutch father when he was a young boy. Poor and ashamed of his ragged clothes and shabby appearance, Ravachol grew up Catholic, worked odd jobs, and, with increasingly long terms of unemployment, turned to anarchism for solace. He played music, sold alcohol on the black market, robbed graves, and got into counterfeiting to survive.
In 1891, at the age of 32, Ravachol was supposedly arrested for the murder of an old hermit in Montbrison, a town not far from his own. He allegedly committed the crime to steal a small fortune the hermit hoarded in his residence, equivalent in 1891 to £600, or £69,957.30 in 2016 ($90,636.68), all of which was amassed begging for alms. Ravachol escape police custody as he was being transported in a wagon, and fled to Paris. This crime became a focus of his trail in the wake of his bombings.
Ravachol was tried twice in 1892, and the court really wanted to make an example of him. To this end, he was accused of all manner of crimes that had nothing to do with his political activity. For instance, he was accused of robbing the grave of a famous countess, and of the murder of a wealthy hermit. As Luc Sante mentions in his book The Other Paris, a detailed study of the history of the Parisian underclass, it's unlikely Ravachol had anything to do with either crime.
Wikipedia states Ravachol admited to the hermit murder and denied all other allegations during his trial. A biography on Marxists.org by historian Mitch Abidor corroborates this, stating Ravachol did in fact kill the famous hermit and steal his money. However, it makes no mention of his admitting it during is trial.
John M. Merriman's account of French anarchist anti-state violence, The Dynamite Club, goes into detail on Ravachol's trials. As per Merriman, Ravachol admitted to murdering the old hermit, and suggested he'd murdered a number of other people as well. Merriman quotes Ravachol as saying "See this hand? It has killed as many bourgeoisie as it had fingers." Whether or not he meant that literally or to strike fear into the heart of the anti-anarchist status quo, is unclear.
While it's possible Ravachol robbed graves and murdered a wealthy hermit, it's also possible Ravachol's contemporary biography is at least in part a product of disparaging narratives created by his enemies during a major press blitz designed to make the state look like a benevolent father and Ravachol a petulant child. | 1,137 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Niccolò Machiavelli was an important Italian political thinker, Florentine writer and statesman and an important historical figure who is best remembered for his masterpiece entitled The Prince, which was written in 1513, but which was published after his death in 1532. Machiavelli is considered one of the first early analysts of political power.
He was a historian, writer, philosopher and Italian politician who worked in Florence. Writer and author of the work "The Prince", that captured his ideas about an ideal state and about the different means to achieve it.
Niccolò Machiavelli was born on May 3, 1469, in Florence, a city located in Italy. His father, Bernardo, belonged to an impoverished branch of an influential Florentine family. As a thinker, he was a member of a school of Florentine intellectuals concerned with political and historical problems. His important writings were published after 1512 when he was accused of conspiracy in 1513. The Medici family had returned to power and Machiavelli, who had served as secretary in the previous government, was dismissed. He was under suspicion of conspiring against the Medici and was arrested, tortured and exiled. Machiavelli found himself unemployed after years of patriotic service and spent most of his remaining years in the production of his main works.
He gained some fame as a historian and playwright, but with The Prince, he hoped to regain political favor as the book explained how to obtain, maintain and centralize power. In 1519, he made peace with the Medici and was assigned various duties, including writing a history of Florence. When the Medici were removed from their positions in 1527, Machiavelli wanted a new government position, but the Republican government distrusted him because of his previous association with the Medici.
Niccolò Machiavelli died on 21 June 1527. He had been accused of having been involved in a coup d’état against Medici. After being tortured, he was released. Sometime later, he was accused again of betrayal in favor of the Medici for which he was captured again and sentenced. He died forgotten by the people.
Machiavelli is considered to be one of the most important political theorists of the Renaissance, because through him, the path to political modernity and social restructuring is opened. One of his most important thoughts was that “if a person wishes to find a state and create its laws, he must begin by assuming that all men are perverse and that they are prepared to show their nature, as long as they find the occasion for it”. He was a sympathizer of the republic because he thought that all communities had two spirits: the people and those who wanted to govern the people. He was always looking for a way to bring the issue of work forward. His ideas have provoked many contradictory ideas, some regarded him as the father of cruelty and tyranny, while others regarded him as a modern politician. In conclusion, his thinking is based on virtue and fortune.
Machiavelli inherited to us a series of experiences, rules and behavioral patterns that must be followed in order to govern properly. Among them we can mention the following:
His theory says that when cities are used to living under a prince, and he leaves, the lineage becomes vacant. Since the inhabitants are accustomed to follow rules and laws, when the prince leaves, they are unprotected, any other prince could arrive, conquer them and retain them. In his theory he states that aristocratic states are much easier to conquer than republicans, since power in the republican is divided among noble families and it is not at all easy to give power to a foreigner.
Among the most important works of Niccolò Machiavelli we can mention the following:
Among his most recognized phrases we can mention the following: | <urn:uuid:9dff17e0-024e-4481-9ffa-89971aaebf12> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.euston96.com/en/niccolo-machiavelli/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00522.warc.gz | en | 0.991421 | 794 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.1858416497707367... | 2 | Niccolò Machiavelli was an important Italian political thinker, Florentine writer and statesman and an important historical figure who is best remembered for his masterpiece entitled The Prince, which was written in 1513, but which was published after his death in 1532. Machiavelli is considered one of the first early analysts of political power.
He was a historian, writer, philosopher and Italian politician who worked in Florence. Writer and author of the work "The Prince", that captured his ideas about an ideal state and about the different means to achieve it.
Niccolò Machiavelli was born on May 3, 1469, in Florence, a city located in Italy. His father, Bernardo, belonged to an impoverished branch of an influential Florentine family. As a thinker, he was a member of a school of Florentine intellectuals concerned with political and historical problems. His important writings were published after 1512 when he was accused of conspiracy in 1513. The Medici family had returned to power and Machiavelli, who had served as secretary in the previous government, was dismissed. He was under suspicion of conspiring against the Medici and was arrested, tortured and exiled. Machiavelli found himself unemployed after years of patriotic service and spent most of his remaining years in the production of his main works.
He gained some fame as a historian and playwright, but with The Prince, he hoped to regain political favor as the book explained how to obtain, maintain and centralize power. In 1519, he made peace with the Medici and was assigned various duties, including writing a history of Florence. When the Medici were removed from their positions in 1527, Machiavelli wanted a new government position, but the Republican government distrusted him because of his previous association with the Medici.
Niccolò Machiavelli died on 21 June 1527. He had been accused of having been involved in a coup d’état against Medici. After being tortured, he was released. Sometime later, he was accused again of betrayal in favor of the Medici for which he was captured again and sentenced. He died forgotten by the people.
Machiavelli is considered to be one of the most important political theorists of the Renaissance, because through him, the path to political modernity and social restructuring is opened. One of his most important thoughts was that “if a person wishes to find a state and create its laws, he must begin by assuming that all men are perverse and that they are prepared to show their nature, as long as they find the occasion for it”. He was a sympathizer of the republic because he thought that all communities had two spirits: the people and those who wanted to govern the people. He was always looking for a way to bring the issue of work forward. His ideas have provoked many contradictory ideas, some regarded him as the father of cruelty and tyranny, while others regarded him as a modern politician. In conclusion, his thinking is based on virtue and fortune.
Machiavelli inherited to us a series of experiences, rules and behavioral patterns that must be followed in order to govern properly. Among them we can mention the following:
His theory says that when cities are used to living under a prince, and he leaves, the lineage becomes vacant. Since the inhabitants are accustomed to follow rules and laws, when the prince leaves, they are unprotected, any other prince could arrive, conquer them and retain them. In his theory he states that aristocratic states are much easier to conquer than republicans, since power in the republican is divided among noble families and it is not at all easy to give power to a foreigner.
Among the most important works of Niccolò Machiavelli we can mention the following:
Among his most recognized phrases we can mention the following: | 804 | ENGLISH | 1 |
From the minute we're born, we're surrounded by a swarm of things not visible to the human eye — dangerous pathogens, harmless microbes, and a wide assortment of chemicals. A new study out of Stanford University seems to illuminate this hidden world, and the results are admittedly both cool and terrifying.
Typically, when scientists want to know what's floating around us in the air, they use stationary devices in a single room or location. Then they use that data to predict what the average person gets exposed to in a given day. But Michael Snyder, a geneticist at the Stanford University School of Medicine, and his team decided to try a different approach.
They constructed an air-monitoring device so that it could be attached to a single person all day. The device took in puffs of air and was equipped with a tiny filter that could trap microscopic bacteria and aerosol particles as small as 25 micrometres across. Every few days, the device was emptied out, allowing their lab to analyse the chemicals and living things collected in a sample.
Over the course of two years, the team recruited 15 volunteers to wear the device, including Snyder himself. Some wore it for a week, others for a month, and in Snyder's case, for the entire two years.
By the end of the study, the volunteers had travelled to 66 distinct locations. And along with the countless chemicals they found in these samples, the team documented and sequenced the genetics of more than 40,000 different bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals. All of these airborne passengers found in our personal space make up our "exposome," a term coined by Snyder and his team.
The team's findings were published Thursday in Cell.
"This is allowing us, for the first time, to categorise what we get exposed to, on a personal level," Snyder told Gizmodo. "You are just exposed to a vast array of organisms, and a vast array of chemicals."
Even in people who wore the device the shortest amount of time, he pointed out, the team collected as many as 800 species. In Snyder's case, they collected more than 2000.
Most of what the team found was harmless, but they did pick up some interesting and possibly worrying exposures. The pesticide DEET was ubiquitous in almost every sample, as were several known carcinogens (DEET is thought to be safe for people to use on their skin, though we know less about the risks of long-term exposure). And depending on where the person lived and visited, as well as the time of year, some kinds of exposures were much more common.
In the San Francisco bay area, for instance, there were more traces of bacteria typically found in sewer sludge.
"That further illustrates that your environment does have these signatures that are presumably affecting your health," Snyder said. "Over time, we'll need to figure out what it exactly means to be exposed to sludge bacteria. Do people get more sick as a result? We just don't know that yet."
Snyder is also quick to point out that the device can't quantify these exposures right now. So there's no way to tell just how much of something people are breathing in, at least currently. But the device might have already solved one mystery for Snyder personally.
"I had assumed that I was allergic to pine, but looking at the correlations, it's more likely that it's actually eucalyptus," Snyder said. "So there's this potential to better inform you of your environment so you can take steps to control it."
The team plans to refine the device, making both it and the filter smaller, so it can trap even tinier things like viruses (the current device is about 8cm high, 5cm wide, and 5cm thick). And the team would want to make it so that the device could someday analyse a person's exposome in real time. Getting even more in the realm of Star Trek science fiction, Snyder envisions a future where the device could warn people of the presence of potentially dangerous chemicals or allergens, possibly via their smartphone.
For now, Snyder hopes his research can make us think a little more about the immediate world around us.
"We take things for granted — air is air and it's all fine. But I guess my point is that there's a lot of stuff out there," he said. "So let's figure out what's good stuff and bad stuff and get rid of the bad and keep in the good." | <urn:uuid:17f7ca66-daa7-45b5-9e82-1a42477663e2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.gizmodo.com.au/2018/09/scientists-peer-inside-the-disgusting-cloud-of-living-things-that-surrounds-you-daily/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00494.warc.gz | en | 0.982553 | 923 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.1054887... | 1 | From the minute we're born, we're surrounded by a swarm of things not visible to the human eye — dangerous pathogens, harmless microbes, and a wide assortment of chemicals. A new study out of Stanford University seems to illuminate this hidden world, and the results are admittedly both cool and terrifying.
Typically, when scientists want to know what's floating around us in the air, they use stationary devices in a single room or location. Then they use that data to predict what the average person gets exposed to in a given day. But Michael Snyder, a geneticist at the Stanford University School of Medicine, and his team decided to try a different approach.
They constructed an air-monitoring device so that it could be attached to a single person all day. The device took in puffs of air and was equipped with a tiny filter that could trap microscopic bacteria and aerosol particles as small as 25 micrometres across. Every few days, the device was emptied out, allowing their lab to analyse the chemicals and living things collected in a sample.
Over the course of two years, the team recruited 15 volunteers to wear the device, including Snyder himself. Some wore it for a week, others for a month, and in Snyder's case, for the entire two years.
By the end of the study, the volunteers had travelled to 66 distinct locations. And along with the countless chemicals they found in these samples, the team documented and sequenced the genetics of more than 40,000 different bacteria, fungi, plants, and animals. All of these airborne passengers found in our personal space make up our "exposome," a term coined by Snyder and his team.
The team's findings were published Thursday in Cell.
"This is allowing us, for the first time, to categorise what we get exposed to, on a personal level," Snyder told Gizmodo. "You are just exposed to a vast array of organisms, and a vast array of chemicals."
Even in people who wore the device the shortest amount of time, he pointed out, the team collected as many as 800 species. In Snyder's case, they collected more than 2000.
Most of what the team found was harmless, but they did pick up some interesting and possibly worrying exposures. The pesticide DEET was ubiquitous in almost every sample, as were several known carcinogens (DEET is thought to be safe for people to use on their skin, though we know less about the risks of long-term exposure). And depending on where the person lived and visited, as well as the time of year, some kinds of exposures were much more common.
In the San Francisco bay area, for instance, there were more traces of bacteria typically found in sewer sludge.
"That further illustrates that your environment does have these signatures that are presumably affecting your health," Snyder said. "Over time, we'll need to figure out what it exactly means to be exposed to sludge bacteria. Do people get more sick as a result? We just don't know that yet."
Snyder is also quick to point out that the device can't quantify these exposures right now. So there's no way to tell just how much of something people are breathing in, at least currently. But the device might have already solved one mystery for Snyder personally.
"I had assumed that I was allergic to pine, but looking at the correlations, it's more likely that it's actually eucalyptus," Snyder said. "So there's this potential to better inform you of your environment so you can take steps to control it."
The team plans to refine the device, making both it and the filter smaller, so it can trap even tinier things like viruses (the current device is about 8cm high, 5cm wide, and 5cm thick). And the team would want to make it so that the device could someday analyse a person's exposome in real time. Getting even more in the realm of Star Trek science fiction, Snyder envisions a future where the device could warn people of the presence of potentially dangerous chemicals or allergens, possibly via their smartphone.
For now, Snyder hopes his research can make us think a little more about the immediate world around us.
"We take things for granted — air is air and it's all fine. But I guess my point is that there's a lot of stuff out there," he said. "So let's figure out what's good stuff and bad stuff and get rid of the bad and keep in the good." | 920 | ENGLISH | 1 |
For physics we were given an assignment to build a catapult. In order to build a successful catapult we needed to take into account the angle of the arm of the catapult that was approximately measured at 45°. At 45°, where the arm of the catapult was suppose to be angled, when launched was suppose to give us the tallest possible height. Considering we were off on our measurements we were only able to get the softball at a constant distance of 8m. Lifting the catapult itself required force because the force of gravity was pulling down the catapult which then made it difficult to life because the force of the catapult was pushing back. There was a force being applied when there were about 50 screws in the wood that my group and I had to take out because someone had to screw in the screws by pushing on the electrical screwdriver. When taking out the screws means we were the force that were pulling the screws out. Also there was tension on the catapult because when the bungee cords were added on to the catapult there was an exerted pulling force. | <urn:uuid:bf36b35a-3f4e-4f55-94a7-6bd615445662> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://aplusphysics.com/community/index.php?/blogs/entry/2546-building-a-catapult/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00457.warc.gz | en | 0.993474 | 212 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.144362404942... | 6 | For physics we were given an assignment to build a catapult. In order to build a successful catapult we needed to take into account the angle of the arm of the catapult that was approximately measured at 45°. At 45°, where the arm of the catapult was suppose to be angled, when launched was suppose to give us the tallest possible height. Considering we were off on our measurements we were only able to get the softball at a constant distance of 8m. Lifting the catapult itself required force because the force of gravity was pulling down the catapult which then made it difficult to life because the force of the catapult was pushing back. There was a force being applied when there were about 50 screws in the wood that my group and I had to take out because someone had to screw in the screws by pushing on the electrical screwdriver. When taking out the screws means we were the force that were pulling the screws out. Also there was tension on the catapult because when the bungee cords were added on to the catapult there was an exerted pulling force. | 220 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The development of vocabulary and an understanding of the patterns of language are essential parts in the development of literacy. "10 Minutes With" is a program which has enabled some of my students, who have multiple disabilities, to develop broader vocabularies and a greater understanding of patterns of language used in speech.
The Purpose of "10 Minutes With"
- I met with the class teacher to discuss and modify the program
- I discussed the program with the SLSOs who work with Al, explaining its purpose and the extreme importance of adults enabling the confidentiality by staying away from students.
- I spoke to Al’s class about the purpose of the program; the class teacher and I both explained:
- how this would benefit Al
- how this would benefit other students (we talked about the importance in workplace and private relationships of being able to express ourselves clearly and explain ourselves, among other things).
- We emphasised the confidentiality of the conversations.
- The teacher selected a pair of boys who she thought would be successful in this program. She spent her lunch time playground duty speaking to them about what they might say and do with Al. (In fact, she trained them in the task before setting the task. I believe this step is essential in making the program work).
- During English each Wednesday, 2 students went into the playground with Al, sat and chatted for 10 minutes. I and a SLSO supervised from afar.
- Early in the program I talked to the whole class after each session, commenting on my observations of Al. It was the most engaged I had seen him, he was enjoying himself and I talked to them about understanding Al’s responses, which clearly showed how much he enjoyed himself.
- From the beginning I had to run interference in the playground. Staff were so used to seeing Al with an adult that when they saw him with his peers they almost ran towards him, demanding to know why the students had him. (I think some of them believed he’d been kidnapped.) I had to explain the program, and reassure them that this was a good thing. In some cases I was challenged about the language that his peers might be using. My response was – “He’s 17, what language should they be using?”
Things to Note:
- Many students had been at school with Al for years and they had a desire to interact with him, this program helped them to find a way.
- The students really liked the class teacher and I am sure that this influenced them to participate enthusiastically in the project.
- All students in Al’s class participated in this program. The class teacher continued to encourage and facilitate participation.
- There is now a different teacher on this class and the new teacher has embraced "10 Minutes With", so it continues. Students are on their second or third 10 Minutes. Recently a student asked if they could set up a Facebook account for Al.
Other ways to use “10 Minutes With”
- In a recent meeting one teacher suggested that "10 Minutes With" could be used by students to reflect on their learning within a subject. At the end of the lesson one student could sit with Al and explain what they’ve learnt that lesson. This would fit the stage 6 outcome “A student reflects on their own learning.”
- Another of my students is 11 years old and has cortical vision impairment, cerebral palsy and delayed speech development. Our aim was to help her develop speech patterns and vocabulary that are age appropriate and ways to interact with her peers without adult assistance. This meets the requirements of the stage 3 English syllabus in the speaking and listening section.
- Her class teacher suggested a modification to "10 minutes with" that suited well.
- Literacy groups are held daily with groups (of 3 to 5 students) doing a different activity each day. Each day my student joined a different group for 10 minutes. They had scripted questions provided by the teacher that were repeated for 2 weeks. My student asked each of the students in the group one question and heard their answers, then one student asked her the question and she answered.
- Questions such as “Do you have a pet?” “Do you have brothers and sisters?” were used in early sessions. Others such as “What are you looking forward to in High School?” came later.
- Words from "10 Minutes With" became part of my student’s reading and spelling word lists for the week.
- In this modification of "10 Minutes With" it was once again possible to see the development of vocabulary and language patterns. Students enjoyed the interaction and my student loved spending time with her peers.
- I’ve also recently used "10 Minutes With" as part of a socialisation program with a student of mine. He is in year 2 and quite anxious. Recently 3 mature and self-motivated year 6 boys were asked to volunteer to spend 10 minutes once a week with my student during play time. My student loves this interaction and is learning positive behaviours and play by spending time with them. The older boys really enjoy having this opportunity to support him. | <urn:uuid:6191d33c-0302-4603-9812-126a5f7308fb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.pathstoliteracy.org/blog/10-minutes-developing-age-appropriate-vocabulary-students-multiple-disabilities | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00018.warc.gz | en | 0.981643 | 1,066 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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... | 3 | The development of vocabulary and an understanding of the patterns of language are essential parts in the development of literacy. "10 Minutes With" is a program which has enabled some of my students, who have multiple disabilities, to develop broader vocabularies and a greater understanding of patterns of language used in speech.
The Purpose of "10 Minutes With"
- I met with the class teacher to discuss and modify the program
- I discussed the program with the SLSOs who work with Al, explaining its purpose and the extreme importance of adults enabling the confidentiality by staying away from students.
- I spoke to Al’s class about the purpose of the program; the class teacher and I both explained:
- how this would benefit Al
- how this would benefit other students (we talked about the importance in workplace and private relationships of being able to express ourselves clearly and explain ourselves, among other things).
- We emphasised the confidentiality of the conversations.
- The teacher selected a pair of boys who she thought would be successful in this program. She spent her lunch time playground duty speaking to them about what they might say and do with Al. (In fact, she trained them in the task before setting the task. I believe this step is essential in making the program work).
- During English each Wednesday, 2 students went into the playground with Al, sat and chatted for 10 minutes. I and a SLSO supervised from afar.
- Early in the program I talked to the whole class after each session, commenting on my observations of Al. It was the most engaged I had seen him, he was enjoying himself and I talked to them about understanding Al’s responses, which clearly showed how much he enjoyed himself.
- From the beginning I had to run interference in the playground. Staff were so used to seeing Al with an adult that when they saw him with his peers they almost ran towards him, demanding to know why the students had him. (I think some of them believed he’d been kidnapped.) I had to explain the program, and reassure them that this was a good thing. In some cases I was challenged about the language that his peers might be using. My response was – “He’s 17, what language should they be using?”
Things to Note:
- Many students had been at school with Al for years and they had a desire to interact with him, this program helped them to find a way.
- The students really liked the class teacher and I am sure that this influenced them to participate enthusiastically in the project.
- All students in Al’s class participated in this program. The class teacher continued to encourage and facilitate participation.
- There is now a different teacher on this class and the new teacher has embraced "10 Minutes With", so it continues. Students are on their second or third 10 Minutes. Recently a student asked if they could set up a Facebook account for Al.
Other ways to use “10 Minutes With”
- In a recent meeting one teacher suggested that "10 Minutes With" could be used by students to reflect on their learning within a subject. At the end of the lesson one student could sit with Al and explain what they’ve learnt that lesson. This would fit the stage 6 outcome “A student reflects on their own learning.”
- Another of my students is 11 years old and has cortical vision impairment, cerebral palsy and delayed speech development. Our aim was to help her develop speech patterns and vocabulary that are age appropriate and ways to interact with her peers without adult assistance. This meets the requirements of the stage 3 English syllabus in the speaking and listening section.
- Her class teacher suggested a modification to "10 minutes with" that suited well.
- Literacy groups are held daily with groups (of 3 to 5 students) doing a different activity each day. Each day my student joined a different group for 10 minutes. They had scripted questions provided by the teacher that were repeated for 2 weeks. My student asked each of the students in the group one question and heard their answers, then one student asked her the question and she answered.
- Questions such as “Do you have a pet?” “Do you have brothers and sisters?” were used in early sessions. Others such as “What are you looking forward to in High School?” came later.
- Words from "10 Minutes With" became part of my student’s reading and spelling word lists for the week.
- In this modification of "10 Minutes With" it was once again possible to see the development of vocabulary and language patterns. Students enjoyed the interaction and my student loved spending time with her peers.
- I’ve also recently used "10 Minutes With" as part of a socialisation program with a student of mine. He is in year 2 and quite anxious. Recently 3 mature and self-motivated year 6 boys were asked to volunteer to spend 10 minutes once a week with my student during play time. My student loves this interaction and is learning positive behaviours and play by spending time with them. The older boys really enjoy having this opportunity to support him. | 1,040 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Nov 13, 2019 | Historical Data
Votes for presidential impeachment in the United States senate in 1868 and 1998
Article One of the US Constitution states that only the House of Representatives has the power to impeach a president, and if an overall majority votes in favor of impeachment, charges are then brought before the Senate where a two third majority is needed to convict the president and, most likely, remove them from office. In the history of the United States, attempts of impeachment were made against several sitting presidents, however only three were ever impeached; these were Andrew Johnson, Bill Clinton and Donald Trump (although Nixon was also sure to have been impeached and removed from office, had he not resigned before votes could be taken). On September 24, 2019, the impeachment process was initiated against President Trump, with the House later voting on two articles for impeachment; abuse of power and obstruction of Congress. On December 18, the Democrat-controlled House of Representatives voted 229 to 197 in favor of impeachment, which made Trump the first Republican President to ever be impeached. When the case is brought before the Republican-controlled Senate in January, it is unlikely that they will charge the president or remove him from office, as this would require at least twenty senators to switch sides and vote against their party's president. History suggest that this is unlikely, as no senator voted guilty against their party's president in the previous two cases, and Trump got the full backing of the Republican Party during his impeachment trial.
Impeachment of Andrew Johnson
Andrew Johnson ascended to the presidency in 1868, following the assassination of Abraham Lincoln. Although Lincoln was a Republican, he chose the Democratic Party's Johnson as his vice president; as a symbol of cross-party unity during the American Civil War and Reconstruction era that followed. As president, Johnson often clashed with his Republican opponents and vetoed many of the Reconstruction policies they were trying to enact. When the Senate voted against Johnson's replacement of Secretary of War, Edwin Stanton, Johnson vetoed this and proceeded with the change regardless. Three days later, the House of Representatives voted 126 to 47 in favor of impeaching the President, bringing forward eleven articles of impeachment relating to his unconstitutional dismissal of Stanton and his personal conduct against the Senate. Three of the eleven articles of impeachment were voted on by the Senate, and 36 guilty votes were required to achieve a two thirds majority, which would have resulted in Johnson's removal from office. Johnson's presidency survived by a single vote in each of the three charges, and he remained in office for the remainder of his term (though as a 'lame duck' with very little influence). Johnson is regarded by many historians as one of the worst presidents in US history.
Impeachment of Bill Clinton
On December 19. 1998, President Clinton was impeached and two charges were brought before the Senate. The origins of the charges came from a 1994 lawsuit that accused Clinton of sexually harassing a state employee while he was the Governor of Arkansas, and the subsequent investigations exposed details of an extramarital affair between Clinton and White House intern Monica Lewinsky. Clinton denied this affair in a sworn testimony, however the Starr Report found evidence to the contrary, while further evidence emerged of Clinton coaching his staff to lie under oath. The House of Representatives voted 228 to 206 to impeach Clinton for perjury (lying under oath), and 221 to 212 to impeach him for the obstruction of justice (ordering aides to commit perjury). In the Senate, 67 guilty votes were needed for a two third majority, however Clinton was acquitted as he received just 45 and 50 guilty votes respectively, and remained in office for the remainder of his term. During the trial, Clinton still had a public approval rating of more than seventy percent, and in subsequent polls he is most often ranked in the top fifty percent of all US presidents. | <urn:uuid:f2a2b45c-d159-4162-9242-c3c6eb5ae722> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://static5.statista.com/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00250.warc.gz | en | 0.985009 | 773 | 4.3125 | 4 | [
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0.6009092330932617... | 1 | Nov 13, 2019 | Historical Data
Votes for presidential impeachment in the United States senate in 1868 and 1998
Article One of the US Constitution states that only the House of Representatives has the power to impeach a president, and if an overall majority votes in favor of impeachment, charges are then brought before the Senate where a two third majority is needed to convict the president and, most likely, remove them from office. In the history of the United States, attempts of impeachment were made against several sitting presidents, however only three were ever impeached; these were Andrew Johnson, Bill Clinton and Donald Trump (although Nixon was also sure to have been impeached and removed from office, had he not resigned before votes could be taken). On September 24, 2019, the impeachment process was initiated against President Trump, with the House later voting on two articles for impeachment; abuse of power and obstruction of Congress. On December 18, the Democrat-controlled House of Representatives voted 229 to 197 in favor of impeachment, which made Trump the first Republican President to ever be impeached. When the case is brought before the Republican-controlled Senate in January, it is unlikely that they will charge the president or remove him from office, as this would require at least twenty senators to switch sides and vote against their party's president. History suggest that this is unlikely, as no senator voted guilty against their party's president in the previous two cases, and Trump got the full backing of the Republican Party during his impeachment trial.
Impeachment of Andrew Johnson
Andrew Johnson ascended to the presidency in 1868, following the assassination of Abraham Lincoln. Although Lincoln was a Republican, he chose the Democratic Party's Johnson as his vice president; as a symbol of cross-party unity during the American Civil War and Reconstruction era that followed. As president, Johnson often clashed with his Republican opponents and vetoed many of the Reconstruction policies they were trying to enact. When the Senate voted against Johnson's replacement of Secretary of War, Edwin Stanton, Johnson vetoed this and proceeded with the change regardless. Three days later, the House of Representatives voted 126 to 47 in favor of impeaching the President, bringing forward eleven articles of impeachment relating to his unconstitutional dismissal of Stanton and his personal conduct against the Senate. Three of the eleven articles of impeachment were voted on by the Senate, and 36 guilty votes were required to achieve a two thirds majority, which would have resulted in Johnson's removal from office. Johnson's presidency survived by a single vote in each of the three charges, and he remained in office for the remainder of his term (though as a 'lame duck' with very little influence). Johnson is regarded by many historians as one of the worst presidents in US history.
Impeachment of Bill Clinton
On December 19. 1998, President Clinton was impeached and two charges were brought before the Senate. The origins of the charges came from a 1994 lawsuit that accused Clinton of sexually harassing a state employee while he was the Governor of Arkansas, and the subsequent investigations exposed details of an extramarital affair between Clinton and White House intern Monica Lewinsky. Clinton denied this affair in a sworn testimony, however the Starr Report found evidence to the contrary, while further evidence emerged of Clinton coaching his staff to lie under oath. The House of Representatives voted 228 to 206 to impeach Clinton for perjury (lying under oath), and 221 to 212 to impeach him for the obstruction of justice (ordering aides to commit perjury). In the Senate, 67 guilty votes were needed for a two third majority, however Clinton was acquitted as he received just 45 and 50 guilty votes respectively, and remained in office for the remainder of his term. During the trial, Clinton still had a public approval rating of more than seventy percent, and in subsequent polls he is most often ranked in the top fifty percent of all US presidents. | 836 | ENGLISH | 1 |
King George I of Great Britain Was a German?
George I was born Georg Ludwig on May 28th, 1660 in Hanover, Germany to Ernest Augustus and Sophia of the Palatine (granddaughter of the English King James I). Ernest Augustus was an Elector of Hanover, and the office passed to George upon his father’s death in 1698. Despite becoming King of England in 1714, he remained Elector of Hanover until the time of his death.
A German Heir to the English Throne
In 1682, George had married his cousin Sophia Dorothea of Celle, but divorced her twelve years later on charges of adultery. He imprisoned her in the castle of Ahlden, where she grew old and died. Henry VIII of England had divorced the Church of England from Roman Catholicism in the previous century and, in 1701, the English Parliament passed the Act of Settlement, which was designed to ensure a succession of Protestant monarchs. This made George third in line to the throne of England after Princess Anne and his mother, Sophia. It was a different matter that the rules of inheritance put 57 persons closer to the throne than George, but let it not be said that George did not earn his place. During the Spanish War of Succession from 1701 to 1714, George fought against the French with great distinction. The year coincided with the death of Queen Anne, who had ascended to the English throne in 1702. George’s mother had also died two months prior, and had made him as the heir to the throne.
An Unpopular, Yet Dilligent, King
The Tories would have preferred the exiled Roman Catholic James Edward, but George was crowned King of England with the support of the Whig party. However, George’s reputation had preceded him, and there were dark rumors regarding his treatment of his wife. To his credit, he successfully suppressed the Jacobite rebellions of 1715 and 1719 meant to restore the Stuarts to the throne, yet remained unpopular among his subjects in England. To exacerbate the public's ill will further, George I had two German mistresses who were reviled for their greed.
George I did make sincere efforts to fulfill his obligations as king. He could not speak English very well, and communicated with his predominantly Whig ministers in French. However, he was indirectly responsible for the decline of the Cabinet, which had largely run the government during the reign of Queen Anne. He stopped attending Cabinet meetings, and instead undercut its power and met with his ministers in private.
Though his shrewd diplomatic skills enabled him to forge a strategic alliance with France from 1717 to 1718, he could not always get his way in domestic affairs. He had to deal with formidable ministers, like Sir Robert Walpole and Viscount Charles Townshend, who refused to mold English policy according to George’s Hanoverian interests. The ministers soon resigned in protest, and joined George’s son and heir apparent to form a firm opposition within the Whig party. George I detested his son, and he supposedly believed the future George II was not his own child.
Later Years and Legacy
As political contingencies go, Walpole, Townshend, and the son of George I, George II, had reconciled with the king by 1720. In the same year, the South Sea Company suffered a huge financial setback. Investigations revealed a scandal, in which George and his German mistresses were apparently involved in transactions of questionable legality with the Company. It was only Walpole’s ingenuity in the House of Commons that saved the king from public disgrace around the world. In return, George I was subsequently forced to give Walpole and Townshend considerable leeway in their policy-making agendas, and soon came to rely upon their judgement. George I died of a stroke on June 11th, 1727 in his birthplace, Hanover. Apart from George II, the late king also left behind a daughter, Sophia Dorothea, who went on to marry Frederick William I of Prussia and became the mother of Frederick the Great.
Was King George I German?
Yes, King George I was German. The British monarch who ruled from 1714 to 1727 was born in what is now Hanover, Lower Saxony, Germany.
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Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | <urn:uuid:25ef985d-3d68-43c4-8f60-ef65a2ba8e2a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/did-you-know-that-king-george-i-of-great-britain-was-german.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00361.warc.gz | en | 0.985833 | 916 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.266665995121... | 3 | King George I of Great Britain Was a German?
George I was born Georg Ludwig on May 28th, 1660 in Hanover, Germany to Ernest Augustus and Sophia of the Palatine (granddaughter of the English King James I). Ernest Augustus was an Elector of Hanover, and the office passed to George upon his father’s death in 1698. Despite becoming King of England in 1714, he remained Elector of Hanover until the time of his death.
A German Heir to the English Throne
In 1682, George had married his cousin Sophia Dorothea of Celle, but divorced her twelve years later on charges of adultery. He imprisoned her in the castle of Ahlden, where she grew old and died. Henry VIII of England had divorced the Church of England from Roman Catholicism in the previous century and, in 1701, the English Parliament passed the Act of Settlement, which was designed to ensure a succession of Protestant monarchs. This made George third in line to the throne of England after Princess Anne and his mother, Sophia. It was a different matter that the rules of inheritance put 57 persons closer to the throne than George, but let it not be said that George did not earn his place. During the Spanish War of Succession from 1701 to 1714, George fought against the French with great distinction. The year coincided with the death of Queen Anne, who had ascended to the English throne in 1702. George’s mother had also died two months prior, and had made him as the heir to the throne.
An Unpopular, Yet Dilligent, King
The Tories would have preferred the exiled Roman Catholic James Edward, but George was crowned King of England with the support of the Whig party. However, George’s reputation had preceded him, and there were dark rumors regarding his treatment of his wife. To his credit, he successfully suppressed the Jacobite rebellions of 1715 and 1719 meant to restore the Stuarts to the throne, yet remained unpopular among his subjects in England. To exacerbate the public's ill will further, George I had two German mistresses who were reviled for their greed.
George I did make sincere efforts to fulfill his obligations as king. He could not speak English very well, and communicated with his predominantly Whig ministers in French. However, he was indirectly responsible for the decline of the Cabinet, which had largely run the government during the reign of Queen Anne. He stopped attending Cabinet meetings, and instead undercut its power and met with his ministers in private.
Though his shrewd diplomatic skills enabled him to forge a strategic alliance with France from 1717 to 1718, he could not always get his way in domestic affairs. He had to deal with formidable ministers, like Sir Robert Walpole and Viscount Charles Townshend, who refused to mold English policy according to George’s Hanoverian interests. The ministers soon resigned in protest, and joined George’s son and heir apparent to form a firm opposition within the Whig party. George I detested his son, and he supposedly believed the future George II was not his own child.
Later Years and Legacy
As political contingencies go, Walpole, Townshend, and the son of George I, George II, had reconciled with the king by 1720. In the same year, the South Sea Company suffered a huge financial setback. Investigations revealed a scandal, in which George and his German mistresses were apparently involved in transactions of questionable legality with the Company. It was only Walpole’s ingenuity in the House of Commons that saved the king from public disgrace around the world. In return, George I was subsequently forced to give Walpole and Townshend considerable leeway in their policy-making agendas, and soon came to rely upon their judgement. George I died of a stroke on June 11th, 1727 in his birthplace, Hanover. Apart from George II, the late king also left behind a daughter, Sophia Dorothea, who went on to marry Frederick William I of Prussia and became the mother of Frederick the Great.
Was King George I German?
Yes, King George I was German. The British monarch who ruled from 1714 to 1727 was born in what is now Hanover, Lower Saxony, Germany.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
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Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 959 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Lyndon B Johnson was the thirty sixth president of the United States having succeeded John F Kennedy after his assassination in 1963 up to 1969. Like those immediately before him, his presidency had its lows and highs. He had notable achievements during his tenure in office; he oversaw the passing of a momentous legislation whose fruits continues to be reaped up to date. His downfall arose from his overly domineering personality and the engagement of troops in Vietnam.
Before becoming the president of the United States, Lyndon Johnson had a long career in politics. He was born in to a family with a long history in politics. He was able to push his way through the hierarchy of the Democratic Party eventually becoming a senator in 1952 and going ahead to become the party leader. He was an effective leader who was able to influence senators across the divide with what came to be known as The Treatment. He was the JF Kennedy’s running mate and went ahead to become the vice president. He took over the mantle of leadership after his death and went ahead to win by a landslide in the 1964 presidential elections.
The hall mark of Lyndon Johnson achievement was the passage of the 1964 Civil Rights Act together with the 1969 Voting Rights Act. This would remain the gold line in his presidency that would put him amongst the most vocal crusaders for human rights. There are those however who saw his great concerns for civil rights as more of a gimmick in his bid to secure the blacks votes. It should be understood however that he was an avowed idealist who believed in the Great Society (Berman, Larry, 18).
It has to be noted that the passing of the Civil Rights Act was being faced with stiff opposition from the southern whites where the issue of racism was rather rampant. The passage of this bill and its ascent into law was seen to have a negative implication to the southern whites’ voters. Johnson himself expected this when he said that south might be lost by the Democratic Party for a generation. It is the southern whites that had been acting as the biggest impediment to the passage of any legislation favoring the blacks. With the Civil Rights Act in place, all forms of racial segregation were outlawed in all public places. It is a law that has helped shape the destiny of the black population and other minority groups in the United States as it gave equal access to public services and single handedly revoked the Jim Crow laws that had reigned for a number of decades and reinforced prejudice and racism in the southern states (Banta, Joseph, 26).
The Voting Rights Act of 1965 is another achievement of Lyndon Johnson that greatly endeared him to civil rights activists, this act sought to bring on board the disenfranchised lot especially the black population in the south as it sought to remove the mandatory literacy test which was being regarded as a precondition to acquiring a voting right. In the spirit of bringing the black population in to the mainstream, Johnson appointed Thurgood Marshal as the first ever Supreme Court black judge and also went ahead to denounce the KKK, urging them to leave the wayward ways.
Lyndon Johnson was a success story when it came to domestic policy and especially at introducing unprecedented welfare reforms in line with his Great Society doctrine. Analysts liken Lyndon’s Great Society to Franklin D. Roosevelt’s new deal. The Great Society referred to a number of programs initiated by Lyndon aimed at improving provision of health and medical services to the poor, poverty reduction and curbing of racial prejudices.
Lyndon Johnson had set his eyes forward towards poverty reduction, furthering JF Kennedy idea. He usually cited his first hand experience with extreme poverty when he came across Latinos living in Texas, he vowed to eliminate poverty from the United States key to this initiative was the economic opportunity act of 1964 that would oversee
Community oriented programs to eradicate poverty through education and relevant training.
The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 established a framework alongside which the federal government could fund public schools. The Higher Education Act of 1965 also went alongside this principle by providing scholarship and funding to universities. In the health sector, Lyndon also made remarkable achievements by introducing Medicare and Medicaid. By signing the Medicare amendment, LBJ was
hoping to provide medical care to American citizens who are beyond the age of 65. Medicaid on the other land was targeting people and families in the low income bracket.
The Great Society left a lasting legacy and impressions amongst many Americans, some of the programs like Medicaid and Medicare have been receiving criticism as a result of some inherent inefficiencies. Other programs are still surviving and receiving considerable support from the public as well as the successive governments.
The considerable gains made in the home front by President Lyndon Johnson however were overshadowed by the sloppy handling of foreign affairs. Key to this was the Vietnam War and misrepresentation of information to the public. Understandably, the domestic achievements and programs were highly publicized and hyped while little attention was being given to the Vietnam War. Information on additional troops deployment was scanty and the respective announcements were not highly publicized as the public would have wished.
After the southern Vietnamese forces attacked a military barrack belonging to the United States, reprisal attacks began immediately and would escalate later in to the operation rolling thunder .By the time Lyndon Johnson assumed power, the troops in Vietnam were at merely 16,000, however two years later this figure had expanded to over 180,000 and then to over a half a million by the close of Lyndon’s tenure in office. This was an escalation that had not followed the proper channel of authorization as the public, whose interests Lyndon purported to represent had no say in it (Dallek, Robert, 784).
Lyndon Johnson was caught in between a rock and hard place. There was a need for the united states to reassert its global standing especially as Vietnam was on the brink of falling to the communism, this was to be done conventionally on a bedrock of growing opposition and criticism from the various quarters in the American public Lyndon was fearful that if insurmountable force and plan was not inflicted to the Vietnamese, communists would have emerged successful. The objective of the forces escalation and the heavy offensive was to compel the North Vietnamese to come to the negotiating table. Johnson vowed not to pull out or succumb to the pressure that came from all corners, even those earlier perceived to be his allies. Civil rights activist martin Luther king junior publicly denounced Lyndon Johnson policies on Vietnam and refused to endorse him for his second tenure in office on the ground that he had disrespected the public wish and escalated the United States military presence in Vietnam. (Xiaoming, Zhang, 56)
Senator J. William Fulbright, a former ally of Lyndon Johnson especially during the tabling of the Gulf of Tonken Resolution and later on being the chairman of the senate foreign relations committee also criticized largely the escalation efforts and the huge casualties suffered to the American troops.
Credibility of Lyndon Johnson was put into disrepute by his involvement into the Vietnam War. It has to be noted here that Lyndon Johnson won the landslide election on a platform of a peace. Protesters were always talking of the credibility “gap” in reference to the misrepresentations that Lyndon’s administration had carried out against the public. A misrepresentation that would lead to the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution was passed by congress in 1964 to allow military action in south East Asia over minor attacks carried out by the Vietnamese forces against two naval ships in the Gulf of Tonkin. President Lyndon Johnson used the Gulf of Tonkin incident as a justification for war. He used the resolution to initiate attacks against North Vietnam without necessarily having the congress issue a formal declaration of war (Schulzinger, Robert D, 25).
Details that were to emerge later, though vehemently denied by the Lyndon’s administration, was that the attacks never occurred in the first place. North Vietnamese had denied this alleged attack claiming that it is the US forces that had attacked first.
Johnson was quick to retaliate to the said attacks and he immediately followed this up with a televised address on the attacks. He used this as a ground to seek for a resolution noting that the resolution would not be used to expand the war but rather was a signal to hostile nations that the United States would go to any length to safeguard its national interests. Johnson’s secretary of defense testifying before the foreign relations committee insisted that indeed the US naval ship Maddox had been attacked while carrying out a normal surveillance. He failed to allude to the fact that it was the United States that had attacked first (Moise, Edwin E, 24).
The congress, basing its argument on this misrepresentation, passed the resolution authorizing Lyndon to take all measures in assisting South Vietnam fend off the onslaught of North Vietnam. This is what granted Lyndon a “black check” in regard to the amount of forces he could engage in Vietnam. By the close of 1966 it had emerged that the resolution, as earlier noted by Oregon senator, Wayne Morse was a “historic mistake”
It was later to emerge that President Lyndon Johnson used well meshed fabrications to deceive the public and the congress and gain support for the war. He also used diversionary tactics to deflect publics’ attention from the committees hearing by taking a trip top Honolulu for a meeting with President Thieu. This however was a tactic that could not work. Opposition was mounting and the public was getting increasingly agitated over a war that had no justification and a president who could not be held accountable to his words.
The casualties and the obvious misrepresentations by president triggered negative sentiments from all quarters. This opposition had been growing since 1964 although a bit muffled. From the end of 1966 though, student activism escalated to a level not witnessed before. Never before had a war led to such bitter and massive divisions and protests from the public. The war was receiving even unprecedented criticism from military strategists who considered it political in nature and whose objectives could not be reached at by military engagements.
The Vietnam War had received considerable support form the media thanks to the initial diplomatic skills and public relations. Few in the media had foreseen the gruesome images and high casualties meted out against U.S forces over a war of ideology. The media turning against Lyndon Johnson was the last straw to his presidency and dreams for a second term, having in mind the powerful role that the media has on the public.
The Tet Offensive is one that brought to the surface the fact the victory being promised to the public by Lyndon Johnson and his lieutenants was merely a pipe dream. Tet offensive was a well mapped out attack that took the Americans by surprise. The communist forces had managed to put up a spirited fight in the major cities resulting to huge American fatalities and destruction of military locations. Johnson’s administration had earlier managed to deceive the public that the situation was under control and that the communist forces had almost used up their reserves. The media particularly drummed this point home and increased the publics’ negative perception of the war and of the Lyndon Johnson administration. Pictures of forces killing innocent civilians were slashed on the screens and allover the papers. It impeded greatly on Johnson’s opinion ratings which dropped with more than twenty points.
The My Lai massacre also ignited public’s consternation with the President Lyndon’s administration. My Lai massacre was conducted by frustrated American forces who were seeking revenge for a number of their counterparts who had been maimed in Lai. They were encouraged by one lieutenant William Calley. American forces entered into the villages shooting and killing anyone they could find even after establishing that the villagers were unarmed.
The news of this massacre did not reach the United States public immediately but once they did it, they had devastating effects on the Lyndon’s administration and also the standing of the United States internationally. The public was demanding the immediate withdrawal of the forces whereas the media sought for an elaborate explanation on the conduct of the officers (Lawrence R. Jacobs and Robert Y. Shapiro, 592).
President Johnson’s stature and popularity had received a major backlash and a permanent dent to an extent that he could not run for a second term in office. Faced with the ugly image of the Vietnam War, the president announced on March 31 1968 that he would not run for re election. On that same day he called for the complete cessation of military attacks in Vietnam and urged the various sides to come to the negotiating table.
In conclusion, it is important to note that though President Lyndon Johnson term in office ended on a sour note, he still had notable accomplishments in the domestic front. Key to these achievements was the Civil Rights and the Voting Rights Acts that would see blacks acquire rights of access to any public service. His Great Society vision also saw him introduce a number of legislations aimed at poverty reduction.
These accomplishments however were overshadowed by the Vietnam War mistake that saw him escalate forces in a war that had no moral basis. Lyndon had misrepresented facts to the congress to manipulate the passing of the resolution to authorize the war in Vietnam. It is this misrepresentation and the subsequent losses in Vietnam that would lead to the plummeting of his popularity to a point that he thought it wise not to run for a second term.
Berman, Larry. Lyndon Johnson’s War: The Road to Stalemate .1991; 18
Moise, Edwin E. Historical Dictionary of the Vietnam War .2002; 24
Schulzinger, Robert D. A Time for War: The United States and Vietnam, 1941–1975 .1997;45
Xiaoming, Zhang. China’s 1979 War with Vietnam: A Reassessment, China Quarterly. Issue no. 184, December, 2005; 56
Lawrence R. Jacobs and Robert Y. Shapiro. “Lyndon Johnson, Vietnam, and Public Opinion: Rethinking Realist Theory of Leadership.” Presidential Studies Quarterly 29#3 1999; 592
Banta, Joseph “President Lyndon B. Johnson”. The Christadelphian 101, January 1964; 26.
Dallek, Robert Flawed Giant: Lyndon B. Johnson and his Times, 1961–1973. Oxford: Oxford University Press.1998; 754 | <urn:uuid:7ec03d50-9d42-44a0-966c-0826a25d6d62> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://tbf-sa.co.za/lyndon-b-johnson/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00381.warc.gz | en | 0.980927 | 2,889 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.32924160361289... | 2 | Lyndon B Johnson was the thirty sixth president of the United States having succeeded John F Kennedy after his assassination in 1963 up to 1969. Like those immediately before him, his presidency had its lows and highs. He had notable achievements during his tenure in office; he oversaw the passing of a momentous legislation whose fruits continues to be reaped up to date. His downfall arose from his overly domineering personality and the engagement of troops in Vietnam.
Before becoming the president of the United States, Lyndon Johnson had a long career in politics. He was born in to a family with a long history in politics. He was able to push his way through the hierarchy of the Democratic Party eventually becoming a senator in 1952 and going ahead to become the party leader. He was an effective leader who was able to influence senators across the divide with what came to be known as The Treatment. He was the JF Kennedy’s running mate and went ahead to become the vice president. He took over the mantle of leadership after his death and went ahead to win by a landslide in the 1964 presidential elections.
The hall mark of Lyndon Johnson achievement was the passage of the 1964 Civil Rights Act together with the 1969 Voting Rights Act. This would remain the gold line in his presidency that would put him amongst the most vocal crusaders for human rights. There are those however who saw his great concerns for civil rights as more of a gimmick in his bid to secure the blacks votes. It should be understood however that he was an avowed idealist who believed in the Great Society (Berman, Larry, 18).
It has to be noted that the passing of the Civil Rights Act was being faced with stiff opposition from the southern whites where the issue of racism was rather rampant. The passage of this bill and its ascent into law was seen to have a negative implication to the southern whites’ voters. Johnson himself expected this when he said that south might be lost by the Democratic Party for a generation. It is the southern whites that had been acting as the biggest impediment to the passage of any legislation favoring the blacks. With the Civil Rights Act in place, all forms of racial segregation were outlawed in all public places. It is a law that has helped shape the destiny of the black population and other minority groups in the United States as it gave equal access to public services and single handedly revoked the Jim Crow laws that had reigned for a number of decades and reinforced prejudice and racism in the southern states (Banta, Joseph, 26).
The Voting Rights Act of 1965 is another achievement of Lyndon Johnson that greatly endeared him to civil rights activists, this act sought to bring on board the disenfranchised lot especially the black population in the south as it sought to remove the mandatory literacy test which was being regarded as a precondition to acquiring a voting right. In the spirit of bringing the black population in to the mainstream, Johnson appointed Thurgood Marshal as the first ever Supreme Court black judge and also went ahead to denounce the KKK, urging them to leave the wayward ways.
Lyndon Johnson was a success story when it came to domestic policy and especially at introducing unprecedented welfare reforms in line with his Great Society doctrine. Analysts liken Lyndon’s Great Society to Franklin D. Roosevelt’s new deal. The Great Society referred to a number of programs initiated by Lyndon aimed at improving provision of health and medical services to the poor, poverty reduction and curbing of racial prejudices.
Lyndon Johnson had set his eyes forward towards poverty reduction, furthering JF Kennedy idea. He usually cited his first hand experience with extreme poverty when he came across Latinos living in Texas, he vowed to eliminate poverty from the United States key to this initiative was the economic opportunity act of 1964 that would oversee
Community oriented programs to eradicate poverty through education and relevant training.
The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 established a framework alongside which the federal government could fund public schools. The Higher Education Act of 1965 also went alongside this principle by providing scholarship and funding to universities. In the health sector, Lyndon also made remarkable achievements by introducing Medicare and Medicaid. By signing the Medicare amendment, LBJ was
hoping to provide medical care to American citizens who are beyond the age of 65. Medicaid on the other land was targeting people and families in the low income bracket.
The Great Society left a lasting legacy and impressions amongst many Americans, some of the programs like Medicaid and Medicare have been receiving criticism as a result of some inherent inefficiencies. Other programs are still surviving and receiving considerable support from the public as well as the successive governments.
The considerable gains made in the home front by President Lyndon Johnson however were overshadowed by the sloppy handling of foreign affairs. Key to this was the Vietnam War and misrepresentation of information to the public. Understandably, the domestic achievements and programs were highly publicized and hyped while little attention was being given to the Vietnam War. Information on additional troops deployment was scanty and the respective announcements were not highly publicized as the public would have wished.
After the southern Vietnamese forces attacked a military barrack belonging to the United States, reprisal attacks began immediately and would escalate later in to the operation rolling thunder .By the time Lyndon Johnson assumed power, the troops in Vietnam were at merely 16,000, however two years later this figure had expanded to over 180,000 and then to over a half a million by the close of Lyndon’s tenure in office. This was an escalation that had not followed the proper channel of authorization as the public, whose interests Lyndon purported to represent had no say in it (Dallek, Robert, 784).
Lyndon Johnson was caught in between a rock and hard place. There was a need for the united states to reassert its global standing especially as Vietnam was on the brink of falling to the communism, this was to be done conventionally on a bedrock of growing opposition and criticism from the various quarters in the American public Lyndon was fearful that if insurmountable force and plan was not inflicted to the Vietnamese, communists would have emerged successful. The objective of the forces escalation and the heavy offensive was to compel the North Vietnamese to come to the negotiating table. Johnson vowed not to pull out or succumb to the pressure that came from all corners, even those earlier perceived to be his allies. Civil rights activist martin Luther king junior publicly denounced Lyndon Johnson policies on Vietnam and refused to endorse him for his second tenure in office on the ground that he had disrespected the public wish and escalated the United States military presence in Vietnam. (Xiaoming, Zhang, 56)
Senator J. William Fulbright, a former ally of Lyndon Johnson especially during the tabling of the Gulf of Tonken Resolution and later on being the chairman of the senate foreign relations committee also criticized largely the escalation efforts and the huge casualties suffered to the American troops.
Credibility of Lyndon Johnson was put into disrepute by his involvement into the Vietnam War. It has to be noted here that Lyndon Johnson won the landslide election on a platform of a peace. Protesters were always talking of the credibility “gap” in reference to the misrepresentations that Lyndon’s administration had carried out against the public. A misrepresentation that would lead to the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution was passed by congress in 1964 to allow military action in south East Asia over minor attacks carried out by the Vietnamese forces against two naval ships in the Gulf of Tonkin. President Lyndon Johnson used the Gulf of Tonkin incident as a justification for war. He used the resolution to initiate attacks against North Vietnam without necessarily having the congress issue a formal declaration of war (Schulzinger, Robert D, 25).
Details that were to emerge later, though vehemently denied by the Lyndon’s administration, was that the attacks never occurred in the first place. North Vietnamese had denied this alleged attack claiming that it is the US forces that had attacked first.
Johnson was quick to retaliate to the said attacks and he immediately followed this up with a televised address on the attacks. He used this as a ground to seek for a resolution noting that the resolution would not be used to expand the war but rather was a signal to hostile nations that the United States would go to any length to safeguard its national interests. Johnson’s secretary of defense testifying before the foreign relations committee insisted that indeed the US naval ship Maddox had been attacked while carrying out a normal surveillance. He failed to allude to the fact that it was the United States that had attacked first (Moise, Edwin E, 24).
The congress, basing its argument on this misrepresentation, passed the resolution authorizing Lyndon to take all measures in assisting South Vietnam fend off the onslaught of North Vietnam. This is what granted Lyndon a “black check” in regard to the amount of forces he could engage in Vietnam. By the close of 1966 it had emerged that the resolution, as earlier noted by Oregon senator, Wayne Morse was a “historic mistake”
It was later to emerge that President Lyndon Johnson used well meshed fabrications to deceive the public and the congress and gain support for the war. He also used diversionary tactics to deflect publics’ attention from the committees hearing by taking a trip top Honolulu for a meeting with President Thieu. This however was a tactic that could not work. Opposition was mounting and the public was getting increasingly agitated over a war that had no justification and a president who could not be held accountable to his words.
The casualties and the obvious misrepresentations by president triggered negative sentiments from all quarters. This opposition had been growing since 1964 although a bit muffled. From the end of 1966 though, student activism escalated to a level not witnessed before. Never before had a war led to such bitter and massive divisions and protests from the public. The war was receiving even unprecedented criticism from military strategists who considered it political in nature and whose objectives could not be reached at by military engagements.
The Vietnam War had received considerable support form the media thanks to the initial diplomatic skills and public relations. Few in the media had foreseen the gruesome images and high casualties meted out against U.S forces over a war of ideology. The media turning against Lyndon Johnson was the last straw to his presidency and dreams for a second term, having in mind the powerful role that the media has on the public.
The Tet Offensive is one that brought to the surface the fact the victory being promised to the public by Lyndon Johnson and his lieutenants was merely a pipe dream. Tet offensive was a well mapped out attack that took the Americans by surprise. The communist forces had managed to put up a spirited fight in the major cities resulting to huge American fatalities and destruction of military locations. Johnson’s administration had earlier managed to deceive the public that the situation was under control and that the communist forces had almost used up their reserves. The media particularly drummed this point home and increased the publics’ negative perception of the war and of the Lyndon Johnson administration. Pictures of forces killing innocent civilians were slashed on the screens and allover the papers. It impeded greatly on Johnson’s opinion ratings which dropped with more than twenty points.
The My Lai massacre also ignited public’s consternation with the President Lyndon’s administration. My Lai massacre was conducted by frustrated American forces who were seeking revenge for a number of their counterparts who had been maimed in Lai. They were encouraged by one lieutenant William Calley. American forces entered into the villages shooting and killing anyone they could find even after establishing that the villagers were unarmed.
The news of this massacre did not reach the United States public immediately but once they did it, they had devastating effects on the Lyndon’s administration and also the standing of the United States internationally. The public was demanding the immediate withdrawal of the forces whereas the media sought for an elaborate explanation on the conduct of the officers (Lawrence R. Jacobs and Robert Y. Shapiro, 592).
President Johnson’s stature and popularity had received a major backlash and a permanent dent to an extent that he could not run for a second term in office. Faced with the ugly image of the Vietnam War, the president announced on March 31 1968 that he would not run for re election. On that same day he called for the complete cessation of military attacks in Vietnam and urged the various sides to come to the negotiating table.
In conclusion, it is important to note that though President Lyndon Johnson term in office ended on a sour note, he still had notable accomplishments in the domestic front. Key to these achievements was the Civil Rights and the Voting Rights Acts that would see blacks acquire rights of access to any public service. His Great Society vision also saw him introduce a number of legislations aimed at poverty reduction.
These accomplishments however were overshadowed by the Vietnam War mistake that saw him escalate forces in a war that had no moral basis. Lyndon had misrepresented facts to the congress to manipulate the passing of the resolution to authorize the war in Vietnam. It is this misrepresentation and the subsequent losses in Vietnam that would lead to the plummeting of his popularity to a point that he thought it wise not to run for a second term.
Berman, Larry. Lyndon Johnson’s War: The Road to Stalemate .1991; 18
Moise, Edwin E. Historical Dictionary of the Vietnam War .2002; 24
Schulzinger, Robert D. A Time for War: The United States and Vietnam, 1941–1975 .1997;45
Xiaoming, Zhang. China’s 1979 War with Vietnam: A Reassessment, China Quarterly. Issue no. 184, December, 2005; 56
Lawrence R. Jacobs and Robert Y. Shapiro. “Lyndon Johnson, Vietnam, and Public Opinion: Rethinking Realist Theory of Leadership.” Presidential Studies Quarterly 29#3 1999; 592
Banta, Joseph “President Lyndon B. Johnson”. The Christadelphian 101, January 1964; 26.
Dallek, Robert Flawed Giant: Lyndon B. Johnson and his Times, 1961–1973. Oxford: Oxford University Press.1998; 754 | 3,014 | ENGLISH | 1 |
“Humility is perhaps the one virtue that divides society.”
In 1942 a horrifying discovery was made in the Polish forest of Katyn. Workers uncovered a mass grave containing the remains of over 20,000 Polish citizens, military and civilians, who were seen as a threat to the Soviet regime. Each victim was found with their hands tied behind their back and a single gunshot wound to the back of the head. The massacre was carried out by the secret police under the orders of Joseph Stalin.
A Latter Day Herod
Joseph Stalin was the leader of the Soviet Union in the first half of the twentieth century. The legacy he left behind is that of a brutal dictator. He climbed through the ranks of the Soviet government by lying, double crossing, and murdering anyone who stood in his way. Once he gained the position General Secretary, making him the head of the government, he systematically eliminated all potential rivals.
Soon, that list of potential rivals included everyone he knew. He sent his best friends to concentration camps deep in Siberia. He became so suspicious of plots against his life that he slept in a different corner of his house every night.
He died fearful, miserable, and half-crazed.
In many ways the story of King Herod is much the same. He was not of the line of David, which made him an illegitimate king. He was a puppet of the Romans. Herod spent his life trying to keep everything under control. He became pathologically suspicious of nearly everyone around him. He murdered his own wife and three of his sons because he thought they were plotting against him. His whole life was marked by a series of violent, terrible crimes.
His unreasonable fear of losing control made him hated by everyone, including his closest advisors. As he lay dying, he ordered a thousand of his best servants and ministers to be led to the stadium and slaughtered. He did this to ensure that there would be mourning and sadness in his kingdom upon his death.
The Virtue of Humility
Joseph Stalin and King Herod represent lives lived without humility. Humility is perhaps the one virtue that divides society. Saint Augustine, in his book “the City of God,” described our divided society this way.
“What we see, then, is that two societies have issued from two kinds of love. Worldly Society has flowered from a selfish love which dared to despise even God, whereas the Communion of Saints is rooted in a love of God that is ready to trample on self. In a word, this latter relies on the Lord, whereas the other boasts that it can get along by itself. The city of man seeks the praise of men, whereas the height of glory for the other is to hear God in the witness of conscience.” [City of God XIV.28]
We see the difference between “Worldly Society” and the “Communion of Saints” clearly played out in the reactions of Herod and the magi, to the birth of the new king. Herod has ruled through extortion and murder, acknowledging no authority other than his own. He is greatly troubled at the news of the Savior’s birth, the true, legitimate King of the Jews.
The magi on the other hand rejoice and bring gifts, generously offering what they have to honor the new king.
Herod responds with violence, killing any child who might possibly be a threat to his rule. The magi bring gifts. Not just any gifts, they bring to Christ their talents in the form of gold, their prayers represented by frankincense, and their pain and suffering symbolized by myrrh.
In ancient times, the Feast of the Three Kings, Epiphany, was the time to give gifts, in memory of the three wise men who brought gifts to a newborn babe. Christmas has become a season for gift giving. What gifts do we bring in humility to lay at the feet of the King?
We are not meant to control everything in our lives. We are meant to trust in divine providence. We are not God, God is God. Our purpose is to humbly follow Christ, to trust Him, to kneel before Him, and to offer Him our gifts. We are here to make of our lives the fulfillment of the words, “Father… not my will, but thine be done.”
There are really only two choices, to accept God or reject Him, to live in the City of Men or the City of God. It is a choice we make not once but every second of every day.
The Epiphany of the Lord
crossposted at www.DeaconLawrence.org
© Lawrence Klimecki
Lawrence Klimecki, MSA, is a deacon in the Diocese of Sacramento. He is a public speaker, writer, and artist, reflecting on the intersection of art and faith and the spiritual “hero’s journey” that is part of every person’s life. He can be reached at Lawrence@deaconlawrence.com. For more information on original art, prints and commissions, Please visit www.DeaconLawrence.org | <urn:uuid:d93127d5-f822-425d-a03b-a237563a2a35> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://queenofpeacemedia.com/kings-and-the-virtue-of-humility/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00126.warc.gz | en | 0.981093 | 1,057 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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In 1942 a horrifying discovery was made in the Polish forest of Katyn. Workers uncovered a mass grave containing the remains of over 20,000 Polish citizens, military and civilians, who were seen as a threat to the Soviet regime. Each victim was found with their hands tied behind their back and a single gunshot wound to the back of the head. The massacre was carried out by the secret police under the orders of Joseph Stalin.
A Latter Day Herod
Joseph Stalin was the leader of the Soviet Union in the first half of the twentieth century. The legacy he left behind is that of a brutal dictator. He climbed through the ranks of the Soviet government by lying, double crossing, and murdering anyone who stood in his way. Once he gained the position General Secretary, making him the head of the government, he systematically eliminated all potential rivals.
Soon, that list of potential rivals included everyone he knew. He sent his best friends to concentration camps deep in Siberia. He became so suspicious of plots against his life that he slept in a different corner of his house every night.
He died fearful, miserable, and half-crazed.
In many ways the story of King Herod is much the same. He was not of the line of David, which made him an illegitimate king. He was a puppet of the Romans. Herod spent his life trying to keep everything under control. He became pathologically suspicious of nearly everyone around him. He murdered his own wife and three of his sons because he thought they were plotting against him. His whole life was marked by a series of violent, terrible crimes.
His unreasonable fear of losing control made him hated by everyone, including his closest advisors. As he lay dying, he ordered a thousand of his best servants and ministers to be led to the stadium and slaughtered. He did this to ensure that there would be mourning and sadness in his kingdom upon his death.
The Virtue of Humility
Joseph Stalin and King Herod represent lives lived without humility. Humility is perhaps the one virtue that divides society. Saint Augustine, in his book “the City of God,” described our divided society this way.
“What we see, then, is that two societies have issued from two kinds of love. Worldly Society has flowered from a selfish love which dared to despise even God, whereas the Communion of Saints is rooted in a love of God that is ready to trample on self. In a word, this latter relies on the Lord, whereas the other boasts that it can get along by itself. The city of man seeks the praise of men, whereas the height of glory for the other is to hear God in the witness of conscience.” [City of God XIV.28]
We see the difference between “Worldly Society” and the “Communion of Saints” clearly played out in the reactions of Herod and the magi, to the birth of the new king. Herod has ruled through extortion and murder, acknowledging no authority other than his own. He is greatly troubled at the news of the Savior’s birth, the true, legitimate King of the Jews.
The magi on the other hand rejoice and bring gifts, generously offering what they have to honor the new king.
Herod responds with violence, killing any child who might possibly be a threat to his rule. The magi bring gifts. Not just any gifts, they bring to Christ their talents in the form of gold, their prayers represented by frankincense, and their pain and suffering symbolized by myrrh.
In ancient times, the Feast of the Three Kings, Epiphany, was the time to give gifts, in memory of the three wise men who brought gifts to a newborn babe. Christmas has become a season for gift giving. What gifts do we bring in humility to lay at the feet of the King?
We are not meant to control everything in our lives. We are meant to trust in divine providence. We are not God, God is God. Our purpose is to humbly follow Christ, to trust Him, to kneel before Him, and to offer Him our gifts. We are here to make of our lives the fulfillment of the words, “Father… not my will, but thine be done.”
There are really only two choices, to accept God or reject Him, to live in the City of Men or the City of God. It is a choice we make not once but every second of every day.
The Epiphany of the Lord
crossposted at www.DeaconLawrence.org
© Lawrence Klimecki
Lawrence Klimecki, MSA, is a deacon in the Diocese of Sacramento. He is a public speaker, writer, and artist, reflecting on the intersection of art and faith and the spiritual “hero’s journey” that is part of every person’s life. He can be reached at Lawrence@deaconlawrence.com. For more information on original art, prints and commissions, Please visit www.DeaconLawrence.org | 1,033 | ENGLISH | 1 |
As the country was enduring a catastrophic experience and (although they did not know it yet) in the last year of The Great War, Britain and the world were about to feel the strain of a particularly violent and virulent disease that would wipe out 50 to 100 million people. The Spanish Flu epidemic first began to flex it muscles in January 1918 in a world with limited life expectancies and war-torn countries that would proceed to blame each other for the dire circumstances some families would find themselves in. The Spanish Flu first showed strains across Europe, the United States of America and parts of Asia, and due to the increased movement of individuals globally, before steadily spreading across the world. Although vaccinations had been around for over one hundred years, with the invention of the Smallpox vaccine in 1796, there was no effective treatment for this influenza strain. Before the end of the epidemic in Britain citizens were forced to wear masks, entire institutions were bordered up and bodies piled inside the door of poorly constructed new morgues to cope with the demand. The strain did not discriminate, wealthy and poor, young and old all succumb quickly, sometimes spreading across an entire estate upstairs and downstairs to further add grief to families who’d lost someone in the war.
Influenza is a virus that dominates the lungs and whole respiratory system and is one of the most contagious diseases known to humans. Spread easily when someone coughs, sneezes and/or talks it is transmitted through the air into the breathing space of anyone nearby. The likelihood of it spreading to everyone in one household once one member has it is extremely high especially if an infected person touches items that is also handled by others. Many influenzas, or flu, appear yearly and vary on severity, think on the 2017 Aussie Flu outbreak, but none had been as virulent as the Spanish Flu. It is particularly dangerous in people with diabetes, young children, pregnant women and asthmatic people, but the flu also brings a myriad of issues including pneumonia and bronchitis. Many doctors in the war period would have been familiar with flu seasons that occupy late autumn to early spring every year however none would have been prepared for a strain that has little immunity globally.
The first wave of the Spanish flu arrived in spring 1918 but did not cause much concern as deaths did not exceed normal flu fatalities and most victims regained health within a week of their worst day. Doctors reported that the initial cases appeared in Spain hence why the sufferers based blame around the Spanish people who were hit the hardest during the most dangerous periods of the strain. There were reports of cases appearing elsewhere yet the censorship within the media prevented anything being reported that would lower morale of the people and those on the front lines. Spain was not under these regulations as heavily as the UK and Germany hence why Spanish cases were heard of first, especially since one of the first victims included the King of Spain Alfonso XIII. Spain had declared neutrality because of familial connections to both sides of the war therefore news leaked easily into the newspapers of the world. The world war had caused an extensive amount of deaths in people in the regions affected by bombing and trenches, yet the world was not ready to combat a micro-war, one that would creep into all corners without any particularly compelling reason as to where it came from or why.
The UK was hit in a series of waves throughout the year of 1918 with the end of World War One bringing the harshest low points. The disease spread from soldiers returning to train stations from abroad thus allowing the strain to be contracted from the inner cities and to slowly spread outwards in to the countryside. Prime Minister David Lloyd George contracted the disease alongside Walt Disney and Kaiser Willhelm II of Germany yet all survived. Onset of the more virulent periods were quick and violent with cartoonists displaying people healthy at breakfast and then dead by dinner. The flu initially caused the common flu symptoms of fatigue, fever and headaches before rapidly becoming serious in slowly suffocating the victims through increased shortage of oxygen. Hospitals were stretched to breaking point with medical students being drafted in early yet there was nothing to be done except give those dying comfort as there were no antibiotics to treat any part of the strain or resultative conditions.
In one year fifty million people died worldwide. Two hundred and twenty-eight thousand people died in the UK and the global mortality rate landed between ten and twenty percent. Historians have discovered that a larger amount of people died during this one year of epidemic flu than across the worst four years of the Bubonic Plague in the fourteenth century. Across the known world only one small region did not report any outbreaks down the Amazon river of Brazil. | <urn:uuid:22d7e28e-4e20-4dad-b015-0ee41459f48a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wuhstry.wordpress.com/2018/03/05/micro-war-the-spanish-flu-epidemic/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00461.warc.gz | en | 0.980664 | 940 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.584077000617981... | 5 | As the country was enduring a catastrophic experience and (although they did not know it yet) in the last year of The Great War, Britain and the world were about to feel the strain of a particularly violent and virulent disease that would wipe out 50 to 100 million people. The Spanish Flu epidemic first began to flex it muscles in January 1918 in a world with limited life expectancies and war-torn countries that would proceed to blame each other for the dire circumstances some families would find themselves in. The Spanish Flu first showed strains across Europe, the United States of America and parts of Asia, and due to the increased movement of individuals globally, before steadily spreading across the world. Although vaccinations had been around for over one hundred years, with the invention of the Smallpox vaccine in 1796, there was no effective treatment for this influenza strain. Before the end of the epidemic in Britain citizens were forced to wear masks, entire institutions were bordered up and bodies piled inside the door of poorly constructed new morgues to cope with the demand. The strain did not discriminate, wealthy and poor, young and old all succumb quickly, sometimes spreading across an entire estate upstairs and downstairs to further add grief to families who’d lost someone in the war.
Influenza is a virus that dominates the lungs and whole respiratory system and is one of the most contagious diseases known to humans. Spread easily when someone coughs, sneezes and/or talks it is transmitted through the air into the breathing space of anyone nearby. The likelihood of it spreading to everyone in one household once one member has it is extremely high especially if an infected person touches items that is also handled by others. Many influenzas, or flu, appear yearly and vary on severity, think on the 2017 Aussie Flu outbreak, but none had been as virulent as the Spanish Flu. It is particularly dangerous in people with diabetes, young children, pregnant women and asthmatic people, but the flu also brings a myriad of issues including pneumonia and bronchitis. Many doctors in the war period would have been familiar with flu seasons that occupy late autumn to early spring every year however none would have been prepared for a strain that has little immunity globally.
The first wave of the Spanish flu arrived in spring 1918 but did not cause much concern as deaths did not exceed normal flu fatalities and most victims regained health within a week of their worst day. Doctors reported that the initial cases appeared in Spain hence why the sufferers based blame around the Spanish people who were hit the hardest during the most dangerous periods of the strain. There were reports of cases appearing elsewhere yet the censorship within the media prevented anything being reported that would lower morale of the people and those on the front lines. Spain was not under these regulations as heavily as the UK and Germany hence why Spanish cases were heard of first, especially since one of the first victims included the King of Spain Alfonso XIII. Spain had declared neutrality because of familial connections to both sides of the war therefore news leaked easily into the newspapers of the world. The world war had caused an extensive amount of deaths in people in the regions affected by bombing and trenches, yet the world was not ready to combat a micro-war, one that would creep into all corners without any particularly compelling reason as to where it came from or why.
The UK was hit in a series of waves throughout the year of 1918 with the end of World War One bringing the harshest low points. The disease spread from soldiers returning to train stations from abroad thus allowing the strain to be contracted from the inner cities and to slowly spread outwards in to the countryside. Prime Minister David Lloyd George contracted the disease alongside Walt Disney and Kaiser Willhelm II of Germany yet all survived. Onset of the more virulent periods were quick and violent with cartoonists displaying people healthy at breakfast and then dead by dinner. The flu initially caused the common flu symptoms of fatigue, fever and headaches before rapidly becoming serious in slowly suffocating the victims through increased shortage of oxygen. Hospitals were stretched to breaking point with medical students being drafted in early yet there was nothing to be done except give those dying comfort as there were no antibiotics to treat any part of the strain or resultative conditions.
In one year fifty million people died worldwide. Two hundred and twenty-eight thousand people died in the UK and the global mortality rate landed between ten and twenty percent. Historians have discovered that a larger amount of people died during this one year of epidemic flu than across the worst four years of the Bubonic Plague in the fourteenth century. Across the known world only one small region did not report any outbreaks down the Amazon river of Brazil. | 959 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Lab Engineered Kidney Performs Well in Rat
Researchers and scientists have repeatedly worked on genetically engineering organs in the lab that can be successfully implanted into humans. Due to the controversy behind stem cell research, ways of manufacturing organs have been limited. However, scientists have created smaller organs, such as human ears, effectively, and according to a new research study, the creation of working kidneys might be within the near future. The researchers from the Massachusetts General Hospital Center for Regenerative Medicine announced that they have created a kidney that was able to produce urine like any other kidneys when implanted into a rat.
The researchers combined their knowledge and available research on organ recreation in order to create this working kidney. Although the kidney was not entirely made from scratch since the researchers took an already working kidney mold or scaffold, getting it to work in a rat was a huge step in research. The researchers first removed the kidneys from rats and removed all living cells from the organ via a detergent solution. They then placed the kidney with the use of human umbilical cord cells and newborn rat kidney cells over the scaffold. The cells were then distributed into the right areas of the kidney's scaffold through a pressure gradient. The result was then placed into chambers that provided the nutrients needed to help the organ grow. After it grew to the right size, the kidney was placed into a rat that had the kidney removed in the first place, and the researchers discovered that the bioengineered kidney worked.
"If this technology can be scaled to human-sized grafts, patients suffering from renal failure who are currently waiting for donor kidneys, or who are not transplant candidates, could theoretically receive new organs derived from their own cells," Dr. Harald Ott, study researcher, stated. He added that these kinds of kidneys could increase the risk for rejection from the body as well.
The researchers also stressed that the bioengineered kidney did not perform as effectively as a real kidney despite being able to produce urine and filter blood. The researchers aim to perfect the kidney first in rats before looking into human kidneys. However, due to the fact that this method is technically not from scratch, kidney donors would still be needed if this method proved to be effective in humans. Since this method kills the kidney's living cells, kidney donors would be easier to match.
The study was published in Nature Medicine. | <urn:uuid:4cbf8653-c492-4d82-8913-2f70b7ff1beb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.counselheal.com/articles/4916/20130415/lab-engineered-kidney-performs-well-rat.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00036.warc.gz | en | 0.980153 | 477 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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Researchers and scientists have repeatedly worked on genetically engineering organs in the lab that can be successfully implanted into humans. Due to the controversy behind stem cell research, ways of manufacturing organs have been limited. However, scientists have created smaller organs, such as human ears, effectively, and according to a new research study, the creation of working kidneys might be within the near future. The researchers from the Massachusetts General Hospital Center for Regenerative Medicine announced that they have created a kidney that was able to produce urine like any other kidneys when implanted into a rat.
The researchers combined their knowledge and available research on organ recreation in order to create this working kidney. Although the kidney was not entirely made from scratch since the researchers took an already working kidney mold or scaffold, getting it to work in a rat was a huge step in research. The researchers first removed the kidneys from rats and removed all living cells from the organ via a detergent solution. They then placed the kidney with the use of human umbilical cord cells and newborn rat kidney cells over the scaffold. The cells were then distributed into the right areas of the kidney's scaffold through a pressure gradient. The result was then placed into chambers that provided the nutrients needed to help the organ grow. After it grew to the right size, the kidney was placed into a rat that had the kidney removed in the first place, and the researchers discovered that the bioengineered kidney worked.
"If this technology can be scaled to human-sized grafts, patients suffering from renal failure who are currently waiting for donor kidneys, or who are not transplant candidates, could theoretically receive new organs derived from their own cells," Dr. Harald Ott, study researcher, stated. He added that these kinds of kidneys could increase the risk for rejection from the body as well.
The researchers also stressed that the bioengineered kidney did not perform as effectively as a real kidney despite being able to produce urine and filter blood. The researchers aim to perfect the kidney first in rats before looking into human kidneys. However, due to the fact that this method is technically not from scratch, kidney donors would still be needed if this method proved to be effective in humans. Since this method kills the kidney's living cells, kidney donors would be easier to match.
The study was published in Nature Medicine. | 466 | ENGLISH | 1 |
HAREM, AND THE OTTOMAN WOMEN
- Rasul Dagsar
- Hits: 940
The harem was defined to be the women's quarter in a Muslim household. The Imperial harem (also known as the Seraglio harem) contained the combined households of the Valide Sultan (Queen Mother), the Sultan's favourites (hasekis), and the rest of his concubines (women whose main function was to entertain the Sultan in the bedchamber). It also contained all the Sultanas' (daughters of the Sultan) households. Many of the harem women would never see the Sultan and became the servants necessary for the daily functioning of the harem.
The reasons for harem existence can be seen from Ottoman cultural history. Ottoman tradition relied on slave concubinage along with legal marriage for reproduction. Slave concubinage was the taking of slave women for sexual reproduction. It served to emphasize the patriarchal nature of power (power being "hereditary" through sons only). Slave concubines, unlike wives, had no recognized lineage. Wives were feared to have vested interests in their own family's affairs, which would interfere with their loyalty to their husband, hence, concubines were preferred, if one could afford them. This led to the evolution of slave concubinage as an equal form of reproduction that did not carry the risks of marriage, mainly that of the potential betrayal of a wife. The powers of the harem women were exercised through their roles within the family. Although they had no legitimate claim to power, as their favour grew with the sultan, they acquired titles such as "Sultan Kadin" which solidified their notion of political power and legitimacy within the royal family was reflected with titles including "sultan."
During the sixteenth century, both male and female members of the imperial family used the title of "sultan". As the role of the royal favourite concubine (title: Sultan) eroded during the seventeenth century, the title designation also changed to "kadin" or "haseki," which were names originally reserved for less prominent members of the royal family. Henceforth, only the mother of the reigning Sultan was addressed as a Sultan: the Valide Sultan. The retention of the title of Sultan for the mother indicated the power of the Valide Sultan. After all, men could take as many concubines and odalisques as they desired, but they only had one mother.
Many of the concubines and odalisques of the Imperial harem were reputed to be among the most beautiful of women in the Ottoman Empire. Young girls of extraordinary beauty were sent to the sultan's court, often as gifts from the governors. Numerous harem women were Circassians, Georgians, and Abkhasians. They were usually bought from slave markets after being kidnapped or else sold by impoverished parents. Many Georgian and Circassian families encouraged their daughters to enter concubinage through slavery, as that promised to be a life of luxury and comfort. All slaves that entered the harem were termed odalisques or "women of the court" - general servants in the harem. Odalisques were not usually presented to the Sultan. Those that were of extraordinary beauty and talent, were seen as potential concubines, and trained accordingly. They learned to dance, recite poetry, play musical instruments, and master the erotic arts. Only the most gifted odalisques were presented to the Sultan as his personal gedikli (maids-in-waiting). Generally, odalisques would be assigned as servants to the oda (or court) of a harem mistress. For example, the Mistress of the Robes, or the Keeper of Baths, or the Keeper of Jewels, etc.
It was possible for these odalisques to rise through the ranks of the harem hierarchy and enjoy security through their power and position.
The most powerful women in the harem were the Valide Sultan and the Kadins. The Valide Sultan was responsible for the maintenance of order and peace inside the harem. Being a female elder in the Imperial family, the Valide was expected to serve as a guide and teacher to her son by educating him about the intricacies of state politics. Often, she was asked to intervene upon the Sultan's decisions when the Mufti (head of the Muslim religion), or the Viziers (ministers) felt that the Sultan may have made an erroneous decision.
Kadin's were the Sultan's favourite women. Tradition allowed only four principal Kadins but unlimited number of concubines. Kadins were equivalent in rank to that of a legal wife, and were given apartments, slaves, and eunuchs. For example, during the reign of Selim II (the Sot), his favourite, the bas kadin Nurbanu had an entourage of one hundred and fifty ladies-in-waiting. The amount of properties, clothing, jewelry, and allowances given, was all-proportional to the affection the Sultan held for them.
Odalisques were at the bottom of the harem hierarchy. They were considered to be general servants in the harem. They were not usually seen to be beautiful enough to become presented to the Sultan. Odalisques that were seen as potential candidates for concubinage were trained to become talented entertainers. The greatest honour a Sultan could bestow upon a male guest was to present him with an odalisque from his court who had not yet become his concubine. These women were greatly coveted as they were beautiful and talented, and what is more important, had links into the harem hierarchy.
Concubines could be considered an equivalent to the modern version of a "one night stand". They were odalisques that were presented to the Sultan and after that one night, they might never see the Sultan again unless the girl became pregnant with a male child. If she was successful in birthing a male child, then she would become an ikbal (favourite) to the Sultan. The female hierarchy followed the pattern of odalisques (virgins), concubines ("one night stands"), ikbals (favourites), and kadins (favourites "wives").
harem women formed only half of the harem hierarchy. Eunuchs were the integral other half of the harem. Eunuchs were considered to be less than men and thus unable to be "tempted" by the harem women and would remain solely loyal to the Sultan. Eunuchs were castrated men and hence possessed no threat to the sanctity of the harem.
According to Muslim tradition, no man could lay his eyes on another man's harem, thus someone less than a man was required for the role of watchful guardianship over the harem women. Eunuchs tended to be male prisoners of war or slaves, castrated before puberty and condemned to a life of servitude.
White eunuchs were first provided from the conquered Christian areas of Circassia, Georgia, and Armenia. They were also culled from Hungarian, Slavonian, and German prisoners of war. These white eunuchs were captured during the conflicts that arouse between the Ottoman Empire and the Balkan countries. Black eunuchs were captured from Egypt, Abyssinia and the Sudan. Black slaves were captured from the upper Nile and transported to markets on the Mediterranean Sea - Mecca, Medina, Beirut, Izmir and Istanbul. All eunuchs were castrated enroute to the markets by Egyptian Christians or Jews, as Islam prohibited the practice of castration but not the usage of castrated slaves.
There were several different varieties of eunuchs:
Sandali, or clean-shaven: The parts are swept off by a single cut of a razor, a tube (tin or wooden) is set in the urethra, the wound is cauterized with boiling oil, and the patient is planted in a fresh dung-hill. His diet is milk, and if under puberty he often survives.
The eunuch whose penis is removed: He retains all the power of copulation and procreation without the wherewithal; and this, since the discovery of caoutchouc, has often been supplied.
The eunuch, or classical thlibias and semivir, who has been rendered sexless by the removing of the testicles..., or by their being bruised..., twisted, seared or bandaged.
Black eunuchs tended to be of the first category: Sandali, while white eunuchs were of the second or third categories, thus have part or their entire penis intact. Because of their lack of parts, black eunuchs served in the harem, while white eunuchs served in the government (and away from the women). At the height of the Ottoman Empire, as many as six to eight hundred eunuchs served within the Seraglio (palace). Most eunuchs arrived as gifts from governors of different provinces. At the end of their training as young eunuch pages, eunuchs were assigned to service. White eunuchs were placed under the patronage of various government officials or even into the service of the Sultan himself (like in Topkapi Palace). If they were black eunuchs, they were placed into the service of a harem personage, such as a Kadin, or a daughter or sister of the Sultan. They could also serve under the Kizlar Agha (master of the girls), the Chief Black Eunuch.
The Kizlar Agha was the third highest-ranking officer of the empire, after the Sultan and the Grand Vizier (Chief Minister). He was the commander of the baltaci corps (or halberdiers - part of the imperial army). His position was a pasha (general) of three tails (tails referring to peacock tails, and the most number of tails permitted being four and worn by the Sultan). He could approach the Sultan at any time, and functioned as the private messenger between the Sultan and the Grand Vizier. He was the most important link between the Sultan and the Valide Sultan (mother of the sultan).
The Kizlar Agha led the new odalisque to the Sultan's bedchamber, and was the only "man" who could enter the harem should there have been any nocturnal emergencies. His duties were to protect the women, to provide and purchase the necessary odalisques for the harem, to oversee the promotion of the women (usually after the death of a higher-ranking kadin) and eunuchs. He acted as a witness for the Sultan's marriage, birth ceremonies, and arranged all the royal ceremonial events, such as circumcision parties, weddings, and fêtes. He also delivered sentence to harem women accused of crimes, taking the guilty women to the executioner to be placed into sacks and drowned in the Bosphorus which lay outside the Topkapi Palace.
The Chief White Eunuch was the head of the Inner Service (which is the palace bureaucracy) and the head of the Palace School (school for white eunuchs). He was also Gatekeeper-in-Chief, head of the infirmary, and master of ceremonies of the Seraglio. The Kapi Agha controlled all messages, petitions, and State documents addressed to the Sultan, and was allowed to speak to the Sultan in person. In 1591, Murad III transferred the powers from the white to the black eunuchs as there were too many embezzlements and various other nefarious crimes being attributed to the white eunuchs, among them being purported intimacy with the harem women.
. The Kapi Agha's loss of powers was seen through the decreasing of his ceremonial duties (which had various stipends entailed) and the decrease in his overall income. Originally, the Kapi Agha was the only eunuch allowed to speak to the Sultan alone, but as his importance decreased, the Valide Sultan and the Kizlar Agha were able to request private audience with the Sultan also. Because of their possible disloyalty, white eunuchs were assigned positions that did not bring them into contact with the harem women as many of them had incomplete castrations (still possessing of their penis). The total number of white eunuchs in the Seraglio at any given time was between 300 and 900.
In the late sixteen hundreds, the power of the black eunuchs grew. During the Kadinlar Sultanati, the eunuchs increased their political leverage by taking advantage of child Sultans or mentally incompetent ones. It was during this period of enthronement of child Sultans that caused political instability. The young teenage Sultans were "guided" by regencies formed by the Valide Sultan, the Grand Vizier and the Valides other supporters. The Kizlar Agha was the Valide Sultan's and the Kadin's intimate and value accomplice. | <urn:uuid:1457d078-35f6-4eb9-9494-107cb7225d2e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://acemalisi.com/en/istanbul/history/166-harem,-and-the-ottoman-women.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00129.warc.gz | en | 0.981852 | 2,702 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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-0.032021246... | 1 | HAREM, AND THE OTTOMAN WOMEN
- Rasul Dagsar
- Hits: 940
The harem was defined to be the women's quarter in a Muslim household. The Imperial harem (also known as the Seraglio harem) contained the combined households of the Valide Sultan (Queen Mother), the Sultan's favourites (hasekis), and the rest of his concubines (women whose main function was to entertain the Sultan in the bedchamber). It also contained all the Sultanas' (daughters of the Sultan) households. Many of the harem women would never see the Sultan and became the servants necessary for the daily functioning of the harem.
The reasons for harem existence can be seen from Ottoman cultural history. Ottoman tradition relied on slave concubinage along with legal marriage for reproduction. Slave concubinage was the taking of slave women for sexual reproduction. It served to emphasize the patriarchal nature of power (power being "hereditary" through sons only). Slave concubines, unlike wives, had no recognized lineage. Wives were feared to have vested interests in their own family's affairs, which would interfere with their loyalty to their husband, hence, concubines were preferred, if one could afford them. This led to the evolution of slave concubinage as an equal form of reproduction that did not carry the risks of marriage, mainly that of the potential betrayal of a wife. The powers of the harem women were exercised through their roles within the family. Although they had no legitimate claim to power, as their favour grew with the sultan, they acquired titles such as "Sultan Kadin" which solidified their notion of political power and legitimacy within the royal family was reflected with titles including "sultan."
During the sixteenth century, both male and female members of the imperial family used the title of "sultan". As the role of the royal favourite concubine (title: Sultan) eroded during the seventeenth century, the title designation also changed to "kadin" or "haseki," which were names originally reserved for less prominent members of the royal family. Henceforth, only the mother of the reigning Sultan was addressed as a Sultan: the Valide Sultan. The retention of the title of Sultan for the mother indicated the power of the Valide Sultan. After all, men could take as many concubines and odalisques as they desired, but they only had one mother.
Many of the concubines and odalisques of the Imperial harem were reputed to be among the most beautiful of women in the Ottoman Empire. Young girls of extraordinary beauty were sent to the sultan's court, often as gifts from the governors. Numerous harem women were Circassians, Georgians, and Abkhasians. They were usually bought from slave markets after being kidnapped or else sold by impoverished parents. Many Georgian and Circassian families encouraged their daughters to enter concubinage through slavery, as that promised to be a life of luxury and comfort. All slaves that entered the harem were termed odalisques or "women of the court" - general servants in the harem. Odalisques were not usually presented to the Sultan. Those that were of extraordinary beauty and talent, were seen as potential concubines, and trained accordingly. They learned to dance, recite poetry, play musical instruments, and master the erotic arts. Only the most gifted odalisques were presented to the Sultan as his personal gedikli (maids-in-waiting). Generally, odalisques would be assigned as servants to the oda (or court) of a harem mistress. For example, the Mistress of the Robes, or the Keeper of Baths, or the Keeper of Jewels, etc.
It was possible for these odalisques to rise through the ranks of the harem hierarchy and enjoy security through their power and position.
The most powerful women in the harem were the Valide Sultan and the Kadins. The Valide Sultan was responsible for the maintenance of order and peace inside the harem. Being a female elder in the Imperial family, the Valide was expected to serve as a guide and teacher to her son by educating him about the intricacies of state politics. Often, she was asked to intervene upon the Sultan's decisions when the Mufti (head of the Muslim religion), or the Viziers (ministers) felt that the Sultan may have made an erroneous decision.
Kadin's were the Sultan's favourite women. Tradition allowed only four principal Kadins but unlimited number of concubines. Kadins were equivalent in rank to that of a legal wife, and were given apartments, slaves, and eunuchs. For example, during the reign of Selim II (the Sot), his favourite, the bas kadin Nurbanu had an entourage of one hundred and fifty ladies-in-waiting. The amount of properties, clothing, jewelry, and allowances given, was all-proportional to the affection the Sultan held for them.
Odalisques were at the bottom of the harem hierarchy. They were considered to be general servants in the harem. They were not usually seen to be beautiful enough to become presented to the Sultan. Odalisques that were seen as potential candidates for concubinage were trained to become talented entertainers. The greatest honour a Sultan could bestow upon a male guest was to present him with an odalisque from his court who had not yet become his concubine. These women were greatly coveted as they were beautiful and talented, and what is more important, had links into the harem hierarchy.
Concubines could be considered an equivalent to the modern version of a "one night stand". They were odalisques that were presented to the Sultan and after that one night, they might never see the Sultan again unless the girl became pregnant with a male child. If she was successful in birthing a male child, then she would become an ikbal (favourite) to the Sultan. The female hierarchy followed the pattern of odalisques (virgins), concubines ("one night stands"), ikbals (favourites), and kadins (favourites "wives").
harem women formed only half of the harem hierarchy. Eunuchs were the integral other half of the harem. Eunuchs were considered to be less than men and thus unable to be "tempted" by the harem women and would remain solely loyal to the Sultan. Eunuchs were castrated men and hence possessed no threat to the sanctity of the harem.
According to Muslim tradition, no man could lay his eyes on another man's harem, thus someone less than a man was required for the role of watchful guardianship over the harem women. Eunuchs tended to be male prisoners of war or slaves, castrated before puberty and condemned to a life of servitude.
White eunuchs were first provided from the conquered Christian areas of Circassia, Georgia, and Armenia. They were also culled from Hungarian, Slavonian, and German prisoners of war. These white eunuchs were captured during the conflicts that arouse between the Ottoman Empire and the Balkan countries. Black eunuchs were captured from Egypt, Abyssinia and the Sudan. Black slaves were captured from the upper Nile and transported to markets on the Mediterranean Sea - Mecca, Medina, Beirut, Izmir and Istanbul. All eunuchs were castrated enroute to the markets by Egyptian Christians or Jews, as Islam prohibited the practice of castration but not the usage of castrated slaves.
There were several different varieties of eunuchs:
Sandali, or clean-shaven: The parts are swept off by a single cut of a razor, a tube (tin or wooden) is set in the urethra, the wound is cauterized with boiling oil, and the patient is planted in a fresh dung-hill. His diet is milk, and if under puberty he often survives.
The eunuch whose penis is removed: He retains all the power of copulation and procreation without the wherewithal; and this, since the discovery of caoutchouc, has often been supplied.
The eunuch, or classical thlibias and semivir, who has been rendered sexless by the removing of the testicles..., or by their being bruised..., twisted, seared or bandaged.
Black eunuchs tended to be of the first category: Sandali, while white eunuchs were of the second or third categories, thus have part or their entire penis intact. Because of their lack of parts, black eunuchs served in the harem, while white eunuchs served in the government (and away from the women). At the height of the Ottoman Empire, as many as six to eight hundred eunuchs served within the Seraglio (palace). Most eunuchs arrived as gifts from governors of different provinces. At the end of their training as young eunuch pages, eunuchs were assigned to service. White eunuchs were placed under the patronage of various government officials or even into the service of the Sultan himself (like in Topkapi Palace). If they were black eunuchs, they were placed into the service of a harem personage, such as a Kadin, or a daughter or sister of the Sultan. They could also serve under the Kizlar Agha (master of the girls), the Chief Black Eunuch.
The Kizlar Agha was the third highest-ranking officer of the empire, after the Sultan and the Grand Vizier (Chief Minister). He was the commander of the baltaci corps (or halberdiers - part of the imperial army). His position was a pasha (general) of three tails (tails referring to peacock tails, and the most number of tails permitted being four and worn by the Sultan). He could approach the Sultan at any time, and functioned as the private messenger between the Sultan and the Grand Vizier. He was the most important link between the Sultan and the Valide Sultan (mother of the sultan).
The Kizlar Agha led the new odalisque to the Sultan's bedchamber, and was the only "man" who could enter the harem should there have been any nocturnal emergencies. His duties were to protect the women, to provide and purchase the necessary odalisques for the harem, to oversee the promotion of the women (usually after the death of a higher-ranking kadin) and eunuchs. He acted as a witness for the Sultan's marriage, birth ceremonies, and arranged all the royal ceremonial events, such as circumcision parties, weddings, and fêtes. He also delivered sentence to harem women accused of crimes, taking the guilty women to the executioner to be placed into sacks and drowned in the Bosphorus which lay outside the Topkapi Palace.
The Chief White Eunuch was the head of the Inner Service (which is the palace bureaucracy) and the head of the Palace School (school for white eunuchs). He was also Gatekeeper-in-Chief, head of the infirmary, and master of ceremonies of the Seraglio. The Kapi Agha controlled all messages, petitions, and State documents addressed to the Sultan, and was allowed to speak to the Sultan in person. In 1591, Murad III transferred the powers from the white to the black eunuchs as there were too many embezzlements and various other nefarious crimes being attributed to the white eunuchs, among them being purported intimacy with the harem women.
. The Kapi Agha's loss of powers was seen through the decreasing of his ceremonial duties (which had various stipends entailed) and the decrease in his overall income. Originally, the Kapi Agha was the only eunuch allowed to speak to the Sultan alone, but as his importance decreased, the Valide Sultan and the Kizlar Agha were able to request private audience with the Sultan also. Because of their possible disloyalty, white eunuchs were assigned positions that did not bring them into contact with the harem women as many of them had incomplete castrations (still possessing of their penis). The total number of white eunuchs in the Seraglio at any given time was between 300 and 900.
In the late sixteen hundreds, the power of the black eunuchs grew. During the Kadinlar Sultanati, the eunuchs increased their political leverage by taking advantage of child Sultans or mentally incompetent ones. It was during this period of enthronement of child Sultans that caused political instability. The young teenage Sultans were "guided" by regencies formed by the Valide Sultan, the Grand Vizier and the Valides other supporters. The Kizlar Agha was the Valide Sultan's and the Kadin's intimate and value accomplice. | 2,695 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Not separated by rows of perforations. Separation is the means by which individual stamps are made easily detachable from each other.
In the early years, from 1840 to the 1850s, all stamps were imperforate, and had to be cut from the sheet with scissors or knife. This was time-consuming and error-prone (as mangled stamps of the era attest). Once reliable separation equipment became available, nations switched rapidly. Imperforate stamps have been issued occasionally since then, either because separation equipment was temporarily unavailable (in newborn nations for instance), or to makers of automatic stamp vending equipment (the United States did this in the 1900s and 1910s), as novelties for stamp collectors (particularly when stamps are issued in souvenir sheets), or as errors.
127 total views, 2 views today | <urn:uuid:1666e29f-8345-41ab-a6b9-97940e087f36> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://aps.org.au/explandict/imperforate/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00211.warc.gz | en | 0.982561 | 166 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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In the early years, from 1840 to the 1850s, all stamps were imperforate, and had to be cut from the sheet with scissors or knife. This was time-consuming and error-prone (as mangled stamps of the era attest). Once reliable separation equipment became available, nations switched rapidly. Imperforate stamps have been issued occasionally since then, either because separation equipment was temporarily unavailable (in newborn nations for instance), or to makers of automatic stamp vending equipment (the United States did this in the 1900s and 1910s), as novelties for stamp collectors (particularly when stamps are issued in souvenir sheets), or as errors.
127 total views, 2 views today | 181 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Prague is considered one of Europe's great Jewish cities. Jews have been living here since the 10th century, and by 1708 there were more Jews in Prague than anywhere else in Europe.
In the Middle Ages there two distinct Jewish communities in Prague: Jews from the West have settled around the Old-New Synagogue, and Jews from the Byzantine Empire were living around the Old Shul (today's Spanish Synagogue). The two settlements gradually merged and were confined in an enclosed ghetto. For centuries, Prague's Jews suffered from oppressive laws - in the 16th century they had to wear a yellow band as a mark of shame. Christians often accused them of starting fires, poisoning wells - any pretext for a pogrom would do. Discrimination was partially eased in 1784 by the Austrian emperor Joseph II, and the Jewish Quarter was named Josefov after him. In the mid 19th century the area was officially incorporated into Prague.
The Jewish Quarter of Prague contains many preserved historical sites despite a rocky history. In 1689 many of the buildings were destroyed in a fire, and reconstructions never matched the originals. Today most synagogues in the area are a part of the Jewish Museum and contain exhibits. The Maisel Synagogue is considered to be the golden age of the ghetto, but has been destroyed and rebuilt several times with its final reconstruction in the neo-gothic style. Today it is used as an event space for cultural events. The High Synagogue contains a collection of old Hebrew books and was built in the Renaissance style as a meeting place for the community officials in addition to the community meeting place at Jewish Town Hall. The Jewish Town Hall is best known for its two clocks with Roman and Hebrew numerals. The only baroque synagogue, the Klausen Synagogue contains an exhibit on the Torah and Jewish traditions.
The Pinkas Synagogue contains a powerful memorial of Holocaust victims, the first floor contains drawings from children in concentration camps as well as the names of victims lining the inner walls. Pinkas Synagogue still plays an active role in the Jewish community today. The only synagogue built in the Moorish Revival Style, the Spanish Synagogue, stands on the site of the oldest synagogue that was destroyed. It served as a hospital until WWII and now acts as a museum of Jewish History in Czech lands. The Old New Synagogue is Europe's oldest active synagogue. Legend says that the body of Golem lies in the attic of the Synagogue.
Perhaps the most powerful location in Josefev is the Old Jewish Cemetery, the largest of its kind in Europe. Because of limited space and use over three centuries (the earliest known grave being in 1439 and the most recent in 1787), levels were added on top of one another. In some places as many as twelve layers of graves are contained in one plot. This also explains the mass of gravestones, as some commemorate an individual on a lower layer. | <urn:uuid:aaa85ab8-41b0-4648-8f96-0b35ba583c69> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://toursandvacationsforwomen.com/tours_for_women_prague_jewish_prague | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00422.warc.gz | en | 0.980008 | 593 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.1959666311... | 2 | Prague is considered one of Europe's great Jewish cities. Jews have been living here since the 10th century, and by 1708 there were more Jews in Prague than anywhere else in Europe.
In the Middle Ages there two distinct Jewish communities in Prague: Jews from the West have settled around the Old-New Synagogue, and Jews from the Byzantine Empire were living around the Old Shul (today's Spanish Synagogue). The two settlements gradually merged and were confined in an enclosed ghetto. For centuries, Prague's Jews suffered from oppressive laws - in the 16th century they had to wear a yellow band as a mark of shame. Christians often accused them of starting fires, poisoning wells - any pretext for a pogrom would do. Discrimination was partially eased in 1784 by the Austrian emperor Joseph II, and the Jewish Quarter was named Josefov after him. In the mid 19th century the area was officially incorporated into Prague.
The Jewish Quarter of Prague contains many preserved historical sites despite a rocky history. In 1689 many of the buildings were destroyed in a fire, and reconstructions never matched the originals. Today most synagogues in the area are a part of the Jewish Museum and contain exhibits. The Maisel Synagogue is considered to be the golden age of the ghetto, but has been destroyed and rebuilt several times with its final reconstruction in the neo-gothic style. Today it is used as an event space for cultural events. The High Synagogue contains a collection of old Hebrew books and was built in the Renaissance style as a meeting place for the community officials in addition to the community meeting place at Jewish Town Hall. The Jewish Town Hall is best known for its two clocks with Roman and Hebrew numerals. The only baroque synagogue, the Klausen Synagogue contains an exhibit on the Torah and Jewish traditions.
The Pinkas Synagogue contains a powerful memorial of Holocaust victims, the first floor contains drawings from children in concentration camps as well as the names of victims lining the inner walls. Pinkas Synagogue still plays an active role in the Jewish community today. The only synagogue built in the Moorish Revival Style, the Spanish Synagogue, stands on the site of the oldest synagogue that was destroyed. It served as a hospital until WWII and now acts as a museum of Jewish History in Czech lands. The Old New Synagogue is Europe's oldest active synagogue. Legend says that the body of Golem lies in the attic of the Synagogue.
Perhaps the most powerful location in Josefev is the Old Jewish Cemetery, the largest of its kind in Europe. Because of limited space and use over three centuries (the earliest known grave being in 1439 and the most recent in 1787), levels were added on top of one another. In some places as many as twelve layers of graves are contained in one plot. This also explains the mass of gravestones, as some commemorate an individual on a lower layer. | 610 | ENGLISH | 1 |
History in Context
The 1870 U. S. Census found 4,274 Chinese living in Idaho ‒ 29% of the total population of the state at that time.
What Did They Do?
Chinese immigrants were attracted to Idaho for many reasons. First were the lure of gold and the potential for wealth or prosperity. But the early Chinese did much more than mine ‒ they also provided services for other miners and for the growing population that went with the mining boom. They raised gardens and cooked food, carried water to homes, washed and mended aundry and, later on, built railroads.
Note: City locations on this map are approximate. Some of the distances between cities have been exaggerated in order to prevent overlapping names. Click on a place name to learn about what happened there. | <urn:uuid:1c122752-6dc3-4c0f-8fc2-ae9765d8e632> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.noplaceproject.com/idaho | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00027.warc.gz | en | 0.981656 | 162 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.127796351909637... | 16 | History in Context
The 1870 U. S. Census found 4,274 Chinese living in Idaho ‒ 29% of the total population of the state at that time.
What Did They Do?
Chinese immigrants were attracted to Idaho for many reasons. First were the lure of gold and the potential for wealth or prosperity. But the early Chinese did much more than mine ‒ they also provided services for other miners and for the growing population that went with the mining boom. They raised gardens and cooked food, carried water to homes, washed and mended aundry and, later on, built railroads.
Note: City locations on this map are approximate. Some of the distances between cities have been exaggerated in order to prevent overlapping names. Click on a place name to learn about what happened there. | 167 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Whether you celebrate Christmas or not, the thought of being with family, giving gifts, and celebrating an exciting event is always a lot of fun. There really was no difference in this part when it came to the Elizabethans. Generally, they all loved the customs and festivals during Elizabethan period that were held each year.
The basis was on how much money you made and you were segregated for it.
How do you think you would feel? It would probably not be very good. Generally though, this is how society worked during the Elizabethan period. You were either considered upper class or lower class.
This was primarily decided by where you lived and how much money made. Perhaps much like today, it would depend greatly on your education level and the things you wore also.
The fortunate part is that the gap between upper class and lower class was starting to dissipate slightly. Still, the rich were getting rich, but the poor seemed to be doing quite well too.
Elizabethan Society The trade industry was blooming and most people had good steady jobs which paid well. People were able to provide for their families and this was something that the country had suffered for through many monarchs prior to Queen Elizabeth I. I believe it was the economy that also helped introduced some level of equality, if that is what you could call it.
With the huge renaissance among the literature and theatre in England, both upper class and lower class citizens alike were able to attend.
This is probably something that did not occur much in previous years.
Generally they were segregated heavily and probably not even around each other very much. Elizabethan Era Social Classes In the Elizabethan Social places like the theatres there was still special seating for the upper class which was usually dependent on the price that they paid.
Free Essay: Culture and Society in Elizabethan England Over the years, society has created and recreated different ideas of what is considered socially. Liza Picard describes how, between the Queen at the top and the beggars at the bottom, there was jockeying for position in the different levels of Elizabethan society. Elizabethan England. Exploration and trade, crime and punishment, clothing and social structure: explore key aspects of Elizabethan life, culture and society.
Generally the lower class would pay less which is fair and have standing room only. The sad part is that this was referred to as the "stinkard pit". This was clearly a derogatory reference to the lower class citizens that were forced into that area.
Overall, however, Elizabethan Society seemed to improve and make good progress towards equaling out the system between two separate classes.When an Elizabethan was born, he or she was born into a clearly defined place in society.
He spent his entire life in that place, and from constant reinforcement, he understood instinctively what was expected of him with regard to that place, and what he could expect from other members of society. For Elizabethan England, it has information on Elizabehan Costumes, Fashion, Crime, Torture, Theater, Arts and Culture, Family, Children, Family, Education, Medicine and many other facts about the Elizabethan attheheels.comethan Era is considered as a golden Era in English History..
We have also given detailed information of Superstitions, Laws, Religions during the period and also crimes and.
Transcript of Elizabethan era Culture. Elizabethan Culture By Mackenzie Sheehy Men's Dress The Elizabethan Era in England was a period of time where every aspect of daily life was based on social order with Monarchs, Queen Elizabeth 1, being the highest and laborers being the lowest.
The English Elizabethan Era is one of the most fascinating periods in the History of England. The Elizabethan Era is named after the greatest Queens of England - Queen Elizabeth I. drink, sports, music, education, language, medicine and marriage customs and culture of the era.
Facts and Information about the life and times of the famous. The Elizabethan Age was also an age of plots and conspiracies, frequently political in nature, and often involving the highest levels of Elizabethan society. High officials in Madrid, Paris and Rome sought to kill Elizabeth, a Protestant, and replace her with Mary, Queen of Scots, a Catholic.
Liza Picard describes how, between the Queen at the top and the beggars at the bottom, there was jockeying for position in the different levels of Elizabethan society. The social structure in Elizabethan England - The British Library. | <urn:uuid:8e1ffcaa-078c-4f45-9179-66e135acb6d5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://rosirekykot.attheheels.com/culture-and-society-in-elizabethan-england-25690qo.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00138.warc.gz | en | 0.983677 | 924 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.14498451352119... | 1 | Whether you celebrate Christmas or not, the thought of being with family, giving gifts, and celebrating an exciting event is always a lot of fun. There really was no difference in this part when it came to the Elizabethans. Generally, they all loved the customs and festivals during Elizabethan period that were held each year.
The basis was on how much money you made and you were segregated for it.
How do you think you would feel? It would probably not be very good. Generally though, this is how society worked during the Elizabethan period. You were either considered upper class or lower class.
This was primarily decided by where you lived and how much money made. Perhaps much like today, it would depend greatly on your education level and the things you wore also.
The fortunate part is that the gap between upper class and lower class was starting to dissipate slightly. Still, the rich were getting rich, but the poor seemed to be doing quite well too.
Elizabethan Society The trade industry was blooming and most people had good steady jobs which paid well. People were able to provide for their families and this was something that the country had suffered for through many monarchs prior to Queen Elizabeth I. I believe it was the economy that also helped introduced some level of equality, if that is what you could call it.
With the huge renaissance among the literature and theatre in England, both upper class and lower class citizens alike were able to attend.
This is probably something that did not occur much in previous years.
Generally they were segregated heavily and probably not even around each other very much. Elizabethan Era Social Classes In the Elizabethan Social places like the theatres there was still special seating for the upper class which was usually dependent on the price that they paid.
Free Essay: Culture and Society in Elizabethan England Over the years, society has created and recreated different ideas of what is considered socially. Liza Picard describes how, between the Queen at the top and the beggars at the bottom, there was jockeying for position in the different levels of Elizabethan society. Elizabethan England. Exploration and trade, crime and punishment, clothing and social structure: explore key aspects of Elizabethan life, culture and society.
Generally the lower class would pay less which is fair and have standing room only. The sad part is that this was referred to as the "stinkard pit". This was clearly a derogatory reference to the lower class citizens that were forced into that area.
Overall, however, Elizabethan Society seemed to improve and make good progress towards equaling out the system between two separate classes.When an Elizabethan was born, he or she was born into a clearly defined place in society.
He spent his entire life in that place, and from constant reinforcement, he understood instinctively what was expected of him with regard to that place, and what he could expect from other members of society. For Elizabethan England, it has information on Elizabehan Costumes, Fashion, Crime, Torture, Theater, Arts and Culture, Family, Children, Family, Education, Medicine and many other facts about the Elizabethan attheheels.comethan Era is considered as a golden Era in English History..
We have also given detailed information of Superstitions, Laws, Religions during the period and also crimes and.
Transcript of Elizabethan era Culture. Elizabethan Culture By Mackenzie Sheehy Men's Dress The Elizabethan Era in England was a period of time where every aspect of daily life was based on social order with Monarchs, Queen Elizabeth 1, being the highest and laborers being the lowest.
The English Elizabethan Era is one of the most fascinating periods in the History of England. The Elizabethan Era is named after the greatest Queens of England - Queen Elizabeth I. drink, sports, music, education, language, medicine and marriage customs and culture of the era.
Facts and Information about the life and times of the famous. The Elizabethan Age was also an age of plots and conspiracies, frequently political in nature, and often involving the highest levels of Elizabethan society. High officials in Madrid, Paris and Rome sought to kill Elizabeth, a Protestant, and replace her with Mary, Queen of Scots, a Catholic.
Liza Picard describes how, between the Queen at the top and the beggars at the bottom, there was jockeying for position in the different levels of Elizabethan society. The social structure in Elizabethan England - The British Library. | 908 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This is what we have been learning this week.
We have been learning about time this week. We spoke about what time is and talked about the seasons, months and days of the week and linked them to hours in a day. We discussed why it is important to tell the time and thought about real life examples of this. We recapped on what they could remember learning in P2 and went over how to read o’clock and half past. We discussed am, pm, earlier, later and spoke about 24 hour notation. We have gone on to learn about quarter to and quarter past on digital and analogue clocks and will be continuing with this next week.
We have continued to enjoy the children’s book talks and the variety of books they have chosen to speak about.
The children completed a piece of imaginative writing this week. The subject was Greyfriar’s Bobby and what might have happened if he had sneaked out of his house and started exploring Edinburgh. As well as focusing on punctuation and spelling we were trying to think of a beginning, middle, end and use describing words to make our story more interesting.
As part of our topic on homes and our local environment the children began to build their own houses using junk. We spoke about different types of houses and what they are called and the children identified the kind of house that they lived in. They drew a plan of their house first and chose the best materials for their design and explained why they had chosen them. They had to share the resources with their classmates and use problem solving skills to find ways of joining materials together and making their structure stable. The children were very engaged with this activity and tried very hard even though it was challenging at times. There will be an opportunity to finish their houses next week.
We were extremely fortunate to have a visit from Mrs Carter an archaeologist who spoke to the children about Buckstone 100, 500 and 2,000 years ago. This is what the children thought about her visit.
‘I learned a lot about the picts’
‘I loved looking at the stones’
‘I like the activities’
‘I found it really interesting’
We have been practising songs to perform at our carol concert on December 19th. We are raising money to help the Guide Dog charity .
Next week we will be accepting donations for our Christmas Fair hamper, our theme is Scotland.
Thanks so much for all the donations of tissues, we are nearly running out. Further donations of tissues gratefully received.
Have a lovely weekend.
P3M, Mrs Munro and Mrs Bailey | <urn:uuid:a788f379-74ce-458f-a3f4-e0aa809d3d59> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://buckstoneprimary.com/2019/11/22/p3m-22-11-19/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00079.warc.gz | en | 0.982163 | 542 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.441608875... | 1 | This is what we have been learning this week.
We have been learning about time this week. We spoke about what time is and talked about the seasons, months and days of the week and linked them to hours in a day. We discussed why it is important to tell the time and thought about real life examples of this. We recapped on what they could remember learning in P2 and went over how to read o’clock and half past. We discussed am, pm, earlier, later and spoke about 24 hour notation. We have gone on to learn about quarter to and quarter past on digital and analogue clocks and will be continuing with this next week.
We have continued to enjoy the children’s book talks and the variety of books they have chosen to speak about.
The children completed a piece of imaginative writing this week. The subject was Greyfriar’s Bobby and what might have happened if he had sneaked out of his house and started exploring Edinburgh. As well as focusing on punctuation and spelling we were trying to think of a beginning, middle, end and use describing words to make our story more interesting.
As part of our topic on homes and our local environment the children began to build their own houses using junk. We spoke about different types of houses and what they are called and the children identified the kind of house that they lived in. They drew a plan of their house first and chose the best materials for their design and explained why they had chosen them. They had to share the resources with their classmates and use problem solving skills to find ways of joining materials together and making their structure stable. The children were very engaged with this activity and tried very hard even though it was challenging at times. There will be an opportunity to finish their houses next week.
We were extremely fortunate to have a visit from Mrs Carter an archaeologist who spoke to the children about Buckstone 100, 500 and 2,000 years ago. This is what the children thought about her visit.
‘I learned a lot about the picts’
‘I loved looking at the stones’
‘I like the activities’
‘I found it really interesting’
We have been practising songs to perform at our carol concert on December 19th. We are raising money to help the Guide Dog charity .
Next week we will be accepting donations for our Christmas Fair hamper, our theme is Scotland.
Thanks so much for all the donations of tissues, we are nearly running out. Further donations of tissues gratefully received.
Have a lovely weekend.
P3M, Mrs Munro and Mrs Bailey | 531 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On Wednesday Year 3 classes watched the film Chariots of Fire following our Olympic themed lessons, and created an Olympic folder for their work. The film is about Eric Liddell, who faced a personal crisis in the 1924 Olympics, when his heat was scheduled on a Sunday. Liddell made the difficult decision not to run because of his religious beliefs.
The pupils considered the choice that Liddell made, and how your faith can affect your decisions. They observed how the Olympics have changed, such as all athletes wearing white and not their country colours as we see today. The races were very different to what we are used to, as the athletes run on grass and the winner runs through a piece of string across the finish line. They felt that the 1924 Olympics were more formal, but that interestingly the opening ceremony had remained much the same.
The classes designed their own front covers for the folders, depicting aspects of the Olympics. They created patterns using the Olympic ring design and illustrated the cover with images of different events and the Olympic torch, which some pupils had been lucky enough to see! | <urn:uuid:71aca4cb-1d36-4197-bedf-e3398bb420ed> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://christ-church.blogspot.com/2012/07/chariots-of-fire.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00071.warc.gz | en | 0.985842 | 221 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.3579080104827... | 3 | On Wednesday Year 3 classes watched the film Chariots of Fire following our Olympic themed lessons, and created an Olympic folder for their work. The film is about Eric Liddell, who faced a personal crisis in the 1924 Olympics, when his heat was scheduled on a Sunday. Liddell made the difficult decision not to run because of his religious beliefs.
The pupils considered the choice that Liddell made, and how your faith can affect your decisions. They observed how the Olympics have changed, such as all athletes wearing white and not their country colours as we see today. The races were very different to what we are used to, as the athletes run on grass and the winner runs through a piece of string across the finish line. They felt that the 1924 Olympics were more formal, but that interestingly the opening ceremony had remained much the same.
The classes designed their own front covers for the folders, depicting aspects of the Olympics. They created patterns using the Olympic ring design and illustrated the cover with images of different events and the Olympic torch, which some pupils had been lucky enough to see! | 229 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Gradually beer replaced wine as the population’s favourite drink. But inns and taverns remained as popular as ever.
‘Modest’ is perhaps the right word to describe the amount of beer drunk by the Viennese in the 1730s. It was about sixty-five litres per head per year: today the average Austrian drinks about twice that amount. From the end of the sixteenth century there was a steady increase in the consumption of beer; by the end of the eighteenth century it was the same as that of the most frequently consumed alcoholic drink, namely wine. In the 1730s the Viennese were still drinking around three times more wine than beer. Brandy and fruit juice also became more popular from the sixteenth century on. It was in particular in the towns that wine was an important drink, because the water supply there was often inadequate and could be a source of epidemics. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries the consumption of beer rose and that of wine fell, because increasing prices and taxation meant that the poorer classes could not afford it, so that drinking wine became more and more the preserve of the upper classes.
Alcoholic drinks were served in inns (Gasthäuser), which specialized in either beer or wine and also offered additional services such as beds for the night and fodder and stabling for horses. Taverns (Schenken), some of which also served as staging posts for mail-coaches, were important meeting-places for the inhabitants of both towns and villages: they were where infomation was exchanged, assemblies held and all kinds of occasions celebrated – weddings, baptisms, dances and so on. Because inns and taverns were also places where people might discuss politics and the ruling classes in a critical manner, they were regarded with suspicion by the authorities. They suspected that taverns were places where people gambled, dealt in stolen goods and indulged in immoral behaviour, while making use of the inns as places to recruit soldiers. The main concern of the authorities was to bring ‘order’ to the inns and taverns and to the towns in general: landlords were required, among other things, to check the passes issued to beggars and strangers, and to report people attending Protestant church services. | <urn:uuid:077fbdab-4ac2-4435-97c7-6177eafb2565> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.habsburger.net/en/chapter/merry-wine-and-beer-tales-inns-and-taverns | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00111.warc.gz | en | 0.989129 | 464 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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‘Modest’ is perhaps the right word to describe the amount of beer drunk by the Viennese in the 1730s. It was about sixty-five litres per head per year: today the average Austrian drinks about twice that amount. From the end of the sixteenth century there was a steady increase in the consumption of beer; by the end of the eighteenth century it was the same as that of the most frequently consumed alcoholic drink, namely wine. In the 1730s the Viennese were still drinking around three times more wine than beer. Brandy and fruit juice also became more popular from the sixteenth century on. It was in particular in the towns that wine was an important drink, because the water supply there was often inadequate and could be a source of epidemics. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries the consumption of beer rose and that of wine fell, because increasing prices and taxation meant that the poorer classes could not afford it, so that drinking wine became more and more the preserve of the upper classes.
Alcoholic drinks were served in inns (Gasthäuser), which specialized in either beer or wine and also offered additional services such as beds for the night and fodder and stabling for horses. Taverns (Schenken), some of which also served as staging posts for mail-coaches, were important meeting-places for the inhabitants of both towns and villages: they were where infomation was exchanged, assemblies held and all kinds of occasions celebrated – weddings, baptisms, dances and so on. Because inns and taverns were also places where people might discuss politics and the ruling classes in a critical manner, they were regarded with suspicion by the authorities. They suspected that taverns were places where people gambled, dealt in stolen goods and indulged in immoral behaviour, while making use of the inns as places to recruit soldiers. The main concern of the authorities was to bring ‘order’ to the inns and taverns and to the towns in general: landlords were required, among other things, to check the passes issued to beggars and strangers, and to report people attending Protestant church services. | 460 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Reconstruction clearly accomplished some things on its duty. It reinstated the United States back into one large nation again. It came a long way and after twelve years the confederate states recognized and acknowledged the 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments. They also drafted new constitutions. Reconstruction put to rest the federalism vs states’ rights debates. Reconstruction was not a complete success. They ultimately failed to shield previously freed slaves from white oppression. They also did not succeed in pushing changes in the south. Former confederate officials returned to power after president Rutherford B. Hayes pulled out troops from the south in the year 1877. This would then lead to the passing of the black codes by white southern politicians. The black codes were laws that were extremely discriminatory towards African Americans. Blacks were restricted incredibly from the freedom they were being led to have. Mississippi and south carolina would be the first two states to legislate these black codes. South carolina’s postwar constitution did not allow blacks to vote and continued to force racial qualifications. Black men were not allowed to make a living off of being an artisan, a mechanic, or a shopkeeper unless maintaining a license. Blacks were restricted on voting as well. They would have to take literacy tests which were nearly impossible to pass, they were restricted on having public meetings, and they would have to go back to working for a white. Reconstruction also brought the sharecropping system, basically a legal sequel to slavery. This forced blacks to stay on the same tracks as whites. They were “entitled” to land that had to be owned by wealthy whites. This grew rapidly in the South. By 1877, Northern states grew tired and wanted to be done with reconstruction and the scandals that traveled with it, making blacks have to battle this with their small levels of economic power. The Civil War maintained the Union and gave slaves freedom but after that came a drought of political focus on the division between the sections and an ignorance towards the long-term racial integration. When the war ended, the Union’s duty was to yield the south back into the nation, assist them to regain their economy and assist them fix their lands. The 10% plan was put forward. This proposed merciful way for southern states to return into the Union, but on April 14th, 1865, Lincoln was assassinated. This left the new president Andrew Johnson (a former slave owner) to introduce his version of reconstruction. The North essentially failed in rebuilding the south and its goal to bring the South back. The unsuccessful climate is shown in the year 1880 when the division between the North and South resembled Russia and Germany. The issues with reconstruction don’t end there. The rise of white supremacists in groups like the Klu Klux Klan combined with the Black Codes and intimidated and stripped liberties from freed African American slaves. The slaughterhouse cases; U.S. v. Cruikshank and U.S. v. Reese, drastically pulled back the black people’s rights. I believe that Reconstruction did make drastic changes, but the changes only lead it to be considered a failure. The North did not give its all into rebuilding the South into the Union. Racism made its way in society and into the new “free” blacks of society. It overall had ineffective attempts to bring back the Southern states into the union as an equal nation. It unsuccessfully merged whites with freed slaves into the nations society. | <urn:uuid:1c2e0720-a29c-4f59-8839-06dc1e5297f9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://relatewithkatypark.com/reconstruction-it-reinstated-the-united-states-back-into/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00231.warc.gz | en | 0.982618 | 697 | 4.21875 | 4 | [
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0.204774141311645... | 1 | Reconstruction clearly accomplished some things on its duty. It reinstated the United States back into one large nation again. It came a long way and after twelve years the confederate states recognized and acknowledged the 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments. They also drafted new constitutions. Reconstruction put to rest the federalism vs states’ rights debates. Reconstruction was not a complete success. They ultimately failed to shield previously freed slaves from white oppression. They also did not succeed in pushing changes in the south. Former confederate officials returned to power after president Rutherford B. Hayes pulled out troops from the south in the year 1877. This would then lead to the passing of the black codes by white southern politicians. The black codes were laws that were extremely discriminatory towards African Americans. Blacks were restricted incredibly from the freedom they were being led to have. Mississippi and south carolina would be the first two states to legislate these black codes. South carolina’s postwar constitution did not allow blacks to vote and continued to force racial qualifications. Black men were not allowed to make a living off of being an artisan, a mechanic, or a shopkeeper unless maintaining a license. Blacks were restricted on voting as well. They would have to take literacy tests which were nearly impossible to pass, they were restricted on having public meetings, and they would have to go back to working for a white. Reconstruction also brought the sharecropping system, basically a legal sequel to slavery. This forced blacks to stay on the same tracks as whites. They were “entitled” to land that had to be owned by wealthy whites. This grew rapidly in the South. By 1877, Northern states grew tired and wanted to be done with reconstruction and the scandals that traveled with it, making blacks have to battle this with their small levels of economic power. The Civil War maintained the Union and gave slaves freedom but after that came a drought of political focus on the division between the sections and an ignorance towards the long-term racial integration. When the war ended, the Union’s duty was to yield the south back into the nation, assist them to regain their economy and assist them fix their lands. The 10% plan was put forward. This proposed merciful way for southern states to return into the Union, but on April 14th, 1865, Lincoln was assassinated. This left the new president Andrew Johnson (a former slave owner) to introduce his version of reconstruction. The North essentially failed in rebuilding the south and its goal to bring the South back. The unsuccessful climate is shown in the year 1880 when the division between the North and South resembled Russia and Germany. The issues with reconstruction don’t end there. The rise of white supremacists in groups like the Klu Klux Klan combined with the Black Codes and intimidated and stripped liberties from freed African American slaves. The slaughterhouse cases; U.S. v. Cruikshank and U.S. v. Reese, drastically pulled back the black people’s rights. I believe that Reconstruction did make drastic changes, but the changes only lead it to be considered a failure. The North did not give its all into rebuilding the South into the Union. Racism made its way in society and into the new “free” blacks of society. It overall had ineffective attempts to bring back the Southern states into the union as an equal nation. It unsuccessfully merged whites with freed slaves into the nations society. | 711 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Cat belly dancing. Poor kitty!!!
And a little bit of history.
In the Viking era starting c. 793, the Norse raiders often captured and enslaved weaker peoples they encountered. In the Nordic countries the slaves were called Thralls. The thralls were mostly from Western Europe, among them many Franks, Anglo-Saxons, and Celts. There is evidence of German, Baltic, Slavic and south European slaves as well. The slave-trade was one of the pillars of Norse commerce during the 6th through 11th centuries. The practice came to an end when Catholicism became widespread throughout Scandinavia. As in the rest of Catholic Europe, the Church held that a Christian could not morally own another Christian. As the Thrall system died out, it was not replaced with the Serf system in most of the region | <urn:uuid:4d9122b2-75ab-4c38-a52e-59fd09542a3d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://randomposting.livejournal.com/282026.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00433.warc.gz | en | 0.983569 | 169 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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And a little bit of history.
In the Viking era starting c. 793, the Norse raiders often captured and enslaved weaker peoples they encountered. In the Nordic countries the slaves were called Thralls. The thralls were mostly from Western Europe, among them many Franks, Anglo-Saxons, and Celts. There is evidence of German, Baltic, Slavic and south European slaves as well. The slave-trade was one of the pillars of Norse commerce during the 6th through 11th centuries. The practice came to an end when Catholicism became widespread throughout Scandinavia. As in the rest of Catholic Europe, the Church held that a Christian could not morally own another Christian. As the Thrall system died out, it was not replaced with the Serf system in most of the region | 172 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Paul Laurence Dunbar was born in Dayton, Ohio in June of 1872. His parents, Joshua and Matilda, were former slaves in Kentucky during the Civil War. Dunbar’s mother had moved to Dayton along with her two sons from her first marriage. There she met Dunbar’s father who had escaped from slavery before the end of the war. He served in the 55th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment. It was one of only two black units in the war. He also went on to serve in the 5th Massachusetts Cavalry Regiment.
Dunbar’s parents did not have a happy marriage. There was great unhappiness that came to a head after the birth of their second child. Joshua Dunbar died in 1885 when Paul Dunbar was only 12 years old. It is known that Dunbar wrote his first poems when the was only six years old. He was reading them aloud by the time he was nine. Matilda Dunbar cared deeply for the her son’s education. She took the time to teaching him how to read, hoping he’d become a minister.
As a young man, Dunbar was the only African-American student in his high school class of 1890. He attended Central High School in Dayton. It was here that Dunbar first developed a love for writing as he worked editing the school newspaper and participating in literary societies.
When he was sixteen years old he published two poems, ‘Our Martyred Soldiers’ and ‘One the River’ in The Herald. Two years later he was writing for The Tattler.
After high school Dunbar did not have enough money to attend college or secure the law career he was hoping for. He eventually got a position as an elevator operator in Dayton. He was kept from a number of other professions due to his race. Dunbar’s free time was spent writing. Eventually a speaking opportunity at the Wester Association of Writer in Dayton culminated with Dunbar publishing his first collection of poetry, Oak and Ivy, in 1893. This work was traditional in its verse form but written in dialect.
It was clear from this first publication that Dunbar was a talented poet. He was recognized by the attorney Charles A. Thatcher who offered to pay for Dunbar’s college. He chose instead to persist purely in his writing career.
Positive reviews and endorsements from civil rights leaders such as Frederick Douglass brought Dunbar some fame. He spent time touring the United States and Great Britain reading his poetry aloud. His second and third collections, Majors and Minors and Lyrics of Lowly Life were published in 1896. The later established Dunbar as the foremost African-American poet in America. While in England he was able to find a publisher for a British edition of Lyrics of Lowly Life. He also became friend with musician Samuel Coleridge-Taylor with whom he collaborated on an opera.
Unfortunately, as Dunbar’s success grew, so too did his health and financial problems. Dunbar was known to handle his money recklessly and was not able to support himself and his mother. In 1898 Dunbar married fellow writer Alice Ruth Monroe. It was this same year that he published his first collection of short stories, Folks from Dixie. This work focused on the examining of racial prejudice and was received well.
The couple moved to Washington, D.C. where Dunbar had taken a job at the library of Congress. They lived in a comfortable neighbourhood but Dunbar soon left his job to refocus on his writing. In 1900 Dunbar’s health was failing. He was diagnosed with tuberculosis, a disease that was mostly fatal at this time. Dunbar’s doctors recommended he drink whiskey and move to Colorado to help his symptoms.
Later Life and Death
The diagnosis sent Dunbar into a tailspin. He developed a drinking problem and Alice eventually broke off contact with him after he had abused her continuously for three years. He moved back to Dayton in 1904 to be with his mother. The last years of his life were spent writing all manner of works from his mother’s home. It was there that he passed away in February of 1906 at only thirty-three. He was interred in the Woodland Cemetery in Dayton.
Today, Paul Lawrence Dunbar is considered one of the most important writers of the early 20th century and his legacy continues to influence Modern American literature. | <urn:uuid:aa660bbd-2573-49e8-a49a-5549dc8821bc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://poemanalysis.com/biography-of-paul-laurence-dunbar/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00043.warc.gz | en | 0.99376 | 906 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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-0.0007230... | 4 | Paul Laurence Dunbar was born in Dayton, Ohio in June of 1872. His parents, Joshua and Matilda, were former slaves in Kentucky during the Civil War. Dunbar’s mother had moved to Dayton along with her two sons from her first marriage. There she met Dunbar’s father who had escaped from slavery before the end of the war. He served in the 55th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment. It was one of only two black units in the war. He also went on to serve in the 5th Massachusetts Cavalry Regiment.
Dunbar’s parents did not have a happy marriage. There was great unhappiness that came to a head after the birth of their second child. Joshua Dunbar died in 1885 when Paul Dunbar was only 12 years old. It is known that Dunbar wrote his first poems when the was only six years old. He was reading them aloud by the time he was nine. Matilda Dunbar cared deeply for the her son’s education. She took the time to teaching him how to read, hoping he’d become a minister.
As a young man, Dunbar was the only African-American student in his high school class of 1890. He attended Central High School in Dayton. It was here that Dunbar first developed a love for writing as he worked editing the school newspaper and participating in literary societies.
When he was sixteen years old he published two poems, ‘Our Martyred Soldiers’ and ‘One the River’ in The Herald. Two years later he was writing for The Tattler.
After high school Dunbar did not have enough money to attend college or secure the law career he was hoping for. He eventually got a position as an elevator operator in Dayton. He was kept from a number of other professions due to his race. Dunbar’s free time was spent writing. Eventually a speaking opportunity at the Wester Association of Writer in Dayton culminated with Dunbar publishing his first collection of poetry, Oak and Ivy, in 1893. This work was traditional in its verse form but written in dialect.
It was clear from this first publication that Dunbar was a talented poet. He was recognized by the attorney Charles A. Thatcher who offered to pay for Dunbar’s college. He chose instead to persist purely in his writing career.
Positive reviews and endorsements from civil rights leaders such as Frederick Douglass brought Dunbar some fame. He spent time touring the United States and Great Britain reading his poetry aloud. His second and third collections, Majors and Minors and Lyrics of Lowly Life were published in 1896. The later established Dunbar as the foremost African-American poet in America. While in England he was able to find a publisher for a British edition of Lyrics of Lowly Life. He also became friend with musician Samuel Coleridge-Taylor with whom he collaborated on an opera.
Unfortunately, as Dunbar’s success grew, so too did his health and financial problems. Dunbar was known to handle his money recklessly and was not able to support himself and his mother. In 1898 Dunbar married fellow writer Alice Ruth Monroe. It was this same year that he published his first collection of short stories, Folks from Dixie. This work focused on the examining of racial prejudice and was received well.
The couple moved to Washington, D.C. where Dunbar had taken a job at the library of Congress. They lived in a comfortable neighbourhood but Dunbar soon left his job to refocus on his writing. In 1900 Dunbar’s health was failing. He was diagnosed with tuberculosis, a disease that was mostly fatal at this time. Dunbar’s doctors recommended he drink whiskey and move to Colorado to help his symptoms.
Later Life and Death
The diagnosis sent Dunbar into a tailspin. He developed a drinking problem and Alice eventually broke off contact with him after he had abused her continuously for three years. He moved back to Dayton in 1904 to be with his mother. The last years of his life were spent writing all manner of works from his mother’s home. It was there that he passed away in February of 1906 at only thirty-three. He was interred in the Woodland Cemetery in Dayton.
Today, Paul Lawrence Dunbar is considered one of the most important writers of the early 20th century and his legacy continues to influence Modern American literature. | 908 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Harry was in a terrible situation: it was 1828 and Harry was an enslaved man in northern Virginia. Because Harry was enslaved, he had no documented surname. On learning that his owner, a “Miss Allison” of Stafford County, Virginia, was planning to sell him to slave traders to take him further south, Harry decided to escape.
Harry’s labor was being rented out by his owner to a man named Samuel Cox, in Loudoun County. Loudoun County was closer to the free state of Pennslyvania than where Harry normally lived and worked. He decided to take a chance and approach a free black man named Alex McPherson, asking to borrow McPherson’s manumission “freedom paper.” This paper was a court document that must be carried by all free blacks verifying their freed status. Alex McPherson, at great risk to his own safety and liberty, agreed to lend Harry his paper, but insisted the paper be returned to him as soon as possible. Harry would carry the paper north. If the worst happened and he was stopped and questioned along the way, Harry planned to show the paper and claim to be a free man.
Before leaving northern Virginia, Harry needed to learn the best route north. Once safely in a free state, he would need a job and place to live. For this help, Harry turned to local Quakers. It was common knowledge where the Loudoun County Quaker communities were located, including the village of Goose Creek (later re-named Lincoln.)
Harry would end up at the home of Yardley and Hannah Taylor. Yardley Taylor was a farmer and a mail carrier for Loudoun County. The Taylor’s ran a tree nursery at their property, ‘Evergreen,’ on the edge of Lincoln. From the 1820’s through 1850’s Yardley gave public speeches against slavery and wrote abolitionist articles and letters to Leesburg newspapers. He was president of various anti-slavery societies. Here is a newspaper article describing an “Anti-Slavery Convention” Yardley Taylor and other Virginia abolitionists attended. The convention was held at the one room school house near Goose Creek Meetinghouse, in Lincoln:
Did freedom seeking, enslaved Harry know of Yardley’s abolitionist efforts? On Jan. 23, 1828, Harry approached the home of Yardley and Hannah Taylor, near Lincoln, and asked for help. Yardley agreed to help him, writing a letter for Harry to carry north to fellow Quaker Jonathan Jessop of York, PA, a man experienced in helping slaves escape bondage. The term ‘Underground Railroad’ didn’t become common until the 1840s; Harry, Yardley Taylor and Jonathan Jessup were acting in a way that would eventually define that term.
Yardley’s letter (see below) to Jessop explained that Harry was “a man of good character,” who was to be sold to slave traders. Yardley wrote Harry would be “forced to the south by a set of men who to say the least of them their mercies are cruel.” Yardley asked Jessop to return Alex McPherson’s freedom paper quickly. He warned that the paper must not be mailed back, but sent in person by “safe conveyance.” Yardley Taylor possibly thought his own mail was under surveillance.
Trascription of Yardley Taylor January 23, 1828 letter carried by fugitive enslaved man Harry to Jonathan Jessup, York Pennsylvania:
1st mo [January] 23rd 1828
Respected Freind [sic]
Not knowing who to direct this communication to particularly, Ive concluded to direct to thee, and request Thy particular attention to thesubject of it, he being a respectable person of color who it seems, cannot much longer enjoy the situation that he has hitherto; however unpleasant it may have been, he was willing to continue in that situation, but that being denied him, he has come to the determination of leaving here and seeking his fortune somewhere to the Northward in preference to being separated from those he holds most dear, and forced to the south by a set of men to say the least of them their mercies are cruel. He has borrowed of a neighboring colored man a certificate of the Clerk of the United States court of Washington to serve as a passport, on condition of its being returned, and I have promised to assist him in its return, and request thee to take it and forward it to me by a safe private conveyance, that it may be returnd to the propert owner.
My conduct in this respect would be censured pretty strongly by many here, and if proven might subject me to some difficulty, and indeed it is not pleasant, but when a fellow creature groaning under servitude, with the prospect of its being rendered doubly severe, and requests a favor of this kind I cannot deny him. If no private conveyance should offer pretty soon please drop me a few lines by post directed to Purcells store post office to let me know how he has got along-but be particular about the certificagte and send it byt safe conveyance and oblige thine [friend]
Loudon [sic] County
Yardley also gave Harry a small piece of paper which listed six towns through which Harry would pass on his journey to York: “From Frederick to Woodborough 13 miles Taneytown 14 miles… .” This information would direct Harry as he walked from town to town on unfamiliar roads.
A modern mapping of this route shows how precise and straight it led north to safety. Had Yardley Taylor or someone he knew, mapped this route out previously? Had it been used before?
The envelope Yardley addressed to Jessop, containing Yardley’s letter, also bears different handwriting:
“This Taken by me from Negro slave named Harry the 28th day 1828 January, belonging or as he says to Pa [Pennsylvania] … Jonas Dixon.”
Dixon’s notation on the envelope explains a tragedy: Harry got caught. Five days after receiving Yardley’s help on Jan. 23, Harry was stopped and questioned by Dixon, who possibly was a slave catcher on Maryland roads. (More research on Jonas Dixon is needed.) When stopped, Harry would have shown the freedom paper and claimed that he was Alex McPherson. That ruse obviously didn’t work. Once Harry’s pockets were searched and Yardley Taylor’s letter was found and read, the desperate gamble was lost.
Harry was brought back to Loudoun County and put in the Leesburg jail. Virginia law punished an attempted slavery escape with public lashing; the Leesburg courthouse grounds had a public whipping post for such occasions. Public punishment set an example and served as warning to other slaves. Harry’s owner would have been contacted to come to Leesburg and pick up her property. Either she or her farm overseer would come and take Harry back to Stafford County, maybe to physically punish him further. Then what Harry most feared – being sold to slave traders and forced south – would have happened. After all, that is what his owner had intended for him before his escape. Now she had all the more reason to sell Harry: he had proven himself to be troublesome.
By loaning out his freedom papers, Alex McPherson might find his own freedom in jeopardy; Virginia law forebade helping a slave escape and punishment for freed blacks helping in this manner was to lose their own freed status. (Again, further research is needed to find McPherson’s fate.) McPherson would not be able to assert that his papers had been lost or stolen because Yardley Taylor’s letter laid out McPherson’s involvement. Knowing Alex was vulnerable to harsh punishment would have added to the misery felt by both Harry and Yardley when the escape effort failed.
Yardley Taylor was arrested for “enticing, persuading and advising a certain negro slave named Harry… .” Yardley was put in jail in Leesburg. Neighbor and fellow Quaker Daniel Cockrill posted Yardley Taylor’s $500 bail. Yardley pled Not Guilty and the case dragged on for two years. Finally, Yardley changed his plea to Guilty, and paid a $20 fine plus costs.
The documents: Alex McPherson’s freedom paper, Yardley Taylor’s letter to Jonathan Jessup of York, Pennsylvania, Yardley’s paper listing towns/mileage, and the letter envelope, as well as several warrants from the Loudoun County sheriff regarding Yardley Taylor court appearances for “enticing persuading & advising a certain negro slave named Harry the property of Miss Allison of Stafford County from the employment & possession of Samuel Cox of Loudoun County …” are all in the Loudoun County Courthouse Historic Records and Deeds Research Division, Leesburg, VA. They are public records; anyone can request to see the documents. They are rare pieces of our American story.
Yardley Taylor was President of the Loudoun County Manumission and Emigration Society during the middle of the 1820’s, and perhaps kept that position leading up to his arrest in 1828. The nation’s Manumission and Emigration Society chapters were dedicated to buying the freedom of enslaved men and women, then paying for their passage to Liberia, in western Africa. When that long ocean voyage proved too financially prohibitive, the Societies began raising money to send freed slaves to the newly established country of Haiti.
Eventually many anti-slavery activists found the notion of raising money to send formerly enslaved men and women abroad to be both impractical and wrong: why should black Americans have to leave the country to live free? The focus remained on manumission and outright abolitionism.
A column written by Yardley Taylor in his role as President of the Manumission and Emigration Society can be found here. The column makes clear the Society also worked to education and persuade Americans that slavery was against their own self-interest, as well as being an immoral institution unworthy of such a great nation.
After Yardley Taylor’s 1828 arrest, he eventually reclaimed his life’s routines: grafting apple trees, delivering mail, attending Goose Creek Meeting regularly, with his extended Quaker family. He never gave up abolitionist efforts, however, and regularly wrote letters to the local papers on the topic. In 1856 new attention was drawn to Yardley and his fellow anti-slavery activists of Lincoln, when national newspapers picked up on a meeting held at their village school. That extraordinary episode has a page on Nest of Abolitionists, found here. One result of the incident was this broadsheet, posted around Loudoun County:
TO YARDLEY TAYLOR, ESQ.
SIR: There are but few persons in the county, I presume, who have not heard of you as the Chief of the abolition clan in Loudoun. I am free to award to you this position, for the bold –which you have uniformly exhibited in promulgating the odious doctrines of your sect, fully entitle you, in my opinion, to the distinction.
Although your name has gone abroad and you are pretty generally known, through the county at least, yet there are some persons, I have no doubt, who have never had the pleasure of seeing you. For their benefit, as well as for your own, (for you certainly have never seen yourself as others see you,) I propose to describe as well as I can, your personal appearance. My method of executing this task may appear to many as somewhat novel, but as it was the first plan that suggested itself to my mind, I have adopted it.
To see you to advantage, the spectator should station himself in the middle of the turnpike at Heaton’s Cross-roads, on the bright summer afternoon on an eastern mail day, at about “two or three o’clock.” If he will now look straight down the road leading to Goose Creek, ten to one he will soon see emerging from the wood at the end of the lane, a square built, heavy set, hugely footed, not very courtly figure of an old man, mounted on the vertebre of a somewhat lusty animal, with one hand tightly grasping the rein, and the other holding on, – like the witch to the tail of Tam O’Shanter’s grey mare, Meg, – to a little black bag (Pandora’s box was nothing, I imagine, but a little black bag after all) containing the Goose Creek mail.
Such is the remarkable personage as he appears to the spectator from the stand-point above indicated, riding along in a brisk trot, with a demure visage and meditative air; tormenting his brain, it may be, to discover a more successful method than has hitherto been pursued of relieving his neighbors of the encumbrance of their slaves, or else (and this is the more charitable supposition) taxing his genius to devise some plan for resisting the depredations of the Krout weed.
I am well aware that the picture I have drawn is far from perfect. To do full justice to your figure would require the pencil of a Hogarth. Imperfect as the portrait may be, I have no doubt it will enable you to recognize the original.
Having endeavored to describe your person, I now propose to portray your character. This I shall do by an examination of your principles and conduct.
Let me begin by an inquiry into your motives for seeking an interview with me at this late day. More than a year has elapsed since your abolition demonstration at Goose Creek, and the excitement which it produced has long since subsided. Did you mistake the calm which followed for a verdict of acquittal, and suppose that sympathy had taken the place of resentment? – This must have been your reasoning, or surely you never would have hazarded the expression of such revolting sentiments, or made such a confession of guilt in public as you did in the conversation which took place at the interview referred to. It may be you had the folly to imagine that you might obtain from me a recantation of something I had previously said. If this were one of your motives, you were never more mistaken. I have nothing to recant, as I then distinctly told you. And you are laboring under an equally gross delusion, in my opinion, in supposing that the time has come when you can preach your incendiary doctrines with impunity. Or did you seek this talk with the view of ascertaining how far you dare go in your assaults upon Southern institutions? But I shall prosecute the inquiry no further.
You commenced the conversation by declaring your entire innocence of the charge upon which you were arrested and brought to trial of aiding in the escape of a fugitive slave; but when subjected to the test of a searching examination you admitted that a runaway slave came to your house; [it seems rather singular that all the runaways should stumble upon your residence, but of course it is all accidental,] that you knew him to be a runaway slave; that you took him by the hand and led him gently in, and fed him, and after furnishing him with a letter to a friend in Pennsylvania, sent him on his way rejoicing. And what was your apology for this atrocious offence? – that you were acting in conformity with the principles of your religion. Monstrous! Monstrous! This was the excuse offered by Mahomet to palliate the guilt of his wholesale destruction of human life. It was the plea of the infamous Charles of France and his Catholic minions for putting to death in one single night seven thousand of his Protestant subjects. And in later days the abominations of Mormonism, and the A—are justified upon the same ground. Oh Yardley! Yardley! Who would have dreamed that your own confession could make your guilt so clear.
The opinions you avowed on that occasion were equally startling with the confession you made. You very gravely maintained that when the municipal law fails to square with your own peculiar notions of that “higher law,” of which you are the advocate, your obligations to the government extend no farther than a submission to the penalty. – Have you ever reflected upon the consequences of this dangerous doctrine? It justifies resistance to all positive law. The act of Congress providing for the reclamation of fugitive slaves may be resisted, trampled upon even to the forcible taking of the slave from the lawful custody of the officer or owner, and to the taking of life itself, without the fear of violating a single moral obligation, if this doctrine be earnest. Where death is the penalty, how disastrous soever the violation of the law may have been in its consequences, all that the offender has got to do, is to surrender his body to the executioner, and his soul, released from its bonds, goes straightly to Heaven.
The principle of moral and positive laws is the same, and the same obligation rests upon us to obey the one as the other. The good man makes no distinction. The object of penalties is to enforce obedience to the laws, by deterring men from their violation. They are not designed as a equivalent for the commission of an offence. A man is, therefore, very far from performing his whole duty to society by simply submitting to the penalty of a violated law. He is under a high moral obligation to do more than this – he must obey that law. The Bible, morality, and patriotism, all alike unite in enjoining it as a solemn duty which every man owes to the government which affords him protection.
Knowing you as well as I did, I was prepared for the announcement of sentiments the most revolting in their character, provided you were candid and bold enough to give them utterance; but really I was perfectly astonished when you suggested the difficulty of adducing any more valid objections against marrying a negro wench, than in wedding an Indian beauty. Comment here is unnecessary.
You told us something about the trouble some of your neighbors and confederates in crime got into, in a neighboring County of the State. I remember hearing an account of this long ago; but the version then given, was very different from the one you gave. There are a few prominent facts connected with the affair, of which I have the most distinct recollection. These gallant Knights of the Black-faces were down South it seems, on some sort of a negro expedition. Pretty soon after arriving on the field of operations, the object of their — leaked out by some means, and thus found it necessary for their comfort and safety to beat a precipitate retreat, in order to avoid the consequences of the indignation they had excited.
I remember, also, hearing many years ago the story of Lovett’s Phil. You were personally concerned in this affair, I believe. I am sorry it did not occur to me to mention this subject to you, on the occasion of our talk the other day; as I have no doubt you would have given the particulars with all the frankness with which you narrated other of your adventures. I think, however, you succeeded in putting Phil through. The success which has invariably attended your efforts in this line, would seem to argue the possession of no small degree of skill in the business: a fact which is well known, I dare say, and properly appreciated in a certain quarter. This accounts, I presume, for the immensity of your abolition correspondence of which you spoke. You told us, however, that your Northern allies complained of you. Perhaps you are not accomplishing quite as much as they have a right to expect from the superior skill and ability with which you have heretofore managed the affairs of the Under-Ground Railroad Company. You might plead to these complainings by showing that your location, although as favorable, or perhaps, more so, than any other in the South, yet from the very fact of being in a quasi Southern county is not quite so propitious a point for the prosecution of your philanthropic labors, as if the entirety of its surrounds were anti-slavery. I am well aware, however, that to all this it could be replied, that the immediate vicinity of your residence is entirely favorable to the furtherance of your designs; while beyond the limits of this neighborhood, and through the County generally, your principles have made such inroads, and are acquiring such an influence, that the difficulties which have hitherto opposed you, are becoming less formidable every day, as well as rapidly diminishing in number. You said much more in that talk; but I will let it pass for the present.
There are some points upon which I desire more information than I possess; will you have the kindness to enlighten me? Is Loudoun indebted to you for the distinguished honor of having one of her citizens – a near neighbor of yours – appointed Trustee of the African Female Seminary in the national metropolis? Who was the wretch that wrote that slanderous, blackguard, scurrilous, dirty, vile, miserable doggerel letter, which was read all over your neighborhood, and then sent me through the mail? Is it a fact this obscure production was publicly read in one of your Goose Creek Schools, for the benefit of the pupils? This letter was only one of the many wrongs, you and your adherents, have done me. Think you I can easily forget such treatment? It was with the view of screening yourselves from the consequences of the grievous wrongs you had committed at the Goose Creek meeting, that you wantonly assailed me with that tissue of falsehoods which appeared in the Alexandria Sentinel. “He is poor –unsustained by family influence, or wealthy connexions, and it will be an easy matter to shift the burden of our sins on to his shoulders; for we are powerful: – it will crush him and save us.” This was your reasoning. But you have neither crushed me, nor have you deterred me from exposing your vile conduct.
A few more words and I have said enough –people of — are not yet sufficiently imbued with your principles to tolerate any flagrant interference with their slave property; yet, judging from my observations of the last few years, I believe the time must soon come – if you will only exercise the proper discretion – when you need fear nothing. Many slave-holders already feel and fear your influence, and hold their tongues – I allude to the influence of your party. It deters the public functionaries of the County from the performance of their duties and entails upon the community evils which our laws are powerless to remedy. But this influence does not stop here, ——- Your obedient servant, J. [James F.] Trayhern July 28, 1857
Further Reading: Yardley Taylor and Samuel M. Janney are mentioned in a anguished Reconstruction letter.
Yardley Taylor’s nephew Kirkbride Taylor chose to fight for the Confederacy when war broke out in 1861. Here is Kirkbride Taylor’s story.
Hannah Brown Taylor (1795-1880) was Yardley Taylor’s wife and the mother of eight children. She worked alongside her husband at Evergreen Farm. Her daguerreotype can be seen here. | <urn:uuid:8fff63ef-fc7c-491b-8e17-3d1564c13320> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://lincolnquakers.com/yardley-taylor/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00082.warc.gz | en | 0.980147 | 4,839 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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-0.08690151572227... | 13 | Harry was in a terrible situation: it was 1828 and Harry was an enslaved man in northern Virginia. Because Harry was enslaved, he had no documented surname. On learning that his owner, a “Miss Allison” of Stafford County, Virginia, was planning to sell him to slave traders to take him further south, Harry decided to escape.
Harry’s labor was being rented out by his owner to a man named Samuel Cox, in Loudoun County. Loudoun County was closer to the free state of Pennslyvania than where Harry normally lived and worked. He decided to take a chance and approach a free black man named Alex McPherson, asking to borrow McPherson’s manumission “freedom paper.” This paper was a court document that must be carried by all free blacks verifying their freed status. Alex McPherson, at great risk to his own safety and liberty, agreed to lend Harry his paper, but insisted the paper be returned to him as soon as possible. Harry would carry the paper north. If the worst happened and he was stopped and questioned along the way, Harry planned to show the paper and claim to be a free man.
Before leaving northern Virginia, Harry needed to learn the best route north. Once safely in a free state, he would need a job and place to live. For this help, Harry turned to local Quakers. It was common knowledge where the Loudoun County Quaker communities were located, including the village of Goose Creek (later re-named Lincoln.)
Harry would end up at the home of Yardley and Hannah Taylor. Yardley Taylor was a farmer and a mail carrier for Loudoun County. The Taylor’s ran a tree nursery at their property, ‘Evergreen,’ on the edge of Lincoln. From the 1820’s through 1850’s Yardley gave public speeches against slavery and wrote abolitionist articles and letters to Leesburg newspapers. He was president of various anti-slavery societies. Here is a newspaper article describing an “Anti-Slavery Convention” Yardley Taylor and other Virginia abolitionists attended. The convention was held at the one room school house near Goose Creek Meetinghouse, in Lincoln:
Did freedom seeking, enslaved Harry know of Yardley’s abolitionist efforts? On Jan. 23, 1828, Harry approached the home of Yardley and Hannah Taylor, near Lincoln, and asked for help. Yardley agreed to help him, writing a letter for Harry to carry north to fellow Quaker Jonathan Jessop of York, PA, a man experienced in helping slaves escape bondage. The term ‘Underground Railroad’ didn’t become common until the 1840s; Harry, Yardley Taylor and Jonathan Jessup were acting in a way that would eventually define that term.
Yardley’s letter (see below) to Jessop explained that Harry was “a man of good character,” who was to be sold to slave traders. Yardley wrote Harry would be “forced to the south by a set of men who to say the least of them their mercies are cruel.” Yardley asked Jessop to return Alex McPherson’s freedom paper quickly. He warned that the paper must not be mailed back, but sent in person by “safe conveyance.” Yardley Taylor possibly thought his own mail was under surveillance.
Trascription of Yardley Taylor January 23, 1828 letter carried by fugitive enslaved man Harry to Jonathan Jessup, York Pennsylvania:
1st mo [January] 23rd 1828
Respected Freind [sic]
Not knowing who to direct this communication to particularly, Ive concluded to direct to thee, and request Thy particular attention to thesubject of it, he being a respectable person of color who it seems, cannot much longer enjoy the situation that he has hitherto; however unpleasant it may have been, he was willing to continue in that situation, but that being denied him, he has come to the determination of leaving here and seeking his fortune somewhere to the Northward in preference to being separated from those he holds most dear, and forced to the south by a set of men to say the least of them their mercies are cruel. He has borrowed of a neighboring colored man a certificate of the Clerk of the United States court of Washington to serve as a passport, on condition of its being returned, and I have promised to assist him in its return, and request thee to take it and forward it to me by a safe private conveyance, that it may be returnd to the propert owner.
My conduct in this respect would be censured pretty strongly by many here, and if proven might subject me to some difficulty, and indeed it is not pleasant, but when a fellow creature groaning under servitude, with the prospect of its being rendered doubly severe, and requests a favor of this kind I cannot deny him. If no private conveyance should offer pretty soon please drop me a few lines by post directed to Purcells store post office to let me know how he has got along-but be particular about the certificagte and send it byt safe conveyance and oblige thine [friend]
Loudon [sic] County
Yardley also gave Harry a small piece of paper which listed six towns through which Harry would pass on his journey to York: “From Frederick to Woodborough 13 miles Taneytown 14 miles… .” This information would direct Harry as he walked from town to town on unfamiliar roads.
A modern mapping of this route shows how precise and straight it led north to safety. Had Yardley Taylor or someone he knew, mapped this route out previously? Had it been used before?
The envelope Yardley addressed to Jessop, containing Yardley’s letter, also bears different handwriting:
“This Taken by me from Negro slave named Harry the 28th day 1828 January, belonging or as he says to Pa [Pennsylvania] … Jonas Dixon.”
Dixon’s notation on the envelope explains a tragedy: Harry got caught. Five days after receiving Yardley’s help on Jan. 23, Harry was stopped and questioned by Dixon, who possibly was a slave catcher on Maryland roads. (More research on Jonas Dixon is needed.) When stopped, Harry would have shown the freedom paper and claimed that he was Alex McPherson. That ruse obviously didn’t work. Once Harry’s pockets were searched and Yardley Taylor’s letter was found and read, the desperate gamble was lost.
Harry was brought back to Loudoun County and put in the Leesburg jail. Virginia law punished an attempted slavery escape with public lashing; the Leesburg courthouse grounds had a public whipping post for such occasions. Public punishment set an example and served as warning to other slaves. Harry’s owner would have been contacted to come to Leesburg and pick up her property. Either she or her farm overseer would come and take Harry back to Stafford County, maybe to physically punish him further. Then what Harry most feared – being sold to slave traders and forced south – would have happened. After all, that is what his owner had intended for him before his escape. Now she had all the more reason to sell Harry: he had proven himself to be troublesome.
By loaning out his freedom papers, Alex McPherson might find his own freedom in jeopardy; Virginia law forebade helping a slave escape and punishment for freed blacks helping in this manner was to lose their own freed status. (Again, further research is needed to find McPherson’s fate.) McPherson would not be able to assert that his papers had been lost or stolen because Yardley Taylor’s letter laid out McPherson’s involvement. Knowing Alex was vulnerable to harsh punishment would have added to the misery felt by both Harry and Yardley when the escape effort failed.
Yardley Taylor was arrested for “enticing, persuading and advising a certain negro slave named Harry… .” Yardley was put in jail in Leesburg. Neighbor and fellow Quaker Daniel Cockrill posted Yardley Taylor’s $500 bail. Yardley pled Not Guilty and the case dragged on for two years. Finally, Yardley changed his plea to Guilty, and paid a $20 fine plus costs.
The documents: Alex McPherson’s freedom paper, Yardley Taylor’s letter to Jonathan Jessup of York, Pennsylvania, Yardley’s paper listing towns/mileage, and the letter envelope, as well as several warrants from the Loudoun County sheriff regarding Yardley Taylor court appearances for “enticing persuading & advising a certain negro slave named Harry the property of Miss Allison of Stafford County from the employment & possession of Samuel Cox of Loudoun County …” are all in the Loudoun County Courthouse Historic Records and Deeds Research Division, Leesburg, VA. They are public records; anyone can request to see the documents. They are rare pieces of our American story.
Yardley Taylor was President of the Loudoun County Manumission and Emigration Society during the middle of the 1820’s, and perhaps kept that position leading up to his arrest in 1828. The nation’s Manumission and Emigration Society chapters were dedicated to buying the freedom of enslaved men and women, then paying for their passage to Liberia, in western Africa. When that long ocean voyage proved too financially prohibitive, the Societies began raising money to send freed slaves to the newly established country of Haiti.
Eventually many anti-slavery activists found the notion of raising money to send formerly enslaved men and women abroad to be both impractical and wrong: why should black Americans have to leave the country to live free? The focus remained on manumission and outright abolitionism.
A column written by Yardley Taylor in his role as President of the Manumission and Emigration Society can be found here. The column makes clear the Society also worked to education and persuade Americans that slavery was against their own self-interest, as well as being an immoral institution unworthy of such a great nation.
After Yardley Taylor’s 1828 arrest, he eventually reclaimed his life’s routines: grafting apple trees, delivering mail, attending Goose Creek Meeting regularly, with his extended Quaker family. He never gave up abolitionist efforts, however, and regularly wrote letters to the local papers on the topic. In 1856 new attention was drawn to Yardley and his fellow anti-slavery activists of Lincoln, when national newspapers picked up on a meeting held at their village school. That extraordinary episode has a page on Nest of Abolitionists, found here. One result of the incident was this broadsheet, posted around Loudoun County:
TO YARDLEY TAYLOR, ESQ.
SIR: There are but few persons in the county, I presume, who have not heard of you as the Chief of the abolition clan in Loudoun. I am free to award to you this position, for the bold –which you have uniformly exhibited in promulgating the odious doctrines of your sect, fully entitle you, in my opinion, to the distinction.
Although your name has gone abroad and you are pretty generally known, through the county at least, yet there are some persons, I have no doubt, who have never had the pleasure of seeing you. For their benefit, as well as for your own, (for you certainly have never seen yourself as others see you,) I propose to describe as well as I can, your personal appearance. My method of executing this task may appear to many as somewhat novel, but as it was the first plan that suggested itself to my mind, I have adopted it.
To see you to advantage, the spectator should station himself in the middle of the turnpike at Heaton’s Cross-roads, on the bright summer afternoon on an eastern mail day, at about “two or three o’clock.” If he will now look straight down the road leading to Goose Creek, ten to one he will soon see emerging from the wood at the end of the lane, a square built, heavy set, hugely footed, not very courtly figure of an old man, mounted on the vertebre of a somewhat lusty animal, with one hand tightly grasping the rein, and the other holding on, – like the witch to the tail of Tam O’Shanter’s grey mare, Meg, – to a little black bag (Pandora’s box was nothing, I imagine, but a little black bag after all) containing the Goose Creek mail.
Such is the remarkable personage as he appears to the spectator from the stand-point above indicated, riding along in a brisk trot, with a demure visage and meditative air; tormenting his brain, it may be, to discover a more successful method than has hitherto been pursued of relieving his neighbors of the encumbrance of their slaves, or else (and this is the more charitable supposition) taxing his genius to devise some plan for resisting the depredations of the Krout weed.
I am well aware that the picture I have drawn is far from perfect. To do full justice to your figure would require the pencil of a Hogarth. Imperfect as the portrait may be, I have no doubt it will enable you to recognize the original.
Having endeavored to describe your person, I now propose to portray your character. This I shall do by an examination of your principles and conduct.
Let me begin by an inquiry into your motives for seeking an interview with me at this late day. More than a year has elapsed since your abolition demonstration at Goose Creek, and the excitement which it produced has long since subsided. Did you mistake the calm which followed for a verdict of acquittal, and suppose that sympathy had taken the place of resentment? – This must have been your reasoning, or surely you never would have hazarded the expression of such revolting sentiments, or made such a confession of guilt in public as you did in the conversation which took place at the interview referred to. It may be you had the folly to imagine that you might obtain from me a recantation of something I had previously said. If this were one of your motives, you were never more mistaken. I have nothing to recant, as I then distinctly told you. And you are laboring under an equally gross delusion, in my opinion, in supposing that the time has come when you can preach your incendiary doctrines with impunity. Or did you seek this talk with the view of ascertaining how far you dare go in your assaults upon Southern institutions? But I shall prosecute the inquiry no further.
You commenced the conversation by declaring your entire innocence of the charge upon which you were arrested and brought to trial of aiding in the escape of a fugitive slave; but when subjected to the test of a searching examination you admitted that a runaway slave came to your house; [it seems rather singular that all the runaways should stumble upon your residence, but of course it is all accidental,] that you knew him to be a runaway slave; that you took him by the hand and led him gently in, and fed him, and after furnishing him with a letter to a friend in Pennsylvania, sent him on his way rejoicing. And what was your apology for this atrocious offence? – that you were acting in conformity with the principles of your religion. Monstrous! Monstrous! This was the excuse offered by Mahomet to palliate the guilt of his wholesale destruction of human life. It was the plea of the infamous Charles of France and his Catholic minions for putting to death in one single night seven thousand of his Protestant subjects. And in later days the abominations of Mormonism, and the A—are justified upon the same ground. Oh Yardley! Yardley! Who would have dreamed that your own confession could make your guilt so clear.
The opinions you avowed on that occasion were equally startling with the confession you made. You very gravely maintained that when the municipal law fails to square with your own peculiar notions of that “higher law,” of which you are the advocate, your obligations to the government extend no farther than a submission to the penalty. – Have you ever reflected upon the consequences of this dangerous doctrine? It justifies resistance to all positive law. The act of Congress providing for the reclamation of fugitive slaves may be resisted, trampled upon even to the forcible taking of the slave from the lawful custody of the officer or owner, and to the taking of life itself, without the fear of violating a single moral obligation, if this doctrine be earnest. Where death is the penalty, how disastrous soever the violation of the law may have been in its consequences, all that the offender has got to do, is to surrender his body to the executioner, and his soul, released from its bonds, goes straightly to Heaven.
The principle of moral and positive laws is the same, and the same obligation rests upon us to obey the one as the other. The good man makes no distinction. The object of penalties is to enforce obedience to the laws, by deterring men from their violation. They are not designed as a equivalent for the commission of an offence. A man is, therefore, very far from performing his whole duty to society by simply submitting to the penalty of a violated law. He is under a high moral obligation to do more than this – he must obey that law. The Bible, morality, and patriotism, all alike unite in enjoining it as a solemn duty which every man owes to the government which affords him protection.
Knowing you as well as I did, I was prepared for the announcement of sentiments the most revolting in their character, provided you were candid and bold enough to give them utterance; but really I was perfectly astonished when you suggested the difficulty of adducing any more valid objections against marrying a negro wench, than in wedding an Indian beauty. Comment here is unnecessary.
You told us something about the trouble some of your neighbors and confederates in crime got into, in a neighboring County of the State. I remember hearing an account of this long ago; but the version then given, was very different from the one you gave. There are a few prominent facts connected with the affair, of which I have the most distinct recollection. These gallant Knights of the Black-faces were down South it seems, on some sort of a negro expedition. Pretty soon after arriving on the field of operations, the object of their — leaked out by some means, and thus found it necessary for their comfort and safety to beat a precipitate retreat, in order to avoid the consequences of the indignation they had excited.
I remember, also, hearing many years ago the story of Lovett’s Phil. You were personally concerned in this affair, I believe. I am sorry it did not occur to me to mention this subject to you, on the occasion of our talk the other day; as I have no doubt you would have given the particulars with all the frankness with which you narrated other of your adventures. I think, however, you succeeded in putting Phil through. The success which has invariably attended your efforts in this line, would seem to argue the possession of no small degree of skill in the business: a fact which is well known, I dare say, and properly appreciated in a certain quarter. This accounts, I presume, for the immensity of your abolition correspondence of which you spoke. You told us, however, that your Northern allies complained of you. Perhaps you are not accomplishing quite as much as they have a right to expect from the superior skill and ability with which you have heretofore managed the affairs of the Under-Ground Railroad Company. You might plead to these complainings by showing that your location, although as favorable, or perhaps, more so, than any other in the South, yet from the very fact of being in a quasi Southern county is not quite so propitious a point for the prosecution of your philanthropic labors, as if the entirety of its surrounds were anti-slavery. I am well aware, however, that to all this it could be replied, that the immediate vicinity of your residence is entirely favorable to the furtherance of your designs; while beyond the limits of this neighborhood, and through the County generally, your principles have made such inroads, and are acquiring such an influence, that the difficulties which have hitherto opposed you, are becoming less formidable every day, as well as rapidly diminishing in number. You said much more in that talk; but I will let it pass for the present.
There are some points upon which I desire more information than I possess; will you have the kindness to enlighten me? Is Loudoun indebted to you for the distinguished honor of having one of her citizens – a near neighbor of yours – appointed Trustee of the African Female Seminary in the national metropolis? Who was the wretch that wrote that slanderous, blackguard, scurrilous, dirty, vile, miserable doggerel letter, which was read all over your neighborhood, and then sent me through the mail? Is it a fact this obscure production was publicly read in one of your Goose Creek Schools, for the benefit of the pupils? This letter was only one of the many wrongs, you and your adherents, have done me. Think you I can easily forget such treatment? It was with the view of screening yourselves from the consequences of the grievous wrongs you had committed at the Goose Creek meeting, that you wantonly assailed me with that tissue of falsehoods which appeared in the Alexandria Sentinel. “He is poor –unsustained by family influence, or wealthy connexions, and it will be an easy matter to shift the burden of our sins on to his shoulders; for we are powerful: – it will crush him and save us.” This was your reasoning. But you have neither crushed me, nor have you deterred me from exposing your vile conduct.
A few more words and I have said enough –people of — are not yet sufficiently imbued with your principles to tolerate any flagrant interference with their slave property; yet, judging from my observations of the last few years, I believe the time must soon come – if you will only exercise the proper discretion – when you need fear nothing. Many slave-holders already feel and fear your influence, and hold their tongues – I allude to the influence of your party. It deters the public functionaries of the County from the performance of their duties and entails upon the community evils which our laws are powerless to remedy. But this influence does not stop here, ——- Your obedient servant, J. [James F.] Trayhern July 28, 1857
Further Reading: Yardley Taylor and Samuel M. Janney are mentioned in a anguished Reconstruction letter.
Yardley Taylor’s nephew Kirkbride Taylor chose to fight for the Confederacy when war broke out in 1861. Here is Kirkbride Taylor’s story.
Hannah Brown Taylor (1795-1880) was Yardley Taylor’s wife and the mother of eight children. She worked alongside her husband at Evergreen Farm. Her daguerreotype can be seen here. | 4,770 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Playing Baseball in the Classroom -
A Flexible, Adaptable Game to Motivate Your Students in reading, social studies, geography, math, science, ALL subjects.
by David Slutz
You already know how effective games can be in the classroom. Games are popular with students because they break up the normal routine and give everyone a chance to have some fun. You will generally find that they all pay attention when you've got a little healthy competition going on.
I'd like to tell you about a game which I've found to be exciting for the students and also very successful in accomplishing my goals as a teacher. I'm talking about the game of baseball adapted to the classroom. It has the advantage of being something familiar so it's easy for them to learn the rules. At the same time you will find that it can be adjusted to your needs so as to fit different situations. If you teach a content-based subject, such as English, Science, or Social Studies, playing this kind of baseball may be a fine way to review and even teach your material as well as produce real enthusiasm in your students.
Here's how it works. You draw a diagram of a baseball diamond on the board and beside that you write the names of two teams so you can keep score. You also make a chart to indicate how many outs have been made and what inning it is. Then you divide your class into two teams, perhaps having them sit on opposite sides of the classroom.
I usually determine which team starts first by flipping a coin. Then you, as the pitcher, ask the first student a question about your subject. If he or she takes a long time answering then you begin counting strikes, perhaps allowing ten seconds between each one, until the player strikes out, and then you mark one "out" on the board. A player is also out if he or she answers incorrectly. On the other hand, if the answer is correct, that player goes to first base and you make a mark on your baseball diamond on the board. You then ask the second player a question, and if the answer is right, he or she goes to first base and pushes the first player to second base. Each question advances the players around the diamond by one base until the bases are loaded. If the next student answers correctly, then he or she pushes everyone else around the bases until the player on third base comes home and then that team has one run. You continue playing until that team has three outs, at which time the other team is up to bat.
If you prefer to control the noise level in your classroom, you could make a rule that says that nobody may talk or make any noise that might distract the player who is batting. If any player on his or her team makes noise, then the consequence would be for that player to be out. On the other hand, if someone from the other team was making noise, then the player who was batting at that moment would automatically get on base. Enforcing these rules will keep everyone silent and listening carefully.
You will see that the whole class concentrates on the questions as they are asked and genuine suspense develops as each player tries to answer and get on base. If you play this game regularly you will find that your students begin studying more so as to know the answers. Students who perform well are cheered admired. Thus positive peer pressure is at work and formerly indifferent students begin to wake up and apply themselves so as to make a good showing in the competition.
These are the basic rules of play, but you can make interesting variations if you wish. For example, you could ask each student what kind of question (or pitch) he or she would like. You could have four levels of questions prepared in that case. There could be easy first base questions, harder second base questions, very hard third base questions, and special home run questions. That way each student could participate at his or her own level, and the game becomes more interesting. An outstanding student could produce as many as four runs in a grand slam by answering a home run question when the bases are loaded!
Yet another possible variation would be to combine subject areas into one game. If you teach more than one subject, you could ask each student which subject he or she prefers, and then which level of question to ask. That is a good way to integrate areas such as English and Science.
After you have played this game for some time, you might ask the students themselves to prepare questions that would be collected to make a question bank. Any question contributed would include the answer and indicate its level of difficulty. This is a very good exercise in English because they practice writing interrogative sentences. It is also a fine way for them to study a chapter of a lesson because they look at the material in a different way. Instead of just trying to memorize content, they are trying to formulate questions based on the information in the book.
You would be surprised to see how fast an hour in the classroom goes by when you are playing this game and how interesting it is for the students. Why not try it and see for yourself? | <urn:uuid:a7fbf018-67e2-415e-9627-d42b85ceb9be> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://teachers.net/lessons/posts/1065.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00220.warc.gz | en | 0.98194 | 1,042 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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0.12983417... | 6 | Playing Baseball in the Classroom -
A Flexible, Adaptable Game to Motivate Your Students in reading, social studies, geography, math, science, ALL subjects.
by David Slutz
You already know how effective games can be in the classroom. Games are popular with students because they break up the normal routine and give everyone a chance to have some fun. You will generally find that they all pay attention when you've got a little healthy competition going on.
I'd like to tell you about a game which I've found to be exciting for the students and also very successful in accomplishing my goals as a teacher. I'm talking about the game of baseball adapted to the classroom. It has the advantage of being something familiar so it's easy for them to learn the rules. At the same time you will find that it can be adjusted to your needs so as to fit different situations. If you teach a content-based subject, such as English, Science, or Social Studies, playing this kind of baseball may be a fine way to review and even teach your material as well as produce real enthusiasm in your students.
Here's how it works. You draw a diagram of a baseball diamond on the board and beside that you write the names of two teams so you can keep score. You also make a chart to indicate how many outs have been made and what inning it is. Then you divide your class into two teams, perhaps having them sit on opposite sides of the classroom.
I usually determine which team starts first by flipping a coin. Then you, as the pitcher, ask the first student a question about your subject. If he or she takes a long time answering then you begin counting strikes, perhaps allowing ten seconds between each one, until the player strikes out, and then you mark one "out" on the board. A player is also out if he or she answers incorrectly. On the other hand, if the answer is correct, that player goes to first base and you make a mark on your baseball diamond on the board. You then ask the second player a question, and if the answer is right, he or she goes to first base and pushes the first player to second base. Each question advances the players around the diamond by one base until the bases are loaded. If the next student answers correctly, then he or she pushes everyone else around the bases until the player on third base comes home and then that team has one run. You continue playing until that team has three outs, at which time the other team is up to bat.
If you prefer to control the noise level in your classroom, you could make a rule that says that nobody may talk or make any noise that might distract the player who is batting. If any player on his or her team makes noise, then the consequence would be for that player to be out. On the other hand, if someone from the other team was making noise, then the player who was batting at that moment would automatically get on base. Enforcing these rules will keep everyone silent and listening carefully.
You will see that the whole class concentrates on the questions as they are asked and genuine suspense develops as each player tries to answer and get on base. If you play this game regularly you will find that your students begin studying more so as to know the answers. Students who perform well are cheered admired. Thus positive peer pressure is at work and formerly indifferent students begin to wake up and apply themselves so as to make a good showing in the competition.
These are the basic rules of play, but you can make interesting variations if you wish. For example, you could ask each student what kind of question (or pitch) he or she would like. You could have four levels of questions prepared in that case. There could be easy first base questions, harder second base questions, very hard third base questions, and special home run questions. That way each student could participate at his or her own level, and the game becomes more interesting. An outstanding student could produce as many as four runs in a grand slam by answering a home run question when the bases are loaded!
Yet another possible variation would be to combine subject areas into one game. If you teach more than one subject, you could ask each student which subject he or she prefers, and then which level of question to ask. That is a good way to integrate areas such as English and Science.
After you have played this game for some time, you might ask the students themselves to prepare questions that would be collected to make a question bank. Any question contributed would include the answer and indicate its level of difficulty. This is a very good exercise in English because they practice writing interrogative sentences. It is also a fine way for them to study a chapter of a lesson because they look at the material in a different way. Instead of just trying to memorize content, they are trying to formulate questions based on the information in the book.
You would be surprised to see how fast an hour in the classroom goes by when you are playing this game and how interesting it is for the students. Why not try it and see for yourself? | 1,027 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Whither Technology Transfer? The rise of China and India in Green Technology Sectors Authors: Rasmus Consigna Researcher, Start of Advancement Studies, Uk (corresponding author)…...Read
Hist. 330 Research Daily news
" Fundamentally, indentured servitude was an institutional arrangement that was invented to increase labor mobility” (Altman and Car horn, To Make America, 8)
Inside the early colonial time days of America, there was a fiscal problem; labor shortages. In the united states the limited productivity of a single laborer was higher than in Europe, and there is a very large availability of cheap or cost-free land. The condition with benefiting from this opportunity was the reality there were not many laborers willing to work for a landowner, mainly because it was really easy to obtain your own land and farm it. Palmer quotes Adam Smith " Every colonist gets more land than he can perhaps cultivate. This individual has no lease, and scarce any taxation to spend. No homeowner shares with him his produce” (Palmer, Worlds of Unfree Work, 206). Johnson goes on to describe that a landowner can produce on his own only one 10th of what his terrain is capable of, and therefore is incredibly eager to gather laborers yet finds that even when giving very generous wages, it is difficult to retain the employees. This environment created a dependence on some form of compelled labor; the proper execution of compelled labor i will go over in this paper was known as indentured servitude. One solution to this problem was to take African slaves to do the job, and this was indeed required for great figures. But , the slaves were not actually the first sort of imported labor in the Unites states. According to Altman and Horn " 'white servitude' was the ancient base where Negro slavery was built. ” Whilst African slaves presented a tremendous asset, we were holding very expensive and thus a very high the liability; if one were to perish the owner will be out lots of cash. This liability was avoided relatively if a character was to get the path of obtaining a great indentured stalwart. These maids typically originated in Europe in areas including England, Philippines, Scotland, and Ireland (Altman and Car horn, To Make America, 1-25) Marketers of indentured servitude touted the sparsely settled " new world " and the accessibility to cheap and fruitful area upon all their release to attract laborers. Staff would typically repay their very own passage in four to five years' time. Frequently , the indenture contracts experienced incentives because of at the end in the term entitling them to things such as clothing, seeds for vegetation, and land to plantation. According to Bush there were three key kinds of indentured servants (Bush, Servitude nowadays, 57). The first kind was your traditional indenture who before leaving their home country signed a legal record specifying the terms of their indenture. Following their entrance and following sale, a note was made on the back of the first document regarding the conditions of the sale. The 2nd type of indenture was a great indenture who had been simply certain by " custom of country. ” This indenture typically would not sign virtually any legal record but rather was be subject to legal statut. This type of indenture was extensively practiced. The next type of indentured servant was one referred to as the " redemptioner, ” though this sort of servant had not been common before the eighteenth century. These redemptioners would make the passage coming from Europe to America without having prior repayment, and can be given a 14 time grace period upon appearance in which that they had the chance to accumulate the money to their trip. If these were unsuccessful, they can then be sold while an indenture. There were as well other fewer common types of indentures including but not limited to; servants who's owner " " spirited” all of them away from the aged world against their will”; convicts who were sent to America to serve their sentence as an indenture; and colonials who broken what the law states and had been therefore sentenced to function as indentures to meet their abuse. (Bush, Contrainte in Modern Times, 58) The Demographics of an Indenture
Galenson reports within the demographics of indentures in " White colored Servitude in Colonial America”, while centering primarily... | <urn:uuid:9e60df1a-082c-4b27-a712-28a68ccf1458> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://anniebrewerwrites.com/indentured-servitude-essay/63504-indentured-contrainte-essay.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00033.warc.gz | en | 0.980656 | 922 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.32597... | 1 | Whither Technology Transfer? The rise of China and India in Green Technology Sectors Authors: Rasmus Consigna Researcher, Start of Advancement Studies, Uk (corresponding author)…...Read
Hist. 330 Research Daily news
" Fundamentally, indentured servitude was an institutional arrangement that was invented to increase labor mobility” (Altman and Car horn, To Make America, 8)
Inside the early colonial time days of America, there was a fiscal problem; labor shortages. In the united states the limited productivity of a single laborer was higher than in Europe, and there is a very large availability of cheap or cost-free land. The condition with benefiting from this opportunity was the reality there were not many laborers willing to work for a landowner, mainly because it was really easy to obtain your own land and farm it. Palmer quotes Adam Smith " Every colonist gets more land than he can perhaps cultivate. This individual has no lease, and scarce any taxation to spend. No homeowner shares with him his produce” (Palmer, Worlds of Unfree Work, 206). Johnson goes on to describe that a landowner can produce on his own only one 10th of what his terrain is capable of, and therefore is incredibly eager to gather laborers yet finds that even when giving very generous wages, it is difficult to retain the employees. This environment created a dependence on some form of compelled labor; the proper execution of compelled labor i will go over in this paper was known as indentured servitude. One solution to this problem was to take African slaves to do the job, and this was indeed required for great figures. But , the slaves were not actually the first sort of imported labor in the Unites states. According to Altman and Horn " 'white servitude' was the ancient base where Negro slavery was built. ” Whilst African slaves presented a tremendous asset, we were holding very expensive and thus a very high the liability; if one were to perish the owner will be out lots of cash. This liability was avoided relatively if a character was to get the path of obtaining a great indentured stalwart. These maids typically originated in Europe in areas including England, Philippines, Scotland, and Ireland (Altman and Car horn, To Make America, 1-25) Marketers of indentured servitude touted the sparsely settled " new world " and the accessibility to cheap and fruitful area upon all their release to attract laborers. Staff would typically repay their very own passage in four to five years' time. Frequently , the indenture contracts experienced incentives because of at the end in the term entitling them to things such as clothing, seeds for vegetation, and land to plantation. According to Bush there were three key kinds of indentured servants (Bush, Servitude nowadays, 57). The first kind was your traditional indenture who before leaving their home country signed a legal record specifying the terms of their indenture. Following their entrance and following sale, a note was made on the back of the first document regarding the conditions of the sale. The 2nd type of indenture was a great indenture who had been simply certain by " custom of country. ” This indenture typically would not sign virtually any legal record but rather was be subject to legal statut. This type of indenture was extensively practiced. The next type of indentured servant was one referred to as the " redemptioner, ” though this sort of servant had not been common before the eighteenth century. These redemptioners would make the passage coming from Europe to America without having prior repayment, and can be given a 14 time grace period upon appearance in which that they had the chance to accumulate the money to their trip. If these were unsuccessful, they can then be sold while an indenture. There were as well other fewer common types of indentures including but not limited to; servants who's owner " " spirited” all of them away from the aged world against their will”; convicts who were sent to America to serve their sentence as an indenture; and colonials who broken what the law states and had been therefore sentenced to function as indentures to meet their abuse. (Bush, Contrainte in Modern Times, 58) The Demographics of an Indenture
Galenson reports within the demographics of indentures in " White colored Servitude in Colonial America”, while centering primarily... | 925 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Last week marked 72 years since the loss of one of the most important figures in 19th and 20th century science; Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose, who this week is highlighted as part of the Pioneers in Science series.
Bose was a pioneer in many areas, contributing greatly to physics, biology, botany, archaeology, and perhaps surprisingly, science fiction. Because of this, he is perhaps one of only a handful of people who could be considered a polymath in the modern period—an occupation which is usually associated with great minds of earlier centuries, in the heady days from the Renaissance to the Enlightenment, before scientific fields became more specialized and scientists found it ever more difficult to apply their work across multiple fields.
Despite being rewarded a Knighthood in 1917, and being the first Indian to become a fellow for science of the Royal Society in 1920, his work was largely overlooked at the time, and its significance has only been re-evaluated in recent years, particularly in his contributions to radio technology. In 2012—over a century after his experimental work on radio—the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) recognized these contributions as an IEEE Milestone in Electrical and Computer Engineering, and the Indian Botanical Gardens were renamed in his honor in 2009. The Bank of England also nominated him to be the face of the new £50 polymer note (but he lost this commemoration to Alan Turing).
Bose was born in Munsiganj—now part of Bangladesh, but was at the time part of British India—on November 30, 1858.
After graduating from the University of Calcutta in 1879, he went to England to study at numerous universities, including Cambridge and the University of London, under the tutelage of many prominent British scientists at the time, such as Lord Rayleigh, and Charles Darwin’s son, Francis Darwin.
But it was after his return to India, in the 1890s, when his career really took off. He was able, after realizing the disadvantages of studying electromagnetic (EM) waves’ light-like properties at long wavelengths, that he was able to reduce EM wavelengths to the millimeter scale; i.e., microwaves. Using microwaves, he was able to demonstrate how one could ignite gunpowder, send signals to receivers three rooms across from his lecture theater, and discharge pistols, all using “wireless” technology.
Bose wasn’t interested in patenting however, and was more interested in researching the phenomena of EM waves rather than applying them for practical and commercial purposes. In fact, it was during these experiments that the Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi was developing his own wireless telegraphy system using radio waves. Incidentally, Bose and Marconi met in London in 1896, after which Bose maintained his lack of interest in commercial applications of their respective technologies. Nevertheless, Bose was the first to use semiconductors to detect radio waves, and a lot of modern microwave components wouldn’t exist without him.
Acknowledgement of his legacy came later from scientists in the field of solid-state electronics, with Nobel Laureate Sir Nevill Mott remarking in 1977 how Bose was “at least 60 years ahead of his time.” Quite a complement for a scientist who, unfortunately, had fallen out of the limelight in the story of radio technology until recent re-assessment of history.
In the world of botany, he is perhaps less well-known, but he was nevertheless an avid botanist; the vast majority of his published books are on plants and plant biology, rather than radio technology, and was the first to demonstrate the electrical nature of plant’s response to wounds, which was later vindicated only decades after his death. Bose believed plants had a nervous system not too dissimilar to those found in animal life, and wrote findings and inferences from his experiments with plants in the 1902 book, Responses in the Living and Non-Living. Whilst on the face of it, such ideas might seem outlandish to modern science, it is perhaps another example of Bose being quite ahead of his time, as the study of plant communication—be it via volatile compounds, electrical signaling, or fungal networks (albeit plants not having a nervous system per se)—has been gaining large traction since the start of this century.
When not practicing science, Bose also wrote science fiction, publishing his first short story Niruddesher Kahini (The Story of the Missing One) in 1896, and Palatak Tuphan (Runaway Cyclone) in 1921, establishing him as one of the forefathers of Bengali science fiction.
Whilst his most pioneering work took place at the end and beginning of the 19th and 20th centuries, his professorship at the University of Calcutta nevertheless continued his legacy as Bose mentored some notable students, including many Indian physicists such as Satyendra Nath Bose—after whom Paul Dirac named the class of particles, bosons; and Meghnad Saha, who was often nominated for the Nobel Prize in Physics for his contribution to astrophysics.
Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose died in Giridih, India, on November 23, 1937, at a time when the world had already been greatly transformed by the technology he helped to pioneer and loved to study. No one could have seen at the time, however, that future technologies using EM waves would lend their credit to this great scientist and polymath.
To read about other pioneers in science, you can access our Pioneers Series here. | <urn:uuid:34900c49-2de1-4ec4-a0d6-975c5ebe51dd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.advancedsciencenews.com/pioneers-in-science-jagadish-chandra-bose/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00493.warc.gz | en | 0.98271 | 1,152 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.23354293406... | 2 | Last week marked 72 years since the loss of one of the most important figures in 19th and 20th century science; Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose, who this week is highlighted as part of the Pioneers in Science series.
Bose was a pioneer in many areas, contributing greatly to physics, biology, botany, archaeology, and perhaps surprisingly, science fiction. Because of this, he is perhaps one of only a handful of people who could be considered a polymath in the modern period—an occupation which is usually associated with great minds of earlier centuries, in the heady days from the Renaissance to the Enlightenment, before scientific fields became more specialized and scientists found it ever more difficult to apply their work across multiple fields.
Despite being rewarded a Knighthood in 1917, and being the first Indian to become a fellow for science of the Royal Society in 1920, his work was largely overlooked at the time, and its significance has only been re-evaluated in recent years, particularly in his contributions to radio technology. In 2012—over a century after his experimental work on radio—the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) recognized these contributions as an IEEE Milestone in Electrical and Computer Engineering, and the Indian Botanical Gardens were renamed in his honor in 2009. The Bank of England also nominated him to be the face of the new £50 polymer note (but he lost this commemoration to Alan Turing).
Bose was born in Munsiganj—now part of Bangladesh, but was at the time part of British India—on November 30, 1858.
After graduating from the University of Calcutta in 1879, he went to England to study at numerous universities, including Cambridge and the University of London, under the tutelage of many prominent British scientists at the time, such as Lord Rayleigh, and Charles Darwin’s son, Francis Darwin.
But it was after his return to India, in the 1890s, when his career really took off. He was able, after realizing the disadvantages of studying electromagnetic (EM) waves’ light-like properties at long wavelengths, that he was able to reduce EM wavelengths to the millimeter scale; i.e., microwaves. Using microwaves, he was able to demonstrate how one could ignite gunpowder, send signals to receivers three rooms across from his lecture theater, and discharge pistols, all using “wireless” technology.
Bose wasn’t interested in patenting however, and was more interested in researching the phenomena of EM waves rather than applying them for practical and commercial purposes. In fact, it was during these experiments that the Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi was developing his own wireless telegraphy system using radio waves. Incidentally, Bose and Marconi met in London in 1896, after which Bose maintained his lack of interest in commercial applications of their respective technologies. Nevertheless, Bose was the first to use semiconductors to detect radio waves, and a lot of modern microwave components wouldn’t exist without him.
Acknowledgement of his legacy came later from scientists in the field of solid-state electronics, with Nobel Laureate Sir Nevill Mott remarking in 1977 how Bose was “at least 60 years ahead of his time.” Quite a complement for a scientist who, unfortunately, had fallen out of the limelight in the story of radio technology until recent re-assessment of history.
In the world of botany, he is perhaps less well-known, but he was nevertheless an avid botanist; the vast majority of his published books are on plants and plant biology, rather than radio technology, and was the first to demonstrate the electrical nature of plant’s response to wounds, which was later vindicated only decades after his death. Bose believed plants had a nervous system not too dissimilar to those found in animal life, and wrote findings and inferences from his experiments with plants in the 1902 book, Responses in the Living and Non-Living. Whilst on the face of it, such ideas might seem outlandish to modern science, it is perhaps another example of Bose being quite ahead of his time, as the study of plant communication—be it via volatile compounds, electrical signaling, or fungal networks (albeit plants not having a nervous system per se)—has been gaining large traction since the start of this century.
When not practicing science, Bose also wrote science fiction, publishing his first short story Niruddesher Kahini (The Story of the Missing One) in 1896, and Palatak Tuphan (Runaway Cyclone) in 1921, establishing him as one of the forefathers of Bengali science fiction.
Whilst his most pioneering work took place at the end and beginning of the 19th and 20th centuries, his professorship at the University of Calcutta nevertheless continued his legacy as Bose mentored some notable students, including many Indian physicists such as Satyendra Nath Bose—after whom Paul Dirac named the class of particles, bosons; and Meghnad Saha, who was often nominated for the Nobel Prize in Physics for his contribution to astrophysics.
Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose died in Giridih, India, on November 23, 1937, at a time when the world had already been greatly transformed by the technology he helped to pioneer and loved to study. No one could have seen at the time, however, that future technologies using EM waves would lend their credit to this great scientist and polymath.
To read about other pioneers in science, you can access our Pioneers Series here. | 1,182 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The romance of the beautiful pearling luggers of the Torres Strait is captured in the photographs and resources held by State Library of Queensland.
The luggers were gaff-rigged ketches constructed of wood, and many have continued to sail for more than 60 years. Typically measuring 15 to 20 meters in length, with low waists and bulwarks to assist diving, the two- masted pearling luggers were graceful with curved lines. They were a magnificent sight as they entered the open sea under full sail. There were many hundreds of luggers working across the north of Australia, from Thursday Island to Broome. Many of the luggers were built by Japanese shipwrights on Thursday Island. Indeed, by the turn of the century, the Japanese had a monopoly on the shipbuilding and slipways of the island. The Queensland Museum has examined the woods used in the luggers, and has found that typically a mixture of native timbers was used, including melaleuca, turpentine, hoop pine and sometimes imported timbers such as oregon pine. The Queensland Maritime Museum at South Bank has restored a pearling lugger that was built on Thursday Island in 1907. Called Penguin, it was a working boat for more than 80 years.
Pearling was enormously important to the economy of northern Australia. Beginning in 1868 in the Torres Strait, the industry had a boom and bust cycle, with high points being experienced in the 1870s and 1890s. While pearls were prized, the basis of the industry was the pearling shell, which was in great demand in Australia, America and Europe for buttons, combs, jewellery, insets in furniture and cutlery set handles. At one point in the early 1870s, the price of £400 per ton was reached for pearl shell. The pearling industry of northern Australia supplied the majority of the world’s need for pearl shell, and was a source of great wealth for some of the fleet owners.
The luggers worked in fleets. Pearling fleets were multi-national affairs, manned by Torres Strait Islanders, Malays, Indians, Sri Lankans and Japanese, as well as some workers from other Pacific Islands. The pearling fleet masters were principally Australians and New Zealanders, including James Clarke, Tommy Farquhar and the Hockings Brothers. Each fleet could have more than 20 luggers, with several schooners providing supplies to the luggers. Each fleet was painted in identifying colours. For example, the Farquhar fleet had black hulls with red and white railings. The name and registration number of each boat was carved into the side, near the bow.
Typically, a pearling lugger had two or three divers, two or three tenders to operate the air pumps, a cook, an engineer and two sailing crew. The divers, who were mostly Japanese, risked their lives in rubberised canvas suits, heavy boots laden with lead, and helmets with thick glass. The divers were paid according to the amount of shell they collected, so every minute on the bottom was precious.
Their lives were in the hands of the tenders above, who operated the air pumps to keep them alive. Initially, pearl shell was easily located in shallow waters. However, by 1871, a diving suit was designed, allowing access down to 20 fathoms. As the pearl shell was collected over many years, the remaining shell deposits were at increasingly greater depths, and by the end of the 1930s, divers were going down to 40 fathoms in areas such as the Darnley Deeps. Few Australians could be attracted to the perilous occupation of pearl diving. The bends killed many of the divers, as did shark attacks. In 1916, the official death rate in workplaces in Queensland was reported as 1.1% of the workforce, contrasting with the 10% quoted for pearling divers. Cyclones were also a threat to the safety of the pearling fleets, with one cyclone in1899 sinking more than 50 luggers, and killing 300 men.
During World War Two, the pearling luggers were requisitioned by the Australian Navy, as the islands of the Torres Strait became strategically very important. Many were used by the Americans, patrolling the Torres Strait. The residents of the islands were evacuated from 1942 until 1946. After the war, it was difficult for the industry to rebuild, and the introduction of plastics made the industry less viable, causing many luggers to be sold and refitted for prawning, crayfishing or other commercial activities. Some pearling continued until the 1970s, with the introduction of cultured pearling.
The sailing boats once used to trawl for the treasures of the sea are a reminder of Queensland’s past. Resilient craft, many of the pearling luggers were refloated, refitted and continued to sail many years after the pearling industry had become a remnant of our history.
Christina Ealing-Godbold, Senior Librarian, Information Services | <urn:uuid:4d1f15f4-0824-4603-973b-156c68e36b6d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://blogs.slq.qld.gov.au/slq-today/2014/11/19/pearling-luggers-of-the-torres-strait/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00418.warc.gz | en | 0.986166 | 1,024 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.404081761... | 1 | The romance of the beautiful pearling luggers of the Torres Strait is captured in the photographs and resources held by State Library of Queensland.
The luggers were gaff-rigged ketches constructed of wood, and many have continued to sail for more than 60 years. Typically measuring 15 to 20 meters in length, with low waists and bulwarks to assist diving, the two- masted pearling luggers were graceful with curved lines. They were a magnificent sight as they entered the open sea under full sail. There were many hundreds of luggers working across the north of Australia, from Thursday Island to Broome. Many of the luggers were built by Japanese shipwrights on Thursday Island. Indeed, by the turn of the century, the Japanese had a monopoly on the shipbuilding and slipways of the island. The Queensland Museum has examined the woods used in the luggers, and has found that typically a mixture of native timbers was used, including melaleuca, turpentine, hoop pine and sometimes imported timbers such as oregon pine. The Queensland Maritime Museum at South Bank has restored a pearling lugger that was built on Thursday Island in 1907. Called Penguin, it was a working boat for more than 80 years.
Pearling was enormously important to the economy of northern Australia. Beginning in 1868 in the Torres Strait, the industry had a boom and bust cycle, with high points being experienced in the 1870s and 1890s. While pearls were prized, the basis of the industry was the pearling shell, which was in great demand in Australia, America and Europe for buttons, combs, jewellery, insets in furniture and cutlery set handles. At one point in the early 1870s, the price of £400 per ton was reached for pearl shell. The pearling industry of northern Australia supplied the majority of the world’s need for pearl shell, and was a source of great wealth for some of the fleet owners.
The luggers worked in fleets. Pearling fleets were multi-national affairs, manned by Torres Strait Islanders, Malays, Indians, Sri Lankans and Japanese, as well as some workers from other Pacific Islands. The pearling fleet masters were principally Australians and New Zealanders, including James Clarke, Tommy Farquhar and the Hockings Brothers. Each fleet could have more than 20 luggers, with several schooners providing supplies to the luggers. Each fleet was painted in identifying colours. For example, the Farquhar fleet had black hulls with red and white railings. The name and registration number of each boat was carved into the side, near the bow.
Typically, a pearling lugger had two or three divers, two or three tenders to operate the air pumps, a cook, an engineer and two sailing crew. The divers, who were mostly Japanese, risked their lives in rubberised canvas suits, heavy boots laden with lead, and helmets with thick glass. The divers were paid according to the amount of shell they collected, so every minute on the bottom was precious.
Their lives were in the hands of the tenders above, who operated the air pumps to keep them alive. Initially, pearl shell was easily located in shallow waters. However, by 1871, a diving suit was designed, allowing access down to 20 fathoms. As the pearl shell was collected over many years, the remaining shell deposits were at increasingly greater depths, and by the end of the 1930s, divers were going down to 40 fathoms in areas such as the Darnley Deeps. Few Australians could be attracted to the perilous occupation of pearl diving. The bends killed many of the divers, as did shark attacks. In 1916, the official death rate in workplaces in Queensland was reported as 1.1% of the workforce, contrasting with the 10% quoted for pearling divers. Cyclones were also a threat to the safety of the pearling fleets, with one cyclone in1899 sinking more than 50 luggers, and killing 300 men.
During World War Two, the pearling luggers were requisitioned by the Australian Navy, as the islands of the Torres Strait became strategically very important. Many were used by the Americans, patrolling the Torres Strait. The residents of the islands were evacuated from 1942 until 1946. After the war, it was difficult for the industry to rebuild, and the introduction of plastics made the industry less viable, causing many luggers to be sold and refitted for prawning, crayfishing or other commercial activities. Some pearling continued until the 1970s, with the introduction of cultured pearling.
The sailing boats once used to trawl for the treasures of the sea are a reminder of Queensland’s past. Resilient craft, many of the pearling luggers were refloated, refitted and continued to sail many years after the pearling industry had become a remnant of our history.
Christina Ealing-Godbold, Senior Librarian, Information Services | 1,094 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Soviet-era might not the most enlightening era when it comes to literature, but that does not mean there were no brilliant authors in this era. The Soviet era, with its heavy restriction and censorship, doesn’t stop many talented writers to procure their best work.
Some of theme are even awarded Nobel Prize for literature. Their works are still widely read and studied until today. Read about iconic Russian books you should read.
The Soviet era is a period after the Bolshevik Revolution to as late as 1988. The beginning of the era is dominated with fiction regarding the civil war. But it’s not until the Stalin regime that writers had to get into Union of Soviet Writers. It marks the beginning of censorship for writers. Many had to obey the rule and restriction imposed by the new regime. Those who didn’t conform with the new rules were forced to flee the nation.
Authors during the Soviet era.
Authors during the Soviet era generally falls into these three categories: Those who complied to work within the parameter set by the government, those who opposed and had to publish their work underground or else, move abroad, and the rest are authors who emigrate to other countries and write something else unrelated to Russia, such as Ayn Rand.
Writers need to submit their work to the government first before they can release it to the public. Official writers, supported by the government, received a salary, housing, and office space. To gain membership to Union of Soviet Writers, one had to study at certain school approved by the government. Those who don’t compromise with the government system had to support themselves. A sophisticated self-publishing system called samizdat was established by these underground writers.
Many published works during the Soviet era falls into a new government approved genre called Socialists Realism. The Soviet authority defined it as a real representation of the reality and the revolutionary development, in accordance with the spirit of socialism. They encourage writers to write more in this genre and those who obey were rewarded with apartment, cars, and significant publication for their books.
Late Soviet era
Under Gorbachev leadership, a new generation of writers emerged. The topic they no longer limited to topics approved by the government. A liberalization has happened and previously taboo themes were more explored. Authors started to talk openly about corruption, violence, anti-Semitism, even the images about previous Soviet leaders such as Lenin and Stalin.
These are notable authors that emerged during the Soviet era.
1. Maxim Gorky
Maxim Gorky (1868-1936) is regarded as the father of Socialist Realism. His notable works include The Lower Depths and Childhood. Maxim Gorky falls into the group of writers who didn’t oppose the government, although he condemned the violence used by the Soviet government. He enjoyed fame and success and was celebrated as a rival to Tolstoy. Gorky also played a vital role in the revolutionary movement. Rumors said it that he was poisoned by the order of Stalin.
In his writings, Gorky is praised for his authenticity depicting the working class of Russia. He himself is a son of a lower class, going through childhood with such hardship that he had to rummage garbage cans to find food. His life experience inspires many of his work, especially in his autobiography My Childhood. Because of his background, he is also considered a hero by many.
2. Boris Pasternak
Boris Pasternak is a Russian writer who was awarded Nobel prize in literature in 1958 for his most influential work Dr. Zhivago. The Soviet government was not really happy with what he wrote since Dr. Zhivago depicts the Bolshevik Revolution with a not entirely positive image. The government banned Dr. Zhivago publication in Russia. It is only released in the country in 1988. Besides a writer, Boris Pasternak also wrote romantic poetry.
Also, read about other books about the war in Russia.
3. Mikhail Bulgakov
Mikhail Bulgakov is the author of the satire novel The Master and Margarita. The book is one of Russian books you should know. The novel tells a story about Satan who appears in Moscow and targeting the communist system and its elites. The novel version which is allowed to be distributed to the public is heavily censored. It’s also only published 1967, although the novel is actually finished in 1940. The full unabridged version is released in 1989.
4. Ivan Bunin
The first Russian writer to be awarded Nobel Prize, Ivan Bunin is best known for his novels The Village and Dry Valley. He is also praised for carrying the realism on their works that he’s dubbed the heir of Tolstoy (Read about Tolstoy’s works here). He is also the first Russian writer in exile to be published in Russia. Ivan Bunin was an anti-communist and had to emigrate to Paris in 1920. He resides in France until his death in 1953.
5. Mikhail Sholokhov
Another Nobel laureate from Russia, Mikhail Sholokhov was awarded Nobel Prize in Literature in 1965. His most famous novel is And Quiet Flows the Don. The three-volume novel is regarded as a fine example of socialist realism. Aside from the Nobel, he is also awarded Stalin Prize. His other works are Virgin Soil Upturned, a short story “The Fate of a Man, and his first book Tales from the Don.
6. Ayn Rand
Not only a writer, Ayn Rad is also a philosopher known for her Objectivism philosophy. Her notable works are Atlas Shrugged and The Fountain Head. Ayn Rand is a Soviet writer who emigrated to America and later became a US citizen. Ayn Rand is not the only female writers from Russia, check out this list for more. | <urn:uuid:cfbf3f4b-cd01-403b-9bd7-11b695c1e78e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://learnrussianlanguage.net/greatest-soviet-authors-of-all-time | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00294.warc.gz | en | 0.982902 | 1,193 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.40164586901664... | 4 | The Soviet-era might not the most enlightening era when it comes to literature, but that does not mean there were no brilliant authors in this era. The Soviet era, with its heavy restriction and censorship, doesn’t stop many talented writers to procure their best work.
Some of theme are even awarded Nobel Prize for literature. Their works are still widely read and studied until today. Read about iconic Russian books you should read.
The Soviet era is a period after the Bolshevik Revolution to as late as 1988. The beginning of the era is dominated with fiction regarding the civil war. But it’s not until the Stalin regime that writers had to get into Union of Soviet Writers. It marks the beginning of censorship for writers. Many had to obey the rule and restriction imposed by the new regime. Those who didn’t conform with the new rules were forced to flee the nation.
Authors during the Soviet era.
Authors during the Soviet era generally falls into these three categories: Those who complied to work within the parameter set by the government, those who opposed and had to publish their work underground or else, move abroad, and the rest are authors who emigrate to other countries and write something else unrelated to Russia, such as Ayn Rand.
Writers need to submit their work to the government first before they can release it to the public. Official writers, supported by the government, received a salary, housing, and office space. To gain membership to Union of Soviet Writers, one had to study at certain school approved by the government. Those who don’t compromise with the government system had to support themselves. A sophisticated self-publishing system called samizdat was established by these underground writers.
Many published works during the Soviet era falls into a new government approved genre called Socialists Realism. The Soviet authority defined it as a real representation of the reality and the revolutionary development, in accordance with the spirit of socialism. They encourage writers to write more in this genre and those who obey were rewarded with apartment, cars, and significant publication for their books.
Late Soviet era
Under Gorbachev leadership, a new generation of writers emerged. The topic they no longer limited to topics approved by the government. A liberalization has happened and previously taboo themes were more explored. Authors started to talk openly about corruption, violence, anti-Semitism, even the images about previous Soviet leaders such as Lenin and Stalin.
These are notable authors that emerged during the Soviet era.
1. Maxim Gorky
Maxim Gorky (1868-1936) is regarded as the father of Socialist Realism. His notable works include The Lower Depths and Childhood. Maxim Gorky falls into the group of writers who didn’t oppose the government, although he condemned the violence used by the Soviet government. He enjoyed fame and success and was celebrated as a rival to Tolstoy. Gorky also played a vital role in the revolutionary movement. Rumors said it that he was poisoned by the order of Stalin.
In his writings, Gorky is praised for his authenticity depicting the working class of Russia. He himself is a son of a lower class, going through childhood with such hardship that he had to rummage garbage cans to find food. His life experience inspires many of his work, especially in his autobiography My Childhood. Because of his background, he is also considered a hero by many.
2. Boris Pasternak
Boris Pasternak is a Russian writer who was awarded Nobel prize in literature in 1958 for his most influential work Dr. Zhivago. The Soviet government was not really happy with what he wrote since Dr. Zhivago depicts the Bolshevik Revolution with a not entirely positive image. The government banned Dr. Zhivago publication in Russia. It is only released in the country in 1988. Besides a writer, Boris Pasternak also wrote romantic poetry.
Also, read about other books about the war in Russia.
3. Mikhail Bulgakov
Mikhail Bulgakov is the author of the satire novel The Master and Margarita. The book is one of Russian books you should know. The novel tells a story about Satan who appears in Moscow and targeting the communist system and its elites. The novel version which is allowed to be distributed to the public is heavily censored. It’s also only published 1967, although the novel is actually finished in 1940. The full unabridged version is released in 1989.
4. Ivan Bunin
The first Russian writer to be awarded Nobel Prize, Ivan Bunin is best known for his novels The Village and Dry Valley. He is also praised for carrying the realism on their works that he’s dubbed the heir of Tolstoy (Read about Tolstoy’s works here). He is also the first Russian writer in exile to be published in Russia. Ivan Bunin was an anti-communist and had to emigrate to Paris in 1920. He resides in France until his death in 1953.
5. Mikhail Sholokhov
Another Nobel laureate from Russia, Mikhail Sholokhov was awarded Nobel Prize in Literature in 1965. His most famous novel is And Quiet Flows the Don. The three-volume novel is regarded as a fine example of socialist realism. Aside from the Nobel, he is also awarded Stalin Prize. His other works are Virgin Soil Upturned, a short story “The Fate of a Man, and his first book Tales from the Don.
6. Ayn Rand
Not only a writer, Ayn Rad is also a philosopher known for her Objectivism philosophy. Her notable works are Atlas Shrugged and The Fountain Head. Ayn Rand is a Soviet writer who emigrated to America and later became a US citizen. Ayn Rand is not the only female writers from Russia, check out this list for more. | 1,200 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Laziness, paired with an inability to adapt to a changing climate, may have wiped out the Homo erectus, an extinct species of primitive humans, a study has found.
An archaeological excavation of ancient human populations in the Arabian Peninsula during the Early Stone Age, found that Homo erectus used 'least-effort strategies' for tool making and collecting resources. "They really don't seem to have been pushing themselves," said Ceri Shipton, from the Australian National University (ANU). "I don't get the sense they were explorers looking over the horizon. They didn't have that same sense of wonder that we have," said Shipton.
This was evident in the way the species made their stone tools and collected resources. "To make their stone tools they would use whatever rocks they could find lying around their camp, which were mostly of comparatively low quality to what later stone tool makers used," he said. "At the site we looked at there was a big rocky outcrop of quality stone just a short distance away up a small hill. But rather than walk up the hill they would just use whatever bits had rolled down and were lying at the bottom," he added.
This is in contrast to the stone tool makers of later periods, including early Homo sapiens and Neanderthals, who were climbing mountains to find good quality stone and transporting it over long distances.
Live Scores & Results | <urn:uuid:4de6a2ee-7743-4e2f-8095-f89419721079> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.newsnation.in/science/news/laziness-led-to-extinction-of-homo-erectus-200521.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00393.warc.gz | en | 0.984885 | 288 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.45779517292976... | 1 | Laziness, paired with an inability to adapt to a changing climate, may have wiped out the Homo erectus, an extinct species of primitive humans, a study has found.
An archaeological excavation of ancient human populations in the Arabian Peninsula during the Early Stone Age, found that Homo erectus used 'least-effort strategies' for tool making and collecting resources. "They really don't seem to have been pushing themselves," said Ceri Shipton, from the Australian National University (ANU). "I don't get the sense they were explorers looking over the horizon. They didn't have that same sense of wonder that we have," said Shipton.
This was evident in the way the species made their stone tools and collected resources. "To make their stone tools they would use whatever rocks they could find lying around their camp, which were mostly of comparatively low quality to what later stone tool makers used," he said. "At the site we looked at there was a big rocky outcrop of quality stone just a short distance away up a small hill. But rather than walk up the hill they would just use whatever bits had rolled down and were lying at the bottom," he added.
This is in contrast to the stone tool makers of later periods, including early Homo sapiens and Neanderthals, who were climbing mountains to find good quality stone and transporting it over long distances.
Live Scores & Results | 284 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Medicine has persisted with the idea that screening for breast cancer saves lives. Why? Because trial after trial has said so (with qualification). But a new study has come up with evidence that contradicts all the previous trials, and has concluded that breast cancer screening does nothing at all to save lives.
So what’s happened? The researchers say their new study is the first to use data from the ‘real world’ of clinical practice as opposed to the tightly-controlled tests that have been used in previous studies.
The study team, from the University of Washington School of Medicine, looked at the records of 1351 women who had died from breast cancer between 1983 and 1998, and compared them against a group of 2501 women, who were matched for age and risk of developing breast cancer, but who were free of cancer.
If screening works, the study team surmised, there should be more women in the cancer-free group who had been screened. To their surprise, this was not the case. Of the cancer group, 66 per cent of the women had been screened against 64 per cent of the women in the cancer-free group.
In other words, just as many women who had died from breast cancer had been screened as those who didn’t have the disease, which suggests that screening either didn’t detect the tumour in time, or didn’t detect it at all.
* So if screening isn’t going to help, what will? The answers can be found in the WDDTY Guide to Women’s Health. It tells you how to maintain good health, and avoid treatments and practices in medicine that are ineffective or harmful. It suggests the best way to prepare for the menopause, and how to avoid breast and other cancers, as well as many other ailments that can afflict women. To order your copy, click here: http://www.wddty.co.uk/shop/details.asp?product=107 | <urn:uuid:71ce8c69-dc8d-42be-898a-4073bcb81fc4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://healthy.net/2006/07/02/screening-no-it-doesnt-save-lives/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00100.warc.gz | en | 0.984552 | 409 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.2171672731637954... | 11 | Medicine has persisted with the idea that screening for breast cancer saves lives. Why? Because trial after trial has said so (with qualification). But a new study has come up with evidence that contradicts all the previous trials, and has concluded that breast cancer screening does nothing at all to save lives.
So what’s happened? The researchers say their new study is the first to use data from the ‘real world’ of clinical practice as opposed to the tightly-controlled tests that have been used in previous studies.
The study team, from the University of Washington School of Medicine, looked at the records of 1351 women who had died from breast cancer between 1983 and 1998, and compared them against a group of 2501 women, who were matched for age and risk of developing breast cancer, but who were free of cancer.
If screening works, the study team surmised, there should be more women in the cancer-free group who had been screened. To their surprise, this was not the case. Of the cancer group, 66 per cent of the women had been screened against 64 per cent of the women in the cancer-free group.
In other words, just as many women who had died from breast cancer had been screened as those who didn’t have the disease, which suggests that screening either didn’t detect the tumour in time, or didn’t detect it at all.
* So if screening isn’t going to help, what will? The answers can be found in the WDDTY Guide to Women’s Health. It tells you how to maintain good health, and avoid treatments and practices in medicine that are ineffective or harmful. It suggests the best way to prepare for the menopause, and how to avoid breast and other cancers, as well as many other ailments that can afflict women. To order your copy, click here: http://www.wddty.co.uk/shop/details.asp?product=107 | 400 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Biography of Sir Walter Raleigh
One of Britain’s most famous explorers, Sir Walter Raleigh, led many expeditions to America and introduced tobacco and the potato into England.
A soldier, warrior, politician, writer and poet too, Raleigh was equally famed for his relationship with Queen Elizabeth I, in whose court he served. Raleigh first came to the attention of Queen Elizabeth I in 1580 when he went to Ireland to fight against rebels in Munster. On his return, he was invited to the Queen’s court where he made a lasting impression.
Once he gained influence at court, Raleigh - who was also motivated by his support for Protestantism and an intense dislike of Spain - promoted the idea of creating English colonies in North America to challenge Spanish colonial policy.
The Queen rewarded Raleigh with the right to colonise North America, and he even chose the name of the first English colony in America, Roanoke Island (now north Carolina), naming it Virginia in honour of the virgin queen. Raleigh was also granted large estates in Ireland, monopolies, trade privileges, and a knighthood.
But the charm of Raleigh often landed him in trouble and he fell out of favour with the Queen, which led to him being imprisoned in the Tower of London. On his release, he continued his colonial ventures in an attempt to win back the Queen’s trust - setting off to South America in search of the mythical golden land of El Dorado.
He failed to impress the Queen’s successor, James I of England and VI of Scotland. Having spent time imprisoned in the Tower of London again on two further occasions - during which time he wrote poetry and his book The Historie of the World - Raleigh was charged with treason. He was executed outside the Palace of Westminster in 1618.
1. Raleigh's early life
Sir Walter Raleigh (also spelled Ralegh) was born into a well-connected gentry family at Hayes Barton in Devon in around 1552.
He grew up in a family of devout Protestants, who were persecuted during the brief reign of Catholic Mary I (1553-8). From an early age Walter developed a dislike of Catholicism. Raleigh was the youngest of five sons of Catherine Champernowne and Walter Raleigh, both in their second marriages.
Raleigh's half-brothers John Gilbert, Humphrey Gilbert, and Adrian Gilbert, and his brother Carew Raleigh were also prominent during the reigns of Queen Elizabeth I and King James I. His half-brother Humphrey Gilbert was a prominent explorer and Member of Parliament, as was his brother Carew Raleigh.
At the age of 17, Raleigh left England for France to fight with the Huguenots (French Protestants) in the Wars of Religion. In 1572, he attended Oriel College, Oxford, and studied law at the Middle Temple law college. During this time, he began his lifelong interest in writing poetry. | <urn:uuid:8a4b8197-5768-4879-83a3-904540489121> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://greatestbritons.com/sir-walter-raleigh-biography.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00530.warc.gz | en | 0.983395 | 597 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.0016723868902... | 1 | Biography of Sir Walter Raleigh
One of Britain’s most famous explorers, Sir Walter Raleigh, led many expeditions to America and introduced tobacco and the potato into England.
A soldier, warrior, politician, writer and poet too, Raleigh was equally famed for his relationship with Queen Elizabeth I, in whose court he served. Raleigh first came to the attention of Queen Elizabeth I in 1580 when he went to Ireland to fight against rebels in Munster. On his return, he was invited to the Queen’s court where he made a lasting impression.
Once he gained influence at court, Raleigh - who was also motivated by his support for Protestantism and an intense dislike of Spain - promoted the idea of creating English colonies in North America to challenge Spanish colonial policy.
The Queen rewarded Raleigh with the right to colonise North America, and he even chose the name of the first English colony in America, Roanoke Island (now north Carolina), naming it Virginia in honour of the virgin queen. Raleigh was also granted large estates in Ireland, monopolies, trade privileges, and a knighthood.
But the charm of Raleigh often landed him in trouble and he fell out of favour with the Queen, which led to him being imprisoned in the Tower of London. On his release, he continued his colonial ventures in an attempt to win back the Queen’s trust - setting off to South America in search of the mythical golden land of El Dorado.
He failed to impress the Queen’s successor, James I of England and VI of Scotland. Having spent time imprisoned in the Tower of London again on two further occasions - during which time he wrote poetry and his book The Historie of the World - Raleigh was charged with treason. He was executed outside the Palace of Westminster in 1618.
1. Raleigh's early life
Sir Walter Raleigh (also spelled Ralegh) was born into a well-connected gentry family at Hayes Barton in Devon in around 1552.
He grew up in a family of devout Protestants, who were persecuted during the brief reign of Catholic Mary I (1553-8). From an early age Walter developed a dislike of Catholicism. Raleigh was the youngest of five sons of Catherine Champernowne and Walter Raleigh, both in their second marriages.
Raleigh's half-brothers John Gilbert, Humphrey Gilbert, and Adrian Gilbert, and his brother Carew Raleigh were also prominent during the reigns of Queen Elizabeth I and King James I. His half-brother Humphrey Gilbert was a prominent explorer and Member of Parliament, as was his brother Carew Raleigh.
At the age of 17, Raleigh left England for France to fight with the Huguenots (French Protestants) in the Wars of Religion. In 1572, he attended Oriel College, Oxford, and studied law at the Middle Temple law college. During this time, he began his lifelong interest in writing poetry. | 600 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Well, in fact, people are generally misinformed. Columbus was hardly the first one to figure out the world isn’t flat.
Yet, as is often the case, a better description for “what everyone knows” would be “what everyone is mistaken about.” Here are three common misconceptions about what medieval people thought.
- Medievals thought the world was flat
One claim we often hear is that medieval people believed the world to be flat, and that it was only in the period of the Enlightenment and the Age of Discovery that the likes of Columbus and Magellan proved that the earth was in fact round. This supposedly demonstrates the medieval opposition to science and rational investigation of the world, that if only they had bothered to try, they would have discovered this very basic fact.
Yet, far from being ignorant of the earth’s roundness, the medievals were well aware of this fact, and actually held it as something easily known.
In the very first article of his Summa Theologiae, St. Thomas Aquinas discusses how different branches of science can reach the same conclusions through different means. The example he uses? The roundness of the earth. “For the astronomer and the physicist both may prove the same conclusion: that the earth, for instance, is round: the astronomer by means of mathematics (i.e. abstracting from matter), but the physicist by means of matter itself.” (ST I, a. 1, q. 1, ad. 2)
The scientific method developed in the Enlightenment period did not spring out of nowhere. It was a refinement of the practices of the medieval “natural philosophers,” people like St. Albert the Great and Robert Grosseteste, who were exploring the world around them in a systematic way so as to better understand God’s creation. Far from being “anti-science,” the medievals were deeply curious people.
- Medievals believed in the divine right of kings
Another idea falsely attributed to medieval times is the “divine right of kings.” While from ancient times on, many rulers had claimed some sort of divine mandate for their position, this term refers specifically to the idea that the king is appointed by God and thus is over every other power.
But this political theory was more a product of the 16th century than the 6th. Henry VIII’s proclamation of himself as head of the Church of England and James I’s idea that kings were “God’s lieutenants” attempted to set state over Church and make the monarch the absolute ruler of his kingdom.
While many medievals did hold that the king was chosen by God to rule, they did not give him the total authority that the later holders of the “divine right” theorists did.
St. Thomas held that the best form of government was a mixture of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy, and that if a monarch were to turn tyrannical, he could rightfully be deposed or overthrown. These are hardly the beliefs of “anti-democratic authoritarians”!
- Medievals burned witches
It’s true that burning at the stake was a common form of execution for various types of crimes throughout the medieval period, and certainly we would not defend such a cruel method. But it’s not as though the Enlightenment ended this practice—indeed, the last judicial executions by burning took place in Germany in 1804!
But the idea that the medievals were a superstitious people who were obsessed with witchcraft and paranoid about women is demonstrably false. The great spate of witch-burning with which we’re familiar took place in the 16th and 17th centuries, well after the medieval period had ended. As one historian has noted, though we often think of magic and science and being opposed to each other, we often find that they tend to wax and wane together—that periods of history especially enthusiastic about scientific research also become interested in magical practices because both are concerned with power over nature. But since the medieval interest in science was more contemplative than practical, it did not develop the taste for magic or the occult that would come up in later periods.
Contrary to popular belief, the medieval period, the age between the ancient world and the modern world, was not backward or benighted, but one of great learning and piety. Some of the greatest works of philosophy, theology, and literature were composed in that time. Far from a put-down, “medieval” should be a compliment!
Since you are here…
…we’d like to have one more word with you. We are excited to report that Aleteia’s readership is growing at a rapid rate, world-wide! Our team proves its mission every day by providing high-quality content that informs and inspires a Christian life. But quality journalism has a cost and it’s more than ads can cover. We want our articles to be accessible to everyone, free of charge, but we need your help. To continue our efforts to nourish and inspire our Catholic family, your support is invaluable. Become an Aleteia Patron today for as little as $3 a month. May we count on you? | <urn:uuid:9a83e417-bd95-4015-8268-9e17986f36dc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://aleteia.org/2018/12/05/burning-witches-and-falling-off-the-edge-of-the-world-what-was-medieval-life-really-like/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00315.warc.gz | en | 0.98073 | 1,095 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.094314... | 1 | Well, in fact, people are generally misinformed. Columbus was hardly the first one to figure out the world isn’t flat.
Yet, as is often the case, a better description for “what everyone knows” would be “what everyone is mistaken about.” Here are three common misconceptions about what medieval people thought.
- Medievals thought the world was flat
One claim we often hear is that medieval people believed the world to be flat, and that it was only in the period of the Enlightenment and the Age of Discovery that the likes of Columbus and Magellan proved that the earth was in fact round. This supposedly demonstrates the medieval opposition to science and rational investigation of the world, that if only they had bothered to try, they would have discovered this very basic fact.
Yet, far from being ignorant of the earth’s roundness, the medievals were well aware of this fact, and actually held it as something easily known.
In the very first article of his Summa Theologiae, St. Thomas Aquinas discusses how different branches of science can reach the same conclusions through different means. The example he uses? The roundness of the earth. “For the astronomer and the physicist both may prove the same conclusion: that the earth, for instance, is round: the astronomer by means of mathematics (i.e. abstracting from matter), but the physicist by means of matter itself.” (ST I, a. 1, q. 1, ad. 2)
The scientific method developed in the Enlightenment period did not spring out of nowhere. It was a refinement of the practices of the medieval “natural philosophers,” people like St. Albert the Great and Robert Grosseteste, who were exploring the world around them in a systematic way so as to better understand God’s creation. Far from being “anti-science,” the medievals were deeply curious people.
- Medievals believed in the divine right of kings
Another idea falsely attributed to medieval times is the “divine right of kings.” While from ancient times on, many rulers had claimed some sort of divine mandate for their position, this term refers specifically to the idea that the king is appointed by God and thus is over every other power.
But this political theory was more a product of the 16th century than the 6th. Henry VIII’s proclamation of himself as head of the Church of England and James I’s idea that kings were “God’s lieutenants” attempted to set state over Church and make the monarch the absolute ruler of his kingdom.
While many medievals did hold that the king was chosen by God to rule, they did not give him the total authority that the later holders of the “divine right” theorists did.
St. Thomas held that the best form of government was a mixture of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy, and that if a monarch were to turn tyrannical, he could rightfully be deposed or overthrown. These are hardly the beliefs of “anti-democratic authoritarians”!
- Medievals burned witches
It’s true that burning at the stake was a common form of execution for various types of crimes throughout the medieval period, and certainly we would not defend such a cruel method. But it’s not as though the Enlightenment ended this practice—indeed, the last judicial executions by burning took place in Germany in 1804!
But the idea that the medievals were a superstitious people who were obsessed with witchcraft and paranoid about women is demonstrably false. The great spate of witch-burning with which we’re familiar took place in the 16th and 17th centuries, well after the medieval period had ended. As one historian has noted, though we often think of magic and science and being opposed to each other, we often find that they tend to wax and wane together—that periods of history especially enthusiastic about scientific research also become interested in magical practices because both are concerned with power over nature. But since the medieval interest in science was more contemplative than practical, it did not develop the taste for magic or the occult that would come up in later periods.
Contrary to popular belief, the medieval period, the age between the ancient world and the modern world, was not backward or benighted, but one of great learning and piety. Some of the greatest works of philosophy, theology, and literature were composed in that time. Far from a put-down, “medieval” should be a compliment!
Since you are here…
…we’d like to have one more word with you. We are excited to report that Aleteia’s readership is growing at a rapid rate, world-wide! Our team proves its mission every day by providing high-quality content that informs and inspires a Christian life. But quality journalism has a cost and it’s more than ads can cover. We want our articles to be accessible to everyone, free of charge, but we need your help. To continue our efforts to nourish and inspire our Catholic family, your support is invaluable. Become an Aleteia Patron today for as little as $3 a month. May we count on you? | 1,049 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Search Submit. By , slavery had become an illegal practice in the United States of America, allowing former slaves to own properties and start lives of their own as long as they, like everybody, adhered to the laws that governed their respective jurisdictions although many of those laws still discriminated largely against the Black race. And the same went for many intolerant and completely dogged individuals who still believed that the Black race was a second-class one and should therefore not be allowed to exist on its own. Peter Hardeman Burnett, first Governor of California and a man who rose to the highest law-making body of America, for instance, was one of these people.
The treatment of slaves in the United States varied by time and place, but was generally brutal and degrading, especially on plantations. Whipping and rape were almost routine; there were businesses to which the owner could turn over the whipping. There were certainly some kind and relatively enlightened slave owners, but not on large plantations. Only a small minority of slaves received anything resembling decent treatment, and even that could vanish on such occasion as an owner's death.
The law provided slaves with virtually no protection from their masters. On large plantations this power was delegated to overseers. These men were under considerable pressure from the plantation owners to maximize profits. They did this by bullying the slaves into increasing productivity. | <urn:uuid:4a0bc71d-c494-4f30-85bb-b65e9d893d2d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://helpingmilitaryfamilies.com/hot-pics/whipping-of-black-women.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00061.warc.gz | en | 0.989476 | 270 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.03821128234... | 1 | Search Submit. By , slavery had become an illegal practice in the United States of America, allowing former slaves to own properties and start lives of their own as long as they, like everybody, adhered to the laws that governed their respective jurisdictions although many of those laws still discriminated largely against the Black race. And the same went for many intolerant and completely dogged individuals who still believed that the Black race was a second-class one and should therefore not be allowed to exist on its own. Peter Hardeman Burnett, first Governor of California and a man who rose to the highest law-making body of America, for instance, was one of these people.
The treatment of slaves in the United States varied by time and place, but was generally brutal and degrading, especially on plantations. Whipping and rape were almost routine; there were businesses to which the owner could turn over the whipping. There were certainly some kind and relatively enlightened slave owners, but not on large plantations. Only a small minority of slaves received anything resembling decent treatment, and even that could vanish on such occasion as an owner's death.
The law provided slaves with virtually no protection from their masters. On large plantations this power was delegated to overseers. These men were under considerable pressure from the plantation owners to maximize profits. They did this by bullying the slaves into increasing productivity. | 272 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The poinsettia plant (Euphorbia pulcherrima) is native to Mexico’s Central and Southern regions, where it grows as a perennial and may reach eight to ten feet in height:
Poinsettias were domesticated in pre-Hispanic times; the Mexicas called it cuetlaxochitl, which means “wilted flower.” The plant had practical and ceremonial purposes for them, such as to dye textiles, and as a tribute to their gods. In colonial Mexico, poinsettias became a popular decoration for the Christmas season since at least the 17th century; they started to appear in Franciscan Nativity processions during Spanish rule, as the plant’s specialized top leaves, called bracts, naturally turned bright red in the month of December, when flowers were probably scarce. Some legends claim that when these plants were brought inside a church for the first time on Christmas Eve, they “miraculously bloomed” overnight. Since then, the Spanish name for them has been “La Flor de Nochebuena,” which literally means “The Holy Night (Christmas Eve) Flower.”
Later on, after Mexico became an independent nation, the first U.S. ambassador to Mexico, Joel R. Poinsett, who was also a botanist, was enchanted by the plants. In 1828, he sent some cuttings to his home in South Carolina, and gave some samples to his horticultural friends. One of them, Paul Ecke, developed a technique which caused seedlings to branch, providing a bridge for the limited cultivation of the Christmas Eve flower to become a flourishing industry. Around that time, the English name “Poinsettia” was adopted, in honour of the diplomat.
Today, poinsettias are the best selling potted plants in North America, found in nurseries and supermarkets:
They can be found in many shades besides the classic red shown at the top of this post, such as white, pink, gold, and even variegated:
During the Christmas season, there seems to be no vacant spot without a poinsettia, adorning gardens and churches, as well as many other public places. I recently had a chance to visit the beautiful city of Guadalajara, in the Mexican state of Jalisco (more of that trip in future posts), and found poinsettias all over, including the hotel lobby:
And at a roundabout, which becomes a pedestrian and bicycle route every Sunday, by the iconic statue of Minerva: | <urn:uuid:c9e9b637-0072-429d-8e30-57d9471935ca> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mysliceofmexico.ca/2019/12/10/fotd-poinsettias/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00168.warc.gz | en | 0.980043 | 542 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.03467648848891... | 11 | The poinsettia plant (Euphorbia pulcherrima) is native to Mexico’s Central and Southern regions, where it grows as a perennial and may reach eight to ten feet in height:
Poinsettias were domesticated in pre-Hispanic times; the Mexicas called it cuetlaxochitl, which means “wilted flower.” The plant had practical and ceremonial purposes for them, such as to dye textiles, and as a tribute to their gods. In colonial Mexico, poinsettias became a popular decoration for the Christmas season since at least the 17th century; they started to appear in Franciscan Nativity processions during Spanish rule, as the plant’s specialized top leaves, called bracts, naturally turned bright red in the month of December, when flowers were probably scarce. Some legends claim that when these plants were brought inside a church for the first time on Christmas Eve, they “miraculously bloomed” overnight. Since then, the Spanish name for them has been “La Flor de Nochebuena,” which literally means “The Holy Night (Christmas Eve) Flower.”
Later on, after Mexico became an independent nation, the first U.S. ambassador to Mexico, Joel R. Poinsett, who was also a botanist, was enchanted by the plants. In 1828, he sent some cuttings to his home in South Carolina, and gave some samples to his horticultural friends. One of them, Paul Ecke, developed a technique which caused seedlings to branch, providing a bridge for the limited cultivation of the Christmas Eve flower to become a flourishing industry. Around that time, the English name “Poinsettia” was adopted, in honour of the diplomat.
Today, poinsettias are the best selling potted plants in North America, found in nurseries and supermarkets:
They can be found in many shades besides the classic red shown at the top of this post, such as white, pink, gold, and even variegated:
During the Christmas season, there seems to be no vacant spot without a poinsettia, adorning gardens and churches, as well as many other public places. I recently had a chance to visit the beautiful city of Guadalajara, in the Mexican state of Jalisco (more of that trip in future posts), and found poinsettias all over, including the hotel lobby:
And at a roundabout, which becomes a pedestrian and bicycle route every Sunday, by the iconic statue of Minerva: | 521 | ENGLISH | 1 |
R ALEIGH was the true father of England beyond the seas. He was a great statesman and patriot. But he was a dreamer too and all his schemes failed. Other men followed him who likewise failed. But it would take too long to tell of them all, of Bartholomew Gosnold who discovered and named Martha's Vineyard and Cape Cod; of Bartholomew Gilbert, brave Sir Humphrey's son, who was slain by Indians, and of many more besides.
Again and again men tried to plant a colony on the shores of America. Again and again they failed. But with British doggedness they went on trying, and at length succeeded.
Raleigh lay in the Tower of London, a prisoner accused of treason. All his lands were taken from him. Virginia, which had been granted to him by Queen Elizabeth was the King's once more to give to whom he would. So now two companies were formed, one of London merchants called the London Company, one of Plymouth merchants called the Plymouth Company. And both these companies prayed King James to grant them permission to found colonies in Virginia. Virginia therefore was divided into two parts; the right to found colonies in the southern half being given to the London Company, the right to found colonies in the northern half being given to the Plymouth Company upon condition that the colonies founded must be one hundred miles distant from each other.
These companies were formed by merchants. They were formed for trade, and in the hope of making money, in spite of the fact that up to this time no man had made money by trying to found colonies. in America, but on the contrary many had lost fortunes.
Of the two companies now formed it was only the London Company which really did anything. The Plymouth Company indeed sent out an expedition which reached Virginia. But the colony was a failure, and after a year of hardships the colonists set sail for England taking home with them such doleful accounts of their sufferings that none who heard them ever wished to help to found a colony.
The expedition of the London Company had a better fate. It was in December, 1606, that the little fleet of three ships, the Susan Constant, the Godspeed and the Discovery, put out from England, and turned westward towards the New World.
With the expedition sailed Captain John Smith. He was bronzed and bearded like a Turk, a swaggering, long-headed lovable sort of man, ambitious, too, and not given to submit his will to others. Since a boy of sixteen he had led a wandering adventurous life—a life cramful of heroic deeds, of hairbreadth escapes of which we have no space to tell here. But I hope some day you will read his own story of these days. For he was a writer as well as a warrior, and "what his sword did his pen wrote." Every American boy and girl should read his story, for he has been called the first American writer.
Now with this saucy, swaggering fellow on board, troubles were not far to seek. The voyage was long and tedious. For six weeks adverse winds kept the little fleet prisoner in the English Channel within sight of English shores, a thing trying to the tempers of men used to action, and burning with impatience to reach the land beyond the seas. They lay idle with nothing to do but talk. So they fell to discussing matters about the colony they were to found. And from discussing they fell to disputing until it ended at length in a bitter quarrel between Smith and another of the adventurers, Captain Edward Wingfield.
Captain Wingfield was twice John Smith's age, and deemed that he knew much better how a colony ought to be formed than this dictatorial youth of twenty-seven. He himself was just as dictatorial and narrow into the bargain. So between the two the voyage was by no means peaceful.
Good Master Hunt, the preacher who went with the expedition, in spite of the fact that he was so weak and ill that few thought he would live, did his best to still the angry passions.
To some extent he succeeded. And when a fair wind blew at length the ships spread their sails to it and were soon out of sight of England. Two months of storm and danger passed before the adventurers sighted the West Indies. Here they went ashore on the island of San Dominica. Delighted once more to see land and escape from the confinement of the ship, they stayed three weeks among the sunny islands. They hunted and fished, traded with the savages, boiled pork in hot natural springs, feasted on fresh food and vegetables, and generally enjoyed themselves.
But among all this merry-making Wingfield did not forget his anger against John Smith. Their quarrels became so bad that Wingfield decided to end both quarrels and John Smith. So he ordered a gallows to be set up and, having accused Smith of mutiny, made ready to hang him. But John Smith stoutly defended himself. Nothing could be proved against him. He laughed at the gallows, and as he quaintly puts it "could not be persuaded to use them."
Nevertheless, although nothing could be proved against him, there were many who quite agreed that Captain John Smith was a turbulent fellow. So to keep him quiet they clapped him in irons and kept him so until their arrival in Virginia. After leaving the West Indies the adventurers fell into more bad weather, and lost their course; but finally they arrived safely in Chesapeake Bay.
They named the capes on either side Henry and Charles, in honour of the two sons of their King. Upon Cape Henry they set up a brass cross upon which was carved "Jacobus Rex" and thus claimed the land for England. Then they sailed on up the river which they named James River, in honour of the King himself. Their settlement they named Jamestown, also in his honour. Jamestown has now disappeared, but the two capes and the river are still called by the names given them by these early settlers.
Before this expedition sailed the directors of the Company had arranged who among the colonists were to be the rulers. But for some quaint reason they were not told. Their names, together with many instructions as to what they were to do, were put into a sealed box, and orders were given that this box was not to be opened until Virginia was reached.
The box was now opened, and it was found that John Smith was named among the seven who were to form the council. The others were much disgusted at this, and in spite of all he could say, they refused to have him in the council. They did, however, set him free from his fetters. Of the council Wingfield was chosen President. All the others, except John Smith, took oath to do their best for the colony. Then at once the business of building houses was begun. While the council drew plans the men dug trenches and felled trees in order to clear space on which to pitch their tents, or otherwise busied themselves about the settlement.
The Indians appeared to be friendly, and often came to look on curiously at these strange doings. And Wingfield thought them so gentle and kindly that he would not allow the men to build any fortifications except a sort of screen of interwoven boughs.
Besides building houses one of the colonists' first cares was to provide themselves with a church. But indeed it was one of the quaintest churches ever known. An old sail was stretched beneath a group of trees to give shelter from the burning sun. And to make a pulpit a plank of wood was nailed between two trees which grew near together. And here good Master Hunt preached twice every Sunday while the men sat on felled trunks reverently listening to his long sermons.
While the houses were being built Smith, with some twenty others, was sent to explore the country. They sailed up the river and found the Indians to all appearance friendly. But they found no gold or precious stones, and could hear nothing of a passage to the Pacific Ocean which they had been told to seek. So they returned to Jamestown. Arriving here they found that the day before the Indians had attacked the settlement and that one Englishman lay slain and seventeen injured.
This was a bitter disappointment to Wingfield who had trusted in the friendliness of the Indians. But at length he was persuaded to allow fortifications to be built. Even then, however, the colonists were not secure, for as they went about their business felling trees or digging the ground the savages would shoot at them from the shelter of the surrounding forest. If a man strayed from the fort he was sure to return wounded if he returned at all; and in this sort of warfare the stolid English were no match for the wily Indians. "Our men," says Smith, "by their disorderly straggling were often hurt when the savages by the nimbleness of their heels well escaped."
So six months passed, and the ships which had brought out the colonists were ready to go back to England with a cargo of wood instead of the gold which the Company had hoped for. But before the ships sailed Smith, who was still considered in disgrace, and therefore kept out of the council, insisted on having a fair trial. For he would not have Captain Newport go home and spread evil stories about him.
Smith's enemies were unwilling to allow the trial. But Smith would take no denial. So at length his request was granted, the result being that he was proved innocent of every charge against him, and was at length admitted to the council.
Now at last something like peace was restored, and Captain Newport set sail for home. He promised to make all speed he could and to be back in five months' time. And indeed he had need to hasten. For the journey outward had been so long, the supply of food so scant, that already it was giving out. And when Captain Newport sailed it was plain that the colonists had not food enough to last fifteen weeks.
Such food it was too! It consisted chiefly of worm-eaten grain. A pint was served out daily for each man, and this boiled and made into a sort of porridge formed their chief food. Their drink was cold water. For tea and coffee were unknown in those days, and beer they had none. To men used to the beer and beef of England in plenty this indeed seemed meagre diet. "Had we been as free of all sins as gluttony and drunkenness," says Smith, "we might have been canonised as saints, our wheat having fried some twenty-six weeks in the ship's hold, contained as many worms as grains, so that we might truly call it rather so much bran than corn. Our drink was water, our lodging castles in the air."
There was fish enough in the river, game enough in the woods. But the birds and beasts were so wild, and the men so unskilful and ignorant in ways of shooting and trapping, that they succeeded in catching very little. Besides which there were few among the colonists who had any idea of what work meant. More than half the company were "gentlemen adventurers," dare devil, shiftless men who had joined the expedition in search of excitement with no idea of labouring with their hands.
Badly fed, unused to the heat of a Virginian summer the men soon fell ill. Their tents were rotten, their houses yet unbuilt. Trees remained unfelled, the land untilled, while the men lay on the bare ground about the fort groaning and in misery. Many died, and soon those who remained were so feeble that they had scarce strength to bury the dead or even to crawl to the "common kettle" for their daily measure of porridge.
In their misery the men became suspicious and jealous, and once more quarrels were rife. Wingfield had never been loved. Now many grew to hate him, for they believed that while they starved he kept back for his own use secret stores of oil and wine and other dainties. No explanations were of any avail, and he was deposed from his office of President and another chosen in his place.
As autumn drew on the misery began to lessen. For the Indians, whose corn was now ripe, began to bring it to the fort to barter it for chisels, and beads, and other trifles. Wild fowl too, such as ducks and geese, swarmed in the river.
So with good food and cooler weather the sick soon began to mend. Energy returned to them, and once more they found strength to build and thatch their houses. And led by Smith they made many expeditions among the Indians, bringing back great stores of venison, wild turkeys, bread, and grain in exchange for beads, hatchets, bells and other knick-knacks.
But all the misery through which the colonists had passed had taught them nothing. They took no thought for the time to come when food might again be scarce. They took no care of it, but feasted daily on good bread, fish and fowl and "wild beasts as fat as we could eat them," says Smith.
Now one December day Smith set out on an exploring expedition up the Chickahominy River. It was a hard journey, for the river was so overgrown with trees that the men had to hew a path for the little vessel. At length the barque could go no further, so Smith left it, and went on in a canoe with only two Englishmen, and two Indians as guides.
For a time all went well. But one day he and his companions went ashore to camp. While the others were preparing a meal, Smith, taking one of the Indians with him, went on to explore a little further. But he had not gone far when he heard the wild, blood-curdling war whoop of the Indians. Guessing at once that they had come against him he resolved to sell his life as dearly as might be. So seizing the Indian guide he tied his arm fast to his own with his garters. Then with pistol in his right hand, and holding the Indian in front of him as a shield, he pushed as rapidly as he could in the direction of the camp.
Arrows flew round him thick and fast, but Smith's good buff coat turned them aside. The whole forest was alive with Indians, but although from the shelter of the trees they showered arrows upon Smith none dared approach him to take him. For they knew and dreaded the terrible fire stick which he held in his hand. Smith fired again and yet again as he retreated, and more than one Indian fell, never more to rise. He kept his eyes upon the bushes and trees trying to catch glimpses of the dusky figures as they skulked among them, and paid little heed to the path he was taking. So suddenly he found himself floundering in a quagmire.
Still he fought for dear life, and as long as he held his pistol no Redman dared come near to take him. But at length, chilled and wet, and half dead—with cold, unable to go further, he saw it was useless to resist longer. So he tossed away his pistol. At once the savages closed in upon him and, dragging him out of the quagmire, led him to their chief.
Smith had given in because he knew that one man stuck in a quagmire could not hope to keep three hundred Indians long at bay. But he had sharp wits as well as a steady hand, and with them he still fought for his life. As soon as he was brought before the chief he whipped out his compass, and showing it to the chief, explained to him that it always pointed north, and thus the white men were able to find their way through the pathless desert.
To the Indians this seemed like magic; they marvelled greatly at the shining needle which they could see so plainly and yet not touch. Seeing their interest Smith went on to explain other marvels of the sun, and moon, and stars, and the roundness of the earth, until those who heard were quite sure he was a great "medicine man."
Thus Smith fought for his life. But at length utterly exhausted, he could say no more. So while the chief still held the little IVory compass, and watched the quivering needle, his followers led Smith away to his own camp fire. Here lay the other white men dead, thrust through with many arrows. And here the Indians warmed and chafed his benumbed body, and treated him with all the kindness they knew. But that brought Smith little comfort. For he knew it was the Indian way. A famous warrior might be sure of kindness at their hands if they meant in the end to slay him with awful torture.
And so, thoroughly warmed and restored, in less than an hour Smith found himself fast bound to a tree, while grim warriors, terribly painted, danced around him, bows and arrows in hand. They were about to slay him when the chief, holding up the compass, bade them lay down their weapons. Such a medicine man, he had decided, must not thus be slain. So Smith was unbound.
For some weeks Smith was marched hither and thither from village to village. He was kindly enough treated, but he never knew how long the kindness would last, and he constantly expected death. Yet he was quite calm. He kept a journal, and in this he set down accounts of many strange sights he saw, not knowing if indeed they would ever be read.
At length Smith was brought to the wigwam of the great Powhatan, the chief of chiefs, or Emperor, as these simple English folk called him. To receive the white prisoner the Powhatan put on his greatest bravery. Feathered and painted, and wearing a wide robe of raccoon skins he sat upon a broad couch beside a fire. On either side of him sat one of his wives and behind in grim array stood his warriors, row upon row. Behind them again stood the squaws. Their faces and shoulders were painted bright red, about their necks they wore chains of white beads, and on their heads the down of white birds.
It was a weird scene, and the flickering firelight added to its strangeness. Silent and still as statues the warriors stood. Then as John Smith was led before the chief they raised a wild shout. As that died away to silence one of the Powhatan's squaws rose and brought a basin of water to Smith. In this he washed his hands, and then another squaw brought him a bunch of feathers instead of a towel, with which to dry them.
After this the Indians feasted their prisoner with savage splendour. Then a long consultation took place. What was said Smith knew not. He only knew that his life hung in the balance. The end of the consultation he felt sure meant life or death for him.
At length the long talk came to an end. Two great stones were placed before the chief. Then as many as could lay hands on Smith seized him, and dragging him to the stones, they threw him on the ground, and laid his head upon them. Fiercely then they brandished their clubs and Smith knew that his last hour had come, and that the Indians were about to beat out his brains.
But the raised clubs never fell, for with a cry Pocahontas, the chief's young daughter, sprang through the circle of warriors. She stood beside the prisoner pleading for his life. But the Indians were in no mood to listen to prayers for mercy. So seeing that all her entreaties were in vain she threw herself upon her knees beside Smith, put her arms about his neck, and laid her head upon his, crying out that if they would beat out his brains they should beat hers out too.
Of all his many children the Powhatan loved this little daughter best. He could deny her nothing. So Smith's life was saved. He should live, said the Powhatan, to make hatchets for him, and bells and beads for his little daughter.
Having thus been saved, Smith was looked upon as one of the tribe. Two days later he was admitted as such with fearsome ceremony.
Having painted and decorated himself as frightfully as he could, the Powhatan caused Smith to be taken to a large wigwam in the forest. The wigwam was divided in two by a curtain and in one half a huge fire burned. Smith was placed upon a mat in front of the fire and left alone. He did not understand in the least what was going on, and marvelled greatly what this new ceremony might mean. But he had not sat long before the fire when he heard doleful sounds coming from the other side of the curtain. Then from behind it appeared the Powhatan with a hundred others as hideously painted as himself, and told Smith that now that they were brothers he might go back to his fort.
So with twelve guides Smith set out. Yet in spite of all their feasting and ceremonies Smith scarcely believed in the friendship of the Indians, and no one was more surprised than himself when he at length reached Jamestown in safety. | <urn:uuid:9bff4115-90ac-452f-b8d8-46f5196853f5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/displayitem.php?item=books/marshall/country/smith | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00164.warc.gz | en | 0.99232 | 4,391 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.18112829... | 5 | R ALEIGH was the true father of England beyond the seas. He was a great statesman and patriot. But he was a dreamer too and all his schemes failed. Other men followed him who likewise failed. But it would take too long to tell of them all, of Bartholomew Gosnold who discovered and named Martha's Vineyard and Cape Cod; of Bartholomew Gilbert, brave Sir Humphrey's son, who was slain by Indians, and of many more besides.
Again and again men tried to plant a colony on the shores of America. Again and again they failed. But with British doggedness they went on trying, and at length succeeded.
Raleigh lay in the Tower of London, a prisoner accused of treason. All his lands were taken from him. Virginia, which had been granted to him by Queen Elizabeth was the King's once more to give to whom he would. So now two companies were formed, one of London merchants called the London Company, one of Plymouth merchants called the Plymouth Company. And both these companies prayed King James to grant them permission to found colonies in Virginia. Virginia therefore was divided into two parts; the right to found colonies in the southern half being given to the London Company, the right to found colonies in the northern half being given to the Plymouth Company upon condition that the colonies founded must be one hundred miles distant from each other.
These companies were formed by merchants. They were formed for trade, and in the hope of making money, in spite of the fact that up to this time no man had made money by trying to found colonies. in America, but on the contrary many had lost fortunes.
Of the two companies now formed it was only the London Company which really did anything. The Plymouth Company indeed sent out an expedition which reached Virginia. But the colony was a failure, and after a year of hardships the colonists set sail for England taking home with them such doleful accounts of their sufferings that none who heard them ever wished to help to found a colony.
The expedition of the London Company had a better fate. It was in December, 1606, that the little fleet of three ships, the Susan Constant, the Godspeed and the Discovery, put out from England, and turned westward towards the New World.
With the expedition sailed Captain John Smith. He was bronzed and bearded like a Turk, a swaggering, long-headed lovable sort of man, ambitious, too, and not given to submit his will to others. Since a boy of sixteen he had led a wandering adventurous life—a life cramful of heroic deeds, of hairbreadth escapes of which we have no space to tell here. But I hope some day you will read his own story of these days. For he was a writer as well as a warrior, and "what his sword did his pen wrote." Every American boy and girl should read his story, for he has been called the first American writer.
Now with this saucy, swaggering fellow on board, troubles were not far to seek. The voyage was long and tedious. For six weeks adverse winds kept the little fleet prisoner in the English Channel within sight of English shores, a thing trying to the tempers of men used to action, and burning with impatience to reach the land beyond the seas. They lay idle with nothing to do but talk. So they fell to discussing matters about the colony they were to found. And from discussing they fell to disputing until it ended at length in a bitter quarrel between Smith and another of the adventurers, Captain Edward Wingfield.
Captain Wingfield was twice John Smith's age, and deemed that he knew much better how a colony ought to be formed than this dictatorial youth of twenty-seven. He himself was just as dictatorial and narrow into the bargain. So between the two the voyage was by no means peaceful.
Good Master Hunt, the preacher who went with the expedition, in spite of the fact that he was so weak and ill that few thought he would live, did his best to still the angry passions.
To some extent he succeeded. And when a fair wind blew at length the ships spread their sails to it and were soon out of sight of England. Two months of storm and danger passed before the adventurers sighted the West Indies. Here they went ashore on the island of San Dominica. Delighted once more to see land and escape from the confinement of the ship, they stayed three weeks among the sunny islands. They hunted and fished, traded with the savages, boiled pork in hot natural springs, feasted on fresh food and vegetables, and generally enjoyed themselves.
But among all this merry-making Wingfield did not forget his anger against John Smith. Their quarrels became so bad that Wingfield decided to end both quarrels and John Smith. So he ordered a gallows to be set up and, having accused Smith of mutiny, made ready to hang him. But John Smith stoutly defended himself. Nothing could be proved against him. He laughed at the gallows, and as he quaintly puts it "could not be persuaded to use them."
Nevertheless, although nothing could be proved against him, there were many who quite agreed that Captain John Smith was a turbulent fellow. So to keep him quiet they clapped him in irons and kept him so until their arrival in Virginia. After leaving the West Indies the adventurers fell into more bad weather, and lost their course; but finally they arrived safely in Chesapeake Bay.
They named the capes on either side Henry and Charles, in honour of the two sons of their King. Upon Cape Henry they set up a brass cross upon which was carved "Jacobus Rex" and thus claimed the land for England. Then they sailed on up the river which they named James River, in honour of the King himself. Their settlement they named Jamestown, also in his honour. Jamestown has now disappeared, but the two capes and the river are still called by the names given them by these early settlers.
Before this expedition sailed the directors of the Company had arranged who among the colonists were to be the rulers. But for some quaint reason they were not told. Their names, together with many instructions as to what they were to do, were put into a sealed box, and orders were given that this box was not to be opened until Virginia was reached.
The box was now opened, and it was found that John Smith was named among the seven who were to form the council. The others were much disgusted at this, and in spite of all he could say, they refused to have him in the council. They did, however, set him free from his fetters. Of the council Wingfield was chosen President. All the others, except John Smith, took oath to do their best for the colony. Then at once the business of building houses was begun. While the council drew plans the men dug trenches and felled trees in order to clear space on which to pitch their tents, or otherwise busied themselves about the settlement.
The Indians appeared to be friendly, and often came to look on curiously at these strange doings. And Wingfield thought them so gentle and kindly that he would not allow the men to build any fortifications except a sort of screen of interwoven boughs.
Besides building houses one of the colonists' first cares was to provide themselves with a church. But indeed it was one of the quaintest churches ever known. An old sail was stretched beneath a group of trees to give shelter from the burning sun. And to make a pulpit a plank of wood was nailed between two trees which grew near together. And here good Master Hunt preached twice every Sunday while the men sat on felled trunks reverently listening to his long sermons.
While the houses were being built Smith, with some twenty others, was sent to explore the country. They sailed up the river and found the Indians to all appearance friendly. But they found no gold or precious stones, and could hear nothing of a passage to the Pacific Ocean which they had been told to seek. So they returned to Jamestown. Arriving here they found that the day before the Indians had attacked the settlement and that one Englishman lay slain and seventeen injured.
This was a bitter disappointment to Wingfield who had trusted in the friendliness of the Indians. But at length he was persuaded to allow fortifications to be built. Even then, however, the colonists were not secure, for as they went about their business felling trees or digging the ground the savages would shoot at them from the shelter of the surrounding forest. If a man strayed from the fort he was sure to return wounded if he returned at all; and in this sort of warfare the stolid English were no match for the wily Indians. "Our men," says Smith, "by their disorderly straggling were often hurt when the savages by the nimbleness of their heels well escaped."
So six months passed, and the ships which had brought out the colonists were ready to go back to England with a cargo of wood instead of the gold which the Company had hoped for. But before the ships sailed Smith, who was still considered in disgrace, and therefore kept out of the council, insisted on having a fair trial. For he would not have Captain Newport go home and spread evil stories about him.
Smith's enemies were unwilling to allow the trial. But Smith would take no denial. So at length his request was granted, the result being that he was proved innocent of every charge against him, and was at length admitted to the council.
Now at last something like peace was restored, and Captain Newport set sail for home. He promised to make all speed he could and to be back in five months' time. And indeed he had need to hasten. For the journey outward had been so long, the supply of food so scant, that already it was giving out. And when Captain Newport sailed it was plain that the colonists had not food enough to last fifteen weeks.
Such food it was too! It consisted chiefly of worm-eaten grain. A pint was served out daily for each man, and this boiled and made into a sort of porridge formed their chief food. Their drink was cold water. For tea and coffee were unknown in those days, and beer they had none. To men used to the beer and beef of England in plenty this indeed seemed meagre diet. "Had we been as free of all sins as gluttony and drunkenness," says Smith, "we might have been canonised as saints, our wheat having fried some twenty-six weeks in the ship's hold, contained as many worms as grains, so that we might truly call it rather so much bran than corn. Our drink was water, our lodging castles in the air."
There was fish enough in the river, game enough in the woods. But the birds and beasts were so wild, and the men so unskilful and ignorant in ways of shooting and trapping, that they succeeded in catching very little. Besides which there were few among the colonists who had any idea of what work meant. More than half the company were "gentlemen adventurers," dare devil, shiftless men who had joined the expedition in search of excitement with no idea of labouring with their hands.
Badly fed, unused to the heat of a Virginian summer the men soon fell ill. Their tents were rotten, their houses yet unbuilt. Trees remained unfelled, the land untilled, while the men lay on the bare ground about the fort groaning and in misery. Many died, and soon those who remained were so feeble that they had scarce strength to bury the dead or even to crawl to the "common kettle" for their daily measure of porridge.
In their misery the men became suspicious and jealous, and once more quarrels were rife. Wingfield had never been loved. Now many grew to hate him, for they believed that while they starved he kept back for his own use secret stores of oil and wine and other dainties. No explanations were of any avail, and he was deposed from his office of President and another chosen in his place.
As autumn drew on the misery began to lessen. For the Indians, whose corn was now ripe, began to bring it to the fort to barter it for chisels, and beads, and other trifles. Wild fowl too, such as ducks and geese, swarmed in the river.
So with good food and cooler weather the sick soon began to mend. Energy returned to them, and once more they found strength to build and thatch their houses. And led by Smith they made many expeditions among the Indians, bringing back great stores of venison, wild turkeys, bread, and grain in exchange for beads, hatchets, bells and other knick-knacks.
But all the misery through which the colonists had passed had taught them nothing. They took no thought for the time to come when food might again be scarce. They took no care of it, but feasted daily on good bread, fish and fowl and "wild beasts as fat as we could eat them," says Smith.
Now one December day Smith set out on an exploring expedition up the Chickahominy River. It was a hard journey, for the river was so overgrown with trees that the men had to hew a path for the little vessel. At length the barque could go no further, so Smith left it, and went on in a canoe with only two Englishmen, and two Indians as guides.
For a time all went well. But one day he and his companions went ashore to camp. While the others were preparing a meal, Smith, taking one of the Indians with him, went on to explore a little further. But he had not gone far when he heard the wild, blood-curdling war whoop of the Indians. Guessing at once that they had come against him he resolved to sell his life as dearly as might be. So seizing the Indian guide he tied his arm fast to his own with his garters. Then with pistol in his right hand, and holding the Indian in front of him as a shield, he pushed as rapidly as he could in the direction of the camp.
Arrows flew round him thick and fast, but Smith's good buff coat turned them aside. The whole forest was alive with Indians, but although from the shelter of the trees they showered arrows upon Smith none dared approach him to take him. For they knew and dreaded the terrible fire stick which he held in his hand. Smith fired again and yet again as he retreated, and more than one Indian fell, never more to rise. He kept his eyes upon the bushes and trees trying to catch glimpses of the dusky figures as they skulked among them, and paid little heed to the path he was taking. So suddenly he found himself floundering in a quagmire.
Still he fought for dear life, and as long as he held his pistol no Redman dared come near to take him. But at length, chilled and wet, and half dead—with cold, unable to go further, he saw it was useless to resist longer. So he tossed away his pistol. At once the savages closed in upon him and, dragging him out of the quagmire, led him to their chief.
Smith had given in because he knew that one man stuck in a quagmire could not hope to keep three hundred Indians long at bay. But he had sharp wits as well as a steady hand, and with them he still fought for his life. As soon as he was brought before the chief he whipped out his compass, and showing it to the chief, explained to him that it always pointed north, and thus the white men were able to find their way through the pathless desert.
To the Indians this seemed like magic; they marvelled greatly at the shining needle which they could see so plainly and yet not touch. Seeing their interest Smith went on to explain other marvels of the sun, and moon, and stars, and the roundness of the earth, until those who heard were quite sure he was a great "medicine man."
Thus Smith fought for his life. But at length utterly exhausted, he could say no more. So while the chief still held the little IVory compass, and watched the quivering needle, his followers led Smith away to his own camp fire. Here lay the other white men dead, thrust through with many arrows. And here the Indians warmed and chafed his benumbed body, and treated him with all the kindness they knew. But that brought Smith little comfort. For he knew it was the Indian way. A famous warrior might be sure of kindness at their hands if they meant in the end to slay him with awful torture.
And so, thoroughly warmed and restored, in less than an hour Smith found himself fast bound to a tree, while grim warriors, terribly painted, danced around him, bows and arrows in hand. They were about to slay him when the chief, holding up the compass, bade them lay down their weapons. Such a medicine man, he had decided, must not thus be slain. So Smith was unbound.
For some weeks Smith was marched hither and thither from village to village. He was kindly enough treated, but he never knew how long the kindness would last, and he constantly expected death. Yet he was quite calm. He kept a journal, and in this he set down accounts of many strange sights he saw, not knowing if indeed they would ever be read.
At length Smith was brought to the wigwam of the great Powhatan, the chief of chiefs, or Emperor, as these simple English folk called him. To receive the white prisoner the Powhatan put on his greatest bravery. Feathered and painted, and wearing a wide robe of raccoon skins he sat upon a broad couch beside a fire. On either side of him sat one of his wives and behind in grim array stood his warriors, row upon row. Behind them again stood the squaws. Their faces and shoulders were painted bright red, about their necks they wore chains of white beads, and on their heads the down of white birds.
It was a weird scene, and the flickering firelight added to its strangeness. Silent and still as statues the warriors stood. Then as John Smith was led before the chief they raised a wild shout. As that died away to silence one of the Powhatan's squaws rose and brought a basin of water to Smith. In this he washed his hands, and then another squaw brought him a bunch of feathers instead of a towel, with which to dry them.
After this the Indians feasted their prisoner with savage splendour. Then a long consultation took place. What was said Smith knew not. He only knew that his life hung in the balance. The end of the consultation he felt sure meant life or death for him.
At length the long talk came to an end. Two great stones were placed before the chief. Then as many as could lay hands on Smith seized him, and dragging him to the stones, they threw him on the ground, and laid his head upon them. Fiercely then they brandished their clubs and Smith knew that his last hour had come, and that the Indians were about to beat out his brains.
But the raised clubs never fell, for with a cry Pocahontas, the chief's young daughter, sprang through the circle of warriors. She stood beside the prisoner pleading for his life. But the Indians were in no mood to listen to prayers for mercy. So seeing that all her entreaties were in vain she threw herself upon her knees beside Smith, put her arms about his neck, and laid her head upon his, crying out that if they would beat out his brains they should beat hers out too.
Of all his many children the Powhatan loved this little daughter best. He could deny her nothing. So Smith's life was saved. He should live, said the Powhatan, to make hatchets for him, and bells and beads for his little daughter.
Having thus been saved, Smith was looked upon as one of the tribe. Two days later he was admitted as such with fearsome ceremony.
Having painted and decorated himself as frightfully as he could, the Powhatan caused Smith to be taken to a large wigwam in the forest. The wigwam was divided in two by a curtain and in one half a huge fire burned. Smith was placed upon a mat in front of the fire and left alone. He did not understand in the least what was going on, and marvelled greatly what this new ceremony might mean. But he had not sat long before the fire when he heard doleful sounds coming from the other side of the curtain. Then from behind it appeared the Powhatan with a hundred others as hideously painted as himself, and told Smith that now that they were brothers he might go back to his fort.
So with twelve guides Smith set out. Yet in spite of all their feasting and ceremonies Smith scarcely believed in the friendship of the Indians, and no one was more surprised than himself when he at length reached Jamestown in safety. | 4,356 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The history of one of the world's most sacred sites for both Jews and Muslims will probably have to be rewritten after an unexpected discovery by Israeli archaeologists.
On November 23, an Israeli archaeological group said it had found coins that could prove the true origin of the West Wall of Jerusalem.
For centuries, it has always been believed that the wall was built by King Herod - the head of the ancient Jewish state when Jesus was born.
One of the coins was found under the Western Wall of Jerusalem.
However, information from the coins buried under the wall showed that they were cast 20 years after the death of King Herod in the 4th year BC. Thus, this work is likely to be built by his successor.
The owner of the coins identified as Flavius Josephus, a Jewish general, who later became a Roman historian.
In some of his documents, he wrote about the Jewish rebellion against Rome, destroying the Temple in 70 AD and the construction of the Temple Mount of King Agrippa II - Herod the great grandson.
This information plays an important role in providing 'first archaeological evidence to show that part of the fence does not belong to Herod' , archaeologist Aren Maeir from the University of Bar - Ilan plays expression.
The western wall (aka the Wailing Wall) - a remnant of the ancient wall surrounding the Jewish temple, is located west of the Temple Mount in the ancient city of Jerusalem.
According to the Tanakh, the Solomon Temple was completed at the top of Temple Mount in the 10th century BC and was destroyed by the Babylonian army in 586 BC. 70 years later, the Second Temple was rebuilt. Around 19 BC, Herod the Great began a great work here. He extended the area into a mound, or a large ground. Today, the Wailing Wall is a remnant of this ground and it is believed that all was built by Herod the Great. | <urn:uuid:9a63fea0-bebd-4cb8-afd9-1edce37abfe8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://scienceinfo.net/the-true-origin-of-the-jerusalem-wall.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00330.warc.gz | en | 0.980037 | 388 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.44477373... | 1 | The history of one of the world's most sacred sites for both Jews and Muslims will probably have to be rewritten after an unexpected discovery by Israeli archaeologists.
On November 23, an Israeli archaeological group said it had found coins that could prove the true origin of the West Wall of Jerusalem.
For centuries, it has always been believed that the wall was built by King Herod - the head of the ancient Jewish state when Jesus was born.
One of the coins was found under the Western Wall of Jerusalem.
However, information from the coins buried under the wall showed that they were cast 20 years after the death of King Herod in the 4th year BC. Thus, this work is likely to be built by his successor.
The owner of the coins identified as Flavius Josephus, a Jewish general, who later became a Roman historian.
In some of his documents, he wrote about the Jewish rebellion against Rome, destroying the Temple in 70 AD and the construction of the Temple Mount of King Agrippa II - Herod the great grandson.
This information plays an important role in providing 'first archaeological evidence to show that part of the fence does not belong to Herod' , archaeologist Aren Maeir from the University of Bar - Ilan plays expression.
The western wall (aka the Wailing Wall) - a remnant of the ancient wall surrounding the Jewish temple, is located west of the Temple Mount in the ancient city of Jerusalem.
According to the Tanakh, the Solomon Temple was completed at the top of Temple Mount in the 10th century BC and was destroyed by the Babylonian army in 586 BC. 70 years later, the Second Temple was rebuilt. Around 19 BC, Herod the Great began a great work here. He extended the area into a mound, or a large ground. Today, the Wailing Wall is a remnant of this ground and it is believed that all was built by Herod the Great. | 404 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Gender equality is not a women’s issue but refers to the equal rights, responsibilities and opportunities of women and men, girls and boys, and should concern and fully engage men as well as women. It is also used to refer to the equal participation of women and men in decision-making, equal ability to exercise their human rights, equal access to and control of resources and the benefits of development, and equal opportunities in employment and in all other aspects of their livelihoods.
Most African countries continue to lag behind the rest of the world on both men and women’s participation in development, in large part due to deeply rooted beliefs and discriminatory views about the role and place of men and women in the society, which relegate women to an inferior position relative to men and result in unequal power relations between men and women. Similarly men are considered to be the superior gender hence roles such as domestic chores and some jobs like secretarial are frowned upon by the said gender.
These discriminatory views and harmful practices often prevent both men and women from achieving their full potential as productive members of society because they result in their fear of trying out new opportunities due to the stigma that is attached to their gender and the various roles that they shouldn’t be involved in.
Take for instance the number of women in formal employment, there are so many women in the entrant positions because they are perceived to be loyal and negotiate for a relatively low pay but can the same be said about women in the executive roles? Why are there so few women in managerial roles if they are loyal? It is in an effort for women to make everyone see them as strong and equally competent that they have started taking up jobs originally perceived to be for men.
Even in countries where women are playing a greater role in development, governance and politics, such as in Kenya, women are treated and judged disparately and more harshly, by institutions as well as the public, in comparison to their male counterparts. When women vie for political position insinuations are made of their incompetence simply because they are women. Sad thing is that even their fellow women also buy this narrative and that is why the phrase women are their own worst enemies is even popular in the country. It is because of this that there are few female politicians.
On the other hand because men are perceived to be the strong gender they cannot afford to be emotionally vulnerable lest they are told they are weak. They deal with depression and mental illness silently and others even end up taking their own lives since as a strong gender how dare you seek help when society is telling you deal with your issues like a man!
While notable progress has been made to create gender awareness efforts need to be sustained and intensified. The government needs to show their support by putting in place policies that ensure equal access to education, economic opportunities, and leadership for girls and women. Awareness has to be created among men as well so that they understand that carrying out some roles in society does not make them any less of a man. Toxic masculinity is just as harmful to them as it is to women. | <urn:uuid:67ea7dd9-9bfb-4965-98e2-234d4e274951> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.kuzabiashara.co.ke/blog/progress-is-when-you-dont-let-gender-bias-define-you/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00356.warc.gz | en | 0.985157 | 621 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.113711431622... | 5 | Gender equality is not a women’s issue but refers to the equal rights, responsibilities and opportunities of women and men, girls and boys, and should concern and fully engage men as well as women. It is also used to refer to the equal participation of women and men in decision-making, equal ability to exercise their human rights, equal access to and control of resources and the benefits of development, and equal opportunities in employment and in all other aspects of their livelihoods.
Most African countries continue to lag behind the rest of the world on both men and women’s participation in development, in large part due to deeply rooted beliefs and discriminatory views about the role and place of men and women in the society, which relegate women to an inferior position relative to men and result in unequal power relations between men and women. Similarly men are considered to be the superior gender hence roles such as domestic chores and some jobs like secretarial are frowned upon by the said gender.
These discriminatory views and harmful practices often prevent both men and women from achieving their full potential as productive members of society because they result in their fear of trying out new opportunities due to the stigma that is attached to their gender and the various roles that they shouldn’t be involved in.
Take for instance the number of women in formal employment, there are so many women in the entrant positions because they are perceived to be loyal and negotiate for a relatively low pay but can the same be said about women in the executive roles? Why are there so few women in managerial roles if they are loyal? It is in an effort for women to make everyone see them as strong and equally competent that they have started taking up jobs originally perceived to be for men.
Even in countries where women are playing a greater role in development, governance and politics, such as in Kenya, women are treated and judged disparately and more harshly, by institutions as well as the public, in comparison to their male counterparts. When women vie for political position insinuations are made of their incompetence simply because they are women. Sad thing is that even their fellow women also buy this narrative and that is why the phrase women are their own worst enemies is even popular in the country. It is because of this that there are few female politicians.
On the other hand because men are perceived to be the strong gender they cannot afford to be emotionally vulnerable lest they are told they are weak. They deal with depression and mental illness silently and others even end up taking their own lives since as a strong gender how dare you seek help when society is telling you deal with your issues like a man!
While notable progress has been made to create gender awareness efforts need to be sustained and intensified. The government needs to show their support by putting in place policies that ensure equal access to education, economic opportunities, and leadership for girls and women. Awareness has to be created among men as well so that they understand that carrying out some roles in society does not make them any less of a man. Toxic masculinity is just as harmful to them as it is to women. | 609 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Teredo worm is a long, slimy, grey mollusc that can grow up to three feet long and an inch thick. It was feared by 18th century sailors, because of its voracious appetite for wood. Teredos bore long cylindrical holes into the timbers of ships, often in such numbers that only a thin wall is left between each worm’s chamber, reducing the strongest oak to little more than a honeycomb. As the ship becomes ever more fragile, the hull can break apart in the open sea, perhaps under the stress of rough weather, and without any warning. Sailors would recount dark tales of ships that vanished, far out at sea, when their worm-infested bottoms simply fell away.
The Caribbean has the most Teredo-infested waters, thanks to its warm sea and high salinity. In 1492 the unsuspecting Columbus arrived with his three wooden ships. When he returned to Europe, he took with him a fleet packed with impressive treasures. Unfortunately, below the waterline, he also brought back some less welcome creatures from the New World. The worms took some time to adapt to the cooler waters of Europe, but by 1731 they were in the North Sea, where they caused the collapse of the wooden supports used in the dikes of Holland, resulting in extensive flooding. As the wooden ships of Europe spread out to explore the world, they took the worms with them, until the Teredo could be found in every ocean.
Various techniques were trialled to combat the menace. Ship’s hulls were coated with mixtures of horsehair and pitch, but this proved of limited value at stopping the worms. Other vessels were covered with a sacrificial layer of pine, in the hope that the worms might feast on that wood in preference to the actual hull. Regrettably, they simply bored through it and on into the timbers of the ship. Captains had to take their vessels out of the water regularly to have their bottoms careened. Any weed growth would be removed, before fire was used to scorch and kill the worms. This was effective but, as soon as the ship was afloat once more, new worms would re-infest the hull.
The first experiments into sheathing the hull with an impenetrable barrier were carried out by the Spanish. They covered the hulls of several ships with sheet lead. This did work, but was a far from an ideal solution. Lead is very heavy, so a lead-sheathed ship has a much reduced carrying capacity. They also discovered that the presence of the lead set up a corrosive action through electrolysis, between the sheathing and all the iron nails and bolts used in the hulls construction.
In the middle of the 18th century, the British Admiralty finally arrived at the solution to the problem. Instead of lead, they used much lighter copper plates to armour a hull. They also replaced most of the iron fixings below the water level of the ship with ones made from copper instead. This proved to be an effective solution, which came with the further advantage that weed and barnacle growth was much reduced on the poisonous copper. There was only one issue to resolve. Where on earth were they to find enough of the metal to sheath the entire navy?
Meanwhile, on the Welsh island of Anglesey, a mining engineer called Charles Roe was exploring Parys Mountain, hoping to open a mine. The sides of the great mound where peppered with old workings, some of them going back to the bronze age. In 1764, one of his miner’s struck lucky, uncovering “The Great Lode”, a huge deposit of copper ore that stretched deep into the mountainside. The miner was rewarded with a bottle of whisky, and a rent free house for the rest of his life. By the 1780’s the Parys copper mine was the biggest in Europe, and the Royal Navy had all the metal they needed to protect their warships. | <urn:uuid:844bb944-10c4-417a-99a8-d88d89f0d909> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.philipkallan.com/single-post/2018/07/30/The-Worm-and-the-Welsh-Mountain | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00029.warc.gz | en | 0.98402 | 827 | 3.984375 | 4 | [
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0.290... | 3 | The Teredo worm is a long, slimy, grey mollusc that can grow up to three feet long and an inch thick. It was feared by 18th century sailors, because of its voracious appetite for wood. Teredos bore long cylindrical holes into the timbers of ships, often in such numbers that only a thin wall is left between each worm’s chamber, reducing the strongest oak to little more than a honeycomb. As the ship becomes ever more fragile, the hull can break apart in the open sea, perhaps under the stress of rough weather, and without any warning. Sailors would recount dark tales of ships that vanished, far out at sea, when their worm-infested bottoms simply fell away.
The Caribbean has the most Teredo-infested waters, thanks to its warm sea and high salinity. In 1492 the unsuspecting Columbus arrived with his three wooden ships. When he returned to Europe, he took with him a fleet packed with impressive treasures. Unfortunately, below the waterline, he also brought back some less welcome creatures from the New World. The worms took some time to adapt to the cooler waters of Europe, but by 1731 they were in the North Sea, where they caused the collapse of the wooden supports used in the dikes of Holland, resulting in extensive flooding. As the wooden ships of Europe spread out to explore the world, they took the worms with them, until the Teredo could be found in every ocean.
Various techniques were trialled to combat the menace. Ship’s hulls were coated with mixtures of horsehair and pitch, but this proved of limited value at stopping the worms. Other vessels were covered with a sacrificial layer of pine, in the hope that the worms might feast on that wood in preference to the actual hull. Regrettably, they simply bored through it and on into the timbers of the ship. Captains had to take their vessels out of the water regularly to have their bottoms careened. Any weed growth would be removed, before fire was used to scorch and kill the worms. This was effective but, as soon as the ship was afloat once more, new worms would re-infest the hull.
The first experiments into sheathing the hull with an impenetrable barrier were carried out by the Spanish. They covered the hulls of several ships with sheet lead. This did work, but was a far from an ideal solution. Lead is very heavy, so a lead-sheathed ship has a much reduced carrying capacity. They also discovered that the presence of the lead set up a corrosive action through electrolysis, between the sheathing and all the iron nails and bolts used in the hulls construction.
In the middle of the 18th century, the British Admiralty finally arrived at the solution to the problem. Instead of lead, they used much lighter copper plates to armour a hull. They also replaced most of the iron fixings below the water level of the ship with ones made from copper instead. This proved to be an effective solution, which came with the further advantage that weed and barnacle growth was much reduced on the poisonous copper. There was only one issue to resolve. Where on earth were they to find enough of the metal to sheath the entire navy?
Meanwhile, on the Welsh island of Anglesey, a mining engineer called Charles Roe was exploring Parys Mountain, hoping to open a mine. The sides of the great mound where peppered with old workings, some of them going back to the bronze age. In 1764, one of his miner’s struck lucky, uncovering “The Great Lode”, a huge deposit of copper ore that stretched deep into the mountainside. The miner was rewarded with a bottle of whisky, and a rent free house for the rest of his life. By the 1780’s the Parys copper mine was the biggest in Europe, and the Royal Navy had all the metal they needed to protect their warships. | 817 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Since time in memory, there are various issues that influenced who was to be on the throne in the English ‘First Family’. Religion and family relationships stood out to be the most influential factors during the Tudor period in the United Kingdom monarch. According to the new biography by David Starkey, that features the life of Virgin Queen, the distinguished history author instead of recording much about the monarch's reign which was long, complicated and legendary, he squarely focuses on the life of Elizabeth before ascending to the throne (Starkey 178). He is able to explain this by illuminating the life of Queen Elizabeth in the way he related with her family, and her esteemed position of religion. She is quite different from her sister Mary who treasures beauty and selfish ambition. The writer tells how her character took her places and she was able to leave a mark in the history of the England and the world at large. This paper examines and explores the role of religion in the king’s marriages and divorces and the significance of Kings Henry VIII divorce. The paper also discusses the importance of the Wyatt's rebellion in the history of England,
Roles played by religion in the king’s divorces and marriages
King Henry VIII is described to be the most outstanding king in the English history. During King Henry era religion was a big consideration in all decisions that concerned the land and especially in the ‘first family’. Every other family in the monarch was expected to live in accordance to the religious practices. According David Starkey in his book Elizabeth the Struggle for the Thrown, religion had a very great impact on the marriage and divorce of King Henry VIII. “Fire and foremost the monarch was a religious family and therefore it was expected of the family members to abide by that (Starkey 246).”
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At this particular time there were two major denominations in the land of England. The Catholics who were the dominating faction and the Protestants were starting to expand in number and activity. This in a way started to generate tensions between the two groups. “The decision to declare Protestantism or Catholic as the state religion provoked a lot of resistance from the King’s family (Starkey 29).” This move caused political and religious winds that shook the family and even beyond. From this incident we witness major differences in the family which directly grew to more differences among the siblings. The autho tells us that Mary was staunch Catholic while her sister Elizabeth was a faithful Protestant.
Queen Elizabeth by then prince played a key role in handling the situation. From the book we can see her been devoted to her father. It seems that she was respected and precociously learned from his monarch role. In every situation she tried her level best to obey his Father’s directions. However her older sister Mary was directly opposite. After been informed about the decision to declare Protestantism as England’s state religion, she was determined to come back home and try to change the nation into Catholic, but Elizabeth, who was a protestant, steeped her religious opinion down to slow down her sister. “The religion factor had caused such huge difference between the family members (Starkey 126).” When King Henry realized that he could not get a male heir he differed with the religion. According to the religion which he was professing, the reason why he could not male heir was because he was involved in incest. This was bad news to him and so he wanted cancellation of the statement by the Church which was based on the Holy Scriptures. This caused a lot of friction between his rule and the church.
The Significance Of the "Kings Great Matter or Henry VIII's Divorce
The origin of divorce can historically be traced by to the time of King Henry. This is because he vehemently differed with the church, which did not advocate for the divorce. However Henry went against the convections of the church. Since then the term “the king’s Great Matter” is used to depict the absolute determination of the king to divorce his wife. The divorce of Henry VIII with Catherine was a landmark move in the history of church in the United Kingdom. The determination by the King to divorce to divorce his wife is historically referred to as “the king’s Great matter”. “King Henry different with the church ideologies concerning the issue of divorce, and surprisingly in the end he declared as the king, he was supposed to be the head of the England church (Starkey 243).”
Another significance of this incident is that it prevented the Catholic Rome from taking over London. According to Starkey, the main reason that was stated by Henry was that he needed a son to be assured of continuity of Tudor control of the England monarch. Henry was convinced the reason he has remained without male heir was because he had married his brother’s widow, according to the biblical standards in Leviticus 20:21. Therefore he wanted canceellation of this statement. Unfortunately Pope clement VIII who had taken control of most Italy would not buy the idea. As long as Charles supported Catherine of Aragon, a papal cancellation was impossible.
What Was the Significance of Wyatt's Rebellion?
Another important unfolding in the history of England is the Wyatt rebellion. This rebellion saw the protest against a certain marriage that was feared to cause religion imbalance in the land. Significantly the marriage between Prince Mary and Philip from Spain would also have ‘exposed’ the internal affair to foreigners. Since Philip, a foreigner would be part of the monarch. The move also was to block France from interference with English matters. Wyatt rebellion was caused by the fear of‘re-Catholisation’ of English, which was marked by the proposed marriage of Philip from Spain and Mary daughter of King Henry VIII and sister to Elizabeth. “The key leaders of the rebellion included Sir Thomas Wyatt, Sir Peter Carew who was from Devon, Sir James Croft who was hailing from Herefordshire and the Suffolk’s Duke from Leicestershire (Starkey 241).” Unfortunately this rebellion did not have support from the majority of the public. This was a big setback to it and doomed to fail.
“Prince Elizabeth played a very key role in the rebellion. Since every leader was charged with the responsibility of raising rebellion in one of the four counties with culmination in London to replace Mary with her sister the princess Elizabeth, who was to marry Lord Devon (Starkey 120).” A fleet of ship meanwhile would block Philip of Spain from accessing England. Such a decision was so significant to the happening of the rebellion. Religion again had a great influence in the rebellion, as majority of people who participated were Protestant who were protesting‘re-Catholisation’ of England. The main source of the rebellion was the differences in convictions between the two denominations; Catholics and Protestant was the.
From the above discussion it is clear how religion shaped the history of England. The book, Elizabeth the Struggle for the Thrown, clearly depicts the major happening in the English ‘First Family’ that resulted to differences in itself, church, and the state. Queen Elizabeth will always be remembered for her great contribution in the Wyatt’s rebellion. Tactfully was able to block her sister Mary from exposing the royal throne to foreigners. This book is a must read for anyone interested in History of the monarchy.
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... | 1 | Since time in memory, there are various issues that influenced who was to be on the throne in the English ‘First Family’. Religion and family relationships stood out to be the most influential factors during the Tudor period in the United Kingdom monarch. According to the new biography by David Starkey, that features the life of Virgin Queen, the distinguished history author instead of recording much about the monarch's reign which was long, complicated and legendary, he squarely focuses on the life of Elizabeth before ascending to the throne (Starkey 178). He is able to explain this by illuminating the life of Queen Elizabeth in the way he related with her family, and her esteemed position of religion. She is quite different from her sister Mary who treasures beauty and selfish ambition. The writer tells how her character took her places and she was able to leave a mark in the history of the England and the world at large. This paper examines and explores the role of religion in the king’s marriages and divorces and the significance of Kings Henry VIII divorce. The paper also discusses the importance of the Wyatt's rebellion in the history of England,
Roles played by religion in the king’s divorces and marriages
King Henry VIII is described to be the most outstanding king in the English history. During King Henry era religion was a big consideration in all decisions that concerned the land and especially in the ‘first family’. Every other family in the monarch was expected to live in accordance to the religious practices. According David Starkey in his book Elizabeth the Struggle for the Thrown, religion had a very great impact on the marriage and divorce of King Henry VIII. “Fire and foremost the monarch was a religious family and therefore it was expected of the family members to abide by that (Starkey 246).”
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At this particular time there were two major denominations in the land of England. The Catholics who were the dominating faction and the Protestants were starting to expand in number and activity. This in a way started to generate tensions between the two groups. “The decision to declare Protestantism or Catholic as the state religion provoked a lot of resistance from the King’s family (Starkey 29).” This move caused political and religious winds that shook the family and even beyond. From this incident we witness major differences in the family which directly grew to more differences among the siblings. The autho tells us that Mary was staunch Catholic while her sister Elizabeth was a faithful Protestant.
Queen Elizabeth by then prince played a key role in handling the situation. From the book we can see her been devoted to her father. It seems that she was respected and precociously learned from his monarch role. In every situation she tried her level best to obey his Father’s directions. However her older sister Mary was directly opposite. After been informed about the decision to declare Protestantism as England’s state religion, she was determined to come back home and try to change the nation into Catholic, but Elizabeth, who was a protestant, steeped her religious opinion down to slow down her sister. “The religion factor had caused such huge difference between the family members (Starkey 126).” When King Henry realized that he could not get a male heir he differed with the religion. According to the religion which he was professing, the reason why he could not male heir was because he was involved in incest. This was bad news to him and so he wanted cancellation of the statement by the Church which was based on the Holy Scriptures. This caused a lot of friction between his rule and the church.
The Significance Of the "Kings Great Matter or Henry VIII's Divorce
The origin of divorce can historically be traced by to the time of King Henry. This is because he vehemently differed with the church, which did not advocate for the divorce. However Henry went against the convections of the church. Since then the term “the king’s Great Matter” is used to depict the absolute determination of the king to divorce his wife. The divorce of Henry VIII with Catherine was a landmark move in the history of church in the United Kingdom. The determination by the King to divorce to divorce his wife is historically referred to as “the king’s Great matter”. “King Henry different with the church ideologies concerning the issue of divorce, and surprisingly in the end he declared as the king, he was supposed to be the head of the England church (Starkey 243).”
Another significance of this incident is that it prevented the Catholic Rome from taking over London. According to Starkey, the main reason that was stated by Henry was that he needed a son to be assured of continuity of Tudor control of the England monarch. Henry was convinced the reason he has remained without male heir was because he had married his brother’s widow, according to the biblical standards in Leviticus 20:21. Therefore he wanted canceellation of this statement. Unfortunately Pope clement VIII who had taken control of most Italy would not buy the idea. As long as Charles supported Catherine of Aragon, a papal cancellation was impossible.
What Was the Significance of Wyatt's Rebellion?
Another important unfolding in the history of England is the Wyatt rebellion. This rebellion saw the protest against a certain marriage that was feared to cause religion imbalance in the land. Significantly the marriage between Prince Mary and Philip from Spain would also have ‘exposed’ the internal affair to foreigners. Since Philip, a foreigner would be part of the monarch. The move also was to block France from interference with English matters. Wyatt rebellion was caused by the fear of‘re-Catholisation’ of English, which was marked by the proposed marriage of Philip from Spain and Mary daughter of King Henry VIII and sister to Elizabeth. “The key leaders of the rebellion included Sir Thomas Wyatt, Sir Peter Carew who was from Devon, Sir James Croft who was hailing from Herefordshire and the Suffolk’s Duke from Leicestershire (Starkey 241).” Unfortunately this rebellion did not have support from the majority of the public. This was a big setback to it and doomed to fail.
“Prince Elizabeth played a very key role in the rebellion. Since every leader was charged with the responsibility of raising rebellion in one of the four counties with culmination in London to replace Mary with her sister the princess Elizabeth, who was to marry Lord Devon (Starkey 120).” A fleet of ship meanwhile would block Philip of Spain from accessing England. Such a decision was so significant to the happening of the rebellion. Religion again had a great influence in the rebellion, as majority of people who participated were Protestant who were protesting‘re-Catholisation’ of England. The main source of the rebellion was the differences in convictions between the two denominations; Catholics and Protestant was the.
From the above discussion it is clear how religion shaped the history of England. The book, Elizabeth the Struggle for the Thrown, clearly depicts the major happening in the English ‘First Family’ that resulted to differences in itself, church, and the state. Queen Elizabeth will always be remembered for her great contribution in the Wyatt’s rebellion. Tactfully was able to block her sister Mary from exposing the royal throne to foreigners. This book is a must read for anyone interested in History of the monarchy.
Most popular orders | 1,535 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On September 22, 1938, Hitler demanded the immediate cession of Czechoslovakia's territory, the Sudetenland, to Germany and the evacuation of the Czechoslovak population by the end of the month.
The next day, Czechoslovakia ordered troop mobilization. War seemed imminent, and France even began a partial mobilization on September 24. The British Prime minister Nevile Chamberlain and French Prime Minister Daladier, unprepared for the outbreak of hostilities, in a last-minute effort to avoid war, proposed that a four-power conference (Italy, France, Germany and the UK) to be convened in Munich immediately to settle the dispute.
Hitler agreed, and on September 29, Hitler, Chamberlain, Daladier, and Italian dictator Benito Mussolini met in Munich, where Mussolini introduced a written plan that was accepted by all as the Munich Agreement. Many years later it was discovered that the so-called Italian plan had been prepared in the German Foreign Office.
Left to right: Chamberlain, Daladier, Hitler, Mussolini, and Ciano pictured after they signed the agreement.
According to the plan, the German army was to complete the occupation of the Sudetenland by October 10, and an international commission would decide the future of other disputed areas.
The Czechoslovakian president ,Edvard Beneš, who was excluded from the negotiations, was threatened and bullied by France and the UK to submit to the plan, which basically called for Czechoslovakia to commit suicide as a state.
At the time Czechoslovakia was allied by treaty with France, and Great Britain was in turn allied with France, so both countries would be obliged to help Czechoslovakia if it was attacked.
The German army was at that time weak and not ready to take on Czechoslovakia, which had a modern army, very strong defensive line and almost 50 army divisions all properly equipped and trained. All it would have taken was the faintest sign from UK and France that they would support the Czechoslovakian people if it came to a war with Germany for Hitler to back down.
Instead, when Beneš refused to sign the agreement he was presented with an ultimatum and was informed by Britain and France that if he would not sign the agreement and submit to the prescribed annexation he would be left facing the German army alone. Benes and the Czechoslovak government chose to submit and signed the agreement.
By giving over the Sutenland, the Allies immediately gave away most of Czechoslovakia's fortifications and war industry. This soon led to the takeover of all of Czechoslovakia, which gave Germany enough weaponry to arm about half of the then Wehrmacht.
In early November 1938, under the First Vienna Award, which was a result of the Munich agreement, Czechoslovakia (and later Slovakia) was forced by Germany and Italy to cede southern Slovakia (one third of Slovak territory) to Hungary, while Poland retook the small territorial Polish region of Zaolzie.
In the case of Poland, Zaolzie was part of Poland in 1920 when Czechoslovakia used the fact that the Polish state was fighting for its life against the Red Army to invade Poland and occupy the Polish region.
This would prove a tragic mistake for both Czechoslovakia and Poland, for the Czech occupation of Zaolzie poisoned diplomatic relations between the two countries. An alliance between Czechoslovakia and Poland would have been enough to deter Germany from invading both countries, and might have changed the course of European and world history. Instead both countries fell victims to German aggression, and both were betrayed by their western allies, notably France and the UK.
Both Daladier and Chamberlain returned home to jubilant welcoming crowds relieved that the threat of war had passed, and Chamberlain told the British public that he had achieved “peace with honour. I believe it is peace for our time.”
His words were immediately challenged by his greatest critic, Winston Churchill, who declared, “You were given the choice between war and dishonour. You chose dishonour and you will have war.”
Indeed, Chamberlain’s policies were discredited the following year, when Hitler annexed the remainder of Czechoslovakia in March and then precipitated World War II by invading Poland in September.
The Munich Agreement became a byword for the futility of appeasing expansionist totalitarian states, and of western betrayal and is considered a key event on the road to WW2.
Norman Davies, "Europe."
A.J.P. Taylor, "Origins of the the Second World War." | <urn:uuid:0ef23aa0-2566-471f-8768-8c10f9bd136d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.dispropaganda.com/single-post/2019/09/30/The-Munich-Agreement---How-Europe-forced-Czechoslovakia-to-commit-suicide | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00260.warc.gz | en | 0.980471 | 938 | 4.21875 | 4 | [
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0.48811739... | 4 | On September 22, 1938, Hitler demanded the immediate cession of Czechoslovakia's territory, the Sudetenland, to Germany and the evacuation of the Czechoslovak population by the end of the month.
The next day, Czechoslovakia ordered troop mobilization. War seemed imminent, and France even began a partial mobilization on September 24. The British Prime minister Nevile Chamberlain and French Prime Minister Daladier, unprepared for the outbreak of hostilities, in a last-minute effort to avoid war, proposed that a four-power conference (Italy, France, Germany and the UK) to be convened in Munich immediately to settle the dispute.
Hitler agreed, and on September 29, Hitler, Chamberlain, Daladier, and Italian dictator Benito Mussolini met in Munich, where Mussolini introduced a written plan that was accepted by all as the Munich Agreement. Many years later it was discovered that the so-called Italian plan had been prepared in the German Foreign Office.
Left to right: Chamberlain, Daladier, Hitler, Mussolini, and Ciano pictured after they signed the agreement.
According to the plan, the German army was to complete the occupation of the Sudetenland by October 10, and an international commission would decide the future of other disputed areas.
The Czechoslovakian president ,Edvard Beneš, who was excluded from the negotiations, was threatened and bullied by France and the UK to submit to the plan, which basically called for Czechoslovakia to commit suicide as a state.
At the time Czechoslovakia was allied by treaty with France, and Great Britain was in turn allied with France, so both countries would be obliged to help Czechoslovakia if it was attacked.
The German army was at that time weak and not ready to take on Czechoslovakia, which had a modern army, very strong defensive line and almost 50 army divisions all properly equipped and trained. All it would have taken was the faintest sign from UK and France that they would support the Czechoslovakian people if it came to a war with Germany for Hitler to back down.
Instead, when Beneš refused to sign the agreement he was presented with an ultimatum and was informed by Britain and France that if he would not sign the agreement and submit to the prescribed annexation he would be left facing the German army alone. Benes and the Czechoslovak government chose to submit and signed the agreement.
By giving over the Sutenland, the Allies immediately gave away most of Czechoslovakia's fortifications and war industry. This soon led to the takeover of all of Czechoslovakia, which gave Germany enough weaponry to arm about half of the then Wehrmacht.
In early November 1938, under the First Vienna Award, which was a result of the Munich agreement, Czechoslovakia (and later Slovakia) was forced by Germany and Italy to cede southern Slovakia (one third of Slovak territory) to Hungary, while Poland retook the small territorial Polish region of Zaolzie.
In the case of Poland, Zaolzie was part of Poland in 1920 when Czechoslovakia used the fact that the Polish state was fighting for its life against the Red Army to invade Poland and occupy the Polish region.
This would prove a tragic mistake for both Czechoslovakia and Poland, for the Czech occupation of Zaolzie poisoned diplomatic relations between the two countries. An alliance between Czechoslovakia and Poland would have been enough to deter Germany from invading both countries, and might have changed the course of European and world history. Instead both countries fell victims to German aggression, and both were betrayed by their western allies, notably France and the UK.
Both Daladier and Chamberlain returned home to jubilant welcoming crowds relieved that the threat of war had passed, and Chamberlain told the British public that he had achieved “peace with honour. I believe it is peace for our time.”
His words were immediately challenged by his greatest critic, Winston Churchill, who declared, “You were given the choice between war and dishonour. You chose dishonour and you will have war.”
Indeed, Chamberlain’s policies were discredited the following year, when Hitler annexed the remainder of Czechoslovakia in March and then precipitated World War II by invading Poland in September.
The Munich Agreement became a byword for the futility of appeasing expansionist totalitarian states, and of western betrayal and is considered a key event on the road to WW2.
Norman Davies, "Europe."
A.J.P. Taylor, "Origins of the the Second World War." | 954 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Thomas Hobbes John Locke And Montesquieu Essay
Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, And Montesquieu. Essay, Research Paper
Many work forces and adult females had important impacts on the historical period known as the Enlightenment. Three work forces that had such an impact on the Enlightenment were Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Montesquieu. Each of these work forces had different theories and thoughts about what type of authorities there should be. This resulted in many people holding different sentiments on how the authorities should govern their state. Due to this, the Enlightenment was a really helter-skelter and opinionative period.
During the 17th century, England was on the brink of a civil war. It was split between an absolute monarchy and a ego governed society. One adult male who believed in absolute monarchy was Thomas Hobbes. He believed in dictatorship, which is when the authorities controls every facet of your life. He believed this because he said that people could non hold a ego governed society because people are of course corrupt and that a ego governed society would do pandemonium.
Hobbes besides supported tyranny because there was a non-educated population, and if that population governed itself, there would be daftness. He advocated that an absolute monarchy would protect the people and convey peace throughout the society. To portion his thoughts with the remainder of the universe, he published a book called Leuathon. This book shared his beliefs about tyranny. Hobbes felt really strong about his beliefs and he had many protagonists. But there were other enlightened minds who disagreed with him. John Locke was besides an enlightened mind but disagreed with Hobbes. Locke believed in a limited authorities. He believed in this because a limited authorities was established to protect the people and their rights. Lock
e stated that the people had a right to overthrow the government if it violated their natural rights. The natural rights were liberty, life, and property. Property was one of the rights because land equals wealth. Locke based his theories on natural law and social contracts. A social contract is when people create a government to protect their natural rights, and if the government fails to protect these rights, or violates them, then the people have the right to rebel. Locke also published a book called Two Treatises of Government. He called it this because there were two sides of government that people were fighting for. Montesquieu was an enlightened thinker who believed in Locke’s theories more than Hobbes. He believed in separation of powers within a government. This is where there is a legislative, executive and judicial branch within the government. The legislative branch would make the laws, the executive branch would enforce the laws, and the judicial branch would interpret the laws. His social views were very similar to Locks. He believed in pro individual rights. This is where the people have freedom of speech, economic equality, social equality, and freedom of publication. He too published his own book called The Spirit of Laws in1748. The Enlightenment was a very different period because of all these different ideas about how the government should be run.This sparked people to start thinking about the government on their own and having their own opinions. The Enlightenment was a type of revolution because it changed the way people thought and how people viewed their own government. Even though these three men were very influential, there were many other great speakers and leaders who affected the people and the government.
Cite this Thomas Hobbes John Locke And Montesquieu Essay
Thomas Hobbes John Locke And Montesquieu Essay. (2017, Jul 10). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/thomas-hobbes-john-locke-and-montesquieu-essay/ | <urn:uuid:5623eb7c-03df-4373-97b1-45b8047adf15> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://graduateway.com/thomas-hobbes-john-locke-and-montesquieu-essay/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00196.warc.gz | en | 0.980064 | 759 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.2124152034521103,... | 1 | Thomas Hobbes John Locke And Montesquieu Essay
Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, And Montesquieu. Essay, Research Paper
Many work forces and adult females had important impacts on the historical period known as the Enlightenment. Three work forces that had such an impact on the Enlightenment were Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Montesquieu. Each of these work forces had different theories and thoughts about what type of authorities there should be. This resulted in many people holding different sentiments on how the authorities should govern their state. Due to this, the Enlightenment was a really helter-skelter and opinionative period.
During the 17th century, England was on the brink of a civil war. It was split between an absolute monarchy and a ego governed society. One adult male who believed in absolute monarchy was Thomas Hobbes. He believed in dictatorship, which is when the authorities controls every facet of your life. He believed this because he said that people could non hold a ego governed society because people are of course corrupt and that a ego governed society would do pandemonium.
Hobbes besides supported tyranny because there was a non-educated population, and if that population governed itself, there would be daftness. He advocated that an absolute monarchy would protect the people and convey peace throughout the society. To portion his thoughts with the remainder of the universe, he published a book called Leuathon. This book shared his beliefs about tyranny. Hobbes felt really strong about his beliefs and he had many protagonists. But there were other enlightened minds who disagreed with him. John Locke was besides an enlightened mind but disagreed with Hobbes. Locke believed in a limited authorities. He believed in this because a limited authorities was established to protect the people and their rights. Lock
e stated that the people had a right to overthrow the government if it violated their natural rights. The natural rights were liberty, life, and property. Property was one of the rights because land equals wealth. Locke based his theories on natural law and social contracts. A social contract is when people create a government to protect their natural rights, and if the government fails to protect these rights, or violates them, then the people have the right to rebel. Locke also published a book called Two Treatises of Government. He called it this because there were two sides of government that people were fighting for. Montesquieu was an enlightened thinker who believed in Locke’s theories more than Hobbes. He believed in separation of powers within a government. This is where there is a legislative, executive and judicial branch within the government. The legislative branch would make the laws, the executive branch would enforce the laws, and the judicial branch would interpret the laws. His social views were very similar to Locks. He believed in pro individual rights. This is where the people have freedom of speech, economic equality, social equality, and freedom of publication. He too published his own book called The Spirit of Laws in1748. The Enlightenment was a very different period because of all these different ideas about how the government should be run.This sparked people to start thinking about the government on their own and having their own opinions. The Enlightenment was a type of revolution because it changed the way people thought and how people viewed their own government. Even though these three men were very influential, there were many other great speakers and leaders who affected the people and the government.
Cite this Thomas Hobbes John Locke And Montesquieu Essay
Thomas Hobbes John Locke And Montesquieu Essay. (2017, Jul 10). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/thomas-hobbes-john-locke-and-montesquieu-essay/ | 752 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Why is Pompeii so famous?
Pompeii was a Roman town in southern Italy. On 24 August 79AD was buried under volcanic ash and rock following the eruption of the volcano, Mount Vesuvius. Most of the people who lived there were killed.
The town was excavated 1,600 years later and the remains of many items, buildings and people were found in a ‘petrified’ state (as they were at the time of the eruption).
Today Pompeii is a tourist destination where you can walk through the streets of what was once the first-century Roman city of Pompeii.
Top 10 facts
- The 79AD eruption of Mount Vesuvius was the first time the volcano had erupted for 1,800 years. The people of Pompeii didn’t know what a volcano was.
- The initial ‘mushroom’ cloud that shot out from the volcano as a column reached over 20 miles into the air.
- It has been estimated that the pyroclastic flow (molten and ash) from Vesuvius may have moved down the mountain as fast as 450 miles per hour.
- The pyroclastic flow was estimated to be as hot as 1,830°F or 999°C.
- Mount Vesuvius is thought to be one of the most dangerous volcanoes in the world and is the only active volcano on the mainland of Europe.
- The 79AD eruption lasted more than 24 hours.
- The eruption happened the day after the religious festival of Vulcan, who was the Roman god of fire.
- Pompeii was rediscovered in 1748 when builders were constructing a palace for King Charles III.
- Pompeii is a UNESCO Heritage Site, which means it is protected and preserved.
- Mount Vesuvius erupted most recently in 1944, but it wasn’t as powerful as in 79AD. It has a history of having a catastrophic eruption every 2,000 years or so... and it is almost 2,000 years since 79AD...
Did you know?
- We know so much about the destruction of Pompeii thanks to letters written by a man called Pliny the Younger, who witnessed the eruption. He also spoke to survivors and asked them about their experiences.
- Pompeii wasn’t the only settlement destroyed by Mount Vesuvius’s eruption in 79AD. Herculanium and Torre Annunziata were also destroyed.
- It is thought that of 20,000 inhabitants of Pompeii and 5,000 inhabitants of nearby Herculanium, around 16,000 people died in the destruction of Pompeii. These people didn’t evacuate immediately after the volcano erupted and then became caught by the toxic clouds of volcanic ash and dust and the pyroclastic flow.
- No-one tried to re-build Pompeii after the eruption, as was usual after a natural disaster, because the city had been buried in over 14 feet of ash and the damage was too great.
- The ash that buried the city and its people preserved everything where it was at the time of the disaster. This helps historians to understand a bit more about Roman life as it is a bit like having a snap-shot of the city in 79AD. Archaeologists found cavities or holes around the skeletons of some of the people they found in Pompeii. These holes where were the bodies of these people had once been and by pouring plaster into them, casts of the people have been formed. These casts can be found dotted around Pompeii, showing where these people were when they were hit by the pyroclastic flow.
- The type of eruption from Mount Vesuvius is now known as a Plinian eruption (after Pliny the younger’s description of it). This means that a tall column of extremely hot gases, ash and magma shoots strait up into the sky. A Plinian eruption doesn’t commonly include a lava flow, but is a pyroclastic flow which contains hot steam, rock, ash and dust.
- Vesuvius in the background
- A cast of a man caught in the eruption
- Vessels found in the ruins
- Columns that remain from destroyed buildings
- Frescos (paintings) inside Pompeii's buildings
- A street in Pompeii
It is thought that people first started to live in Pompeii in the 7th century BC, about 2,700 years ago. Pompeii is found close to the coast where ships could come ashore – a part of modern Italy called the Bay of Naples. The soil was also very fertile which means it was good for growing crops (especially grapes and olives) – this was because volcanic soils are very rich in nutrients. The city didn’t officially become a Roman settlement until 80 BC and at the time was called the Colonia Veneria Cornelia Pompeii.
Pompeii was a very popular tourist destination during Roman times and many wealthy people had homes there or went there to visit. It was especially popular because it was a coastal area. It is thought that there were approximately 10,000-20,000 people living in the city. As well as houses, Pompeii had a Roman forum, temples, an aqueduct carrying water for people and a large amphitheatre.
The people of Pompeii didn’t know that Mount Vesuvius was a volcano and in fact there wasn’t even a word for volcano in Latin (the language spoken by Romans) as they were not aware of their existence until Vesuvius erupted. Pompeii did experience earthquakes, which scientists today would recognise as a warning that Vesuvius was going to erupt fairly soon, and in 62AD there was a huge earthquake in Pompeii from which the city was still being rebuilt at the time of Mount Vesuvius’s eruption.
Mount Vesuvius erupted on 24 August 79AD and it is thought that about 1.5 million tonnes of rock and ash per second created a huge pillar-looking cloud that was over 20 miles up into the sky. The people of Pompeii didn’t know what was happening and didn’t immediately evacuate the city. The cloud began to block out the sun and rock and ash rained down on the city from the volcanic cloud. The people of Pompeii probably thought that if they went outside to leave the city they might get hit by falling rocks (some people tied pillows to their heads to protect themselves), so as a result many stayed put with the aim of sitting it out.
Once the debris had stopped falling people went out into the streets and found the city covered in ash, rock and dust. However, what they didn’t realise was that the volcanic ‘mushroom’ cloud was about to collapse in on itself, which would send out what is called a pyroclastic flow. This is a deadly flow of extremely hot gas, rock and ash that moves around 400 miles an hour, destroying everything in its way. Sadly there is no escape from a pyroclastic flow as it travels too fast and is too hot to survive. As a result the people of Pompeii were killed instantly as it arrived in the city and covered them. It is thought that 16,000 people died as a result of the eruption.
We know all the details of the events of the eruption because it was witnessed by a man called Pliny the Younger who also spoke to other witnesses before writing down what had happened in two letters to Tacitus, an important Roman historian.
After the disaster Pompeii wasn’t rebuilt. The city had been buried in over 14 feet of ash and debris and so was left and eventually forgotten for over 1,600 years.
The city was rediscovered in 1748 by builders building a palace for King Charles III. Archaeologists uncovered the city to discover that it had been completed preserved by the ash and that many buildings and artefacts were still in one piece. Holes were also discovered surrounding many of the skeletons found. These holes were where the bodies of these people had lain; by pouring plaster into them the final position of people who had lain there for over 1,600 years could be recreated.
Today the city of Pompeii is a tourist site, but is also protected and preserved as a UNESCO Heritage Site. A lot of what we know about Roman life comes from the discovery of Pompeii.
Mount Vesuvius is still an active volcano today and will erupt again at some point, although scientists have ways of predicting when this might be. There was an eruption in 1944, but not as huge as the one in 79AD. The surrounding area is still inhabited and Naples is a thriving port city, but were Vesuvius to erupt again all of the people would need to be evacuated very quickly.
Just for fun...
- Make a loaf of bread exactly like the ones the people of Pompeii would have eaten in AD 79 with a recreated recipe
- After looking at pictures of the mosaics in Pompeii, including the mosaic of a guard dog, create your own Roman mosaic online
- Take a quiz on Pompeii and test your knowledge
- Plan your own investigation into the events of 79 AD
- Read a Latin inscription from Pompeii
Children's books about Pompeii
Find out more about Pompeii
- The UNESCO guide to the archaeological areas of Pompei, Herculaneum and Torre Annunziata
- A kids' guide to the events in Pompeii
- Watch this reconstruction of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius
- Take a look at some of the objects recovered from Pompeii and see images of the city's art and architecture and a complete Pompeii photo gallery
- Watch video clips from the BBC programme, Pompeii: The Mystery of the People Frozen in Time
- Information about why ideas about the cause of death of the Pompeii victims have changed over time, as a result of new analyses of the evidence
- Understand more about typical homes in Pompeii
- The disaster at Pompeii was completely unexpected, but could we now prevent it?
- Find out more about the story of the eruption from The British Museum
- How the casts of people at Pompeii have been created
- More information about work and play in Pompeii
- Everyday objects from life in Pompeii and Herculaneum
- Find out more about the discovery and excavation of Pompeii
- Six new homes have recently been restored and opened to the public in Pompeii; see pictures from the public opening in December 2015
- Look through images of some of the beautiful objects found at Pompeii
- Find out why, even today, Vesuvius is the most dangerous volcano in the world | <urn:uuid:aa6ff63c-f4d7-45de-a130-95f1643bb56f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theschoolrun.com/homework-help/pompeii | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00211.warc.gz | en | 0.983101 | 2,209 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.599001646041870... | 1 | Why is Pompeii so famous?
Pompeii was a Roman town in southern Italy. On 24 August 79AD was buried under volcanic ash and rock following the eruption of the volcano, Mount Vesuvius. Most of the people who lived there were killed.
The town was excavated 1,600 years later and the remains of many items, buildings and people were found in a ‘petrified’ state (as they were at the time of the eruption).
Today Pompeii is a tourist destination where you can walk through the streets of what was once the first-century Roman city of Pompeii.
Top 10 facts
- The 79AD eruption of Mount Vesuvius was the first time the volcano had erupted for 1,800 years. The people of Pompeii didn’t know what a volcano was.
- The initial ‘mushroom’ cloud that shot out from the volcano as a column reached over 20 miles into the air.
- It has been estimated that the pyroclastic flow (molten and ash) from Vesuvius may have moved down the mountain as fast as 450 miles per hour.
- The pyroclastic flow was estimated to be as hot as 1,830°F or 999°C.
- Mount Vesuvius is thought to be one of the most dangerous volcanoes in the world and is the only active volcano on the mainland of Europe.
- The 79AD eruption lasted more than 24 hours.
- The eruption happened the day after the religious festival of Vulcan, who was the Roman god of fire.
- Pompeii was rediscovered in 1748 when builders were constructing a palace for King Charles III.
- Pompeii is a UNESCO Heritage Site, which means it is protected and preserved.
- Mount Vesuvius erupted most recently in 1944, but it wasn’t as powerful as in 79AD. It has a history of having a catastrophic eruption every 2,000 years or so... and it is almost 2,000 years since 79AD...
Did you know?
- We know so much about the destruction of Pompeii thanks to letters written by a man called Pliny the Younger, who witnessed the eruption. He also spoke to survivors and asked them about their experiences.
- Pompeii wasn’t the only settlement destroyed by Mount Vesuvius’s eruption in 79AD. Herculanium and Torre Annunziata were also destroyed.
- It is thought that of 20,000 inhabitants of Pompeii and 5,000 inhabitants of nearby Herculanium, around 16,000 people died in the destruction of Pompeii. These people didn’t evacuate immediately after the volcano erupted and then became caught by the toxic clouds of volcanic ash and dust and the pyroclastic flow.
- No-one tried to re-build Pompeii after the eruption, as was usual after a natural disaster, because the city had been buried in over 14 feet of ash and the damage was too great.
- The ash that buried the city and its people preserved everything where it was at the time of the disaster. This helps historians to understand a bit more about Roman life as it is a bit like having a snap-shot of the city in 79AD. Archaeologists found cavities or holes around the skeletons of some of the people they found in Pompeii. These holes where were the bodies of these people had once been and by pouring plaster into them, casts of the people have been formed. These casts can be found dotted around Pompeii, showing where these people were when they were hit by the pyroclastic flow.
- The type of eruption from Mount Vesuvius is now known as a Plinian eruption (after Pliny the younger’s description of it). This means that a tall column of extremely hot gases, ash and magma shoots strait up into the sky. A Plinian eruption doesn’t commonly include a lava flow, but is a pyroclastic flow which contains hot steam, rock, ash and dust.
- Vesuvius in the background
- A cast of a man caught in the eruption
- Vessels found in the ruins
- Columns that remain from destroyed buildings
- Frescos (paintings) inside Pompeii's buildings
- A street in Pompeii
It is thought that people first started to live in Pompeii in the 7th century BC, about 2,700 years ago. Pompeii is found close to the coast where ships could come ashore – a part of modern Italy called the Bay of Naples. The soil was also very fertile which means it was good for growing crops (especially grapes and olives) – this was because volcanic soils are very rich in nutrients. The city didn’t officially become a Roman settlement until 80 BC and at the time was called the Colonia Veneria Cornelia Pompeii.
Pompeii was a very popular tourist destination during Roman times and many wealthy people had homes there or went there to visit. It was especially popular because it was a coastal area. It is thought that there were approximately 10,000-20,000 people living in the city. As well as houses, Pompeii had a Roman forum, temples, an aqueduct carrying water for people and a large amphitheatre.
The people of Pompeii didn’t know that Mount Vesuvius was a volcano and in fact there wasn’t even a word for volcano in Latin (the language spoken by Romans) as they were not aware of their existence until Vesuvius erupted. Pompeii did experience earthquakes, which scientists today would recognise as a warning that Vesuvius was going to erupt fairly soon, and in 62AD there was a huge earthquake in Pompeii from which the city was still being rebuilt at the time of Mount Vesuvius’s eruption.
Mount Vesuvius erupted on 24 August 79AD and it is thought that about 1.5 million tonnes of rock and ash per second created a huge pillar-looking cloud that was over 20 miles up into the sky. The people of Pompeii didn’t know what was happening and didn’t immediately evacuate the city. The cloud began to block out the sun and rock and ash rained down on the city from the volcanic cloud. The people of Pompeii probably thought that if they went outside to leave the city they might get hit by falling rocks (some people tied pillows to their heads to protect themselves), so as a result many stayed put with the aim of sitting it out.
Once the debris had stopped falling people went out into the streets and found the city covered in ash, rock and dust. However, what they didn’t realise was that the volcanic ‘mushroom’ cloud was about to collapse in on itself, which would send out what is called a pyroclastic flow. This is a deadly flow of extremely hot gas, rock and ash that moves around 400 miles an hour, destroying everything in its way. Sadly there is no escape from a pyroclastic flow as it travels too fast and is too hot to survive. As a result the people of Pompeii were killed instantly as it arrived in the city and covered them. It is thought that 16,000 people died as a result of the eruption.
We know all the details of the events of the eruption because it was witnessed by a man called Pliny the Younger who also spoke to other witnesses before writing down what had happened in two letters to Tacitus, an important Roman historian.
After the disaster Pompeii wasn’t rebuilt. The city had been buried in over 14 feet of ash and debris and so was left and eventually forgotten for over 1,600 years.
The city was rediscovered in 1748 by builders building a palace for King Charles III. Archaeologists uncovered the city to discover that it had been completed preserved by the ash and that many buildings and artefacts were still in one piece. Holes were also discovered surrounding many of the skeletons found. These holes were where the bodies of these people had lain; by pouring plaster into them the final position of people who had lain there for over 1,600 years could be recreated.
Today the city of Pompeii is a tourist site, but is also protected and preserved as a UNESCO Heritage Site. A lot of what we know about Roman life comes from the discovery of Pompeii.
Mount Vesuvius is still an active volcano today and will erupt again at some point, although scientists have ways of predicting when this might be. There was an eruption in 1944, but not as huge as the one in 79AD. The surrounding area is still inhabited and Naples is a thriving port city, but were Vesuvius to erupt again all of the people would need to be evacuated very quickly.
Just for fun...
- Make a loaf of bread exactly like the ones the people of Pompeii would have eaten in AD 79 with a recreated recipe
- After looking at pictures of the mosaics in Pompeii, including the mosaic of a guard dog, create your own Roman mosaic online
- Take a quiz on Pompeii and test your knowledge
- Plan your own investigation into the events of 79 AD
- Read a Latin inscription from Pompeii
Children's books about Pompeii
Find out more about Pompeii
- The UNESCO guide to the archaeological areas of Pompei, Herculaneum and Torre Annunziata
- A kids' guide to the events in Pompeii
- Watch this reconstruction of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius
- Take a look at some of the objects recovered from Pompeii and see images of the city's art and architecture and a complete Pompeii photo gallery
- Watch video clips from the BBC programme, Pompeii: The Mystery of the People Frozen in Time
- Information about why ideas about the cause of death of the Pompeii victims have changed over time, as a result of new analyses of the evidence
- Understand more about typical homes in Pompeii
- The disaster at Pompeii was completely unexpected, but could we now prevent it?
- Find out more about the story of the eruption from The British Museum
- How the casts of people at Pompeii have been created
- More information about work and play in Pompeii
- Everyday objects from life in Pompeii and Herculaneum
- Find out more about the discovery and excavation of Pompeii
- Six new homes have recently been restored and opened to the public in Pompeii; see pictures from the public opening in December 2015
- Look through images of some of the beautiful objects found at Pompeii
- Find out why, even today, Vesuvius is the most dangerous volcano in the world | 2,249 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Most Important Issues in “A Doll’s House”
A Doll’s House is a play that was written by 1879 by Henrik Ibsen, a playwright from Norway. The play has three acts. It mainly focuses on the life of Nora, a housewife who feels frustrated by her position and status in society. She feels like she is a prisoner to her husband Torvald Helmer. Nora has to make the hard choice between staying in the marriage and leaving, and she decides to leave as the play ends. The play was first staged on December 21st 1879 at the Royal Theatre in Denmark, on the same month of its publication.
The playwright uses much symbolism to bring out different aspects of the characters in the play. The symbols bring out character, but it also adds realism to the writing. In this play symbolism is all over, just from the title of the play. The term “Doll” in this case referring to Nora paints a picture of a woman who lives live without making any decisions by herself. She is just there to please her husband who views her as a child and his possession.
Ibsen also uses symbolism to point out various characteristics and themes he intends to highlight in the play. Dr. Rank is used to symbolize dishonest friendships that are common in everybody’s lives. Ibsen uses the Christmas tree and presents to represent the materialistic nature of Nora. She loves material possessions and the Christmas tree delivered to her house is a good representation of her character. Secrecy and power balance between Helmer and Nora is another realistic element of the play through the symbolism of the locked mailbox. It shows how they hide things from each other though they are in a marriage.
Nora eats macaroons but keeps it a secret from her husband who does not approve of her eating them. The act symbolizes the deception on the part of Nora. She secretly does things her husband is against, also symbolizing rebellion. The dance shows how much Nora conforms to her husband’s demands even when she is not comfortable with it, just to make him happy.
Nora’s black shawl is an indication that she is sad and tired of life. She wears it after she decides to commit suicide, signifying her desire to die since black is a color associated with sadness, death and mourning. When she changes clothing from the multi-colored shawl to the black one, this symbolizes that Nora’s life is changing from a happy one to a sad one. The slamming of the door at the end of the play stands for the transition from living under someone’s rules to a new world of individual freedom.
Nora Helmer is the character at the centre of all the ongoing events as the play develops. She feels that her husband is imprisoning her in their house. Her husband, Torvald, is a bank manager, and this makes Nora look inferior to him. Nora appears as a fragile woman who is not in a position to handle the pressures of life efficiently. She moves from the care f her father into the care of her husband. As a result, she is materialistic because all her life she has been used to being protected and provided with all she needs.
The question whether Nora is a victim of circumstances or a villain who brings problems is a tough choice to make. Nora plays an inferior role compared to her husband. He expects her to live up to his expectations of loving and caring wife. Torvald is a man who is more worried about his reputation and how he appears in public more than he cares about his marriage with Nora. Nora is a victim of circumstances, living a life where all her decisions are made for her by her controlling husband.
Whenever she tries to raise her concerns on this habit, her husband changes form the man who addresses her in sweet names and starts insulting her for being a woman. Here she seems to be a victim of her husband’s position in society. Nora is only seen to cause trouble by keeping the money she borrowed from Krogstad a secret from her husband.
For a woman her age, Nora is too relaxed about life. She lives in a comfort zone since all she is worried about is being loved and pampered by her husband. She also comes out as flirtatious, and lives life in ignorance and oblivion, assuming that all things are perfect as they should be. When she Nora finally realizes that things are not working out as she expects them to, she rediscovers herself and approaches life more maturely than before. She takes control of her life and stops playing victim. Ibsen’s view is that Nora is a victim of circumstances, whose life is controlled by her husband. Through the play, he produces Nora into a mature woman who makes better choices including leaving her tough husband at the end of the play.
“Role playing” in the Helmer marriage is brought out by both Nora and her husband Torvald. Nora first makes an impression of a materialistic, obedient and submissive wife while in the real sense she is just playing this role to portray the image her husband expects of her. Torvald, on the other hand, plays a wealthy, respectable husband while in the actual sense he is just doing so to protect his reputation. Behind closed doors, he is rude and even insults his wife, treating her like a child instead of a wife.
Torvald refuses to give Krogstad back his job simply because it is his wife Nora who asks him to, and he is of the view that he should not give in to demands from his wife. His action brings out his character as a male chauvialist who despises advice even when it is worth following just because it is coming from a woman. Later on in the play Torvald insinuates that his marriage to Nora is failing, but he tells Nora that they should act as the marriage is still strong. Here it can be seen that Torvald is more worried about what people see him be than the well being of his marriage.
Ibsen’s play also shows how undesirable traits are passed down from one generation to the next. The play mainly focuses on corruption and weakness. Nora is seen to be cunning and materialistic, just like her father who is also suspicious and spends his money haphazardly. Dr. Rank says he inherited a back problem from his father, and a diagnosis confirms this is true. Krogstad is also worried that his bad reputation from his dishonest dealings with Nora might make his children have miserable lives when they grow up. These are examples showing how weakness and corruption are passed from one generation to the next in the play.
The playwright develops character growth as the play progresses. The characters make more mature and better decisions as the play progresses, as best depicted by Nora. Marriage is developed as a complicated union, with its own share of challenges for the couples but the play also highlights their efforts to stand as a family despite all the challenges. Another idea that is developed by the play is social convention. Through the characters for examples Nora and her husband Torvald, we see the struggles that they go through just to put up a positive perception of themselves to society. The seriousness of social convention is comes out clearly when they accept that their marriage has failed, but Torvald insists they should hide their problems from the public and act like everything is okay.
Through the play, Ibsen highlights many important issues ranging from family conflicts, gender based conflicts, corruption, rebellion and self realization. The playwright paints a vivid picture of character development especially with his good use of imagery, mostly symbolism.
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0.1753132790327072... | 10 | Most Important Issues in “A Doll’s House”
A Doll’s House is a play that was written by 1879 by Henrik Ibsen, a playwright from Norway. The play has three acts. It mainly focuses on the life of Nora, a housewife who feels frustrated by her position and status in society. She feels like she is a prisoner to her husband Torvald Helmer. Nora has to make the hard choice between staying in the marriage and leaving, and she decides to leave as the play ends. The play was first staged on December 21st 1879 at the Royal Theatre in Denmark, on the same month of its publication.
The playwright uses much symbolism to bring out different aspects of the characters in the play. The symbols bring out character, but it also adds realism to the writing. In this play symbolism is all over, just from the title of the play. The term “Doll” in this case referring to Nora paints a picture of a woman who lives live without making any decisions by herself. She is just there to please her husband who views her as a child and his possession.
Ibsen also uses symbolism to point out various characteristics and themes he intends to highlight in the play. Dr. Rank is used to symbolize dishonest friendships that are common in everybody’s lives. Ibsen uses the Christmas tree and presents to represent the materialistic nature of Nora. She loves material possessions and the Christmas tree delivered to her house is a good representation of her character. Secrecy and power balance between Helmer and Nora is another realistic element of the play through the symbolism of the locked mailbox. It shows how they hide things from each other though they are in a marriage.
Nora eats macaroons but keeps it a secret from her husband who does not approve of her eating them. The act symbolizes the deception on the part of Nora. She secretly does things her husband is against, also symbolizing rebellion. The dance shows how much Nora conforms to her husband’s demands even when she is not comfortable with it, just to make him happy.
Nora’s black shawl is an indication that she is sad and tired of life. She wears it after she decides to commit suicide, signifying her desire to die since black is a color associated with sadness, death and mourning. When she changes clothing from the multi-colored shawl to the black one, this symbolizes that Nora’s life is changing from a happy one to a sad one. The slamming of the door at the end of the play stands for the transition from living under someone’s rules to a new world of individual freedom.
Nora Helmer is the character at the centre of all the ongoing events as the play develops. She feels that her husband is imprisoning her in their house. Her husband, Torvald, is a bank manager, and this makes Nora look inferior to him. Nora appears as a fragile woman who is not in a position to handle the pressures of life efficiently. She moves from the care f her father into the care of her husband. As a result, she is materialistic because all her life she has been used to being protected and provided with all she needs.
The question whether Nora is a victim of circumstances or a villain who brings problems is a tough choice to make. Nora plays an inferior role compared to her husband. He expects her to live up to his expectations of loving and caring wife. Torvald is a man who is more worried about his reputation and how he appears in public more than he cares about his marriage with Nora. Nora is a victim of circumstances, living a life where all her decisions are made for her by her controlling husband.
Whenever she tries to raise her concerns on this habit, her husband changes form the man who addresses her in sweet names and starts insulting her for being a woman. Here she seems to be a victim of her husband’s position in society. Nora is only seen to cause trouble by keeping the money she borrowed from Krogstad a secret from her husband.
For a woman her age, Nora is too relaxed about life. She lives in a comfort zone since all she is worried about is being loved and pampered by her husband. She also comes out as flirtatious, and lives life in ignorance and oblivion, assuming that all things are perfect as they should be. When she Nora finally realizes that things are not working out as she expects them to, she rediscovers herself and approaches life more maturely than before. She takes control of her life and stops playing victim. Ibsen’s view is that Nora is a victim of circumstances, whose life is controlled by her husband. Through the play, he produces Nora into a mature woman who makes better choices including leaving her tough husband at the end of the play.
“Role playing” in the Helmer marriage is brought out by both Nora and her husband Torvald. Nora first makes an impression of a materialistic, obedient and submissive wife while in the real sense she is just playing this role to portray the image her husband expects of her. Torvald, on the other hand, plays a wealthy, respectable husband while in the actual sense he is just doing so to protect his reputation. Behind closed doors, he is rude and even insults his wife, treating her like a child instead of a wife.
Torvald refuses to give Krogstad back his job simply because it is his wife Nora who asks him to, and he is of the view that he should not give in to demands from his wife. His action brings out his character as a male chauvialist who despises advice even when it is worth following just because it is coming from a woman. Later on in the play Torvald insinuates that his marriage to Nora is failing, but he tells Nora that they should act as the marriage is still strong. Here it can be seen that Torvald is more worried about what people see him be than the well being of his marriage.
Ibsen’s play also shows how undesirable traits are passed down from one generation to the next. The play mainly focuses on corruption and weakness. Nora is seen to be cunning and materialistic, just like her father who is also suspicious and spends his money haphazardly. Dr. Rank says he inherited a back problem from his father, and a diagnosis confirms this is true. Krogstad is also worried that his bad reputation from his dishonest dealings with Nora might make his children have miserable lives when they grow up. These are examples showing how weakness and corruption are passed from one generation to the next in the play.
The playwright develops character growth as the play progresses. The characters make more mature and better decisions as the play progresses, as best depicted by Nora. Marriage is developed as a complicated union, with its own share of challenges for the couples but the play also highlights their efforts to stand as a family despite all the challenges. Another idea that is developed by the play is social convention. Through the characters for examples Nora and her husband Torvald, we see the struggles that they go through just to put up a positive perception of themselves to society. The seriousness of social convention is comes out clearly when they accept that their marriage has failed, but Torvald insists they should hide their problems from the public and act like everything is okay.
Through the play, Ibsen highlights many important issues ranging from family conflicts, gender based conflicts, corruption, rebellion and self realization. The playwright paints a vivid picture of character development especially with his good use of imagery, mostly symbolism.
Ibsen, Henrik. A Dolls House. Rockville, Md: Serenity Publishers, 2009. Print. | 1,566 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Battle of Aughrim
The Battle of Aughrim was the decisive battle of the Williamite War in Ireland. It was fought between the Irish Jacobite army who were loyal to James II and the forces of William III. It is considered one of Europe's most historic battle and involved over 45,000 soldiers.
The battle occurred on 12th July 1691 near the village of Aughrim in County Galway, Ireland. It was the bloodiest battle of fought on Irish soil and over 7000 people were killed.
The Jacobite defeat at Aughrim effectively ended James' campaign in Ireland.
Today the site where the battle was fought can be visited, and there are many information points around the area which detail this historic battle. There is also a visitor's centre offering a fascinating look into the battle and it's relation to the Battle of The Boyne, the sieges of Athlone and Limerick, and the Fight of the Wild Geese.
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The Battle of Aughrim was the decisive battle of the Williamite War in Ireland. It was fought between the Irish Jacobite army who were loyal to James II and the forces of William III. It is considered one of Europe's most historic battle and involved over 45,000 soldiers.
The battle occurred on 12th July 1691 near the village of Aughrim in County Galway, Ireland. It was the bloodiest battle of fought on Irish soil and over 7000 people were killed.
The Jacobite defeat at Aughrim effectively ended James' campaign in Ireland.
Today the site where the battle was fought can be visited, and there are many information points around the area which detail this historic battle. There is also a visitor's centre offering a fascinating look into the battle and it's relation to the Battle of The Boyne, the sieges of Athlone and Limerick, and the Fight of the Wild Geese.
Visit the website HERE. | 214 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Since ancient times, surgeons have dreamed of transplanting healthy organs into patients disabled by disease and injury, but the human body’s powerful immune system stymied all such attempts, leading many observers to conclude that the procedure was impossible.
But on Dec. 23, 1954, Dr. Joseph E. Murray of Peter Bent Brigham Hospital in Boston removed a healthy kidney from 23-year-old Ronald Herrick and implanted it in his identical twin, Richard, who was dying of severe kidney disease. The successful procedure proved that organ transplants were possible and opened an era in which organ transplants are now routinely performed on tens of thousands of patients each year.
Murray was later the first to transplant kidneys between non-identical siblings and to use organs from cadavers. His feats won him the 1990 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, an award he shared with Dr. E. Donnall Thomas, who performed the first bone-marrow transplant.
Murray died Monday at the hospital — now known as Brigham and Women’s Hospital — where he performed his first transplant, after suffering a hemorrhagic stroke at his home on Thanksgiving Day. He was 93.
Murray received his first exposure to transplants during World War II while treating wounded soldiers at Valley Forge General Hospital in Pennsylvania. When patients did not have enough of their own skin for a graft, surgeons would transplant skin from other patients over the wounds. While these grafts would not survive for more than a few days, they would protect the wounds while they healed.
While preparing for surgeries with Col. James Barrett Brown, the chief of plastic surgery, Murray would often discuss the reasons for rejection. Brown thought that a close genetic relationship between the donor and the recipient would slow the rejection and he had, in fact, successfully grafted skin between identical twins in 1937. It was not until the 1950s and 1960s that biologists finally recognized that markers on the surface of cells called human leukocyte antigens, or HLAs, controlled the rejection process.
After the war, Murray began working with dogs in an attempt to perfect transplant techniques — despite the scoffing of colleagues and a mentor’s recommendation that he abandon the practice as a dead end. His research was considered “a fringe project,” he wrote in his 2001 biography, “Surgery of the Soul.”
In October 1954, the dying Herrick was referred to him for potential surgery. After much soul-searching and consultation with ethicists and religious leaders, Murray agreed. Although the hospital planned to keep the operation secret initially, news broke after Murray asked local police to check the fingerprints of the two brothers to ensure that they were twins.
Richard, who married one of his nurses at Brigham and had two children, fell victim to a recurrence of his kidney disease eight years later. Ronald survived until age 79.
The surgeon performed several more operations on identical twins, but recognized that this was a limited pool of recipients. His studies with dogs, however, showed that suppressing the patient’s immune system with whole-body radiation could prolong survival, and in 1959 he began transplanting organs between fraternal twins. Success improved further when he added bone-marrow transplantation which, in effect, gave the recipient a new immune system compatible with the new organ.
One such patient lived for 29 more years.
These were drastic solutions, however, and would not work well for unrelated donors. The key to making transplants more accessible was the development of drugs that would suppress the immune system less drastically — first azathioprine, then later cyclosporine and other drugs. In 1962, Murray and his team used such drugs to successfully implant a cadaver kidney from an unrelated donor into 23-year-old Mel Doucette.
In 1971, Murray retired as head of transplant surgery at Brigham and returned to his first love, plastic surgery. “At heart, I’m a reconstructive surgeon,” he said at the time. His friend and colleague, the late Dr. Francis Moore, once noted that “Joe’s the only guy who ever won a Nobel Prize for pursuing a hobby.”
Murray used techniques originally developed by Dr. Paul Tessier of France to correct facial deformities by repositioning and moving forward the bones of the head and face. He traveled around the world to treat adults and children with severe facial deformities resulting from accidents, congenital conditions, cancer surgeries and other problems.
One of his best-known patients was Raymond Francis MacMillan, who suffered from Moebius syndrome — a congenital condition involving severe heart and facial deformities. As a child, MacMillan was delivered to a mental institution because his parents could not deal with the condition.
When MacMillan was released at age 21, he was referred to Murray, who performed a series of surgeries that, among other things, repositioned the jaw so he could swallow normally, control saliva and smile. His appearance could not be made totally normal, but the surgery allowed him to function in the world and, Murray wrote, allowed “his inner self to grow and glow.”
Joseph Edward Murray was born April 1, 1919, in Milford, Mass., about 30 miles southwest of Boston. From his earliest memory, he wrote in his Nobel biography, “I wanted to be a surgeon, possibly influenced by the qualities of our family doctor who cared for our childhood ailments.”
He enrolled at the College of the Holy Cross, concentrating on Latin, Greek, English and philosophy, “assuming I’d receive ample science in medical school.” He graduated from Harvard Medical School in 1943 and served in the Army until 1947. He spent his entire career at Brigham.
In 1986, Murray suffered a stroke. Although he recovered quickly and was cleared to return to the operating room, he decided to retire and “just enjoy the other aspects of my life,” he said at the time.
Murray is survived by his wife of 67 years, the former Virginia “Bobby” Link; three sons, three daughters and 18 grandchildren. | <urn:uuid:e4075c52-00bf-453a-8ab9-6d7318d17a67> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.latimes.com/nation/la-xpm-2012-nov-27-la-me-joseph-murray-20121128-story.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00212.warc.gz | en | 0.981516 | 1,260 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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-0.00788166280835... | 1 | Since ancient times, surgeons have dreamed of transplanting healthy organs into patients disabled by disease and injury, but the human body’s powerful immune system stymied all such attempts, leading many observers to conclude that the procedure was impossible.
But on Dec. 23, 1954, Dr. Joseph E. Murray of Peter Bent Brigham Hospital in Boston removed a healthy kidney from 23-year-old Ronald Herrick and implanted it in his identical twin, Richard, who was dying of severe kidney disease. The successful procedure proved that organ transplants were possible and opened an era in which organ transplants are now routinely performed on tens of thousands of patients each year.
Murray was later the first to transplant kidneys between non-identical siblings and to use organs from cadavers. His feats won him the 1990 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, an award he shared with Dr. E. Donnall Thomas, who performed the first bone-marrow transplant.
Murray died Monday at the hospital — now known as Brigham and Women’s Hospital — where he performed his first transplant, after suffering a hemorrhagic stroke at his home on Thanksgiving Day. He was 93.
Murray received his first exposure to transplants during World War II while treating wounded soldiers at Valley Forge General Hospital in Pennsylvania. When patients did not have enough of their own skin for a graft, surgeons would transplant skin from other patients over the wounds. While these grafts would not survive for more than a few days, they would protect the wounds while they healed.
While preparing for surgeries with Col. James Barrett Brown, the chief of plastic surgery, Murray would often discuss the reasons for rejection. Brown thought that a close genetic relationship between the donor and the recipient would slow the rejection and he had, in fact, successfully grafted skin between identical twins in 1937. It was not until the 1950s and 1960s that biologists finally recognized that markers on the surface of cells called human leukocyte antigens, or HLAs, controlled the rejection process.
After the war, Murray began working with dogs in an attempt to perfect transplant techniques — despite the scoffing of colleagues and a mentor’s recommendation that he abandon the practice as a dead end. His research was considered “a fringe project,” he wrote in his 2001 biography, “Surgery of the Soul.”
In October 1954, the dying Herrick was referred to him for potential surgery. After much soul-searching and consultation with ethicists and religious leaders, Murray agreed. Although the hospital planned to keep the operation secret initially, news broke after Murray asked local police to check the fingerprints of the two brothers to ensure that they were twins.
Richard, who married one of his nurses at Brigham and had two children, fell victim to a recurrence of his kidney disease eight years later. Ronald survived until age 79.
The surgeon performed several more operations on identical twins, but recognized that this was a limited pool of recipients. His studies with dogs, however, showed that suppressing the patient’s immune system with whole-body radiation could prolong survival, and in 1959 he began transplanting organs between fraternal twins. Success improved further when he added bone-marrow transplantation which, in effect, gave the recipient a new immune system compatible with the new organ.
One such patient lived for 29 more years.
These were drastic solutions, however, and would not work well for unrelated donors. The key to making transplants more accessible was the development of drugs that would suppress the immune system less drastically — first azathioprine, then later cyclosporine and other drugs. In 1962, Murray and his team used such drugs to successfully implant a cadaver kidney from an unrelated donor into 23-year-old Mel Doucette.
In 1971, Murray retired as head of transplant surgery at Brigham and returned to his first love, plastic surgery. “At heart, I’m a reconstructive surgeon,” he said at the time. His friend and colleague, the late Dr. Francis Moore, once noted that “Joe’s the only guy who ever won a Nobel Prize for pursuing a hobby.”
Murray used techniques originally developed by Dr. Paul Tessier of France to correct facial deformities by repositioning and moving forward the bones of the head and face. He traveled around the world to treat adults and children with severe facial deformities resulting from accidents, congenital conditions, cancer surgeries and other problems.
One of his best-known patients was Raymond Francis MacMillan, who suffered from Moebius syndrome — a congenital condition involving severe heart and facial deformities. As a child, MacMillan was delivered to a mental institution because his parents could not deal with the condition.
When MacMillan was released at age 21, he was referred to Murray, who performed a series of surgeries that, among other things, repositioned the jaw so he could swallow normally, control saliva and smile. His appearance could not be made totally normal, but the surgery allowed him to function in the world and, Murray wrote, allowed “his inner self to grow and glow.”
Joseph Edward Murray was born April 1, 1919, in Milford, Mass., about 30 miles southwest of Boston. From his earliest memory, he wrote in his Nobel biography, “I wanted to be a surgeon, possibly influenced by the qualities of our family doctor who cared for our childhood ailments.”
He enrolled at the College of the Holy Cross, concentrating on Latin, Greek, English and philosophy, “assuming I’d receive ample science in medical school.” He graduated from Harvard Medical School in 1943 and served in the Army until 1947. He spent his entire career at Brigham.
In 1986, Murray suffered a stroke. Although he recovered quickly and was cleared to return to the operating room, he decided to retire and “just enjoy the other aspects of my life,” he said at the time.
Murray is survived by his wife of 67 years, the former Virginia “Bobby” Link; three sons, three daughters and 18 grandchildren. | 1,270 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Throughout the 1960s’ and 70’s, segregation was always an issue. Acts of discrimination were beginning to inspire other African Americans to speak out in their situation in the division of the races. In 1960, in Greensboro North Carolina, four black students began a sit-in at a segregated at a Woolworth’s lunch counter. Although they are refused service, they are permitted to stay. This event sparks many other non-violent protests. Protests were drawing the attention of the current president, Dwight Eisenhower. President Eisenhower eventually signs the Civil Rights Act of 1960 into a law. In the picture on the right, Martin Luther King Jr. (MLK) is seen waving out to the crowds of people who gathered to see him make his famous “I Have a Dream” speech. MLK was a peaceful protesting leader who maintained a strong opinion towards equal rights for all, but unlike others, he was known for his serene and effective protests. One of Martin Luther King Jr’s most prominent protests was the March on Washington, which took place on August 28, 1963. The March on Washington was aimed more towards African Americans who wanted jobs and freedom no different than whites. It also questioned the political and social injustices that African Americans still faced even after 100 years of the signing of the Emancipation Proclamation. MLK spoke out to the 250,000 people who attended and said his most famous speech, the “I Have a Dream” speech. In his speech, MLK asserted that he had a dream that one day blacks would have the same privileges as whites. In being an activist, he inspired the thousands of people that were present at the Pentagon and many more. However, MLK was not the only activist there trying to influence others. A smaller number of people marched on Washington for gay rights and women’s rights. Many people were beginning to find the courage to stand up against what was wrong, and segregation was obviously inequitable and disturbing. Political Relations and AdvancementsPolitics in the 1960’s and 70’s were emanating throughout the world. Individuals were being acknowledged for their actions, good and bad. John F. Kennedy was elected the 35th president of the United States in 1960. When JFK was elected president, in his inaugural speech, he said that he was setting foot on a new frontier and he wanted the people to be actively involved in working in this new technological era. JFK had was filling everyone with optimism. The picture on the left shows JFK making his inaugural speech which would give hope to millions that day. JFK was most known for his accomplishments in the area of public affairs. He wanted peace within the countries and stopped the escalating tensions of the Cold War, in Cuba, Vietnam and he also provided federal support for the Civil Rights Movement. One of Kennedy’s most well know actions was the Cuban Missile Crisis. Kennedy found out that the Soviet Union was planning on sending missiles to Cuba, Kennedy reacted fast and blockaded the island, protecting it until the Soviet Union vowed to take back the missiles. The Soviet Union eventually took back the missiles and Kennedy was noticed in his acts of courage. The Cuban Missile Crisis would eventually link chains in leading to the Vietnam War. John F. Kennedy was assassinated on November 22nd, 1963. His presidential reign came to an end when he was assassinated in Dallas, Texas while riding in an unprotected car with the hood open. JFK’s assassination went down in history and left the nation buried in the unwanted feeling of fear in what to do now that the anticipation of JFK was gone. JFK’s brother, Robert F. Kennedy, was a man who was always working alongside his brother. RFK worked against organized crime and was one of the most prominent people who managed and prompted the Civil Rights Movement and made sure it was one of JFK’s priorities while he was serving his presidential term. The Vietnam WarThe Vietnam War began in 1954, but the US did not advance into the war until 10 years later, 1964. The name “Vietnam War” is the more commonly used name for the Second Indochina War. The US got involved because they did not want another country aiming towards communism. The US took sides with the Southern Vietnamese who ended up losing the war to the Northern Vietnamese. Throughout the war, there are many marches in the US to end the war as soon as possible. The picture on the right shows protesters marching to end the Vietnam War. The truth is that the US’ military won the war but the politicians lost it. The Communists in Northern Vietnam ended up signing a peace treaty ending the war. There were many protests throughout the Vietnam War that included monks burning themselves in protest.Space Race “She packed my bags last night pre-flight Zero hour nine AM, And I’m gonna be as high as a kite by then, I miss the earth so much I miss my wife It’s lonely out in space, On such a timeless flight, And I think it’s gonna be a long long time, ‘Till touch down brings me round again to find, I’m not the man they think I am at home, Oh no no no I’m a rocket man, Rocket man burning out his fuse up here alone” – Elton John 1972There were various events that made the headlines in the 1960’s and 70’s. Including the Space Race, Kent State Shooting, The British Invasion, Woodstock, medical advancements, new inventions and more. The Space Race took place throughout the 1960’s. JFK made a vow in a speech on May 25, 1961, saying that he wanted to put a man on the moon by the end of the decade. President John F. Kennedy stated the following:”I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth. No single space project…will be more exciting, or more impressive to mankind, or more important…and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish” Russia (The Soviet Union) and the US have always had a competitive atmosphere around each other. Russia had already sent the first man to space but the US wanted to surpass that. Resulting from JFK’s speech, the US created NASA which stands for National Aeronautics and Space Administration. There were three missions that would inaugurate from NASA. The first is Project Mercury, the first man sent into space by the US, which was in the early 60’s. This project was also the first project that had a man orbit the earth. Project Gemini, which is the second mission, took place in the mid 60’s. Gemini means twins, which means two, so two men were sent to space in a space capsule. They practiced docking spaceships together which would be very important for the next project. The third mission was Project Apollo which is the more well-known project of the three. It occurred in the late 60’s which sent three men into space. The biggest Rocket ever built was the Saturn V which took Neil Armstrong to the moon on July 20th, 1969. So, in the bigger picture, we had achieved much more than Russia during the Space Race. Violence and Crime The outpour of violence tamed a new civilization in America. People were finding new ways to harm those around them and themselves. More gangs were forming and specific areas were beginning to get a reputation for the conduct in their neighborhood. The wrong people were getting their hands on guns and weapons and using them in the wrong way. People were only thinking about money and would do anything to get their hands on it. The Kent State Shootings started out as a protest against the Vietnam War at Kent State University. Students were throwing rocks and bottles at windows and police officers allowing them to loot stores. Eventually, the soldiers and officers that were standing their grounds pulled the trigger on the protesters, wounding nine and killing four. This helped convince people that the protesters were not just random people who were drug addicts, hippies, teenagers or the jobless and needy; they were middle-class, educated people who had a right in their protests. The shooting at Kent State only intensified protests. More people began protesting and some colleges and universities had to cancel classes for almost the remainder of the year. Technological Inventions and Advancements Technology in the 1960’s and 70’s was bursting through the roof. New advancements in the category of technology were being performed. In 1971, floppy discs were invented by David Noble. The picture on the right gives a general idea of what the floppy disc looks like.The floppy disc was used to store data inside a computer. This was a notable invention because once computers were made and people were typing important information on them and downloading pictures, they needed somewhere where they could be ensured that their work would be saved. Technology would only move up from there. Other technological advancements were made like email, cell phones, ATM’s,and digital cameras. ATM’s were a huge advancement because now people could remove money from their bank accounts from the click of a button. Entertainment Entertainment in the 1960’s and 70’s was varied in many different forms. The 60’s were hardcore rock’n’ roll and as the 70’s rolled in, disco was heating up. Music genres were changing, and many new televised shows were being created. People had more money to go out to concerts, and sporting events. There were many remarkable entertainers and ways of finding entertainment. Many historical events led to some of the exciting and unusual new songs of the 60’s and 70’s. Events like Woodstock, the British Invasion, and shows like. The Brady Bunch was a hit that had people going crazy. The picture below is Jimi Hendrix, who is known for performing “The Star Spangled Banner” at Woodstock. There were songs for just about everybody. From radicals to preppies, there was entertainment for everyone. Woodstock Woodstock was a music festival that was held in Bethel, New York. The festival attracted over 400,000 people who were interested in coming together for good entertainment. Some of the many top entertainers who performed were Jefferson Airplane, The Who, The Grateful Dead, Sly and the Family Stone, Jimi Hendrix and many more. More young people attended Woodstock than expected. Woodstock lasted about three days long of people performing and was also looked at as a group gathering at the start of the new decade. Along with the numerous amount of performers, there were also many activities that people could do at their leisure including bowling, surfing, sailing, and touch football. Woodstock was mostly known for expressing peace, love and rock’n’ roll in the age where everyone could be themselves. Music “You say you want a revolution , Well, you know, We all want to change the world, You tell me that it’s evolution, Well you know, We all want to change the world” -The Beatles 1968 The British Invasion was started by The Beatles, a well known band from the United Kingdom. The Beatles made one of their first appearances in America on the Ed Sullivan Show in 1964. Other bands like The Rolling Stones, the Yardbirds, the Kinks and many more were tied in with the British Invasion. The US was beginning to get an aspect of what British Culture was like. Out of the many bands involved, The Beatles had the heaviest impact on America during the British Invasion. The British Invasion was most known for the spilling in of new entertainers and new entertainment from the UK. Rock and roll was the music that everyone wanted to listen to and disco was the music that everyone wanted to dance to. Both types of music were popular and demanding but disco did not find its origin until the mid seventies. When disco became more popular, it was the easiest way to get up on the charts. Donna Summer, scored when she chose to sing and write disco, which helped lead her to her well known career. Television TV shows were beginning to take a widespread. With all of the uprising politics, key coverage was being broadcasted on to news channels. Channels were beginning to expand and people were beginning to take more interest in the shows that were being streamed. Popular shows from the 60s and 70s were the Brady Bunch, the Flintstones, and Pink Panther. Favorite shows like those was what caught the attention of people. This helped lead to the era of modern technology, because of the demand of TV’s and films were high. Pink PantherEnvironment “Hey farmer farmer,Put away that DDT,Give me spots on my apples,But leave me the birds and the bees,Please! Don’t it always seem to go,That you don’t know what you’ve got,Till it’s gone,They paved paradise,And put up a parking lot”Joni Mitchell 1970The environment in the 1960’s and 70’s was well polluted. In the category of environment, there were two different types of people. Those who had serious jobs and had huge factories and power plants which were letting out substantial amounts of pollution everyday, and people who were considered as radicals and had no jobs and really took in the scenery of the polluted environment. An example of the earth becoming polluted is the fact that the government was dumping all of the garbage out to sea. The problem was, people were not thinking about this long term. All of the garbage that was being dumped out to sea was harming sea life and was eventually floating back onto the land, where public beaches would display litter blanketing the sand. Many people promoted social events and started groups that helped clean up the beaches but in the beginning, the government was not lending a hand. There were many protests against all of the polluting of the environment and on April 22nd, 1970, the first Earth Day was created by Senator Gaylord Nelson to help the earth in clean up pollution. Along with this, many Public Service Announcements (PSA) were being brought to attention. The Crying Indian was a well known PSA that showed an Indian, one of the first people to live in America, crying over the amount of litter that was in store for the future. New inventions also had an effect on the pollution in the environment. Railroads, and new machinery were polluting the environment. Cities were becoming major industries busy tending to the demands of people. People were beginning to take notice in what the earth, their home, was becoming. Earth Day was becoming a more celebrated holiday for helping the earth and people were and still are going out of reach every April 22nd to preserve earth’s natural resources. The 1960’s and 70’s were decades of innovation and change. The 60’s and 70’s will be times remembered for events that would go down in history. Along with the changing times were the changing people. People were saying, “What about me”, and realizing that they were their own person. This created different people like hippies, preppies, politicians and other individuals. The way people acted shaped and molded what the interests of people would be. We reached many achievements that were set in the 60’s and 70’s such as the space race, technological advancements and new inventions. We fulfilled the goals that the U.S. made as a country and we were inspired by the people who stood out to us simply by their actions and words. The quote President John F. Kennedy said, “And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what your country can do for you–ask what you can do for your country,” would go on to raise the hopes and dreams of fellow Americans that decade and for many more. Alone, we may be individuals, but together, we represent, and are no less than the United States of America. | <urn:uuid:cfafc83b-edbb-4d86-9553-84d716e7d1f4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://scientifictimes.org/throughout-segregation-was-obviously-inequitable-and-disturbing-political-relations/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00236.warc.gz | en | 0.987928 | 3,288 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
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-0.06412170082... | 1 | Throughout the 1960s’ and 70’s, segregation was always an issue. Acts of discrimination were beginning to inspire other African Americans to speak out in their situation in the division of the races. In 1960, in Greensboro North Carolina, four black students began a sit-in at a segregated at a Woolworth’s lunch counter. Although they are refused service, they are permitted to stay. This event sparks many other non-violent protests. Protests were drawing the attention of the current president, Dwight Eisenhower. President Eisenhower eventually signs the Civil Rights Act of 1960 into a law. In the picture on the right, Martin Luther King Jr. (MLK) is seen waving out to the crowds of people who gathered to see him make his famous “I Have a Dream” speech. MLK was a peaceful protesting leader who maintained a strong opinion towards equal rights for all, but unlike others, he was known for his serene and effective protests. One of Martin Luther King Jr’s most prominent protests was the March on Washington, which took place on August 28, 1963. The March on Washington was aimed more towards African Americans who wanted jobs and freedom no different than whites. It also questioned the political and social injustices that African Americans still faced even after 100 years of the signing of the Emancipation Proclamation. MLK spoke out to the 250,000 people who attended and said his most famous speech, the “I Have a Dream” speech. In his speech, MLK asserted that he had a dream that one day blacks would have the same privileges as whites. In being an activist, he inspired the thousands of people that were present at the Pentagon and many more. However, MLK was not the only activist there trying to influence others. A smaller number of people marched on Washington for gay rights and women’s rights. Many people were beginning to find the courage to stand up against what was wrong, and segregation was obviously inequitable and disturbing. Political Relations and AdvancementsPolitics in the 1960’s and 70’s were emanating throughout the world. Individuals were being acknowledged for their actions, good and bad. John F. Kennedy was elected the 35th president of the United States in 1960. When JFK was elected president, in his inaugural speech, he said that he was setting foot on a new frontier and he wanted the people to be actively involved in working in this new technological era. JFK had was filling everyone with optimism. The picture on the left shows JFK making his inaugural speech which would give hope to millions that day. JFK was most known for his accomplishments in the area of public affairs. He wanted peace within the countries and stopped the escalating tensions of the Cold War, in Cuba, Vietnam and he also provided federal support for the Civil Rights Movement. One of Kennedy’s most well know actions was the Cuban Missile Crisis. Kennedy found out that the Soviet Union was planning on sending missiles to Cuba, Kennedy reacted fast and blockaded the island, protecting it until the Soviet Union vowed to take back the missiles. The Soviet Union eventually took back the missiles and Kennedy was noticed in his acts of courage. The Cuban Missile Crisis would eventually link chains in leading to the Vietnam War. John F. Kennedy was assassinated on November 22nd, 1963. His presidential reign came to an end when he was assassinated in Dallas, Texas while riding in an unprotected car with the hood open. JFK’s assassination went down in history and left the nation buried in the unwanted feeling of fear in what to do now that the anticipation of JFK was gone. JFK’s brother, Robert F. Kennedy, was a man who was always working alongside his brother. RFK worked against organized crime and was one of the most prominent people who managed and prompted the Civil Rights Movement and made sure it was one of JFK’s priorities while he was serving his presidential term. The Vietnam WarThe Vietnam War began in 1954, but the US did not advance into the war until 10 years later, 1964. The name “Vietnam War” is the more commonly used name for the Second Indochina War. The US got involved because they did not want another country aiming towards communism. The US took sides with the Southern Vietnamese who ended up losing the war to the Northern Vietnamese. Throughout the war, there are many marches in the US to end the war as soon as possible. The picture on the right shows protesters marching to end the Vietnam War. The truth is that the US’ military won the war but the politicians lost it. The Communists in Northern Vietnam ended up signing a peace treaty ending the war. There were many protests throughout the Vietnam War that included monks burning themselves in protest.Space Race “She packed my bags last night pre-flight Zero hour nine AM, And I’m gonna be as high as a kite by then, I miss the earth so much I miss my wife It’s lonely out in space, On such a timeless flight, And I think it’s gonna be a long long time, ‘Till touch down brings me round again to find, I’m not the man they think I am at home, Oh no no no I’m a rocket man, Rocket man burning out his fuse up here alone” – Elton John 1972There were various events that made the headlines in the 1960’s and 70’s. Including the Space Race, Kent State Shooting, The British Invasion, Woodstock, medical advancements, new inventions and more. The Space Race took place throughout the 1960’s. JFK made a vow in a speech on May 25, 1961, saying that he wanted to put a man on the moon by the end of the decade. President John F. Kennedy stated the following:”I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to the Earth. No single space project…will be more exciting, or more impressive to mankind, or more important…and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish” Russia (The Soviet Union) and the US have always had a competitive atmosphere around each other. Russia had already sent the first man to space but the US wanted to surpass that. Resulting from JFK’s speech, the US created NASA which stands for National Aeronautics and Space Administration. There were three missions that would inaugurate from NASA. The first is Project Mercury, the first man sent into space by the US, which was in the early 60’s. This project was also the first project that had a man orbit the earth. Project Gemini, which is the second mission, took place in the mid 60’s. Gemini means twins, which means two, so two men were sent to space in a space capsule. They practiced docking spaceships together which would be very important for the next project. The third mission was Project Apollo which is the more well-known project of the three. It occurred in the late 60’s which sent three men into space. The biggest Rocket ever built was the Saturn V which took Neil Armstrong to the moon on July 20th, 1969. So, in the bigger picture, we had achieved much more than Russia during the Space Race. Violence and Crime The outpour of violence tamed a new civilization in America. People were finding new ways to harm those around them and themselves. More gangs were forming and specific areas were beginning to get a reputation for the conduct in their neighborhood. The wrong people were getting their hands on guns and weapons and using them in the wrong way. People were only thinking about money and would do anything to get their hands on it. The Kent State Shootings started out as a protest against the Vietnam War at Kent State University. Students were throwing rocks and bottles at windows and police officers allowing them to loot stores. Eventually, the soldiers and officers that were standing their grounds pulled the trigger on the protesters, wounding nine and killing four. This helped convince people that the protesters were not just random people who were drug addicts, hippies, teenagers or the jobless and needy; they were middle-class, educated people who had a right in their protests. The shooting at Kent State only intensified protests. More people began protesting and some colleges and universities had to cancel classes for almost the remainder of the year. Technological Inventions and Advancements Technology in the 1960’s and 70’s was bursting through the roof. New advancements in the category of technology were being performed. In 1971, floppy discs were invented by David Noble. The picture on the right gives a general idea of what the floppy disc looks like.The floppy disc was used to store data inside a computer. This was a notable invention because once computers were made and people were typing important information on them and downloading pictures, they needed somewhere where they could be ensured that their work would be saved. Technology would only move up from there. Other technological advancements were made like email, cell phones, ATM’s,and digital cameras. ATM’s were a huge advancement because now people could remove money from their bank accounts from the click of a button. Entertainment Entertainment in the 1960’s and 70’s was varied in many different forms. The 60’s were hardcore rock’n’ roll and as the 70’s rolled in, disco was heating up. Music genres were changing, and many new televised shows were being created. People had more money to go out to concerts, and sporting events. There were many remarkable entertainers and ways of finding entertainment. Many historical events led to some of the exciting and unusual new songs of the 60’s and 70’s. Events like Woodstock, the British Invasion, and shows like. The Brady Bunch was a hit that had people going crazy. The picture below is Jimi Hendrix, who is known for performing “The Star Spangled Banner” at Woodstock. There were songs for just about everybody. From radicals to preppies, there was entertainment for everyone. Woodstock Woodstock was a music festival that was held in Bethel, New York. The festival attracted over 400,000 people who were interested in coming together for good entertainment. Some of the many top entertainers who performed were Jefferson Airplane, The Who, The Grateful Dead, Sly and the Family Stone, Jimi Hendrix and many more. More young people attended Woodstock than expected. Woodstock lasted about three days long of people performing and was also looked at as a group gathering at the start of the new decade. Along with the numerous amount of performers, there were also many activities that people could do at their leisure including bowling, surfing, sailing, and touch football. Woodstock was mostly known for expressing peace, love and rock’n’ roll in the age where everyone could be themselves. Music “You say you want a revolution , Well, you know, We all want to change the world, You tell me that it’s evolution, Well you know, We all want to change the world” -The Beatles 1968 The British Invasion was started by The Beatles, a well known band from the United Kingdom. The Beatles made one of their first appearances in America on the Ed Sullivan Show in 1964. Other bands like The Rolling Stones, the Yardbirds, the Kinks and many more were tied in with the British Invasion. The US was beginning to get an aspect of what British Culture was like. Out of the many bands involved, The Beatles had the heaviest impact on America during the British Invasion. The British Invasion was most known for the spilling in of new entertainers and new entertainment from the UK. Rock and roll was the music that everyone wanted to listen to and disco was the music that everyone wanted to dance to. Both types of music were popular and demanding but disco did not find its origin until the mid seventies. When disco became more popular, it was the easiest way to get up on the charts. Donna Summer, scored when she chose to sing and write disco, which helped lead her to her well known career. Television TV shows were beginning to take a widespread. With all of the uprising politics, key coverage was being broadcasted on to news channels. Channels were beginning to expand and people were beginning to take more interest in the shows that were being streamed. Popular shows from the 60s and 70s were the Brady Bunch, the Flintstones, and Pink Panther. Favorite shows like those was what caught the attention of people. This helped lead to the era of modern technology, because of the demand of TV’s and films were high. Pink PantherEnvironment “Hey farmer farmer,Put away that DDT,Give me spots on my apples,But leave me the birds and the bees,Please! Don’t it always seem to go,That you don’t know what you’ve got,Till it’s gone,They paved paradise,And put up a parking lot”Joni Mitchell 1970The environment in the 1960’s and 70’s was well polluted. In the category of environment, there were two different types of people. Those who had serious jobs and had huge factories and power plants which were letting out substantial amounts of pollution everyday, and people who were considered as radicals and had no jobs and really took in the scenery of the polluted environment. An example of the earth becoming polluted is the fact that the government was dumping all of the garbage out to sea. The problem was, people were not thinking about this long term. All of the garbage that was being dumped out to sea was harming sea life and was eventually floating back onto the land, where public beaches would display litter blanketing the sand. Many people promoted social events and started groups that helped clean up the beaches but in the beginning, the government was not lending a hand. There were many protests against all of the polluting of the environment and on April 22nd, 1970, the first Earth Day was created by Senator Gaylord Nelson to help the earth in clean up pollution. Along with this, many Public Service Announcements (PSA) were being brought to attention. The Crying Indian was a well known PSA that showed an Indian, one of the first people to live in America, crying over the amount of litter that was in store for the future. New inventions also had an effect on the pollution in the environment. Railroads, and new machinery were polluting the environment. Cities were becoming major industries busy tending to the demands of people. People were beginning to take notice in what the earth, their home, was becoming. Earth Day was becoming a more celebrated holiday for helping the earth and people were and still are going out of reach every April 22nd to preserve earth’s natural resources. The 1960’s and 70’s were decades of innovation and change. The 60’s and 70’s will be times remembered for events that would go down in history. Along with the changing times were the changing people. People were saying, “What about me”, and realizing that they were their own person. This created different people like hippies, preppies, politicians and other individuals. The way people acted shaped and molded what the interests of people would be. We reached many achievements that were set in the 60’s and 70’s such as the space race, technological advancements and new inventions. We fulfilled the goals that the U.S. made as a country and we were inspired by the people who stood out to us simply by their actions and words. The quote President John F. Kennedy said, “And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what your country can do for you–ask what you can do for your country,” would go on to raise the hopes and dreams of fellow Americans that decade and for many more. Alone, we may be individuals, but together, we represent, and are no less than the United States of America. | 3,318 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Pythagoras was a Greek philosopher and mathematician who contributed insights to many schools of thought during his life. One of his most notable accomplishments is his development of the Pythagorean theorem, which creates a relationship between the three sides of a right triangle. Specifically, that the square of the hypotenuse (or longest side of a triangle) is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides. This is written mathematically as a2 + b2 = c2. Unfortunately, it is hard to make definitive statements about much of Pythagoras’ life because we have no confirmed and authentic pieces of writing from him during his lifetime. It is challenging to distinguish between valid writings from Pythagoras and the works of his followers; regardless, we can make informed conjectures with the evidence we do have.
Based on the information available to us, Pythagoras was born in 570 BC on Samos, an island near Asia Minor at the time. He was well-educated and had two or three brothers, but as he grew up, he found he did not agree with the government and tyrannical politics of Samos. Thus, in 532 BC, he escaped to southern Italy and created his own academy for ethics and politics in a Greek colony known as Croton.
Pythagoras’ academy attracted many devout followers, most of whom had no personal professions. Pythagoras taught his followers everything he knew and implored them all to follow a strict set of rules, including remaining vegetarian and swearing by the oath “1+2+3+4.” A key aspect of Pythagoras’ teachings was the philosophy of metempsychosis: the idea that souls are immortal and enter new bodies after death.
In 510 BC, Pythagoras’ group of followers began to have an ideological clash with supporters of democracy and rule by the people. This conflict of ideas soon turned violent, resulting in the razing of the Pythagorean meeting place. Pythagoras may have been killed in one the blazes, or, he may have escaped to Metapontum, a city in Magna Graecia, and died there. | <urn:uuid:3ae285dc-d675-4c11-bd89-5d429fd19dcb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mrnussbaum.com/pythagoras-biography-math-pioneers-series | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00204.warc.gz | en | 0.984281 | 444 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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0.2955328822... | 3 | Pythagoras was a Greek philosopher and mathematician who contributed insights to many schools of thought during his life. One of his most notable accomplishments is his development of the Pythagorean theorem, which creates a relationship between the three sides of a right triangle. Specifically, that the square of the hypotenuse (or longest side of a triangle) is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides. This is written mathematically as a2 + b2 = c2. Unfortunately, it is hard to make definitive statements about much of Pythagoras’ life because we have no confirmed and authentic pieces of writing from him during his lifetime. It is challenging to distinguish between valid writings from Pythagoras and the works of his followers; regardless, we can make informed conjectures with the evidence we do have.
Based on the information available to us, Pythagoras was born in 570 BC on Samos, an island near Asia Minor at the time. He was well-educated and had two or three brothers, but as he grew up, he found he did not agree with the government and tyrannical politics of Samos. Thus, in 532 BC, he escaped to southern Italy and created his own academy for ethics and politics in a Greek colony known as Croton.
Pythagoras’ academy attracted many devout followers, most of whom had no personal professions. Pythagoras taught his followers everything he knew and implored them all to follow a strict set of rules, including remaining vegetarian and swearing by the oath “1+2+3+4.” A key aspect of Pythagoras’ teachings was the philosophy of metempsychosis: the idea that souls are immortal and enter new bodies after death.
In 510 BC, Pythagoras’ group of followers began to have an ideological clash with supporters of democracy and rule by the people. This conflict of ideas soon turned violent, resulting in the razing of the Pythagorean meeting place. Pythagoras may have been killed in one the blazes, or, he may have escaped to Metapontum, a city in Magna Graecia, and died there. | 443 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Year 1 are learning about materials in their science lessons this term. They have been finding objects around the classroom and discussing the different materials which they are made from. Here are some of the objects they found. After that they sorted the objects into groups according to the materials they were made [...]
Year 1 have been learning about the seasons over the last term. Today they sorted various items into the correct seasons, they then had to tell the rest of the class something they knew about the seasons. "In winter it gets colder and we have to wear warmer clothes." "In summer we can go to [...]
Year 3 have been investigating the magnetic properties of 2p coins in their science lesson. They were given some 2p coins and a magnet. The only instruction they were given was "Investigate the coins and record your findings on the post it notes." Here are some of their findings. All the coins dated 1992 and [...]
In maths this week Year 3 have been learning how to calculate multiplication questions using arrays and division questions using the sharing method. During the week they were set challenge questions, here are some of their challenges.
In maths this week Year 1 are learning about 3 Dimensional shapes. They have been finding objects around the classroom that are cubes, cuboids and cylinder shapes. See if they can find any of these shapes around the home or on the way to school.
In their science lesson Year three made peg fridge magnets. For their homework they had to find out what surfaces and objects their magnets would stick to. Here are some of the photos that were taken by the children in their homes.
Year one have been observing wind conditions again. This time they used balloons to see how strong the wind was blowing and if it was strong enough to lift the balloons off the floor. During their experiment they found that the wind was only blowing slightly as their balloons did not move much and [...]
Year one have been testing the speed and strength of the wind. They blew bubbles and tried to see if they could catch them, they decided that the wind was blowing fast; they were able to catch some of the bubbles but not them all! They then held pieces of card and ran into the [...] | <urn:uuid:e70e2669-2856-4657-ace5-12915192bd21> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://darwenstjames.co.uk/author/elaineeditor/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00149.warc.gz | en | 0.989396 | 443 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.2020271867... | 1 | Year 1 are learning about materials in their science lessons this term. They have been finding objects around the classroom and discussing the different materials which they are made from. Here are some of the objects they found. After that they sorted the objects into groups according to the materials they were made [...]
Year 1 have been learning about the seasons over the last term. Today they sorted various items into the correct seasons, they then had to tell the rest of the class something they knew about the seasons. "In winter it gets colder and we have to wear warmer clothes." "In summer we can go to [...]
Year 3 have been investigating the magnetic properties of 2p coins in their science lesson. They were given some 2p coins and a magnet. The only instruction they were given was "Investigate the coins and record your findings on the post it notes." Here are some of their findings. All the coins dated 1992 and [...]
In maths this week Year 3 have been learning how to calculate multiplication questions using arrays and division questions using the sharing method. During the week they were set challenge questions, here are some of their challenges.
In maths this week Year 1 are learning about 3 Dimensional shapes. They have been finding objects around the classroom that are cubes, cuboids and cylinder shapes. See if they can find any of these shapes around the home or on the way to school.
In their science lesson Year three made peg fridge magnets. For their homework they had to find out what surfaces and objects their magnets would stick to. Here are some of the photos that were taken by the children in their homes.
Year one have been observing wind conditions again. This time they used balloons to see how strong the wind was blowing and if it was strong enough to lift the balloons off the floor. During their experiment they found that the wind was only blowing slightly as their balloons did not move much and [...]
Year one have been testing the speed and strength of the wind. They blew bubbles and tried to see if they could catch them, they decided that the wind was blowing fast; they were able to catch some of the bubbles but not them all! They then held pieces of card and ran into the [...] | 452 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Download The Aztecs...
The Aztecs By Rían
Around 1300 CE, a wandering tribe of Indians wandered into the Valley of Mexico. These people were called the Aztecs. When the Aztecs arrived in the Valley of Mexico, other tribes were already in residence. They had already taken the best land. The Aztecs had to make due with the swampy shores of Lake Texcoco. But this did not bother the Aztecs. Not only were they very clever people, but they had every faith that their main god had sent them to the swampy shores of Lake Texcoco, so obviously this place was perfect for them. They adapted to their environment. They built canoes, so they could fish and hunt birds that lived near the water. They created floating gardens for growing food. They created more land for agriculture by filling in the marshes. They built dikes to hold back the water. After they settled in, they began to conquer the neighboring tribes. They conquered first one tribe, and then another, and then another. Each conquered tribe had to pay tribute to the Aztecs in the form of food, clothing, jewels, and of course, captives to feed the hungry gods. That made the Aztecs very happy and very rich. The Aztecs expanded and expanded until they had built an empire. One day, around 1500 AD, Spanish soldiers arrived in the Valley of Mexico. They were amazed at what they saw. One soldier said, “There were soldiers among us who had been in many parts of the world, in Constantinople and Rome and all over Italy, who said that they had never before seen a market place so large and so filled with people.” The Spanish conquered the Aztecs. The arrival of the Spanish brought guns, horses, huge fighting dogs, and disease. Because the Aztecs were such fierce warriors, they might have had a slim chance of survival against guns and horses and huge fighting dogs. But they had no defense against disease. They had never been exposed to childhood diseases like measles. Many became ill once the Spanish arrived, and as a result, many died. The Spanish also received help from the other tribes in the area. These tribes saw a chance to get even, and perhaps even to rid themselves of the feared and hated Aztecs. These tribes did not expect to be conquered themselves, which they were. Nor did they know how harshly the Spanish would rule their people. By the mid-1500’s, the Aztec Empire had collapsed, and the Spanish had taken over the entire region. Today, there are around a million descendants of the ancient Aztecs living and working in Mexico. Human sacrifice is no longer part of their festivals, but the beautiful art and clever games the Aztecs created are still enjoyed today.
The ancient Aztecs believed in many gods and goddesses. Each god had a job to do. The sun god, for example, brought the sun up every day. The Aztecs believed it was important to keep the sun god happy. They truly believed if the sun god was not happy, he would refuse to bring up the sun, and the world would end. The ancient Aztecs spent most of their time trying to keep their many gods happy and well fed. The Aztecs believed that human sacrifice was necessary. They used people to feed their hungry gods. Some of the people sacrificed were Aztecs. But most of the people they sacrificed to keep their gods happy were people captured from neighboring tribes. This did not make them popular with their neighbors!
Each time the Aztecs tried to settle down and build a city of their own, other tribes in the area would band together to chase them away. No one wanted the Aztecs for a neighbor. The Aztecs were very sad about this. They did so want a city of their own. According to legend, one day, the Aztecs were magically visited by their main god, the god of sun and war. He promised his people that they would have a city of their own some day, but they had to seek a specific and magically special place to build it. To find this special place, they were to look for an eagle, perched on a cactus, holding a snake. "Not only that, but listen well," their main god told them. "When you find the magical place of the eagle, snake, and cactus, you are not to make war with your neighbors. You are to settle down peacefully until you gain strength, and use this peaceful time to build a glorious Aztec city, a city of your own, in honor of me." For the next 200 years, the Aztecs wandered in the Valley of Mexico. They never doubted their main god. They never gave up. They were always on the lookout for an eagle, perched on a cactus, holding a snake in his mouth.
One morning, an Aztec priest was standing on the swampy shore of Lake Texcoco. He yawned and looked out across the lake. He could not believe his eyes. On one of the many small islands that dotted the lake, he saw an eagle, perched on a cactus, with a snake wiggling in its mouth. The Aztecs had found their home at last. As the people gathered and stared in wonder, the cactus grew into a comfy island. It was on that island that the Aztecs founded their civilization. They named the island Tenochtitlan, "the Place of the Prickly Pear Cactus".
When the Aztecs settled at "The Place of the Prickly Pear Cactus", they tried very hard to get along with their neighbors as their main god had instructed them to do. They did not go to war. They did not capture people to feed to their many gods. Instead, they used their own people. It was an honor to be sacrificed. Everyone knew that. In a spirit of goodwill, the Aztec emperor sent a messenger to a nearby tribe. The chief of the tribe had been a bit unfriendly so far. The emperor was hoping that his message might help to make a new friend. The emperor's message was an invitation. He invited the chief's daughter to journey to the Aztec capital to meet his son. When the princess arrived at Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital city, she brought with her many servants and attendants, along with a gorgeous wedding dress and presents for her new family. She spent a most enjoyable evening with the emperor and his handsome son. A few days later, when her father arrived in the city of Tenochtitlan, he fully expected to attend a wedding. Imagine his surprise when he learned that his daughter had been sacrificed with great ceremony, along with her many attendants and slaves. It was the highest honor the Aztecs could pay. Broken hearted, the chief hurried home to his people. That very day, he sent his army to wage war on the horrible Aztecs. The Aztecs won. They went on to conquer tribe after tribe in the valley. Each conquered tribe had to pay tribute to the Aztecs in the form of food, clothing, jewels, and of course, captives to feed the hungry gods. That made the Aztecs very happy and very rich. Truly, the Aztecs were not worried that their main god might be angry with them for going to war a little sooner than originally planned. After all, they had tried to get along. And just as soon as they had conquered all the people in the valley, they would live in peace with their neighbors, exactly as their god had told them to do. Surely their main god would agree!
As the Aztec population grew, more food was needed. To solve this problem, Aztec engineers created “floating” gardens. First, they built a series of rafts and anchored each to the lakebed. Vegetation and reeds were piled on top of a raft. Then, they piled on enough dirt to be able to grow crops.
To further secure the floating gardens, mud retaining walls were built up around the raft to hold it in place. These also acted as walkways that connected the many floating gardens of the Aztec capital city of Tenochtitlan. The floating gardens were quite successful. The Aztecs used the gardens to grow chili peppers, squash, corn, tomatoes, and beans. The Aztecs created more land by filling in marshlands and swamps. They created even more by designing dikes to hold back the water.
EXPANSION Around 1400 AD, the Aztec government began conquering neighboring tribes. The Aztec population had grown. They needed many things to manage their growing population. They needed new cities to house their population. They needed new lands to feed their population. They needed new captives to feed their hungry gods. Schools needed to be run. Storehouses needed to be filled. Temples needed to be built. The government had its hands full trying to satisfy all these needs.
War was the answer. When the Aztecs conquered a tribe, they demanded tribute in the form of food, clothing, precious stones, building supplies, and captives. The first four the Aztecs kept for themselves. The last they gave to their gods. Other tribes hated and feared the Aztecs. Sometimes, they simply ran away in fear rather than fight.
The Emperor and Palace The Aztecs had an emperor, a king who ruled over all the people. The emperor lived in the imperial palace in the capital city of Tenochtitlan. The palace was huge. It even had its own zoo. The ground floor of the palace housed government offices and the shops of the most talented craftsman in the Aztec empire.
City-States City-States: As the Aztec empire grew, under the direction of government officials, Aztec engineers built many fine cities. A noble family controlled each city. Although the noble family was supposed to assist the emperor, the truth is that each noble family pretty much ran things in their own city the way they wanted. Thus, the Aztecs, like the Mayas, were governed by city-states.
Crime and Punishment With their own people, the Aztec rulers were quite severe. Aztec courts decided on the punishment those who broke the law would receive. Drunkenness was the worse crime. The punishment for being drunk was death. Thieves were put to death. Laws were tough, and they were written down. Codices warned of the punishment you would receive for breaking the law. | <urn:uuid:9a6543af-7da5-43ef-97df-2e2f93ef64d2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://nanopdf.com/download/the-aztecs_pdf | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00114.warc.gz | en | 0.992071 | 2,180 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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The Aztecs By Rían
Around 1300 CE, a wandering tribe of Indians wandered into the Valley of Mexico. These people were called the Aztecs. When the Aztecs arrived in the Valley of Mexico, other tribes were already in residence. They had already taken the best land. The Aztecs had to make due with the swampy shores of Lake Texcoco. But this did not bother the Aztecs. Not only were they very clever people, but they had every faith that their main god had sent them to the swampy shores of Lake Texcoco, so obviously this place was perfect for them. They adapted to their environment. They built canoes, so they could fish and hunt birds that lived near the water. They created floating gardens for growing food. They created more land for agriculture by filling in the marshes. They built dikes to hold back the water. After they settled in, they began to conquer the neighboring tribes. They conquered first one tribe, and then another, and then another. Each conquered tribe had to pay tribute to the Aztecs in the form of food, clothing, jewels, and of course, captives to feed the hungry gods. That made the Aztecs very happy and very rich. The Aztecs expanded and expanded until they had built an empire. One day, around 1500 AD, Spanish soldiers arrived in the Valley of Mexico. They were amazed at what they saw. One soldier said, “There were soldiers among us who had been in many parts of the world, in Constantinople and Rome and all over Italy, who said that they had never before seen a market place so large and so filled with people.” The Spanish conquered the Aztecs. The arrival of the Spanish brought guns, horses, huge fighting dogs, and disease. Because the Aztecs were such fierce warriors, they might have had a slim chance of survival against guns and horses and huge fighting dogs. But they had no defense against disease. They had never been exposed to childhood diseases like measles. Many became ill once the Spanish arrived, and as a result, many died. The Spanish also received help from the other tribes in the area. These tribes saw a chance to get even, and perhaps even to rid themselves of the feared and hated Aztecs. These tribes did not expect to be conquered themselves, which they were. Nor did they know how harshly the Spanish would rule their people. By the mid-1500’s, the Aztec Empire had collapsed, and the Spanish had taken over the entire region. Today, there are around a million descendants of the ancient Aztecs living and working in Mexico. Human sacrifice is no longer part of their festivals, but the beautiful art and clever games the Aztecs created are still enjoyed today.
The ancient Aztecs believed in many gods and goddesses. Each god had a job to do. The sun god, for example, brought the sun up every day. The Aztecs believed it was important to keep the sun god happy. They truly believed if the sun god was not happy, he would refuse to bring up the sun, and the world would end. The ancient Aztecs spent most of their time trying to keep their many gods happy and well fed. The Aztecs believed that human sacrifice was necessary. They used people to feed their hungry gods. Some of the people sacrificed were Aztecs. But most of the people they sacrificed to keep their gods happy were people captured from neighboring tribes. This did not make them popular with their neighbors!
Each time the Aztecs tried to settle down and build a city of their own, other tribes in the area would band together to chase them away. No one wanted the Aztecs for a neighbor. The Aztecs were very sad about this. They did so want a city of their own. According to legend, one day, the Aztecs were magically visited by their main god, the god of sun and war. He promised his people that they would have a city of their own some day, but they had to seek a specific and magically special place to build it. To find this special place, they were to look for an eagle, perched on a cactus, holding a snake. "Not only that, but listen well," their main god told them. "When you find the magical place of the eagle, snake, and cactus, you are not to make war with your neighbors. You are to settle down peacefully until you gain strength, and use this peaceful time to build a glorious Aztec city, a city of your own, in honor of me." For the next 200 years, the Aztecs wandered in the Valley of Mexico. They never doubted their main god. They never gave up. They were always on the lookout for an eagle, perched on a cactus, holding a snake in his mouth.
One morning, an Aztec priest was standing on the swampy shore of Lake Texcoco. He yawned and looked out across the lake. He could not believe his eyes. On one of the many small islands that dotted the lake, he saw an eagle, perched on a cactus, with a snake wiggling in its mouth. The Aztecs had found their home at last. As the people gathered and stared in wonder, the cactus grew into a comfy island. It was on that island that the Aztecs founded their civilization. They named the island Tenochtitlan, "the Place of the Prickly Pear Cactus".
When the Aztecs settled at "The Place of the Prickly Pear Cactus", they tried very hard to get along with their neighbors as their main god had instructed them to do. They did not go to war. They did not capture people to feed to their many gods. Instead, they used their own people. It was an honor to be sacrificed. Everyone knew that. In a spirit of goodwill, the Aztec emperor sent a messenger to a nearby tribe. The chief of the tribe had been a bit unfriendly so far. The emperor was hoping that his message might help to make a new friend. The emperor's message was an invitation. He invited the chief's daughter to journey to the Aztec capital to meet his son. When the princess arrived at Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital city, she brought with her many servants and attendants, along with a gorgeous wedding dress and presents for her new family. She spent a most enjoyable evening with the emperor and his handsome son. A few days later, when her father arrived in the city of Tenochtitlan, he fully expected to attend a wedding. Imagine his surprise when he learned that his daughter had been sacrificed with great ceremony, along with her many attendants and slaves. It was the highest honor the Aztecs could pay. Broken hearted, the chief hurried home to his people. That very day, he sent his army to wage war on the horrible Aztecs. The Aztecs won. They went on to conquer tribe after tribe in the valley. Each conquered tribe had to pay tribute to the Aztecs in the form of food, clothing, jewels, and of course, captives to feed the hungry gods. That made the Aztecs very happy and very rich. Truly, the Aztecs were not worried that their main god might be angry with them for going to war a little sooner than originally planned. After all, they had tried to get along. And just as soon as they had conquered all the people in the valley, they would live in peace with their neighbors, exactly as their god had told them to do. Surely their main god would agree!
As the Aztec population grew, more food was needed. To solve this problem, Aztec engineers created “floating” gardens. First, they built a series of rafts and anchored each to the lakebed. Vegetation and reeds were piled on top of a raft. Then, they piled on enough dirt to be able to grow crops.
To further secure the floating gardens, mud retaining walls were built up around the raft to hold it in place. These also acted as walkways that connected the many floating gardens of the Aztec capital city of Tenochtitlan. The floating gardens were quite successful. The Aztecs used the gardens to grow chili peppers, squash, corn, tomatoes, and beans. The Aztecs created more land by filling in marshlands and swamps. They created even more by designing dikes to hold back the water.
EXPANSION Around 1400 AD, the Aztec government began conquering neighboring tribes. The Aztec population had grown. They needed many things to manage their growing population. They needed new cities to house their population. They needed new lands to feed their population. They needed new captives to feed their hungry gods. Schools needed to be run. Storehouses needed to be filled. Temples needed to be built. The government had its hands full trying to satisfy all these needs.
War was the answer. When the Aztecs conquered a tribe, they demanded tribute in the form of food, clothing, precious stones, building supplies, and captives. The first four the Aztecs kept for themselves. The last they gave to their gods. Other tribes hated and feared the Aztecs. Sometimes, they simply ran away in fear rather than fight.
The Emperor and Palace The Aztecs had an emperor, a king who ruled over all the people. The emperor lived in the imperial palace in the capital city of Tenochtitlan. The palace was huge. It even had its own zoo. The ground floor of the palace housed government offices and the shops of the most talented craftsman in the Aztec empire.
City-States City-States: As the Aztec empire grew, under the direction of government officials, Aztec engineers built many fine cities. A noble family controlled each city. Although the noble family was supposed to assist the emperor, the truth is that each noble family pretty much ran things in their own city the way they wanted. Thus, the Aztecs, like the Mayas, were governed by city-states.
Crime and Punishment With their own people, the Aztec rulers were quite severe. Aztec courts decided on the punishment those who broke the law would receive. Drunkenness was the worse crime. The punishment for being drunk was death. Thieves were put to death. Laws were tough, and they were written down. Codices warned of the punishment you would receive for breaking the law. | 2,183 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Socratic method Perhaps his most important contribution to Western thought is his dialectic method of inquiry, known as the Socratic method or method of "elenchus", which he largely applied to the examination of key moral concepts such as the Good and Justice.
The influence of these men on the culture of the Western world can scarcely be overestimated. Each of them made significant contributions to philosophy, and it would be difficult to determine to which one of them we are most indebted.
All three were original thinkers and great teachers. In point of time, Socrates was the one who appeared first.
Plato became the most distinguished of his pupils, and Aristotle in turn received instruction from Plato. Both Plato and Aristotle were prolific writers, and what we know about them has been derived chiefly from their published works.
In contrast to them, Socrates left no writings at all. Consequently, what information we have concerning him comes from the testimony of others who were associated with him and who were influenced both by the moral quality of his living and the significance of the ideas that he expounded.
On the basis of what has been reported concerning Socrates, we would judge that he made a profound impression upon a group of his followers who were closely associated with his life and teachings.
The name of Socrates has been revered throughout the centuries and he has been regarded as one of the greatest teachers of all time.
Plato, in one of his best known dialogs, refers to Socrates as a friend "whom I may truly call the wisest, and justest, and best of all men whom I have ever known.
For instance, both men were teachers of great distinction. Neither of them left any writings of his own.
Both conducted their teaching activities by means of conversations with individuals. Both men were critical of the religious and political leaders of their time. Each of them proclaimed by precept and example a standard of moral conduct above that which prevailed among the recognized leaders of the society in which he lived.
Both of them suffered a martyr's death. Finally, there is a sense in which each of them arose from the dead by virtue of the fact that his teachings and the causes that he served became more alive and powerful after his death than during the times when he was living. Plato and Aristotle have been held in high esteem because of their intellectual achievements and the fact that their ideas have been preserved through the writings that they produced.
Socrates has also been recognized as an intellectual genius, but in addition, his career in the city of Athens has come to be regarded by many persons as an outstanding example of the virtues that he advocated. His humility, intellectual honesty, devotion to the public good, and loyalty to what he believed was morally right exemplify his conception of what constitutes the good life.
Because of the quality of his living, along with the abiding truth of what he taught, the story of his trial and death is something that will continue to stir the imagination of people and to win for him their admiration and respect.
With reference to the trial and death of Socrates, there are four dialogs that are especially relevant. They are the Euthyphro, the Apology, the Crito, and the Phaedo. In the Euthyphro, an attempt is made to answer the question "What is piety?
The Apology contains an account of Socrates' defense of himself after he had been charged with being a corrupter of the youth and one who refuses to accept the popular beliefs concerning the gods of the city of Athens. It is generally regarded as the most authentic account on record of what Socrates actually said as he appeared before his judges.
The Crito is an account of the conversation that takes place in the jail where Socrates is confined awaiting his execution. He is visited by Crito, an aged and trusted friend, who has come to the prison for the purpose of trying to persuade Socrates to avoid being put to death either by an escape from the prison where he is being held or by employing some other means.
The dialog depicts Socrates as a man who has no fear of death and one who would rather die than commit an act that he believes to be morally wrong.The Death of Philosophy.
Reference and Self-reference in Contemporary Thought. Isabelle Thomas-Fogiel. Translated by Richard A. Lynch.
Columbia University Press. Socrates also points out that only a philosopher who does not fear death can truly be said to possess courage and self-control.
If everyone but philosophers fear death, the only reason a "brave" non-philosopher would face death would be through a fear of something worse than death. Explain the connection between a) Socrates' practice of asking questions, b) characterization of himself as a midwife, and c) his concern for the truth.
Socrates characterized himself as a midwife because he found humans to be pregnant with knowledge that has not been born or realized yet. Therefore, death should only be seen as a help to philosophers, giving them even greater separation between soul and body. Socrates also points out that only a philosopher who does not fear death can truly be said to possess courage and self-control.
Socrates was born in B.C. in Athens to a stonemason (some sources state that Socrates's father was a sculptor) named Sophroniscus and his spouse, a mid-wife. His tragic death only led him to become a martyr for philosophy. Socrates never wrote anything down so what we know of his life is the from the records left by his followers, mainly Plato.
Socrates was born around B.C. in Athens to . | <urn:uuid:4dc9746e-d5fb-4ba9-812e-472957ce9d5b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://jonoxuvutuvo.srmvision.com/an-analysis-of-socratess-opinion-on-the-connection-between-philosophy-and-death-2533is.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00537.warc.gz | en | 0.990317 | 1,153 | 4.125 | 4 | [
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0.337264627218246... | 1 | Socratic method Perhaps his most important contribution to Western thought is his dialectic method of inquiry, known as the Socratic method or method of "elenchus", which he largely applied to the examination of key moral concepts such as the Good and Justice.
The influence of these men on the culture of the Western world can scarcely be overestimated. Each of them made significant contributions to philosophy, and it would be difficult to determine to which one of them we are most indebted.
All three were original thinkers and great teachers. In point of time, Socrates was the one who appeared first.
Plato became the most distinguished of his pupils, and Aristotle in turn received instruction from Plato. Both Plato and Aristotle were prolific writers, and what we know about them has been derived chiefly from their published works.
In contrast to them, Socrates left no writings at all. Consequently, what information we have concerning him comes from the testimony of others who were associated with him and who were influenced both by the moral quality of his living and the significance of the ideas that he expounded.
On the basis of what has been reported concerning Socrates, we would judge that he made a profound impression upon a group of his followers who were closely associated with his life and teachings.
The name of Socrates has been revered throughout the centuries and he has been regarded as one of the greatest teachers of all time.
Plato, in one of his best known dialogs, refers to Socrates as a friend "whom I may truly call the wisest, and justest, and best of all men whom I have ever known.
For instance, both men were teachers of great distinction. Neither of them left any writings of his own.
Both conducted their teaching activities by means of conversations with individuals. Both men were critical of the religious and political leaders of their time. Each of them proclaimed by precept and example a standard of moral conduct above that which prevailed among the recognized leaders of the society in which he lived.
Both of them suffered a martyr's death. Finally, there is a sense in which each of them arose from the dead by virtue of the fact that his teachings and the causes that he served became more alive and powerful after his death than during the times when he was living. Plato and Aristotle have been held in high esteem because of their intellectual achievements and the fact that their ideas have been preserved through the writings that they produced.
Socrates has also been recognized as an intellectual genius, but in addition, his career in the city of Athens has come to be regarded by many persons as an outstanding example of the virtues that he advocated. His humility, intellectual honesty, devotion to the public good, and loyalty to what he believed was morally right exemplify his conception of what constitutes the good life.
Because of the quality of his living, along with the abiding truth of what he taught, the story of his trial and death is something that will continue to stir the imagination of people and to win for him their admiration and respect.
With reference to the trial and death of Socrates, there are four dialogs that are especially relevant. They are the Euthyphro, the Apology, the Crito, and the Phaedo. In the Euthyphro, an attempt is made to answer the question "What is piety?
The Apology contains an account of Socrates' defense of himself after he had been charged with being a corrupter of the youth and one who refuses to accept the popular beliefs concerning the gods of the city of Athens. It is generally regarded as the most authentic account on record of what Socrates actually said as he appeared before his judges.
The Crito is an account of the conversation that takes place in the jail where Socrates is confined awaiting his execution. He is visited by Crito, an aged and trusted friend, who has come to the prison for the purpose of trying to persuade Socrates to avoid being put to death either by an escape from the prison where he is being held or by employing some other means.
The dialog depicts Socrates as a man who has no fear of death and one who would rather die than commit an act that he believes to be morally wrong.The Death of Philosophy.
Reference and Self-reference in Contemporary Thought. Isabelle Thomas-Fogiel. Translated by Richard A. Lynch.
Columbia University Press. Socrates also points out that only a philosopher who does not fear death can truly be said to possess courage and self-control.
If everyone but philosophers fear death, the only reason a "brave" non-philosopher would face death would be through a fear of something worse than death. Explain the connection between a) Socrates' practice of asking questions, b) characterization of himself as a midwife, and c) his concern for the truth.
Socrates characterized himself as a midwife because he found humans to be pregnant with knowledge that has not been born or realized yet. Therefore, death should only be seen as a help to philosophers, giving them even greater separation between soul and body. Socrates also points out that only a philosopher who does not fear death can truly be said to possess courage and self-control.
Socrates was born in B.C. in Athens to a stonemason (some sources state that Socrates's father was a sculptor) named Sophroniscus and his spouse, a mid-wife. His tragic death only led him to become a martyr for philosophy. Socrates never wrote anything down so what we know of his life is the from the records left by his followers, mainly Plato.
Socrates was born around B.C. in Athens to . | 1,137 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Armagh Rail Disaster of 1889 claimed 88 lives and injured 170 people. The 940 passengers were travelling to Warrenpoint on a day trip organised by Armagh Sunday School.
There was such excitement about the prospect of a trip to the seaside that hundreds of people had bought tickets in advance. To meet this demand, extra carriages were added to the train putting considerable stress on the engine.
The first passengers to arrive were the members of the Sunday school party who marched from the church, dramatically accompanied by the band of the Third Battalion of the Royal Irish Fusiliers.
Once all the passengers had arrived, they were loaded onto the carriages and the carriage doors locked to prevent non-ticketed passengers from boarding. The train then left the station with its passengers, crew, the band, and all of the passengers’ provisions for the day. Even without the weight of the engine, the train weighed between 185 and 187 tons.
The journey was expected to last an hour. A gradient of 1:75 at the Armagh Bank, however, meant that the engine was under particular strain. Near the summit of this climb, at Derry’s Crossing, the engine began to lose power and finally came to a halt. The incline meant that it would be impossible to restart the train so the crew applied the brakes and considered their options.
It was decided to divide the train in two
to take the carriages over the incline. The train was fitted with a continuous non-automatic vacuum
braking system. This meant that the remaining carriages would be left without the brake triggered by the engine. It was decided to leave stones beneath the wheels of the carriages and the handbrake was applied in the guard’s carriage at the rear.
As the train made to leave, however, it rolled slightly backwards pushing at the static carriages, causing them to move and crush the stones. The handbrake in the guard’s carriage alone couldn’t hold the train and the carriages began to roll back down the line.
Seeing what had happened, the crew tried to place more stones behind the carriage wheels but these were crushed immediately under its force. They tried to recouple the moving carriages to the rest of the train but this dangerous task was also unsuccessful.
The passengers, locked in the carriages, unable to get out through the small windows, were captive to a fate that became more perilous as the carriages picked up speed, travelling the wrong way along the tracks.
The 10:35 train, a powerful engine travelling with a light load, was following behind the excursion train. Though the drivers saw the runaway carriages coming towards them and tried to reverse, it was too late, collision was inevitable.
At a speed of about 40 mph the carriages smashed into the 10:35 train. The last three carriages and their passengers were obliterated. The near-static train was relatively unharmed though its carriages became loose and began to move down the track. Without the quick action of the crew of the 10.35, who managed to stop them, further damage would have been caused.
Once the news of the accident broke, members of the RIC, the Royal Fusiliers, and concerned citizens hastily made their way to the site. Their first task was to free the passengers from the wreckage and separate the living from the dead.
Treatment was administered to the injured at the site and they were taken quickly to medical and make-shift facilities in Armagh. Sixty-four people were pronounced dead immediately and over time the death toll grew to 88. At the time this made the Armagh Rail Disaster the worst in Europe.
The legal proceedings that followed the disaster forced many improvements to the railways. The government passed the Regulation of Railways Act 1889 which required all passenger railways to use the safer continuous automatic brake. It also made stipulations as to signalling and the interlocking of all points and signals.
This legislation was a turning point in the history of the railways. Previously government had taken a hands-off attitude, leaving the powerful railway companies to prosper on their own terms. The Armagh Rail Disaster demonstrated the need for government intervention to ensure passenger safety. The act remains the basic framework for railway operators to this day. | <urn:uuid:15f5ff51-bd42-4721-bbb6-59705e01a7e8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.culturenorthernireland.org/article/1215/armagh-rail-disaster | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00273.warc.gz | en | 0.980104 | 881 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.22824321687... | 3 | The Armagh Rail Disaster of 1889 claimed 88 lives and injured 170 people. The 940 passengers were travelling to Warrenpoint on a day trip organised by Armagh Sunday School.
There was such excitement about the prospect of a trip to the seaside that hundreds of people had bought tickets in advance. To meet this demand, extra carriages were added to the train putting considerable stress on the engine.
The first passengers to arrive were the members of the Sunday school party who marched from the church, dramatically accompanied by the band of the Third Battalion of the Royal Irish Fusiliers.
Once all the passengers had arrived, they were loaded onto the carriages and the carriage doors locked to prevent non-ticketed passengers from boarding. The train then left the station with its passengers, crew, the band, and all of the passengers’ provisions for the day. Even without the weight of the engine, the train weighed between 185 and 187 tons.
The journey was expected to last an hour. A gradient of 1:75 at the Armagh Bank, however, meant that the engine was under particular strain. Near the summit of this climb, at Derry’s Crossing, the engine began to lose power and finally came to a halt. The incline meant that it would be impossible to restart the train so the crew applied the brakes and considered their options.
It was decided to divide the train in two
to take the carriages over the incline. The train was fitted with a continuous non-automatic vacuum
braking system. This meant that the remaining carriages would be left without the brake triggered by the engine. It was decided to leave stones beneath the wheels of the carriages and the handbrake was applied in the guard’s carriage at the rear.
As the train made to leave, however, it rolled slightly backwards pushing at the static carriages, causing them to move and crush the stones. The handbrake in the guard’s carriage alone couldn’t hold the train and the carriages began to roll back down the line.
Seeing what had happened, the crew tried to place more stones behind the carriage wheels but these were crushed immediately under its force. They tried to recouple the moving carriages to the rest of the train but this dangerous task was also unsuccessful.
The passengers, locked in the carriages, unable to get out through the small windows, were captive to a fate that became more perilous as the carriages picked up speed, travelling the wrong way along the tracks.
The 10:35 train, a powerful engine travelling with a light load, was following behind the excursion train. Though the drivers saw the runaway carriages coming towards them and tried to reverse, it was too late, collision was inevitable.
At a speed of about 40 mph the carriages smashed into the 10:35 train. The last three carriages and their passengers were obliterated. The near-static train was relatively unharmed though its carriages became loose and began to move down the track. Without the quick action of the crew of the 10.35, who managed to stop them, further damage would have been caused.
Once the news of the accident broke, members of the RIC, the Royal Fusiliers, and concerned citizens hastily made their way to the site. Their first task was to free the passengers from the wreckage and separate the living from the dead.
Treatment was administered to the injured at the site and they were taken quickly to medical and make-shift facilities in Armagh. Sixty-four people were pronounced dead immediately and over time the death toll grew to 88. At the time this made the Armagh Rail Disaster the worst in Europe.
The legal proceedings that followed the disaster forced many improvements to the railways. The government passed the Regulation of Railways Act 1889 which required all passenger railways to use the safer continuous automatic brake. It also made stipulations as to signalling and the interlocking of all points and signals.
This legislation was a turning point in the history of the railways. Previously government had taken a hands-off attitude, leaving the powerful railway companies to prosper on their own terms. The Armagh Rail Disaster demonstrated the need for government intervention to ensure passenger safety. The act remains the basic framework for railway operators to this day. | 884 | ENGLISH | 1 |
As the last survivor of the Patuxet tribe, Squanto used his fluency in English and his unique relationship with the Pilgrim settlers at Plymouth to increase his own power and influence.
Ever heard the tale about the first Thanksgiving in 1621? As the story goes, the English Pilgrims meet a “friendly” Native American named Squanto in Plymouth, Massachusetts. Squanto teaches the Pilgrims how to plant corn, and the settlers enjoy a hearty feast with their new native friend.
But the true story about Squanto — also known as Tisquantum — is far more complex than that.
Who Was Squanto?
Historians generally agree that Squanto belonged to the Patuxet tribe, which was a branch of the Wampanoag Confederacy. It was located near what would become Plymouth. He was born around 1580.
Although little is known of his early life, Squanto came from a village of hardworking and resourceful people. The men of his tribe would travel up and down the coast on fishing expeditions, while the women cultivated corn, beans, and squash.
Before the early 1600s, the Patuxet people generally had friendly contact with the European settlers — but that certainly didn’t last long.
At some point during his youth, Squanto was captured by English explorers and taken to Europe, where he was sold into slavery. The most widely-accepted theory is that Squanto and 23 other Native Americans boarded the ship of Captain Thomas Hunt, who put them at ease with promises of trade before setting sail.
Instead, the Natives were held captive aboard.
“This is not revisionist history,” said Wampanoag expert Paula Peters in an interview with Huffington Post. “This is history that’s just been overlooked because people have become very, very comfortable with the story of happy Pilgrims and friendly Indians. They’re very content with that — even to the point where no one really questioned how is it that Squanto knew how to speak perfect English when they came.”
The Patuxet people were outraged by the kidnappings, but there was nothing they could do. The Englishmen and their prisoners were long gone, and the remaining people of the village would soon be wiped out by disease.
Squanto and the other prisoners were likely sold by Hunt as slaves in Spain. However, Squanto somehow managed to escape to England. By some accounts, Catholic friars may have been the ones to help Squanto out of captivity. And once he was free in England, he began to master the language.
Mayflower Pilgrim William Bradford, who got to know Squanto very well years later, wrote: “he got away for England, and was entertained by a merchant in London, employed to Newfoundland and other parts.”
It was in Newfoundland that Squanto met Captain Thomas Dermer, a man in the employ of Sir Ferdinando Gorges, an Englishman who helped found “the Province of Maine” back on Squanto’s home continent.
In 1619, Gorges sent Dermer on a trade mission to the New England colonies and employed Squanto as an interpreter.
As Squanto’s ship approached the coast, Dermer noted how they observed “some ancient [Indian] plantations, not long since populous now utterly void.” Squanto’s tribe had been annihilated by the diseases that the white settlers had brought with them.
Then, in 1620, Dermer and his crew were attacked by the Wampanoag tribe near modern Martha’s Vineyard. Dermer and 14 men managed to escape.
Meanwhile, Squanto was taken captive by the tribe — and he was longing for his freedom yet again.
Squanto Meets The Pilgrims
In early 1621, Squanto found himself still a prisoner of the Wampanoag, who cautiously observed a group of recent English arrivals.
These Europeans had suffered grievously in the winter, but the Wampanoag were still hesitant to approach them, especially since Natives who attempted to befriend the English in the past had been taken captive instead.
Eventually, however, as Pilgrim William Bradford records, a Wampanoag named Samoset “came boldly amongst [a group of pilgrims] and spoke to them in broken English, which they could well understand but marveled at it.”
Samoset made conversation with the Pilgrims for a while before explaining there was another man “whose name was Squanto, a native of this place, who had been in England and could speak better English than himself.”
If the Pilgrims had been surprised by Samoset’s command of English, they must have been shocked beyond belief by Squanto’s mastery of the language, which would prove to be useful for both parties.
With the assistance of Squanto as interpreter, the Wampanoag chief Massasoit negotiated an alliance with the Pilgrims, with a promise not to harm each other. They also promised that they would aid each other in the event of an attack from another tribe.
Bradford described Squanto as “a special instrument sent of God.”
Squanto And The First Thanksgiving
Squanto worked hard to prove his value to the Pilgrims as not only a vital communicator but also an expert on resources.
So he taught them how to cultivate crops that would help them get through the next brutal winter. The Pilgrims were delighted to find that the corn and squash were easy to grow in the Massachusetts climate.
As an expression of their gratitude, the Pilgrims invited Squanto and around 90 Wampanoag to join them in a celebration of their first successful harvest in what they called the “New World.”
A three-day feast that took place sometime between September or November of 1621, the first Thanksgiving featured fowl and deer on the table — and plenty of entertainment around the table as well.
Though this occasion has been illustrated countless times in elementary school textbooks, the real-life Thanksgiving was not all fun and games. And the real-life Squanto certainly wasn’t either.
While the Pilgrims could not have survived without Squanto, his motives for assisting them may have had less to do with good-heartedness than seeking a sense of security — and gaining more power than he ever had before.
Squanto’s Relationship With The Pilgrims
Squanto quickly developed a reputation for being manipulative and power-hungry. At one point, the Pilgrims actually appointed another Native American advisor named Hobbamock to keep Squanto in check.
After all, it’s easy to imagine that he may have secretly wanted to seek revenge on a group of people who had once enslaved him. On top of that, Squanto was aware of how valuable he’d become to the Wampanoag as the Pilgrims’ closest ally.
As Bradford put it, Squanto “sought his own ends and played his own game.”
In short, he exploited the power his fluency in English had given him by threatening people who displeased him and demanding favors in return for appeasing the Pilgrims.
By 1622, according to Pilgrim Edward Winslow, Squanto had begun to spread lies among both the Native Americans and the Pilgrims:
“His course was to persuade the Indians [that] he could lead us to peace or war at his pleasure, and would oft threaten the Indians, sending them word in a private manner we were intended shortly to kill them, that thereby he might get gifts for himself, to work their peace; so that whereas divers [people] were wont to rely on Massosoit for protection, and resort to his abode, now they began to leave him and seek after Tisquantum [Squanto.]”
Perhaps the best way to understand Squanto’s point of view is to take a closer look his name, Tisquantum, which according to The Smithsonian, was most likely not the name he was actually given at birth.
Per The Smithsonian: “In that part of the Northeast, tisquantum referred to rage, especially the rage of manitou, the world-suffusing spiritual power at the heart of coastal Indians’ religious beliefs. When Tisquantum approached the Pilgrims and identified himself by that sobriquet, it was as if he had stuck out his hand and said, ‘Hello, I’m the Wrath of God.'”
What Happened To Squanto?
Squanto’s wrath finally caused him to overstep his bounds when he falsely claimed that Chief Massosoit had been plotting with enemy tribes, a lie that was quickly exposed. The Wampanoag people were enraged.
Squanto was then forced to take shelter with the Pilgrims who, although they had also become wary of him, refused to betray their ally by handing him over to certain death among the natives.
It proved to not matter, since in November 1622, Squanto succumbed to a fatal disease while visiting a Native-American settlement called Monomoy, near what is now modern day Pleasant Bay.
As Bradford’s journal recalls:
“In this place Squanto fell sick of an Indian fever, bleeding much at the nose (which the Indians take for a symptom of [impending] death) and within a few days died there; desiring the Governor [Bradford] to pray for him, that he might go to the Englishmens God in heaven, and bequeathed sundry of his things to the sundry of his English friends, as remembrance if his love, of whom they had a great loss.”
Squanto was later buried in an unmarked grave. To this day, no one knows exactly where his body rests.
Next, read about the horrific crimes of the Native American genocide and its legacy of oppression today. Then, learn about Ishi, the “last” Native American to emerge from the wilderness in the early 1900s. | <urn:uuid:72607bdb-077c-4343-91c5-a549c0d57474> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://allthatsinteresting.com/squanto | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00400.warc.gz | en | 0.986627 | 2,113 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.43039667606... | 8 | As the last survivor of the Patuxet tribe, Squanto used his fluency in English and his unique relationship with the Pilgrim settlers at Plymouth to increase his own power and influence.
Ever heard the tale about the first Thanksgiving in 1621? As the story goes, the English Pilgrims meet a “friendly” Native American named Squanto in Plymouth, Massachusetts. Squanto teaches the Pilgrims how to plant corn, and the settlers enjoy a hearty feast with their new native friend.
But the true story about Squanto — also known as Tisquantum — is far more complex than that.
Who Was Squanto?
Historians generally agree that Squanto belonged to the Patuxet tribe, which was a branch of the Wampanoag Confederacy. It was located near what would become Plymouth. He was born around 1580.
Although little is known of his early life, Squanto came from a village of hardworking and resourceful people. The men of his tribe would travel up and down the coast on fishing expeditions, while the women cultivated corn, beans, and squash.
Before the early 1600s, the Patuxet people generally had friendly contact with the European settlers — but that certainly didn’t last long.
At some point during his youth, Squanto was captured by English explorers and taken to Europe, where he was sold into slavery. The most widely-accepted theory is that Squanto and 23 other Native Americans boarded the ship of Captain Thomas Hunt, who put them at ease with promises of trade before setting sail.
Instead, the Natives were held captive aboard.
“This is not revisionist history,” said Wampanoag expert Paula Peters in an interview with Huffington Post. “This is history that’s just been overlooked because people have become very, very comfortable with the story of happy Pilgrims and friendly Indians. They’re very content with that — even to the point where no one really questioned how is it that Squanto knew how to speak perfect English when they came.”
The Patuxet people were outraged by the kidnappings, but there was nothing they could do. The Englishmen and their prisoners were long gone, and the remaining people of the village would soon be wiped out by disease.
Squanto and the other prisoners were likely sold by Hunt as slaves in Spain. However, Squanto somehow managed to escape to England. By some accounts, Catholic friars may have been the ones to help Squanto out of captivity. And once he was free in England, he began to master the language.
Mayflower Pilgrim William Bradford, who got to know Squanto very well years later, wrote: “he got away for England, and was entertained by a merchant in London, employed to Newfoundland and other parts.”
It was in Newfoundland that Squanto met Captain Thomas Dermer, a man in the employ of Sir Ferdinando Gorges, an Englishman who helped found “the Province of Maine” back on Squanto’s home continent.
In 1619, Gorges sent Dermer on a trade mission to the New England colonies and employed Squanto as an interpreter.
As Squanto’s ship approached the coast, Dermer noted how they observed “some ancient [Indian] plantations, not long since populous now utterly void.” Squanto’s tribe had been annihilated by the diseases that the white settlers had brought with them.
Then, in 1620, Dermer and his crew were attacked by the Wampanoag tribe near modern Martha’s Vineyard. Dermer and 14 men managed to escape.
Meanwhile, Squanto was taken captive by the tribe — and he was longing for his freedom yet again.
Squanto Meets The Pilgrims
In early 1621, Squanto found himself still a prisoner of the Wampanoag, who cautiously observed a group of recent English arrivals.
These Europeans had suffered grievously in the winter, but the Wampanoag were still hesitant to approach them, especially since Natives who attempted to befriend the English in the past had been taken captive instead.
Eventually, however, as Pilgrim William Bradford records, a Wampanoag named Samoset “came boldly amongst [a group of pilgrims] and spoke to them in broken English, which they could well understand but marveled at it.”
Samoset made conversation with the Pilgrims for a while before explaining there was another man “whose name was Squanto, a native of this place, who had been in England and could speak better English than himself.”
If the Pilgrims had been surprised by Samoset’s command of English, they must have been shocked beyond belief by Squanto’s mastery of the language, which would prove to be useful for both parties.
With the assistance of Squanto as interpreter, the Wampanoag chief Massasoit negotiated an alliance with the Pilgrims, with a promise not to harm each other. They also promised that they would aid each other in the event of an attack from another tribe.
Bradford described Squanto as “a special instrument sent of God.”
Squanto And The First Thanksgiving
Squanto worked hard to prove his value to the Pilgrims as not only a vital communicator but also an expert on resources.
So he taught them how to cultivate crops that would help them get through the next brutal winter. The Pilgrims were delighted to find that the corn and squash were easy to grow in the Massachusetts climate.
As an expression of their gratitude, the Pilgrims invited Squanto and around 90 Wampanoag to join them in a celebration of their first successful harvest in what they called the “New World.”
A three-day feast that took place sometime between September or November of 1621, the first Thanksgiving featured fowl and deer on the table — and plenty of entertainment around the table as well.
Though this occasion has been illustrated countless times in elementary school textbooks, the real-life Thanksgiving was not all fun and games. And the real-life Squanto certainly wasn’t either.
While the Pilgrims could not have survived without Squanto, his motives for assisting them may have had less to do with good-heartedness than seeking a sense of security — and gaining more power than he ever had before.
Squanto’s Relationship With The Pilgrims
Squanto quickly developed a reputation for being manipulative and power-hungry. At one point, the Pilgrims actually appointed another Native American advisor named Hobbamock to keep Squanto in check.
After all, it’s easy to imagine that he may have secretly wanted to seek revenge on a group of people who had once enslaved him. On top of that, Squanto was aware of how valuable he’d become to the Wampanoag as the Pilgrims’ closest ally.
As Bradford put it, Squanto “sought his own ends and played his own game.”
In short, he exploited the power his fluency in English had given him by threatening people who displeased him and demanding favors in return for appeasing the Pilgrims.
By 1622, according to Pilgrim Edward Winslow, Squanto had begun to spread lies among both the Native Americans and the Pilgrims:
“His course was to persuade the Indians [that] he could lead us to peace or war at his pleasure, and would oft threaten the Indians, sending them word in a private manner we were intended shortly to kill them, that thereby he might get gifts for himself, to work their peace; so that whereas divers [people] were wont to rely on Massosoit for protection, and resort to his abode, now they began to leave him and seek after Tisquantum [Squanto.]”
Perhaps the best way to understand Squanto’s point of view is to take a closer look his name, Tisquantum, which according to The Smithsonian, was most likely not the name he was actually given at birth.
Per The Smithsonian: “In that part of the Northeast, tisquantum referred to rage, especially the rage of manitou, the world-suffusing spiritual power at the heart of coastal Indians’ religious beliefs. When Tisquantum approached the Pilgrims and identified himself by that sobriquet, it was as if he had stuck out his hand and said, ‘Hello, I’m the Wrath of God.'”
What Happened To Squanto?
Squanto’s wrath finally caused him to overstep his bounds when he falsely claimed that Chief Massosoit had been plotting with enemy tribes, a lie that was quickly exposed. The Wampanoag people were enraged.
Squanto was then forced to take shelter with the Pilgrims who, although they had also become wary of him, refused to betray their ally by handing him over to certain death among the natives.
It proved to not matter, since in November 1622, Squanto succumbed to a fatal disease while visiting a Native-American settlement called Monomoy, near what is now modern day Pleasant Bay.
As Bradford’s journal recalls:
“In this place Squanto fell sick of an Indian fever, bleeding much at the nose (which the Indians take for a symptom of [impending] death) and within a few days died there; desiring the Governor [Bradford] to pray for him, that he might go to the Englishmens God in heaven, and bequeathed sundry of his things to the sundry of his English friends, as remembrance if his love, of whom they had a great loss.”
Squanto was later buried in an unmarked grave. To this day, no one knows exactly where his body rests.
Next, read about the horrific crimes of the Native American genocide and its legacy of oppression today. Then, learn about Ishi, the “last” Native American to emerge from the wilderness in the early 1900s. | 2,048 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Leaving the Homeland
Many Jews fled Russia and Ukraine due to the discrimination they faced from the Tsars. Jews in Ukraine and Russia began feeling more anti-Semitism against them after the assassination of Tsar Alexander II, which some Russians blamed the Jews for this occurring. During the Soviet Union's control of Ukraine and Russia, the laws against Jews became stricter which inhibited their daily lives. The Soviet Union banned Judaism from being practiced openly which caused many Jews to hold religious meetings secretly. Also, men were forced to join the Red Army and fight for the Soviet Union alongside individuals who resented their religion. These reasons forced many Ukrainian and Russian Jews to come to America and other countries.
The Russian Army
The Journey to America
When coming to America, there were vast differences in the transportation and luxury that accompanied the weeks at sea. Some individuals came to America on illegal boats made for moving animals and were quietly brought to Canada. Other were put in third class where disease and boiled carrots were the daily norms. But there were also individuals who were able to live a life of first class on their trip to America. These differences may be vast but the need within these Jewish immigrants to find safety and protection was alight within them all. The United States was a chance for freedom and opportunity which made the weeks at see bearable for all.
Arriving in Philadelphia
The American Dream
The American Dream for many of these Jewish immigrants was steady work and pay that was not forced on them like in Russia or Ukraine. Often Jewish immigrants worked in the garment or upholstery industries where they were able to support their families. The America Dream, however, differed between the gender of the immigrant, however. Men were able to open businesses and reach higher level positions. However, women hoped to be able to marry well and stop working or to be able to have money to buy things that were not only essential. However, even in these differences, all Jewish immigrants were able to practice their religion without threat of persecution, which for most was why they choose to come to America in the first place.
The American Dream: Male Perspective
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Many Jews fled Russia and Ukraine due to the discrimination they faced from the Tsars. Jews in Ukraine and Russia began feeling more anti-Semitism against them after the assassination of Tsar Alexander II, which some Russians blamed the Jews for this occurring. During the Soviet Union's control of Ukraine and Russia, the laws against Jews became stricter which inhibited their daily lives. The Soviet Union banned Judaism from being practiced openly which caused many Jews to hold religious meetings secretly. Also, men were forced to join the Red Army and fight for the Soviet Union alongside individuals who resented their religion. These reasons forced many Ukrainian and Russian Jews to come to America and other countries.
The Russian Army
The Journey to America
When coming to America, there were vast differences in the transportation and luxury that accompanied the weeks at sea. Some individuals came to America on illegal boats made for moving animals and were quietly brought to Canada. Other were put in third class where disease and boiled carrots were the daily norms. But there were also individuals who were able to live a life of first class on their trip to America. These differences may be vast but the need within these Jewish immigrants to find safety and protection was alight within them all. The United States was a chance for freedom and opportunity which made the weeks at see bearable for all.
Arriving in Philadelphia
The American Dream
The American Dream for many of these Jewish immigrants was steady work and pay that was not forced on them like in Russia or Ukraine. Often Jewish immigrants worked in the garment or upholstery industries where they were able to support their families. The America Dream, however, differed between the gender of the immigrant, however. Men were able to open businesses and reach higher level positions. However, women hoped to be able to marry well and stop working or to be able to have money to buy things that were not only essential. However, even in these differences, all Jewish immigrants were able to practice their religion without threat of persecution, which for most was why they choose to come to America in the first place.
The American Dream: Male Perspective
The American Dream: Female Perspective | 427 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Hector Berlioz facts for kids
Hector Berlioz (born La Côte-St-André, Isère, 11 December 1803; died Paris, 8 March 1869) was a French composer. He was one of the greatest composers of the 19th century. His music is typical of the Romantic period: full of passion and often based on ideas outside music. He was not particularly good at playing any instrument, but he was brilliant at writing for the orchestra. Some of his most famous works include several orchestral overtures, the Symphonie Fantastique, the opera Les Troyens (The Trojans), the requiem Grande messe des morts and the song cycle Les nuits d'été (Summer Nights). He was very original as a composer, and his music was not fully appreciated until many years after his death.
Childhood and student days
Berlioz was the eldest of six children. One brother and one sister lived to be adults, and Berlioz was always very fond of them both. His father was a doctor. The family lived in the country, north west of Grenoble.
Berlioz only went to school for a short time, when he was ten years old. The rest of his education he had from his father. He liked French and Latin literature and travel books about faraway countries. He learned to play the flute, the flageolet and the guitar. He read a book by Rameau about harmony. He never had a piano. He just imagined the sounds of chords in his head. He was only 12 when he fell in love with a girl called Estelle who was 18. He was teased about it a lot. He started to compose some music.
When he was 17 his father said that he wanted him to be a doctor. Berlioz wanted to study music, but his father made him go to Paris to study medicine. Berlioz was to stay in Paris for the rest of his life. He studied medicine for two years, but he hated it. One day, in an anatomy lesson, he had had enough and jumped out of the window. He started to study music. His father was furious and stopped sending him money. Berlioz was very poor and started writing musical criticism for newspapers. This is how he earned most of his money for the rest of his life. He was also borrowing money from friends.
Berlioz started going to the Opéra. He particularly liked the music of Gluck and went to the library to study Gluck’s scores. At the end of 1822 he found a good teacher. His name was Le Sueur. He made Berlioz stop publishing his music until he had learned to compose properly. In 1826 he was officially a student at the Conservatoire. He continued to study with Le Sueur and with Reicha. He tried four times to win the important music prize called Prix de Rome. The first time he wrote a piece called La Mort d’Orphée (The Death of Orpheus). The judges said it was unplayable, but Berlioz got an orchestra to play it. The second time he wrote a piece called Herminie which had a tune he used later as the main tune for his Symphonie fantastique. The third time he wrote a cantata La mort de Cléopâtre which is a wonderful work but he still did not win the prize. The fourth time he wrote a cantata La mort de Sardanapale, and he won the prize. Nearly all the music for this work is now lost.
Berlioz did not understand any English, but he went to a performance of Shakespeare’s Hamlet given by an English theatre company. The actress taking the part of Ophelia was called Harriet Smithson. Berlioz fell passionately in love with her, although he did not know her, and started following her about everywhere. In the end he married her. The marriage was not a success. Berlioz was really in love with Ophelia, the character from Shakespeare’s play. He found it hard to love Harriet in real life.
Shakespeare’s plays, however, were to be a great inspiration for Berlioz. He wrote many works which are inspired by Shakespeare, including Roméo et Juliette, Béatrice et Bénédict, Roi Lear and several others. He was also inspired at this time by Goethe’s Faust as well as by many other writers including E.T.A. Hoffmann, Scott and Byron. He also discovered the music of Beethoven which helped him to learn how to give shape to large compositions.
Berlioz started to be very busy putting on concerts of his music in Paris. He was quickly becoming known as a very original young composer. Winning the Prix de Rome gave him a steady income for a time, but he was supposed to go to Rome. Berlioz did not want to go to Rome. He said that he had plenty of work in Paris. The real reason why did not want to go was probably because he was in love with a 19- year-old girl called Camille Moke.
Berlioz spent 15 months in Rome. On his way there he visited his parents who seemed to have forgiven him for not studying medicine. They could now be proud because their son was so successful. In Italy Berlioz did not write much music. He did not like Italian music or Italian art, but he was inspired by the countryside, the sun, the sea, the people he met: sailors, peasants, sculptors, travellers. He did not like the city of Rome, although he did like Florence. He hated the Villa Medici, the house where he had to stay. When he travelled about he wrote some music. When he heard the news that Camille now loved another man he became so furious that he left Rome in order to return to Paris to kill them both. However, when he got as far as Nice he calmed down and changed his mind. He returned to Rome.
At the end of his time in Italy he returned to Paris, visiting his parents on the way. He started organizing concerts of his music. This is when he got to know Harriet Smithson. They had a strange courtship and he married her in 1833. The next year they had a son. The marriage was never easy. Their personalities were different, they were poor, and they did not speak one another’s language. In 1842 they separated and Harriet died in great poverty in 1854.
Although a few people thought that Berlioz was an original composer, many others thought his music was very strange. He hardly earned any money from composing. Most of the money he earned came from musical journalism, which is something he hated. When his works were performed, he usually conducted them himself. He wrote a work for viola and orchestra called Harold en Italie. Paganini had asked him to write it for him to play, but when Paganini saw the music he did not like it because it was not “showy” enough for the viola. Some years later Paganini heard the work and decided he liked it, so he paid Berlioz 20.000 Francs. This was a lot of money, and it made it possible for Berlioz to spend time writing a big new work: Roméo et Juliette. When this was first performed some critics thought that Berlioz did not understand Shakespeare probably. However, Richard Wagner, who was in the audience at the first performance, was very impressed. Berlioz tried to be successful as an opera composer, but people did not understand his original music. He wrote a Grand symphonie funèbre et triomphale, originally written for a military band. Les nuits d'été is a very moving song-cycle.
During the 1840s and 1850s Berlioz spent much of his time travelling abroad. He went to Germany, Austria, Russia and England. He was becoming more famous abroad than at home in France, although he still continued to go back to Paris. The Germans loved his music and were impressed by his conducting. He rarely conducted anything except his own music. In 1846 he composed one of his finest works: La Damnation de Faust which was performed in the Opéra-Comique. The opera house was half empty. It was a great disappointment to him. Berlioz continued to tour to other countries where people appreciated him. He had great success in St Petersburg, in Berlin where he performed to the King of Prussia, and in London, where he never got paid for the concerts that Jullien conducted because Jullien had no money left. However, he had other successes in London and the English liked him very much.
In 1854 Harriet Smithson died and seven months later Berlioz married Marie Recio, a singer he had known for 12 years. Her Spanish mother came to live with them, and she looked after Berlioz very kindly in his last years when he was ill. Berlioz’ son Louis had become a captain in the navy and travelled all over the world. This was something Berlioz had always dreamt of doing since his childhood when he used to read travel books. Berlioz was terribly sad in 1867 when he heard that Louis had died in Havana of yellow fever.
Berlioz had always had a passion for the Latin poet Virgil. In 1856 he spent a long time writing a long opera in five acts called Les Troyens (The Trojans). He knew it would be almost impossible to find anyone who would put on a performance. It only became possible in 1863 after he had divided the work into two parts. After that it was 30 years before the opera was performed again. It contains some of his best music. The storm scene is especially famous and often performed separately as an orchestral piece.
As he got older he became obsessed with death. He had lost two wives, and his two sisters had also died. He started to walk in cemeteries. He wrote his Memoires (autobiography). It has been translated into many languages including English.
In 1863 he wrote to Estelle, the girl he had loved when he was a child. She was now a widow of 67 and he was 60. He visited her in Lyons and loved her again. He wrote regularly to her for the rest of his life, and stayed with her three times in Grenoble where she lived with her son. She gradually understood him better, and she gave him much happiness during his last years.
A final journey to St Petersburg was too much for Berlioz. He became ill. He went to Nice on the way home, where he twice collapsed while walking by the sea. He went back to Paris where he was cared for by his mother-in-law. He died on 11 March 1869 and was buried in the Cimitière Montmartre.
Berlioz is a clear example of a “prophet who is without honour in his own country”: not many people in France realized he was a great composer, but in other countries he was welcomed as one of the great composers and conductors of his day. Many of his works are difficult to describe. His Symphonie fantastique is not quite a symphony, his Harold en Italie is not quite a concerto. His Requiem is not a normal, religious requiem, Roméo et Juliette is a mixture of all sorts of things. He wrote five operas, which are all very different in style. His songs are tender and lovely, influenced by the French romance. His overtures are very popular at orchestral concerts. His music is very original and, although he wrote a book on orchestration, the sounds he composed were so personal that no one could imitate him. He was not good at playing any instrument, but could imagine all the sounds in his head. Many of his melodies stretch themselves over an unusual number of bars. A lot of his orchestral music is programme music: it is often inspired by books or wild stories in his imagination.
Images for kids
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Hector Berlioz (born La Côte-St-André, Isère, 11 December 1803; died Paris, 8 March 1869) was a French composer. He was one of the greatest composers of the 19th century. His music is typical of the Romantic period: full of passion and often based on ideas outside music. He was not particularly good at playing any instrument, but he was brilliant at writing for the orchestra. Some of his most famous works include several orchestral overtures, the Symphonie Fantastique, the opera Les Troyens (The Trojans), the requiem Grande messe des morts and the song cycle Les nuits d'été (Summer Nights). He was very original as a composer, and his music was not fully appreciated until many years after his death.
Childhood and student days
Berlioz was the eldest of six children. One brother and one sister lived to be adults, and Berlioz was always very fond of them both. His father was a doctor. The family lived in the country, north west of Grenoble.
Berlioz only went to school for a short time, when he was ten years old. The rest of his education he had from his father. He liked French and Latin literature and travel books about faraway countries. He learned to play the flute, the flageolet and the guitar. He read a book by Rameau about harmony. He never had a piano. He just imagined the sounds of chords in his head. He was only 12 when he fell in love with a girl called Estelle who was 18. He was teased about it a lot. He started to compose some music.
When he was 17 his father said that he wanted him to be a doctor. Berlioz wanted to study music, but his father made him go to Paris to study medicine. Berlioz was to stay in Paris for the rest of his life. He studied medicine for two years, but he hated it. One day, in an anatomy lesson, he had had enough and jumped out of the window. He started to study music. His father was furious and stopped sending him money. Berlioz was very poor and started writing musical criticism for newspapers. This is how he earned most of his money for the rest of his life. He was also borrowing money from friends.
Berlioz started going to the Opéra. He particularly liked the music of Gluck and went to the library to study Gluck’s scores. At the end of 1822 he found a good teacher. His name was Le Sueur. He made Berlioz stop publishing his music until he had learned to compose properly. In 1826 he was officially a student at the Conservatoire. He continued to study with Le Sueur and with Reicha. He tried four times to win the important music prize called Prix de Rome. The first time he wrote a piece called La Mort d’Orphée (The Death of Orpheus). The judges said it was unplayable, but Berlioz got an orchestra to play it. The second time he wrote a piece called Herminie which had a tune he used later as the main tune for his Symphonie fantastique. The third time he wrote a cantata La mort de Cléopâtre which is a wonderful work but he still did not win the prize. The fourth time he wrote a cantata La mort de Sardanapale, and he won the prize. Nearly all the music for this work is now lost.
Berlioz did not understand any English, but he went to a performance of Shakespeare’s Hamlet given by an English theatre company. The actress taking the part of Ophelia was called Harriet Smithson. Berlioz fell passionately in love with her, although he did not know her, and started following her about everywhere. In the end he married her. The marriage was not a success. Berlioz was really in love with Ophelia, the character from Shakespeare’s play. He found it hard to love Harriet in real life.
Shakespeare’s plays, however, were to be a great inspiration for Berlioz. He wrote many works which are inspired by Shakespeare, including Roméo et Juliette, Béatrice et Bénédict, Roi Lear and several others. He was also inspired at this time by Goethe’s Faust as well as by many other writers including E.T.A. Hoffmann, Scott and Byron. He also discovered the music of Beethoven which helped him to learn how to give shape to large compositions.
Berlioz started to be very busy putting on concerts of his music in Paris. He was quickly becoming known as a very original young composer. Winning the Prix de Rome gave him a steady income for a time, but he was supposed to go to Rome. Berlioz did not want to go to Rome. He said that he had plenty of work in Paris. The real reason why did not want to go was probably because he was in love with a 19- year-old girl called Camille Moke.
Berlioz spent 15 months in Rome. On his way there he visited his parents who seemed to have forgiven him for not studying medicine. They could now be proud because their son was so successful. In Italy Berlioz did not write much music. He did not like Italian music or Italian art, but he was inspired by the countryside, the sun, the sea, the people he met: sailors, peasants, sculptors, travellers. He did not like the city of Rome, although he did like Florence. He hated the Villa Medici, the house where he had to stay. When he travelled about he wrote some music. When he heard the news that Camille now loved another man he became so furious that he left Rome in order to return to Paris to kill them both. However, when he got as far as Nice he calmed down and changed his mind. He returned to Rome.
At the end of his time in Italy he returned to Paris, visiting his parents on the way. He started organizing concerts of his music. This is when he got to know Harriet Smithson. They had a strange courtship and he married her in 1833. The next year they had a son. The marriage was never easy. Their personalities were different, they were poor, and they did not speak one another’s language. In 1842 they separated and Harriet died in great poverty in 1854.
Although a few people thought that Berlioz was an original composer, many others thought his music was very strange. He hardly earned any money from composing. Most of the money he earned came from musical journalism, which is something he hated. When his works were performed, he usually conducted them himself. He wrote a work for viola and orchestra called Harold en Italie. Paganini had asked him to write it for him to play, but when Paganini saw the music he did not like it because it was not “showy” enough for the viola. Some years later Paganini heard the work and decided he liked it, so he paid Berlioz 20.000 Francs. This was a lot of money, and it made it possible for Berlioz to spend time writing a big new work: Roméo et Juliette. When this was first performed some critics thought that Berlioz did not understand Shakespeare probably. However, Richard Wagner, who was in the audience at the first performance, was very impressed. Berlioz tried to be successful as an opera composer, but people did not understand his original music. He wrote a Grand symphonie funèbre et triomphale, originally written for a military band. Les nuits d'été is a very moving song-cycle.
During the 1840s and 1850s Berlioz spent much of his time travelling abroad. He went to Germany, Austria, Russia and England. He was becoming more famous abroad than at home in France, although he still continued to go back to Paris. The Germans loved his music and were impressed by his conducting. He rarely conducted anything except his own music. In 1846 he composed one of his finest works: La Damnation de Faust which was performed in the Opéra-Comique. The opera house was half empty. It was a great disappointment to him. Berlioz continued to tour to other countries where people appreciated him. He had great success in St Petersburg, in Berlin where he performed to the King of Prussia, and in London, where he never got paid for the concerts that Jullien conducted because Jullien had no money left. However, he had other successes in London and the English liked him very much.
In 1854 Harriet Smithson died and seven months later Berlioz married Marie Recio, a singer he had known for 12 years. Her Spanish mother came to live with them, and she looked after Berlioz very kindly in his last years when he was ill. Berlioz’ son Louis had become a captain in the navy and travelled all over the world. This was something Berlioz had always dreamt of doing since his childhood when he used to read travel books. Berlioz was terribly sad in 1867 when he heard that Louis had died in Havana of yellow fever.
Berlioz had always had a passion for the Latin poet Virgil. In 1856 he spent a long time writing a long opera in five acts called Les Troyens (The Trojans). He knew it would be almost impossible to find anyone who would put on a performance. It only became possible in 1863 after he had divided the work into two parts. After that it was 30 years before the opera was performed again. It contains some of his best music. The storm scene is especially famous and often performed separately as an orchestral piece.
As he got older he became obsessed with death. He had lost two wives, and his two sisters had also died. He started to walk in cemeteries. He wrote his Memoires (autobiography). It has been translated into many languages including English.
In 1863 he wrote to Estelle, the girl he had loved when he was a child. She was now a widow of 67 and he was 60. He visited her in Lyons and loved her again. He wrote regularly to her for the rest of his life, and stayed with her three times in Grenoble where she lived with her son. She gradually understood him better, and she gave him much happiness during his last years.
A final journey to St Petersburg was too much for Berlioz. He became ill. He went to Nice on the way home, where he twice collapsed while walking by the sea. He went back to Paris where he was cared for by his mother-in-law. He died on 11 March 1869 and was buried in the Cimitière Montmartre.
Berlioz is a clear example of a “prophet who is without honour in his own country”: not many people in France realized he was a great composer, but in other countries he was welcomed as one of the great composers and conductors of his day. Many of his works are difficult to describe. His Symphonie fantastique is not quite a symphony, his Harold en Italie is not quite a concerto. His Requiem is not a normal, religious requiem, Roméo et Juliette is a mixture of all sorts of things. He wrote five operas, which are all very different in style. His songs are tender and lovely, influenced by the French romance. His overtures are very popular at orchestral concerts. His music is very original and, although he wrote a book on orchestration, the sounds he composed were so personal that no one could imitate him. He was not good at playing any instrument, but could imagine all the sounds in his head. Many of his melodies stretch themselves over an unusual number of bars. A lot of his orchestral music is programme music: it is often inspired by books or wild stories in his imagination.
Images for kids
Hector Berlioz Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia. | 2,576 | ENGLISH | 1 |
- from Ancient Japan
For thousands of years, the Japanese lived in clans, which are large groups of related families. Leaders of each clan ruled different parts of the country, and the clans constantly fought one another for land and power.
By A.D. 400, the Yamato clan had won control of most of the country. The leader of the Yamato clan became emperor of Japan. Although other clans continued to control their own lands, they owed their loyalty to the Yamato leader.
By the late 700s, the emperor and his family lived in splendid palaces in the city of Nara. Key clan members became nobles in the emperor’s court, governing their former lands in the emperor’s name. The noble families who belonged to the emperor’s court lived there as well. Members of the court did not work with their hands as peasant farmers or craftspeople did. Instead, they spent their days painting, writing poetry, and admiring nature. | <urn:uuid:2edd10cf-e3ad-4b7f-ac7a-d09ae78dd6d1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://online.kidsdiscover.com/unit/samurai/topic/emperors-of-early-japan/3 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00513.warc.gz | en | 0.986994 | 198 | 4.125 | 4 | [
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0.294146507978439... | 3 | - from Ancient Japan
For thousands of years, the Japanese lived in clans, which are large groups of related families. Leaders of each clan ruled different parts of the country, and the clans constantly fought one another for land and power.
By A.D. 400, the Yamato clan had won control of most of the country. The leader of the Yamato clan became emperor of Japan. Although other clans continued to control their own lands, they owed their loyalty to the Yamato leader.
By the late 700s, the emperor and his family lived in splendid palaces in the city of Nara. Key clan members became nobles in the emperor’s court, governing their former lands in the emperor’s name. The noble families who belonged to the emperor’s court lived there as well. Members of the court did not work with their hands as peasant farmers or craftspeople did. Instead, they spent their days painting, writing poetry, and admiring nature. | 198 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Between late 19th century and Early 20th century was the time when world was begging to merge economically and politically; Massive world trade and money standard based on foreign Currency were becoming generalized. During this period Japanese, especially Meiji leaders feared that Japan would be behind from the world unless they rebuilt their society. .
In order for them to cross their annoyance, Japan needed advantages over other countries and so, they break out wars, which brought them to a new start. After defeating Russia and china, Japan had regained its confident. Moreover, as results of victories in the wars, Japan ranked itself as first-class nation and befitted its new status. During this period, Japan made very clear its expansionist intentions and established a protectorate over Korea.
Japan held Korea tightly, intervening in the economy, spawning new industries and etc. However, although it seems like Japan had made exploitative act toward Korea by ranking them as second-class citizens and Japan having prerogative rights over Korea, economy in Korea at the time was incredible. Japan so call, modernizing Korea by Building railways, installing factories and blossoming new opportunities tremendously helped Korea economically.
It is extremely difficult to weigh whether it was the modernization or the Exploitation that Japan had act toward Korea. It is indeed that Japan had restrained Korea in some sense; however, it is undiable that Japan has made some positive accomplishment to Korea. Politically speaking, I would have to say Exploitation. Economically speaking, I would have to say Modernization. History itself is really hard to conclude in one answer simply because were just reading out of the book instead of actually seeing and experiencing it. So therefore, my answer is NEUTRAL. . | <urn:uuid:1ee70703-5de1-4f6b-9557-9e8b6e666a89> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/5520.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00544.warc.gz | en | 0.985455 | 348 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.6355190277099609... | 8 | Between late 19th century and Early 20th century was the time when world was begging to merge economically and politically; Massive world trade and money standard based on foreign Currency were becoming generalized. During this period Japanese, especially Meiji leaders feared that Japan would be behind from the world unless they rebuilt their society. .
In order for them to cross their annoyance, Japan needed advantages over other countries and so, they break out wars, which brought them to a new start. After defeating Russia and china, Japan had regained its confident. Moreover, as results of victories in the wars, Japan ranked itself as first-class nation and befitted its new status. During this period, Japan made very clear its expansionist intentions and established a protectorate over Korea.
Japan held Korea tightly, intervening in the economy, spawning new industries and etc. However, although it seems like Japan had made exploitative act toward Korea by ranking them as second-class citizens and Japan having prerogative rights over Korea, economy in Korea at the time was incredible. Japan so call, modernizing Korea by Building railways, installing factories and blossoming new opportunities tremendously helped Korea economically.
It is extremely difficult to weigh whether it was the modernization or the Exploitation that Japan had act toward Korea. It is indeed that Japan had restrained Korea in some sense; however, it is undiable that Japan has made some positive accomplishment to Korea. Politically speaking, I would have to say Exploitation. Economically speaking, I would have to say Modernization. History itself is really hard to conclude in one answer simply because were just reading out of the book instead of actually seeing and experiencing it. So therefore, my answer is NEUTRAL. . | 347 | ENGLISH | 1 |
EXPLORATION OF MANLY & PORT JACKSON
In January 1788, the First Fleet arrived at its destination, Botany Bay, which was found to be unsuitable for settlement. On 21 January, Governor Phillip and his officers travelled north and examined Port Jackson, named by Captain James Cook in 1770.
They spent three days exploring Port Jackson including the western end of North Harbour and the North Arm which Captain John Hunter named Collins Cove in his 1788 sketch of North Arm. Phillip was so impressed by the confidence and manly behaviour of a group of Aborigines that the name was changed to Manly Cove.
An early map of about 1822 shows a plan of a proposed township of Manly. Certainly the quiet waters of North Harbour would have afforded greater protection for the small boats that were the only link with Sydney during that period. From the early 1820s scattered settlement began in the Manly Cove and North Harbour areas.
Henry Gilbert Smith, an English businessman living in Sydney, saw that Manly - with an ocean beach on one side and fine sandy cove on the other - could provide a great "watering place" for the people of Sydney, as Brighton did for Londoners. He started acquiring land in the area in the 1850s.
Norfolk Island pines were planted along the harbour foreshore and in 1855 Smith had a pier constructed a little east of the Manly Wharf, the Pier Hotel was built and The Corso was cleared linking the harbour with the ocean beach.
Smith encouraged the growth of a ferry service to Manly. Excursion trips were available and by 1856 there was a daily ferry service. In 1859 Smith acquired the steamer Phantom specifically for the Manly to Sydney run. He did many other beneficial things for the new community including donating land so that parks, churches, schools and other buildings could be established.
The municipality of Manly was incorporated on 6th January 1877, at which time Manly achieved its own seat of Local Government. Manly was very much a village then and while many things have changed over the past 125 years, Manly is still affectionately referred to as 'The Village'.
© Arthur Phillip Chapter of Fellowship of First Fleeters 2020-
Header image: Manly Ferries on Sydney Harbour, crossing paths on their route to Manly Cove. Manly wharf was built in 1855 and millions of visitors use the ferry service each day, drawn by the slogan of yesteryear - Seven miles from Sydney, one thousand miles from care.
Side image: Tall Ship sailing under the Sydney Harbour Bridge 5th October 2013, on the occasion of the International Navy Review commemorating the 100th anniversary of the establishment of the Royal Australian Navy. | <urn:uuid:f4ce0ad8-2287-4b67-ac28-a244c3481589> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://arthurphillipchapter.weebly.com/exploration-of-manly--harbour.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00430.warc.gz | en | 0.98266 | 560 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.46763473749160767... | 3 | EXPLORATION OF MANLY & PORT JACKSON
In January 1788, the First Fleet arrived at its destination, Botany Bay, which was found to be unsuitable for settlement. On 21 January, Governor Phillip and his officers travelled north and examined Port Jackson, named by Captain James Cook in 1770.
They spent three days exploring Port Jackson including the western end of North Harbour and the North Arm which Captain John Hunter named Collins Cove in his 1788 sketch of North Arm. Phillip was so impressed by the confidence and manly behaviour of a group of Aborigines that the name was changed to Manly Cove.
An early map of about 1822 shows a plan of a proposed township of Manly. Certainly the quiet waters of North Harbour would have afforded greater protection for the small boats that were the only link with Sydney during that period. From the early 1820s scattered settlement began in the Manly Cove and North Harbour areas.
Henry Gilbert Smith, an English businessman living in Sydney, saw that Manly - with an ocean beach on one side and fine sandy cove on the other - could provide a great "watering place" for the people of Sydney, as Brighton did for Londoners. He started acquiring land in the area in the 1850s.
Norfolk Island pines were planted along the harbour foreshore and in 1855 Smith had a pier constructed a little east of the Manly Wharf, the Pier Hotel was built and The Corso was cleared linking the harbour with the ocean beach.
Smith encouraged the growth of a ferry service to Manly. Excursion trips were available and by 1856 there was a daily ferry service. In 1859 Smith acquired the steamer Phantom specifically for the Manly to Sydney run. He did many other beneficial things for the new community including donating land so that parks, churches, schools and other buildings could be established.
The municipality of Manly was incorporated on 6th January 1877, at which time Manly achieved its own seat of Local Government. Manly was very much a village then and while many things have changed over the past 125 years, Manly is still affectionately referred to as 'The Village'.
© Arthur Phillip Chapter of Fellowship of First Fleeters 2020-
Header image: Manly Ferries on Sydney Harbour, crossing paths on their route to Manly Cove. Manly wharf was built in 1855 and millions of visitors use the ferry service each day, drawn by the slogan of yesteryear - Seven miles from Sydney, one thousand miles from care.
Side image: Tall Ship sailing under the Sydney Harbour Bridge 5th October 2013, on the occasion of the International Navy Review commemorating the 100th anniversary of the establishment of the Royal Australian Navy. | 605 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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