text string | id string | dump string | url string | file_path string | language string | language_score float64 | token_count int64 | score float64 | int_score int64 | embedding list | count int64 | Content string | Tokens int64 | Top_Lang string | Top_Conf float64 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ethan allen bookcase
Allen was born in rural Connecticut and had a frontier upbringing, but he also received an education that included some philosophical teachings. In the late 1760s, he became interested in the New Hampshire Grants, buying land there and becoming embroiled in the legal disputes surrounding the territory. Legal setbacks led to the formation of the Green Mountain Boys, whom Allen led in a campaign of intimidation and property destruction to drive New York settlers from the Grants. He and the Green Mountain Boys seized the initiative early in the Revolutionary War and captured Fort Ticonderoga in May 1775. In September 1775, he led a failed attempt on Montreal which resulted in his capture by British authorities. He was imprisoned aboard Royal Navy ships, then paroled in New York City, and finally released in a prisoner exchange in 1778. | <urn:uuid:c090a92c-3f70-4789-a518-d42a298e92fb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://web-cimek.info/ethan-allen-bookcase/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00118.warc.gz | en | 0.982877 | 167 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.2386080175638198... | 1 | Ethan allen bookcase
Allen was born in rural Connecticut and had a frontier upbringing, but he also received an education that included some philosophical teachings. In the late 1760s, he became interested in the New Hampshire Grants, buying land there and becoming embroiled in the legal disputes surrounding the territory. Legal setbacks led to the formation of the Green Mountain Boys, whom Allen led in a campaign of intimidation and property destruction to drive New York settlers from the Grants. He and the Green Mountain Boys seized the initiative early in the Revolutionary War and captured Fort Ticonderoga in May 1775. In September 1775, he led a failed attempt on Montreal which resulted in his capture by British authorities. He was imprisoned aboard Royal Navy ships, then paroled in New York City, and finally released in a prisoner exchange in 1778. | 180 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Appearance: The hieroglyphic sign for "mountain" depicted to peaks with a valley running between them. This image approximated the hills that rose up on either side of the Nile valley.
Meaning: Although the djew hieroglyph did portray the mountain ranges the Egyptians saw in their everyday lives, it also was a visualization of their cosmic beliefs. Symbolically, the "mountain" was an image of the universal mountain whose two peaks were imagined to hold up the sky. The eastern peak was called Bakhu, to the west was Manu. The ends of this great mountain were guarded by two lions who were called Aker. Aker was a protector of the the sun as it rose and set each day.
The Egyptian necropolis was typically located in the mountainous desert and so the djew was also closely associated with the concepts of the tomb and of the afterlife. The god of mummification, Anubis bore the epithet, "He who is upon his mountain." Hathor, the "Mistress of the Necropolis", while in the form of a cow, was often shown emerging from the side of the western mountain.
In painted scenes, the concept of a "hill" or "heap" of such things as grain are often expressed representationally with the djew sign. The use of the hieroglyphic shape is an effective tool to convey not only the shape but the of such large heaps of grain.
A variation of the hieroglyph showing a range of three peaks was used to portray the concept of "foreign land." | <urn:uuid:d64239ef-d2d5-4d04-9914-dc62de0cb5ae> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.egyptianmyths.net/mountain.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00368.warc.gz | en | 0.989434 | 323 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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-0.05741072446107... | 3 | Appearance: The hieroglyphic sign for "mountain" depicted to peaks with a valley running between them. This image approximated the hills that rose up on either side of the Nile valley.
Meaning: Although the djew hieroglyph did portray the mountain ranges the Egyptians saw in their everyday lives, it also was a visualization of their cosmic beliefs. Symbolically, the "mountain" was an image of the universal mountain whose two peaks were imagined to hold up the sky. The eastern peak was called Bakhu, to the west was Manu. The ends of this great mountain were guarded by two lions who were called Aker. Aker was a protector of the the sun as it rose and set each day.
The Egyptian necropolis was typically located in the mountainous desert and so the djew was also closely associated with the concepts of the tomb and of the afterlife. The god of mummification, Anubis bore the epithet, "He who is upon his mountain." Hathor, the "Mistress of the Necropolis", while in the form of a cow, was often shown emerging from the side of the western mountain.
In painted scenes, the concept of a "hill" or "heap" of such things as grain are often expressed representationally with the djew sign. The use of the hieroglyphic shape is an effective tool to convey not only the shape but the of such large heaps of grain.
A variation of the hieroglyph showing a range of three peaks was used to portray the concept of "foreign land." | 320 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It should also be added – and this is an important point with regard to their origins – that guilds were constantly forbidden under the Ancien Régime and continued to be so until the mid-19th century. There were numerous reasons for this. Known for their turbulent behaviour, guild members were frequently wanted by the law owing to their determination to ensure monopoly of employment opportunities in certain cities; their independent attitudes towards employers (their so-called “Masters”) also showed a resolve to be free to leave whenever they liked. They were also pursued, for their collective attempts to fix wages or obtain other advantages, or for preventing non-guild members from obtaining work freely. In addition, rivalries among societies of the same trade but with different rites, rejection of independent workers, and demands that employers found intolerable resulted in brawls and the expulsion of workers from a city; such actions also led to competition, dismissals, the closing of workshops, and workers’ strikes, compromising public order and upsetting relations between workers and employers.
In the 17th century, guilds were also attacked by the Church. Ecclesiastical authorities often denounced them for their “impious, sacrilegious and superstitious” practices because their initiation rites, although inspired by Catholic liturgy, were seen as parodies of Christian ritual.
In practice, however, guilds were tolerated. On the one hand, neither the police, courts and Church nor the employers were able to keep them from forming and, on the other hand – their excesses notwithstanding – the guilds provided good workers and saw it as their mission to educate hundreds of young men who would have been far more dangerous to society without such training. The authorities could keep a close eye on the guilds and limit their more violent forms of behaviour, but were incapable of forbidding them altogether.
This summary of guild life as it was up until the mid 19th century, and often even later, should make clear that guilds had no legal status and that active membership entailed a relatively short period of a man’s life (generally, less than ten years and sometimes only two). This means that traces of guild life are very rare, which in turn is a cause of despair for genealogists! | <urn:uuid:ff086793-e5a1-4506-b5cb-2eafc882d1ce> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.museecompagnonnage.fr/en/genealogie/presentation/associations-tolerees | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00250.warc.gz | en | 0.98773 | 464 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.14044199883937... | 3 | It should also be added – and this is an important point with regard to their origins – that guilds were constantly forbidden under the Ancien Régime and continued to be so until the mid-19th century. There were numerous reasons for this. Known for their turbulent behaviour, guild members were frequently wanted by the law owing to their determination to ensure monopoly of employment opportunities in certain cities; their independent attitudes towards employers (their so-called “Masters”) also showed a resolve to be free to leave whenever they liked. They were also pursued, for their collective attempts to fix wages or obtain other advantages, or for preventing non-guild members from obtaining work freely. In addition, rivalries among societies of the same trade but with different rites, rejection of independent workers, and demands that employers found intolerable resulted in brawls and the expulsion of workers from a city; such actions also led to competition, dismissals, the closing of workshops, and workers’ strikes, compromising public order and upsetting relations between workers and employers.
In the 17th century, guilds were also attacked by the Church. Ecclesiastical authorities often denounced them for their “impious, sacrilegious and superstitious” practices because their initiation rites, although inspired by Catholic liturgy, were seen as parodies of Christian ritual.
In practice, however, guilds were tolerated. On the one hand, neither the police, courts and Church nor the employers were able to keep them from forming and, on the other hand – their excesses notwithstanding – the guilds provided good workers and saw it as their mission to educate hundreds of young men who would have been far more dangerous to society without such training. The authorities could keep a close eye on the guilds and limit their more violent forms of behaviour, but were incapable of forbidding them altogether.
This summary of guild life as it was up until the mid 19th century, and often even later, should make clear that guilds had no legal status and that active membership entailed a relatively short period of a man’s life (generally, less than ten years and sometimes only two). This means that traces of guild life are very rare, which in turn is a cause of despair for genealogists! | 459 | ENGLISH | 1 |
AIDES-DE-CAMP during the American Revolutionary War were officers of the Continental army appointed to serve a senior commanding officer. They would serve with the rank of Lieutenant Colonel.
George Washington, as commander in chief, was officially assigned one military secretary, and three Aides-de-camp, (although he petitioned for 2 more), and also supplemented his command with volunteers.
Casualties were common, throughout the war Washington used 32 different Aides-de-Camp.
Samuel Blachley Webb was wounded on October 28th 1776 at the Battle of White Plains, and on December 26th 1776 at the Battle of Trenton. Tench Tilghman served longer than any other Aide-de-camp, more than seven years although about half was served as a volunteer.
On the battlefield, the Aides-de-Camp were basically couriers, delivering their commanders orders on horseback and gathering or relaying intelligence on enemy troop movement.
Scale 1:30 / 60mm | <urn:uuid:040a76c3-a4a0-4b11-a89a-9acab8630e4a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sierratoysoldier.com/ourstore/pc/SGEN-005-Aide-De-Camp-1859p29042.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00178.warc.gz | en | 0.980938 | 208 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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... | 3 | AIDES-DE-CAMP during the American Revolutionary War were officers of the Continental army appointed to serve a senior commanding officer. They would serve with the rank of Lieutenant Colonel.
George Washington, as commander in chief, was officially assigned one military secretary, and three Aides-de-camp, (although he petitioned for 2 more), and also supplemented his command with volunteers.
Casualties were common, throughout the war Washington used 32 different Aides-de-Camp.
Samuel Blachley Webb was wounded on October 28th 1776 at the Battle of White Plains, and on December 26th 1776 at the Battle of Trenton. Tench Tilghman served longer than any other Aide-de-camp, more than seven years although about half was served as a volunteer.
On the battlefield, the Aides-de-Camp were basically couriers, delivering their commanders orders on horseback and gathering or relaying intelligence on enemy troop movement.
Scale 1:30 / 60mm | 215 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Kindness is the act of showing caring and consideration. It is the tendency of having charitable deeds, pleasant character, and concern for others. It is a virtue recognized in many religions and cultures. A random act of kindness is an action carried out by a person wishing to either cheer up or assist a person or people. Each one of us has to make our own contribution in order to create a better environment of living. We cannot always rely on others. In the first video, as I was walking in the streets I saw a small boy seated at a corner. He was wearing worn out clothes. I felt pity for him and went to talk to him.
Later, I found out that he was homeless. He has been in the street for weeks and has been solely surviving on borrowed food from passersby. He had no idea on the whereabouts of his parents or any clue about his siblings. His story touched me, and out of kindness I gave him a one dollar coin to go to buy something. I acknowledge the importance of communication to happiness and survival. By communicating, we build up identities, set up relationships, bring our efforts with others, talk on issues that affect us, and work out problems and possibilities. Interpersonal communications get fundamental human wants.
Human beings need to survive, and communication helps us to meet these needs. By talking to this boy, I learnt of his suffering. By not receiving his basic wants, this boy was suffering from abuse. Children who suffer abuse often have anxiety, impulsiveness and reduced memory abilities. This boy had reduced memory abilities; he could not remember anything about his family. I felt he needed self esteem. He needed to respect and value himself and also being respected and valued by others. We get the first feel of identity from others who speak of how they see us. He needed someone to tell him that he is smart, warm and loved.
Young people start forming images, when adults convey their perceptions to them (Wood, 2007). He responded with much gratitude. His response was though nonverbal. He responded by giving me a wide smile, which indicated a positive feeling. He also gave me a hug, which signaled affection. This made me believe that my act of kindness was not taken for granted. This was a positive experience to me, since I had helped him. This is a charitable deed, which I hope every citizen can adopt. In the second clip, as I was walking in town, I saw this man who was hawking an item. Nobody seemed to want this item, and so I went to buy it from him.
The guy looked tired, hungry and depressed. He was homeless. As I was negotiating with him the price of his item, I asked him, if he wanted a burger since I was carrying some. He declined, saying it was not suitable for consumption since it contained a lot of chemicals. He also asked me not to eat it. By asking me not to eat the burger also; I felt this man was actually caring of others. I became exceedingly mindful of what he was putting across. By being mindful, I did not let my thoughts waft away to what I would do after walking out of there, nor did I center on my own feelings and responses.
Instead, I knew if I listen mindfully, I tune in wholly to him and try to appreciate what he was conveying, without imposing my personal judgments, ideas or feelings. Mindfulness starts by deciding to concentrate. I exhibited this by paying attention, taking a keen posture, maintaining an eye contact, and showing attention in what he was saying. The man responded by thanking me for purchasing his item and also by heeding to his advice. I too was grateful for the advice. My act of kindness was received warmly. By buying his item, he got some money for survival. He could use it for purchasing the items he needed.
To me, this was a positive experience. I had learnt a lot by communicating with this man. He told me of the risk imposed by consuming such foods. In the third video, I found this old woman stranded in the streets with a heavy bag. She asked me to assist her carry the bag to where she lived. I picked her bag and followed her to where she lived. I felt it was my duty as a young man to help the old in the society. It would be rude of me to leave the old woman struggle with the bag. The old woman responded by giving me warm gaze, which indicated an admiration. She was also thankful. The experience was a positive one.
I learnt of the expectation of the elderly from us young people. In conclusion, I have realized that doing marvelous things to other people always gives a warm feeling at heart. We experience a sense of well-being and coolness by being kind to others. A random act of kindness is a delightful way of taking the spotlight away from us. People should show kindness to their friends, poor people and the disabled. When an individual practices charity he receives charity back from other people, when is in need. People should consider each act they do to others since each action have a negative and positive impact. | <urn:uuid:16e56b77-f2c8-487e-bc96-213ea81cbb97> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ameliahensley.com/act-of-kindness/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00322.warc.gz | en | 0.991554 | 1,045 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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-0.032784238457679... | 1 | Kindness is the act of showing caring and consideration. It is the tendency of having charitable deeds, pleasant character, and concern for others. It is a virtue recognized in many religions and cultures. A random act of kindness is an action carried out by a person wishing to either cheer up or assist a person or people. Each one of us has to make our own contribution in order to create a better environment of living. We cannot always rely on others. In the first video, as I was walking in the streets I saw a small boy seated at a corner. He was wearing worn out clothes. I felt pity for him and went to talk to him.
Later, I found out that he was homeless. He has been in the street for weeks and has been solely surviving on borrowed food from passersby. He had no idea on the whereabouts of his parents or any clue about his siblings. His story touched me, and out of kindness I gave him a one dollar coin to go to buy something. I acknowledge the importance of communication to happiness and survival. By communicating, we build up identities, set up relationships, bring our efforts with others, talk on issues that affect us, and work out problems and possibilities. Interpersonal communications get fundamental human wants.
Human beings need to survive, and communication helps us to meet these needs. By talking to this boy, I learnt of his suffering. By not receiving his basic wants, this boy was suffering from abuse. Children who suffer abuse often have anxiety, impulsiveness and reduced memory abilities. This boy had reduced memory abilities; he could not remember anything about his family. I felt he needed self esteem. He needed to respect and value himself and also being respected and valued by others. We get the first feel of identity from others who speak of how they see us. He needed someone to tell him that he is smart, warm and loved.
Young people start forming images, when adults convey their perceptions to them (Wood, 2007). He responded with much gratitude. His response was though nonverbal. He responded by giving me a wide smile, which indicated a positive feeling. He also gave me a hug, which signaled affection. This made me believe that my act of kindness was not taken for granted. This was a positive experience to me, since I had helped him. This is a charitable deed, which I hope every citizen can adopt. In the second clip, as I was walking in town, I saw this man who was hawking an item. Nobody seemed to want this item, and so I went to buy it from him.
The guy looked tired, hungry and depressed. He was homeless. As I was negotiating with him the price of his item, I asked him, if he wanted a burger since I was carrying some. He declined, saying it was not suitable for consumption since it contained a lot of chemicals. He also asked me not to eat it. By asking me not to eat the burger also; I felt this man was actually caring of others. I became exceedingly mindful of what he was putting across. By being mindful, I did not let my thoughts waft away to what I would do after walking out of there, nor did I center on my own feelings and responses.
Instead, I knew if I listen mindfully, I tune in wholly to him and try to appreciate what he was conveying, without imposing my personal judgments, ideas or feelings. Mindfulness starts by deciding to concentrate. I exhibited this by paying attention, taking a keen posture, maintaining an eye contact, and showing attention in what he was saying. The man responded by thanking me for purchasing his item and also by heeding to his advice. I too was grateful for the advice. My act of kindness was received warmly. By buying his item, he got some money for survival. He could use it for purchasing the items he needed.
To me, this was a positive experience. I had learnt a lot by communicating with this man. He told me of the risk imposed by consuming such foods. In the third video, I found this old woman stranded in the streets with a heavy bag. She asked me to assist her carry the bag to where she lived. I picked her bag and followed her to where she lived. I felt it was my duty as a young man to help the old in the society. It would be rude of me to leave the old woman struggle with the bag. The old woman responded by giving me warm gaze, which indicated an admiration. She was also thankful. The experience was a positive one.
I learnt of the expectation of the elderly from us young people. In conclusion, I have realized that doing marvelous things to other people always gives a warm feeling at heart. We experience a sense of well-being and coolness by being kind to others. A random act of kindness is a delightful way of taking the spotlight away from us. People should show kindness to their friends, poor people and the disabled. When an individual practices charity he receives charity back from other people, when is in need. People should consider each act they do to others since each action have a negative and positive impact. | 1,042 | ENGLISH | 1 |
One hundred years ago this month the Black and Tans began recruiting and were officially created in March 1920. Hidden facts about the number of Irish-born and Tans abusing women have recently been revealed.
One in five of the hated Black and Tans, recruited to spread terror in Ireland during the War of Independence were Irish-born, Diarmaid Ferriter, a leading Irish historian has stated.
A hidden history of abuse of women by the Tans was also mentioned by Ferriter who writes:
“Beatings, hair cuttings and worse were described in contemporary newspapers under the catchall label “Outrages”, which included women in night attire being assaulted by drunken Black and Tans. Sexual assaults were occasionally recorded by Sinn Féin’s The Irish Bulletin.”
Writing in The Irish Times, Professor Ferriter stated that may Irish secretly joined the Tans attracted by the pay and a steady job. The weekly salary was three pounds and ten shillings.
One hundred years ago this month, the first recruitment of the Tans began after Michael Collins had essentially made Ireland ungovernable during the War of Independence and the Royal Irish Constabulary were utterly overwhelmed.’
Ferriter notes that Lord French, the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, admitted to Ian MacPherson, the Chief Secretary of Ireland: “matters here are really getting beyond the control of the police”.
This was after an IRA directive that “the police should be treated as persons who having been adjudged guilty of treason to their country.”
A new force was put together, recruited from all over Britain, quickly known as the Black and Tans because of the ill-matched colors of their uniforms which combined policeman black jackets with army tan trousers.
Twenty percent of those recruited were from Ireland, mostly former British Army servicemen. Eventually, there were a total of 8,000 sent to Ireland. The highest number were sent to Cork with Tipperary receiving the next highest number.
Historian WC Lowe who has written extensively on the period, described the fact that 20 percent were Irish-born as very surprising saying it was
"An unexpected finding that is at odds with popular memory...that 20 percent of the Black-and-Tans and about 10 percent of Auxiliaries were Irish ."
Atrocities by the Tans were so frequent that even British public opinion was shocked. As the Observer newspaper in Britain put it in September 1920, the Tans contributed to “the immense weakening of Britain’s moral position throughout the world.”
Indeed the stories of the atrocities made Irish Americans in particular extremely agitated and fundraising for the Irish rebels were widespread across the country. | <urn:uuid:20897ee3-b2f5-4364-a707-3aacde721dba> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.irishcentral.com/roots/history/black-tans-irish-women-abused | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00084.warc.gz | en | 0.988424 | 559 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.38696348667... | 9 | One hundred years ago this month the Black and Tans began recruiting and were officially created in March 1920. Hidden facts about the number of Irish-born and Tans abusing women have recently been revealed.
One in five of the hated Black and Tans, recruited to spread terror in Ireland during the War of Independence were Irish-born, Diarmaid Ferriter, a leading Irish historian has stated.
A hidden history of abuse of women by the Tans was also mentioned by Ferriter who writes:
“Beatings, hair cuttings and worse were described in contemporary newspapers under the catchall label “Outrages”, which included women in night attire being assaulted by drunken Black and Tans. Sexual assaults were occasionally recorded by Sinn Féin’s The Irish Bulletin.”
Writing in The Irish Times, Professor Ferriter stated that may Irish secretly joined the Tans attracted by the pay and a steady job. The weekly salary was three pounds and ten shillings.
One hundred years ago this month, the first recruitment of the Tans began after Michael Collins had essentially made Ireland ungovernable during the War of Independence and the Royal Irish Constabulary were utterly overwhelmed.’
Ferriter notes that Lord French, the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, admitted to Ian MacPherson, the Chief Secretary of Ireland: “matters here are really getting beyond the control of the police”.
This was after an IRA directive that “the police should be treated as persons who having been adjudged guilty of treason to their country.”
A new force was put together, recruited from all over Britain, quickly known as the Black and Tans because of the ill-matched colors of their uniforms which combined policeman black jackets with army tan trousers.
Twenty percent of those recruited were from Ireland, mostly former British Army servicemen. Eventually, there were a total of 8,000 sent to Ireland. The highest number were sent to Cork with Tipperary receiving the next highest number.
Historian WC Lowe who has written extensively on the period, described the fact that 20 percent were Irish-born as very surprising saying it was
"An unexpected finding that is at odds with popular memory...that 20 percent of the Black-and-Tans and about 10 percent of Auxiliaries were Irish ."
Atrocities by the Tans were so frequent that even British public opinion was shocked. As the Observer newspaper in Britain put it in September 1920, the Tans contributed to “the immense weakening of Britain’s moral position throughout the world.”
Indeed the stories of the atrocities made Irish Americans in particular extremely agitated and fundraising for the Irish rebels were widespread across the country. | 541 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Willson v. Black-Bird Creek Marsh Co.
The fourth Supreme Court Chief Justice, John Marshall, made many of the most momentous decisions in American constitutional law. While he is often remembered for cases like Marbury v. Madison (establishing the Supreme Court as capable of judicially reviewing law) and McCulloch v. Maryland (which established federal supremacy over the states), Marshall also decided a number of other cases that would have far-reaching effects on federal and state laws, as well as the lives of American citizens. Willson v. Black-Bird Creek Marsh Co. is one of those cases. Originally about a Delaware dam, this 1829 case would lay the foundation for the current American system of federal and state regulation.
How the Case Began
Thompson Willson owned a small ship which he used in several navigable waterways throughout the state of Delaware. He was fully licensed to own and operate a sailing vessel. At one point, he was navigating Blackbird Creek, which had been dammed by Black-Bird Creek Marsh Co., when his ship broke through the dam, causing extensive damage.
The company that had built the dam was licensed to do so by the state of Delaware, and sued Willson for trespassing and the damages done to their work. The case went to the Supreme Court because Willson contended that the state had no right to allow the dam to be built in the first place—he said that only the federal government should be able to regulate whether a dam was built on waterways in any state, due to the interstate commerce clause of the U.S. Constitution. Willson claimed that the federal government's right to regulate traffic on waterways was exclusive, and that the state of Delaware had overstepped its authority by regulating it on its own.
The Supreme Court Decision
The Supreme Court decided against Willson, the plaintiff. According to the Supreme Court, Willson was partially right—the federal government certainly did have the right to regulate navigable waterways. However, the court noted, it had not actually chosen to do so with Blackbird Creek. This meant that while the United States government did indeed have an interstate commerce power to do what Willson claimed, the power was a dormant one.
In the absence of any federal regulation that would in any way prohibit the dam from having been built, the court ruled that the state of Delaware was free to pass whatever laws it wished in order to regulate the creek and other waterways. However, if the federal government ever chose to use its power, it would no longer be dormant and the state laws would no longer be valid.
Effects of Willson v. Black-Bird Creek Marsh Co.
When Willson was ruled against, it was a huge victory for states that wanted to create regulations within their own borders. If the case had been decided the other way, states would have been unable to have regulated any conduct that could have affected commerce, even if that conduct was in no way prohibited or regulated by federal law.
In many ways, we have Willson v. Black-Bird Creek Marsh Co. to thank for things like state environmental laws today. Without the decision that states should be free to pass regulations that affected their own citizens, much of environmental law today would be very different. | <urn:uuid:50d47143-f938-4dd3-8ee4-d37ab79edb84> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://cases.laws.com/willson-v-black-bird-creek-marsh-co | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00489.warc.gz | en | 0.984319 | 664 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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The fourth Supreme Court Chief Justice, John Marshall, made many of the most momentous decisions in American constitutional law. While he is often remembered for cases like Marbury v. Madison (establishing the Supreme Court as capable of judicially reviewing law) and McCulloch v. Maryland (which established federal supremacy over the states), Marshall also decided a number of other cases that would have far-reaching effects on federal and state laws, as well as the lives of American citizens. Willson v. Black-Bird Creek Marsh Co. is one of those cases. Originally about a Delaware dam, this 1829 case would lay the foundation for the current American system of federal and state regulation.
How the Case Began
Thompson Willson owned a small ship which he used in several navigable waterways throughout the state of Delaware. He was fully licensed to own and operate a sailing vessel. At one point, he was navigating Blackbird Creek, which had been dammed by Black-Bird Creek Marsh Co., when his ship broke through the dam, causing extensive damage.
The company that had built the dam was licensed to do so by the state of Delaware, and sued Willson for trespassing and the damages done to their work. The case went to the Supreme Court because Willson contended that the state had no right to allow the dam to be built in the first place—he said that only the federal government should be able to regulate whether a dam was built on waterways in any state, due to the interstate commerce clause of the U.S. Constitution. Willson claimed that the federal government's right to regulate traffic on waterways was exclusive, and that the state of Delaware had overstepped its authority by regulating it on its own.
The Supreme Court Decision
The Supreme Court decided against Willson, the plaintiff. According to the Supreme Court, Willson was partially right—the federal government certainly did have the right to regulate navigable waterways. However, the court noted, it had not actually chosen to do so with Blackbird Creek. This meant that while the United States government did indeed have an interstate commerce power to do what Willson claimed, the power was a dormant one.
In the absence of any federal regulation that would in any way prohibit the dam from having been built, the court ruled that the state of Delaware was free to pass whatever laws it wished in order to regulate the creek and other waterways. However, if the federal government ever chose to use its power, it would no longer be dormant and the state laws would no longer be valid.
Effects of Willson v. Black-Bird Creek Marsh Co.
When Willson was ruled against, it was a huge victory for states that wanted to create regulations within their own borders. If the case had been decided the other way, states would have been unable to have regulated any conduct that could have affected commerce, even if that conduct was in no way prohibited or regulated by federal law.
In many ways, we have Willson v. Black-Bird Creek Marsh Co. to thank for things like state environmental laws today. Without the decision that states should be free to pass regulations that affected their own citizens, much of environmental law today would be very different. | 662 | ENGLISH | 1 |
History of stock exchange
They appeared several thousand years ago as a result of the economic unions, division of abort and economic isolation of producers. It is important to remember that market relations are based on exchange. Exchange means to get or to relinquish something by means of an other side. The barter is said to be the most primitive form of it. A service or a good is straight furnished in exchange for another. It goes without saying that the market relations have their own rules: every exchange must be of the same equality, the good provided must have a market utility similar to the good received.
The law of quality measures this value by the labor time which has been spent to produce the good exchanged. The use of a special commodity as an overall equivalent, money (in some ancient societies livestock or Just metallic pieces, notes, bank money, etc. ), thus makes it possible to exchange goods quickly and with high level of flexibility, and proposes the possibility of accumulating value. However, we would like to mention one of the most popular elements of market relations – stock exchange (stock market).
As we can see from the book “The Stock Exchanges” by Chuckling, stock exchange is an organization, which provides services for traders and stock brokers to trade stocks, bonds, and other securities. It also gives facilities for different financial instruments, but first of all, stock markets work with shares and bonds. It is necessary to underline that stock market does not sell or buy any securities in itself. It Just supplies the necessary facilities and infrastructure for exchange in securities to brokers and members who trade them.
It regulates the trade activities in order to assure fair and free trade. All the bargains in securities at History of stock exchange By thought_of_life other investors have no permit to enter in the trading circles of the stock market. On he whole, it is vital to note the main functions of the stock market. First of all, it redistributes money resources on the purpose of the investment. Moreover, stock exchange redistributes financial risks. The method of distribution of financial risk is based on its partial transfer to partners in various operations.
Therefore, partners, who are able to neutralize negative consequences of financial risks as much as it is possible and who also have more effective variants of internal insurance protection, are eventually given that part. What is more, stock market discloses and directs the information about profitability and the liquidity which influences investment decisions. Finally, as it has been already mentioned, stock exchange shows the state of the economy in general and its financial sector. It reflects the level of the economic stability of a nation.
More and more people acknowledge the utility and importance of stock market for the reason that it is very beneficial to invest in developing enterprises, corporations and economy on the whole. Thus, it gives an opportunity to an investor to take part in the industrial development of the country. Stock exchange sakes it possible to recognize the true market value of investment owing to price list and reports published by the experts of exchange. Specialists thoroughly observe the rise and drop of the market, so that people can predict when it is the best moment to purchase or to sell shares.
But in our opinion we can hardly talk about stock market and its significance without knowing its history. The history of stock market’s foundation is utterly interesting. First of all, dealers gathered at certain places and tried to sell some goods. Of course, we should not forget that in that time approximately end of the II century) goods were presented at the auctions. Later the Marseilles merchants asked for a special place because sometimes the auctions were postponed due to the bad weather. Since then the public sales have been allocated.
Meantime, besides the goods, bills were also offered as well, and some of the well- provided merchants could give loans. But after a while the auctions have become a place only for s price contracts. The word “stock exchange” has appeared in Bridge, Flanders. All trading concourses were organized in this city near the famous square e Burse (FRR. – purse). As the name of the house’s owner on that square was Bursa, places for business and financial transactions were named after him. Since then it has gradually changed into a stock exchange. Then we can see the developing of the stock market approximately in the XIII-XIV centuries.
At first, it was as a bills trade – during that period a lot of regular bill markets and fairs came into being and then some of them disappeared. In other words, bills trade aroused the necessity of the professionals who engaged in transactions with securities, and also it was significant o have a place, where all the operations with securities were made. However, as it seems in the modern world, the stock market was formed due to the influence of the emissions, which were pursued by the government, and foundations of the first Joint- stock companies.
These companies had been founded in England and Holland at the period of time between the end of the XVI and the beginning of the XVII centuries. There were the Dutch Incorporated Cost-landing company, and also the English Baltic, Moscow and Elevating companies whose shares became the object of a trade at stock exchanges in Holland and England. Let us allude some of the greatest stock economy. In the XVII century trading activity became really successful in Amsterdam as Holland had made huge steps in developing its economy.
It is essential to add that the Amsterdam stock market made bases of the technical and the organization of the exchange turn. Along with transactions in cash, new transactions appeared, such as operations where transfer of securities and its payment occurred after certain time. For this reason, it is not a great surprise that the first stock market in contemporary understanding of this word appeared in that city. All bargains with securities of the world were operated in Amsterdam. As a result all money resources began to be flown down to the Netherlands. However, in the XVIII century Great Britain started to dominate on that field.
It occupied the Dutch place and became a new trade centre of the Europe. Especially rapid development happened when the Bank of England was founded because after that there appeared an enormous amount of various Joint- stock companies and many state bonds were released. In addition, in 1773 brokers received a separate building and for the first time there was an inscription “Stock Exchange”. By the middle of the XIX century London had become a peculiar storage not only for money resources of Great Britain, but also of other countries in Europe and even America.
Nevertheless, we would like to focus on one more well-known stock exchange. In the end of the XVIII century, more specifically in 1792, a meeting of twenty four traders led to a creation of a market, which was named the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE). Later, in the mid-asses, United States was growing rapidly. Companies were in need of funds to be supported in expansion to correspond to the new demand. Besides, companies acknowledged that investors would be interested in buying shares to possess a part of the company. Therefore, stocks have assisted the expansion of the companies.
The great potential and utility of the newly founded stock exchange were becoming evident to both the investors and the companies. Perhaps, any other establishment did not draw scientists’, Journalists’ and writers’ attention as the New York stock exchange. It was connected with that huge role which she had played in second half XIX ? beginning of XX century in development of the American capitalism. Meantime, management of the NYSE and its brokers began to cooperate with a majority of European companies, stock markets and banks.
Also, NYSE and the stock exchange of the Saint-Petersburg had established business relations by 1880. But Frankly speaking, it was the beginning of the XX century when the first agreements with Russian companies were mentioned. In our country a lot of stock exchanges were formed in XVIII-XIX centuries. Initially, there were presented goods such as furs, bread, sugar and salt, but then bonds and shares became also extremely popular due to the development of the economy of the country. After the October Revolution, exchanges stopped their activity and resume to operate with securities only in 1990.
By the way, Peter I was a founder of the stock market in the Russian Empire. It was founded in 1703 after Peters visit to Holland and at that time it looked like a meeting of merchants on the Troikas square near to the port. In 1721 the first building of the exchange which was settled down opposite to Costing dove, was constructed, but unfortunately, it has not remained until nowadays. The stock exchange was formed by an example of the largest European trading corporations, ND in the beginning of its history it was a place of transactions of foreign merchants started to taking part in trades.
However, their operations basically concluded export and import wholesale transactions. In the end of the XVIII century Catherine II decided to improve Vacillates Island, and in 1783 building of the stock exchange began. Although it was suspended for the financial reasons, later Alexander I finished project of the building, so in 1816 there was a new building of the exchange to which it moved to, but nowadays there is located the exposition of the Central naval museum.
The stock market in Saint-Petersburg is considered to be one of the oldest and powerful in Europe, although at first, it did not make a valuable contribution to the Russian economy because it was artificially established without straight necessity. Summing it up, we would like to emphasize the great importance of the stock market in the world’s economy. As we can see from the history, the stock exchange gave an opportunity for a number of countries to develop in various ways. First of all, it facilitated market relations to pass to the new level.
Finally, nowadays it s rather simple for everyone to participate in the industrial growth of the economy, in other words, stock exchange provides transfer of the savings in the investment, passing an intermediary of the commercial banks. However, banks and stock exchanges are not antagonists; they cooperate with each other in order to work for the national economy. Thus, stock market provides a large variety for the investment to the different people due to making the investment attractive to the investors. Crook unconscionable meatball: 1) Lance David, Neal Larry. | <urn:uuid:998e7bb4-2a58-499b-a51a-e484bb320145> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://benjaminbarber.org/history-of-stock-exchange-3/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00399.warc.gz | en | 0.981024 | 2,110 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.28984406590461... | 1 | History of stock exchange
They appeared several thousand years ago as a result of the economic unions, division of abort and economic isolation of producers. It is important to remember that market relations are based on exchange. Exchange means to get or to relinquish something by means of an other side. The barter is said to be the most primitive form of it. A service or a good is straight furnished in exchange for another. It goes without saying that the market relations have their own rules: every exchange must be of the same equality, the good provided must have a market utility similar to the good received.
The law of quality measures this value by the labor time which has been spent to produce the good exchanged. The use of a special commodity as an overall equivalent, money (in some ancient societies livestock or Just metallic pieces, notes, bank money, etc. ), thus makes it possible to exchange goods quickly and with high level of flexibility, and proposes the possibility of accumulating value. However, we would like to mention one of the most popular elements of market relations – stock exchange (stock market).
As we can see from the book “The Stock Exchanges” by Chuckling, stock exchange is an organization, which provides services for traders and stock brokers to trade stocks, bonds, and other securities. It also gives facilities for different financial instruments, but first of all, stock markets work with shares and bonds. It is necessary to underline that stock market does not sell or buy any securities in itself. It Just supplies the necessary facilities and infrastructure for exchange in securities to brokers and members who trade them.
It regulates the trade activities in order to assure fair and free trade. All the bargains in securities at History of stock exchange By thought_of_life other investors have no permit to enter in the trading circles of the stock market. On he whole, it is vital to note the main functions of the stock market. First of all, it redistributes money resources on the purpose of the investment. Moreover, stock exchange redistributes financial risks. The method of distribution of financial risk is based on its partial transfer to partners in various operations.
Therefore, partners, who are able to neutralize negative consequences of financial risks as much as it is possible and who also have more effective variants of internal insurance protection, are eventually given that part. What is more, stock market discloses and directs the information about profitability and the liquidity which influences investment decisions. Finally, as it has been already mentioned, stock exchange shows the state of the economy in general and its financial sector. It reflects the level of the economic stability of a nation.
More and more people acknowledge the utility and importance of stock market for the reason that it is very beneficial to invest in developing enterprises, corporations and economy on the whole. Thus, it gives an opportunity to an investor to take part in the industrial development of the country. Stock exchange sakes it possible to recognize the true market value of investment owing to price list and reports published by the experts of exchange. Specialists thoroughly observe the rise and drop of the market, so that people can predict when it is the best moment to purchase or to sell shares.
But in our opinion we can hardly talk about stock market and its significance without knowing its history. The history of stock market’s foundation is utterly interesting. First of all, dealers gathered at certain places and tried to sell some goods. Of course, we should not forget that in that time approximately end of the II century) goods were presented at the auctions. Later the Marseilles merchants asked for a special place because sometimes the auctions were postponed due to the bad weather. Since then the public sales have been allocated.
Meantime, besides the goods, bills were also offered as well, and some of the well- provided merchants could give loans. But after a while the auctions have become a place only for s price contracts. The word “stock exchange” has appeared in Bridge, Flanders. All trading concourses were organized in this city near the famous square e Burse (FRR. – purse). As the name of the house’s owner on that square was Bursa, places for business and financial transactions were named after him. Since then it has gradually changed into a stock exchange. Then we can see the developing of the stock market approximately in the XIII-XIV centuries.
At first, it was as a bills trade – during that period a lot of regular bill markets and fairs came into being and then some of them disappeared. In other words, bills trade aroused the necessity of the professionals who engaged in transactions with securities, and also it was significant o have a place, where all the operations with securities were made. However, as it seems in the modern world, the stock market was formed due to the influence of the emissions, which were pursued by the government, and foundations of the first Joint- stock companies.
These companies had been founded in England and Holland at the period of time between the end of the XVI and the beginning of the XVII centuries. There were the Dutch Incorporated Cost-landing company, and also the English Baltic, Moscow and Elevating companies whose shares became the object of a trade at stock exchanges in Holland and England. Let us allude some of the greatest stock economy. In the XVII century trading activity became really successful in Amsterdam as Holland had made huge steps in developing its economy.
It is essential to add that the Amsterdam stock market made bases of the technical and the organization of the exchange turn. Along with transactions in cash, new transactions appeared, such as operations where transfer of securities and its payment occurred after certain time. For this reason, it is not a great surprise that the first stock market in contemporary understanding of this word appeared in that city. All bargains with securities of the world were operated in Amsterdam. As a result all money resources began to be flown down to the Netherlands. However, in the XVIII century Great Britain started to dominate on that field.
It occupied the Dutch place and became a new trade centre of the Europe. Especially rapid development happened when the Bank of England was founded because after that there appeared an enormous amount of various Joint- stock companies and many state bonds were released. In addition, in 1773 brokers received a separate building and for the first time there was an inscription “Stock Exchange”. By the middle of the XIX century London had become a peculiar storage not only for money resources of Great Britain, but also of other countries in Europe and even America.
Nevertheless, we would like to focus on one more well-known stock exchange. In the end of the XVIII century, more specifically in 1792, a meeting of twenty four traders led to a creation of a market, which was named the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE). Later, in the mid-asses, United States was growing rapidly. Companies were in need of funds to be supported in expansion to correspond to the new demand. Besides, companies acknowledged that investors would be interested in buying shares to possess a part of the company. Therefore, stocks have assisted the expansion of the companies.
The great potential and utility of the newly founded stock exchange were becoming evident to both the investors and the companies. Perhaps, any other establishment did not draw scientists’, Journalists’ and writers’ attention as the New York stock exchange. It was connected with that huge role which she had played in second half XIX ? beginning of XX century in development of the American capitalism. Meantime, management of the NYSE and its brokers began to cooperate with a majority of European companies, stock markets and banks.
Also, NYSE and the stock exchange of the Saint-Petersburg had established business relations by 1880. But Frankly speaking, it was the beginning of the XX century when the first agreements with Russian companies were mentioned. In our country a lot of stock exchanges were formed in XVIII-XIX centuries. Initially, there were presented goods such as furs, bread, sugar and salt, but then bonds and shares became also extremely popular due to the development of the economy of the country. After the October Revolution, exchanges stopped their activity and resume to operate with securities only in 1990.
By the way, Peter I was a founder of the stock market in the Russian Empire. It was founded in 1703 after Peters visit to Holland and at that time it looked like a meeting of merchants on the Troikas square near to the port. In 1721 the first building of the exchange which was settled down opposite to Costing dove, was constructed, but unfortunately, it has not remained until nowadays. The stock exchange was formed by an example of the largest European trading corporations, ND in the beginning of its history it was a place of transactions of foreign merchants started to taking part in trades.
However, their operations basically concluded export and import wholesale transactions. In the end of the XVIII century Catherine II decided to improve Vacillates Island, and in 1783 building of the stock exchange began. Although it was suspended for the financial reasons, later Alexander I finished project of the building, so in 1816 there was a new building of the exchange to which it moved to, but nowadays there is located the exposition of the Central naval museum.
The stock market in Saint-Petersburg is considered to be one of the oldest and powerful in Europe, although at first, it did not make a valuable contribution to the Russian economy because it was artificially established without straight necessity. Summing it up, we would like to emphasize the great importance of the stock market in the world’s economy. As we can see from the history, the stock exchange gave an opportunity for a number of countries to develop in various ways. First of all, it facilitated market relations to pass to the new level.
Finally, nowadays it s rather simple for everyone to participate in the industrial growth of the economy, in other words, stock exchange provides transfer of the savings in the investment, passing an intermediary of the commercial banks. However, banks and stock exchanges are not antagonists; they cooperate with each other in order to work for the national economy. Thus, stock market provides a large variety for the investment to the different people due to making the investment attractive to the investors. Crook unconscionable meatball: 1) Lance David, Neal Larry. | 2,094 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Human beings have different characteristics from each other. The way that one person is socialized is not the same way that another person will be socialized. Cultural backgrounds are different, and people tend to stick to their cultural teachings. It is important to note that ethnocentrism is the fact that each human being is unable to avoid. Each person is taught to believe that his or her cultural assumptions are supreme compared to other cultures.
As a result, racism has found its way into the day-to-day activities of people in society. The most heartbreaking thing is that one person can discriminate against another because of their skin color, but that is the veracity that people have had to live with. In the US, for example, the relationship between people of different races has never been smooth. This has prompted friction in relationships between various races for a long time now.
African Americans, as well as American Indians, were for a long time viewed as being inferior to their white counterparts. Whites were accorded special treatment in every place that they went while African Americans and Indians were not considered. Up to around 1970s, white children had their schools that were well equipped.
They had school buses to take the children to school and schools were many, thus reducing the distance that children had to walk to school (Davis 53). On the contrary, schools designated for black children were few and ill-equipped. This meant that black children had to walk long distances to reach school.
Because of the few number schools that were built for black people, the schools were usually overcrowded and therefore unable to provide quality education. That was not the only place where racism was practiced. In the public transport sector, whites and blacks could not mix. A white person no matter the age had to sit before a black person would sit.
On the same note, black people would only sit at the back of the bus while all whites had to sit in the front rows. Parks, as well as other public amenities, were also divided on the grounds of race. Whites had their places where they could go, and blacks knew that they were not supposed to mix with whites (Feagin 78). Even in places of employment, blacks were relegated and were only considered for the manual and low paying jobs.
Similarly, mechanisms were put in place to ensure that relationships between the oppressed and the oppressors were defined and clear. Some of the African Americans and American Indians had been brainwashed to the belief that they were inferior to their white counterparts. Children were trained from their very young age on how to relate with each other. White children were taught to avoid black children because they were not equal.
Playing was to take place when children involved were of the same race. Having friends from another race was problematic, and these did not matter whether it was among the whites or the blacks (Baker 24).
It was bad to the extent that even African Americans taught their children that there some things in society which were only meant for the white people. It is important to note that even the oppressed groups contributed or contribute to the escalation of racism. By believing and agreeing to the idea that some aspects in society are specifically meant for others, the oppressed people provide leeway for the oppressors to achieve their goal.
Notably, the main aim of racist activities is to segregate the oppressed and reduce the chances of meeting each other (Racism: A History). Consequently, if the oppressed start was avoiding chances of them encountering racism, they help in propelling racism activities.
Arguably, the question that many people ask themselves is why human beings should discriminate against each other. Notably, people tend to classify others in various categories. They do these based on social status, economic ability, age, and color, among other issues. Moreover, the cultural teachings that people receive when they are growing up tend to instill into them the idea of cultural superiority.
Therefore, consciously or unconsciously people exhibit racist characteristics. Relationships among people of the same race are usually not the same as those among people from different races (Chin 154). People are usually at ease when they relate with people from their race.
Nevertheless, many people exhibit friction tendencies when they are socializing with people from other different races. On the same note, people usually tend to relate evil things to people from other races. For example, in the US, most whites relate bad issues to blacks.
It is important to note that racism has very dire effects on society. The first and probably more notable effect is the unbalanced development of regions. The superior group usually concentrates development projects on their areas and forgets about the areas where the minorities live. This is evident in various parts of the US.
It should be noted that while areas that were dominantly inhabited by the whites are highly developed, other areas are poor and miss even the basic amenities.
The reservations, for example, where most American Indians live are lacking in many aspects (Racism: A History). Electricity is a challenge, and many homesteads do not have access to it. On the same note, roads and other infrastructure are not as developed as they are in areas where white people have been living from early times.
Also, racism is likely to lead to friction in society. The oppressed will not sit down and wait while they are denied what they think is their right. It is the nature of human beings to revolt in case there is something that they do not like. As tension increases among people in society, it becomes difficult to execute some development plans. Moreover, violence against each group of the divide is highly possible in societies where there is racism.
Probably, the worst vice of racism is its contribution to slavery. Slave trade that took place in the ancient times was propagated by racist tendencies. Colonialists also took advantage of the racial tensions to advance their activities. In some instances, there are murders and massacres that have been propagated by racism (Chin 167).
On the same note, there are cases where people have committed suicide after experiencing racist actions either at workplaces or at any other instance. All these have contributed to increasing division among people and threatening peace and harmony in society.
Arguably, racism also leads to instances of discrimination from the oppressed to the oppressors. Once a person from the minority race has been involved in racism instances, he or she will most likely retaliate (Feagin 156). As a result, when he or she has the opportunity of discriminating against somebody, they will most definitely do so. Violence has mostly been the result leading to injuries and sometimes death.
There has, however, been resistance to racism in many ways. From ancient times, many people try to avoid finding themselves in situations where they will witness racist actions. As a result, people from the minority group will always stay together and even operates in areas where they dominate. This was seen as a means of empowering themselves to resist any racist tendency.
Nevertheless, African Americans in the United States have historically been known to be vocal against racism. The likes of Martin Luther King Jr. and other organized people to stand up and demand their rights. In most instances, the fight against racism has been nonviolent with boycotts and peaceful demonstrations being the main weapons (Baker 76). Nonetheless, there are instances where the fight degenerated to violent actions.
Civil rights groups have also been vital in the fight against racism. It has been the idea of the minority groups that forming a group will help in enhancing their voice, thus enabling them to register their dissatisfactions more effectively. Moreover, the government has helped by coming up with laws that prohibit racist activities.
African American fought their way into government and drafted laws that barred people from discriminating each other (Davis 65). Courts have also been vital in the fight against racism. Several black people have gone to court to seek redress of issues they thought that they are violating their basic rights.
It is the courts, for example, which determined that separation of schools for the blacks and whites was against the law. However, it should be noted that the fight against racism begun by single individuals choosing to stand up and demand equal treatment.
Baker, Johnny. How Prayer Kept Jasper, TX From Disaster: Racism in America Alive and Well. Bloomington: AuthorHouse, 2008. Print.
Chin, Jean L. The Psychology of Prejudice and Discrimination: Racism in America. Westport: Greenwood Publishing, 2004. Print.
Davis, Andre D. The God-Defined Self: A Layman’s Perspective On Racism in America. City: Strategic Book Publishing, 2010. Print.
Feagin, Joe R. Racist America: Roots, Current Realities, and Future Reparations. London: Routledge, 2012. Print.
Racism: A History. Dir. Paul Tickell. Perf. David Okufuena, Chris Wyatt, and Stephen J. Brand. British Broadcasting Corporation, 2007. DVD. | <urn:uuid:12d92496-1952-4821-bda1-ee6e6e3cd946> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ivypanda.com/essays/social-issues-racism-in-america/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00425.warc.gz | en | 0.985371 | 1,825 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
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0.169659540057... | 2 | Human beings have different characteristics from each other. The way that one person is socialized is not the same way that another person will be socialized. Cultural backgrounds are different, and people tend to stick to their cultural teachings. It is important to note that ethnocentrism is the fact that each human being is unable to avoid. Each person is taught to believe that his or her cultural assumptions are supreme compared to other cultures.
As a result, racism has found its way into the day-to-day activities of people in society. The most heartbreaking thing is that one person can discriminate against another because of their skin color, but that is the veracity that people have had to live with. In the US, for example, the relationship between people of different races has never been smooth. This has prompted friction in relationships between various races for a long time now.
African Americans, as well as American Indians, were for a long time viewed as being inferior to their white counterparts. Whites were accorded special treatment in every place that they went while African Americans and Indians were not considered. Up to around 1970s, white children had their schools that were well equipped.
They had school buses to take the children to school and schools were many, thus reducing the distance that children had to walk to school (Davis 53). On the contrary, schools designated for black children were few and ill-equipped. This meant that black children had to walk long distances to reach school.
Because of the few number schools that were built for black people, the schools were usually overcrowded and therefore unable to provide quality education. That was not the only place where racism was practiced. In the public transport sector, whites and blacks could not mix. A white person no matter the age had to sit before a black person would sit.
On the same note, black people would only sit at the back of the bus while all whites had to sit in the front rows. Parks, as well as other public amenities, were also divided on the grounds of race. Whites had their places where they could go, and blacks knew that they were not supposed to mix with whites (Feagin 78). Even in places of employment, blacks were relegated and were only considered for the manual and low paying jobs.
Similarly, mechanisms were put in place to ensure that relationships between the oppressed and the oppressors were defined and clear. Some of the African Americans and American Indians had been brainwashed to the belief that they were inferior to their white counterparts. Children were trained from their very young age on how to relate with each other. White children were taught to avoid black children because they were not equal.
Playing was to take place when children involved were of the same race. Having friends from another race was problematic, and these did not matter whether it was among the whites or the blacks (Baker 24).
It was bad to the extent that even African Americans taught their children that there some things in society which were only meant for the white people. It is important to note that even the oppressed groups contributed or contribute to the escalation of racism. By believing and agreeing to the idea that some aspects in society are specifically meant for others, the oppressed people provide leeway for the oppressors to achieve their goal.
Notably, the main aim of racist activities is to segregate the oppressed and reduce the chances of meeting each other (Racism: A History). Consequently, if the oppressed start was avoiding chances of them encountering racism, they help in propelling racism activities.
Arguably, the question that many people ask themselves is why human beings should discriminate against each other. Notably, people tend to classify others in various categories. They do these based on social status, economic ability, age, and color, among other issues. Moreover, the cultural teachings that people receive when they are growing up tend to instill into them the idea of cultural superiority.
Therefore, consciously or unconsciously people exhibit racist characteristics. Relationships among people of the same race are usually not the same as those among people from different races (Chin 154). People are usually at ease when they relate with people from their race.
Nevertheless, many people exhibit friction tendencies when they are socializing with people from other different races. On the same note, people usually tend to relate evil things to people from other races. For example, in the US, most whites relate bad issues to blacks.
It is important to note that racism has very dire effects on society. The first and probably more notable effect is the unbalanced development of regions. The superior group usually concentrates development projects on their areas and forgets about the areas where the minorities live. This is evident in various parts of the US.
It should be noted that while areas that were dominantly inhabited by the whites are highly developed, other areas are poor and miss even the basic amenities.
The reservations, for example, where most American Indians live are lacking in many aspects (Racism: A History). Electricity is a challenge, and many homesteads do not have access to it. On the same note, roads and other infrastructure are not as developed as they are in areas where white people have been living from early times.
Also, racism is likely to lead to friction in society. The oppressed will not sit down and wait while they are denied what they think is their right. It is the nature of human beings to revolt in case there is something that they do not like. As tension increases among people in society, it becomes difficult to execute some development plans. Moreover, violence against each group of the divide is highly possible in societies where there is racism.
Probably, the worst vice of racism is its contribution to slavery. Slave trade that took place in the ancient times was propagated by racist tendencies. Colonialists also took advantage of the racial tensions to advance their activities. In some instances, there are murders and massacres that have been propagated by racism (Chin 167).
On the same note, there are cases where people have committed suicide after experiencing racist actions either at workplaces or at any other instance. All these have contributed to increasing division among people and threatening peace and harmony in society.
Arguably, racism also leads to instances of discrimination from the oppressed to the oppressors. Once a person from the minority race has been involved in racism instances, he or she will most likely retaliate (Feagin 156). As a result, when he or she has the opportunity of discriminating against somebody, they will most definitely do so. Violence has mostly been the result leading to injuries and sometimes death.
There has, however, been resistance to racism in many ways. From ancient times, many people try to avoid finding themselves in situations where they will witness racist actions. As a result, people from the minority group will always stay together and even operates in areas where they dominate. This was seen as a means of empowering themselves to resist any racist tendency.
Nevertheless, African Americans in the United States have historically been known to be vocal against racism. The likes of Martin Luther King Jr. and other organized people to stand up and demand their rights. In most instances, the fight against racism has been nonviolent with boycotts and peaceful demonstrations being the main weapons (Baker 76). Nonetheless, there are instances where the fight degenerated to violent actions.
Civil rights groups have also been vital in the fight against racism. It has been the idea of the minority groups that forming a group will help in enhancing their voice, thus enabling them to register their dissatisfactions more effectively. Moreover, the government has helped by coming up with laws that prohibit racist activities.
African American fought their way into government and drafted laws that barred people from discriminating each other (Davis 65). Courts have also been vital in the fight against racism. Several black people have gone to court to seek redress of issues they thought that they are violating their basic rights.
It is the courts, for example, which determined that separation of schools for the blacks and whites was against the law. However, it should be noted that the fight against racism begun by single individuals choosing to stand up and demand equal treatment.
Baker, Johnny. How Prayer Kept Jasper, TX From Disaster: Racism in America Alive and Well. Bloomington: AuthorHouse, 2008. Print.
Chin, Jean L. The Psychology of Prejudice and Discrimination: Racism in America. Westport: Greenwood Publishing, 2004. Print.
Davis, Andre D. The God-Defined Self: A Layman’s Perspective On Racism in America. City: Strategic Book Publishing, 2010. Print.
Feagin, Joe R. Racist America: Roots, Current Realities, and Future Reparations. London: Routledge, 2012. Print.
Racism: A History. Dir. Paul Tickell. Perf. David Okufuena, Chris Wyatt, and Stephen J. Brand. British Broadcasting Corporation, 2007. DVD. | 1,842 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The evolution and elevation of the Mosaic teaching has influenced almost one half of the world, and still does even in the twenty-first century. While Moses comprehended the more advanced Egyptian religious philosophy, the Bedouin slaves knew little about such teachings, but they had never entirely forgotten the god of Mount Horeb, whom their ancestors had called Yahweh.
Moses had heard of the teachings of Machiventa Melchizedek from both his father and his mother, their commonness of religious belief being the explanation for the unusual union between a woman of royal blood and a man from a captive race. Moses’ father-in-law was a Kenite worshiper of El Elyon, but the emancipator’s parents were believers in El Shaddai. Moses thus was educated an El Shaddaist; through the influence of his father-in-law he became an El Elyonist; and by the time of the Hebrew encampment about Mount Sinai after the flight from Egypt, he had formulated a new and enlarged concept of Deity (derived from all his former beliefs), which he wisely decided to proclaim to his people as an expanded concept of their olden tribal god, Yahweh.
Moses had endeavored to teach these Bedouins the idea of El Elyon, but before leaving Egypt, he had become convinced they would never fully comprehend this doctrine. Therefore he deliberately determined upon the compromise adoption of their tribal god of the desert as the one and only god of his followers. Moses did not specifically teach that other peoples and nations might not have other gods, but he did resolutely maintain that Yahweh was over and above all, especially to the Hebrews. But always was he plagued by the awkward predicament of trying to present his new and higher idea of Deity to these ignorant slaves under the guise of the ancient term Yahweh, which had always been symbolized by the golden calf of the Bedouin tribes.
The fact that Yahweh was the god of the fleeing Hebrews explains why they tarried so long before the holy mountain of Sinai, and why they there received the ten commandments which Moses promulgated in the name of Yahweh, the god of Horeb. During this lengthy sojourn before Sinai the religious ceremonials of the newly evolving Hebrew worship were further perfected.
It does not appear that Moses would ever have succeeded in the establishment of his somewhat advanced ceremonial worship and in keeping his followers intact for a quarter of a century had it not been for the violent eruption of Horeb during the third week of their worshipful sojourn at its base. “The mountain of Yahweh was consumed in fire, and the smoke ascended like the smoke of a furnace, and the whole mountain quaked greatly.” In view of this cataclysm it is not surprising that Moses could impress upon his brethren the teaching that their God was “mighty, terrible, a devouring fire, fearful, and all-powerful.”
Moses proclaimed that Yahweh was the Lord God of Israel, who had singled out the Hebrews as his chosen people; he was building a new nation, and he wisely nationalized his religious teachings, telling his followers that Yahweh was a hard taskmaster, a “jealous God.” But none the less he sought to enlarge their concept of divinity when he taught them that Yahweh was the “God of the spirits of all flesh,” and when he said, “The eternal God is your refuge, and underneath are the everlasting arms.” Moses taught that Yahweh was a covenant-keeping God; that he “will not forsake you, neither destroy you, nor forget the covenant of your fathers because the Lord loves you and will not forget the oath by which he swore to your fathers.”
Moses made a heroic effort to uplift Yahweh to the dignity of a supreme Deity when he presented him as the “God of truth and without iniquity, just and right in all his ways.” And yet, despite this exalted teaching, the limited understanding of his followers made it necessary to speak of God as being in man’s image, as being subject to fits of anger, wrath, and severity, even that he was vengeful and easily influenced by man’s conduct.
Under the teachings of Moses this tribal nature god, Yahweh, became the Lord God of Israel, who followed them through the wilderness and even into exile, where he presently was conceived of as the God of all peoples. The later captivity that enslaved the Jews in Babylon finally liberated the evolving concept of Yahweh to assume the monotheistic role of the God of all nations.
The most unique and amazing feature of the religious history of the Hebrews concerns this continuous evolution of the concept of Deity from the primitive god of Mount Horeb up through the teachings of their successive spiritual leaders to the high level of development depicted in the Deity doctrines of the Isaiah, who proclaimed that magnificent concept of the loving and merciful’ Creator Father.
Free PDF Download: Machiventa Melchizedek
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-0.0076898946... | 11 | The evolution and elevation of the Mosaic teaching has influenced almost one half of the world, and still does even in the twenty-first century. While Moses comprehended the more advanced Egyptian religious philosophy, the Bedouin slaves knew little about such teachings, but they had never entirely forgotten the god of Mount Horeb, whom their ancestors had called Yahweh.
Moses had heard of the teachings of Machiventa Melchizedek from both his father and his mother, their commonness of religious belief being the explanation for the unusual union between a woman of royal blood and a man from a captive race. Moses’ father-in-law was a Kenite worshiper of El Elyon, but the emancipator’s parents were believers in El Shaddai. Moses thus was educated an El Shaddaist; through the influence of his father-in-law he became an El Elyonist; and by the time of the Hebrew encampment about Mount Sinai after the flight from Egypt, he had formulated a new and enlarged concept of Deity (derived from all his former beliefs), which he wisely decided to proclaim to his people as an expanded concept of their olden tribal god, Yahweh.
Moses had endeavored to teach these Bedouins the idea of El Elyon, but before leaving Egypt, he had become convinced they would never fully comprehend this doctrine. Therefore he deliberately determined upon the compromise adoption of their tribal god of the desert as the one and only god of his followers. Moses did not specifically teach that other peoples and nations might not have other gods, but he did resolutely maintain that Yahweh was over and above all, especially to the Hebrews. But always was he plagued by the awkward predicament of trying to present his new and higher idea of Deity to these ignorant slaves under the guise of the ancient term Yahweh, which had always been symbolized by the golden calf of the Bedouin tribes.
The fact that Yahweh was the god of the fleeing Hebrews explains why they tarried so long before the holy mountain of Sinai, and why they there received the ten commandments which Moses promulgated in the name of Yahweh, the god of Horeb. During this lengthy sojourn before Sinai the religious ceremonials of the newly evolving Hebrew worship were further perfected.
It does not appear that Moses would ever have succeeded in the establishment of his somewhat advanced ceremonial worship and in keeping his followers intact for a quarter of a century had it not been for the violent eruption of Horeb during the third week of their worshipful sojourn at its base. “The mountain of Yahweh was consumed in fire, and the smoke ascended like the smoke of a furnace, and the whole mountain quaked greatly.” In view of this cataclysm it is not surprising that Moses could impress upon his brethren the teaching that their God was “mighty, terrible, a devouring fire, fearful, and all-powerful.”
Moses proclaimed that Yahweh was the Lord God of Israel, who had singled out the Hebrews as his chosen people; he was building a new nation, and he wisely nationalized his religious teachings, telling his followers that Yahweh was a hard taskmaster, a “jealous God.” But none the less he sought to enlarge their concept of divinity when he taught them that Yahweh was the “God of the spirits of all flesh,” and when he said, “The eternal God is your refuge, and underneath are the everlasting arms.” Moses taught that Yahweh was a covenant-keeping God; that he “will not forsake you, neither destroy you, nor forget the covenant of your fathers because the Lord loves you and will not forget the oath by which he swore to your fathers.”
Moses made a heroic effort to uplift Yahweh to the dignity of a supreme Deity when he presented him as the “God of truth and without iniquity, just and right in all his ways.” And yet, despite this exalted teaching, the limited understanding of his followers made it necessary to speak of God as being in man’s image, as being subject to fits of anger, wrath, and severity, even that he was vengeful and easily influenced by man’s conduct.
Under the teachings of Moses this tribal nature god, Yahweh, became the Lord God of Israel, who followed them through the wilderness and even into exile, where he presently was conceived of as the God of all peoples. The later captivity that enslaved the Jews in Babylon finally liberated the evolving concept of Yahweh to assume the monotheistic role of the God of all nations.
The most unique and amazing feature of the religious history of the Hebrews concerns this continuous evolution of the concept of Deity from the primitive god of Mount Horeb up through the teachings of their successive spiritual leaders to the high level of development depicted in the Deity doctrines of the Isaiah, who proclaimed that magnificent concept of the loving and merciful’ Creator Father.
Free PDF Download: Machiventa Melchizedek
Amazon Kindle and Paperback Editions: Machiventa Melchizedek | 1,049 | ENGLISH | 1 |
No man did more to bring photography to ordinary people than did George Eastman (1854-1932). Eastman, who had two sisters, was born into a successful family on a small farm in upstate New York. When his father’s health began to fail the family moved to Rochester, NY. His father would die in 1862 when young George was eight and his mother was forced to take in boarders in order to make ends meet.
Among those boarders would be the Henry Strong family. Strong would become and remain a life-long friend and business partner of Eastman (he served as president of Eastman Kodak from its inception until his death in 1919). As for George, he would begin working full time at age 14 as an office boy (his workweek was 10 hours per day, six days per week at $3 per week). Eastman was a smart and diligent young man who was steadily advancing in the work world.
At seventeen, he began work for a Rochester insurance company for a salary of $41 per month plus the $8 per month he earned as a volunteer fireman, and by age 20 he was making $700 per year as a clerk at the Rochester Savings Bank. A year later he received a promotion to a position at a salary of $1,000 per year, which would be fine salary at the time for a middle-aged married man with.a family. It must have seemed a princely sum for the 20-year old bachelor.
In 1877, Eastman bought a camera and took up photography as a hobby. Photography at that time was neither an inexpensive nor a quick and easy hobby to take up. His first photography “kit” was of the collodion or wet plate process and cost $50. The kit included a large, heavy camera, a tripod, a plate holder for photographic plates, a tent which would serve as a darkroom, a nitrate bath, and several bottles of various chemicals. In order to take a photograph with his kit, he needed to be in darkroom tent (closed) and perform the following steps; coat a glass plate with a thin solution of egg white, then lay an emulsion of gun cotton and alcohol mixed with bromide salts, when the emulsion was set but still moist dip the plate in a solution of nitrate of silver and shield it from light as he put it in the camera. Eastman thought there had to be an easier way to prepare to take photographs. He then took it upon himself to find that way.
And pursue it he did. Although he had no training in chemistry, he read photography journals, contacted professional photographers and picked their brains, and experimented endlessly in the lab he set up for that purpose (he worked in the lab from the time he got off work each day until breakfast the following morning on a daily basis). Two years later he had invented an emulsion that enabled exposures to be made with a dry plate and had further designed a machine to coat the plates in quantity and had set up a business selling the plates (the Eastman Dry Plate Company) and obtained patents in both the United States and England (which was the photographic capital of the world at the time). Of course Eastman was far from the only one pursuing better photographic methods. Among the others were two brothers, David and Peter Houston of Cambria, Wisconsin who had developed and patented roll film and a roll film holder which was eventually licensed to Eastman’s company.
Even with the roll film license, the Eastman company continued to experiment and make improvements with roll film and the roll film process. In 1888, Eastman would bring a product to market that would revolutionize photography. That product was a roll film camera Eastman called the Kodak Model No. 1. How he came up with the name Kodak is not entirely clear. He said he liked the letter K, it sounded strong and he also thought that the word would be pronounced the same in every language (whether that’s the case I know not). The small camera fit in a cardboard box(3-1/4″ x 3-3/4″ X 6-1/2″ in length) had an imitation leather finish and nickel fittings. As for the camera itself, the 57 mm lens was centered on one face along the longitudinal axis, there was no viewfinder – a V notched into the case indicated the direction to aim the camera, the lever to rewind and advance the film and a string pull to wind the barrel shutter to tension were located on the top of the box, and the lens was fixed-focus but it had a great depth of field which allowed for focused images from as near as several feet away. The camera came with a pre-loaded 100 exposure roll of film but had no exposure counter for which Kodak provided each camera owner with a Kodak Memorandum which provided a means by which the camera’s owner could keep track of the pictures she’s taken. When the roll was finished the owner would mail in the camera to Kodak and Kodak would develop the film which produced circular photos 2-1/2 inches in diameter, reload the camera with another 100 exposure roll and return the package within 10 days for 10 dollars.
The Kodak Model 1 was a success and can be said to have created the concept of the amateur photographer. In the first year, 13,000 people bought the Kodak; but, at a price of $25 it was still out of reach for many. Within a year or two the camera would be equipped with a viewfinder, transparent nitrocellulose film (a major breakthrough), an exposure counter and a lens that could be adjusted to several pre-set values. This process of continual refinement and improvement of its’ products on an annual basis would become standard operating procedure for the company. Although Eastman had little formal education, he saw the value in having technically trained employees and he hired college-trained chemists and engineers early on both to work on existing products but also to pursue research into technologies that did not yet exist so that Kodak could be the first there. Before discussing the Brownie I should note that the main designer for the Model No. 1 (and the Brownie as well) was Frank Brownell. Brownell, a Canadian by birth, had moved to upstate New York and was working as a cabinet maker when Eastman first contracted with him to make parts for a rollfilm holder.
In 1900 Eastman introduced the Kodak Brownie. Rarely in history has a product been both such a success (both immediate and long-term) and so impactful. The Brownie was a small, cheap (it sold for $1) box camera with a fixed-focus lens with a depth of field (f/14 aperture) such that pictures were in focus from several feet to infinity. The roll film for the camera, which produced 2-1/4″ square photos, was sold separately in six exposure rolls for a dime, while that six exposure roll would be developed by Kodak for 15 cents. In the first year, 150,000 Brownies were sold and the Brownie camera in one form or another was part of the Kodak product line for the better part of eight decades. Now anyone could afford a camera!
Regarding the Brownie moniker; it referred to the cartoon characters The Brownies created by Palmer Cox, which were popular at the time. And this gets me to the last item about Eastman Kodak I wanted to touch on – advertising. Although I think both the Kodak Model 1 (1888) and (especially) the Brownie would’ve been commercial successes without the aggressive and innovative marketing by Eastman because of the previously unknown need they satisfied to memorialize events by taking pictures, the Eastman advertising certainly didn’t hurt. The marketing for the 1888 Model 1 emphasized the ease of operation of the camera “You press the button – – – – – We do the rest.” The marketing also reminded people of the three simple steps involved with the Kodak – 1) turn the key (to wind the film), 2) pull the string (to set the shutter, and 3) press the button (to take the picture. Simple, right? With the Brownie that ease of operation aspect was still a part of the tale. However, the Brownie was also specifically advertised as something young children could easily and safely take part in as picture takers. That was part of the reason behind the Brownie name. And, finally from the beginning Eastman advertising featured women as picture takers. Oh, and other thing they attempted to make the work Kodak into a verb as well as a noun as in “Let the Children Kodak.”
For those who might be interested, pasted below is a short four and a half minute video showing the workings of the Kodak Brownie.
I think this 1969 song by the Kinks – “People Take Pictures of Each Other” is as good a way as any to end this post. | <urn:uuid:9389c522-9d0e-4dab-9fa7-12149ff101cb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ricochet.com/712607/snapshot-the-kodak-brownie/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00384.warc.gz | en | 0.984223 | 1,862 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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-0... | 1 | No man did more to bring photography to ordinary people than did George Eastman (1854-1932). Eastman, who had two sisters, was born into a successful family on a small farm in upstate New York. When his father’s health began to fail the family moved to Rochester, NY. His father would die in 1862 when young George was eight and his mother was forced to take in boarders in order to make ends meet.
Among those boarders would be the Henry Strong family. Strong would become and remain a life-long friend and business partner of Eastman (he served as president of Eastman Kodak from its inception until his death in 1919). As for George, he would begin working full time at age 14 as an office boy (his workweek was 10 hours per day, six days per week at $3 per week). Eastman was a smart and diligent young man who was steadily advancing in the work world.
At seventeen, he began work for a Rochester insurance company for a salary of $41 per month plus the $8 per month he earned as a volunteer fireman, and by age 20 he was making $700 per year as a clerk at the Rochester Savings Bank. A year later he received a promotion to a position at a salary of $1,000 per year, which would be fine salary at the time for a middle-aged married man with.a family. It must have seemed a princely sum for the 20-year old bachelor.
In 1877, Eastman bought a camera and took up photography as a hobby. Photography at that time was neither an inexpensive nor a quick and easy hobby to take up. His first photography “kit” was of the collodion or wet plate process and cost $50. The kit included a large, heavy camera, a tripod, a plate holder for photographic plates, a tent which would serve as a darkroom, a nitrate bath, and several bottles of various chemicals. In order to take a photograph with his kit, he needed to be in darkroom tent (closed) and perform the following steps; coat a glass plate with a thin solution of egg white, then lay an emulsion of gun cotton and alcohol mixed with bromide salts, when the emulsion was set but still moist dip the plate in a solution of nitrate of silver and shield it from light as he put it in the camera. Eastman thought there had to be an easier way to prepare to take photographs. He then took it upon himself to find that way.
And pursue it he did. Although he had no training in chemistry, he read photography journals, contacted professional photographers and picked their brains, and experimented endlessly in the lab he set up for that purpose (he worked in the lab from the time he got off work each day until breakfast the following morning on a daily basis). Two years later he had invented an emulsion that enabled exposures to be made with a dry plate and had further designed a machine to coat the plates in quantity and had set up a business selling the plates (the Eastman Dry Plate Company) and obtained patents in both the United States and England (which was the photographic capital of the world at the time). Of course Eastman was far from the only one pursuing better photographic methods. Among the others were two brothers, David and Peter Houston of Cambria, Wisconsin who had developed and patented roll film and a roll film holder which was eventually licensed to Eastman’s company.
Even with the roll film license, the Eastman company continued to experiment and make improvements with roll film and the roll film process. In 1888, Eastman would bring a product to market that would revolutionize photography. That product was a roll film camera Eastman called the Kodak Model No. 1. How he came up with the name Kodak is not entirely clear. He said he liked the letter K, it sounded strong and he also thought that the word would be pronounced the same in every language (whether that’s the case I know not). The small camera fit in a cardboard box(3-1/4″ x 3-3/4″ X 6-1/2″ in length) had an imitation leather finish and nickel fittings. As for the camera itself, the 57 mm lens was centered on one face along the longitudinal axis, there was no viewfinder – a V notched into the case indicated the direction to aim the camera, the lever to rewind and advance the film and a string pull to wind the barrel shutter to tension were located on the top of the box, and the lens was fixed-focus but it had a great depth of field which allowed for focused images from as near as several feet away. The camera came with a pre-loaded 100 exposure roll of film but had no exposure counter for which Kodak provided each camera owner with a Kodak Memorandum which provided a means by which the camera’s owner could keep track of the pictures she’s taken. When the roll was finished the owner would mail in the camera to Kodak and Kodak would develop the film which produced circular photos 2-1/2 inches in diameter, reload the camera with another 100 exposure roll and return the package within 10 days for 10 dollars.
The Kodak Model 1 was a success and can be said to have created the concept of the amateur photographer. In the first year, 13,000 people bought the Kodak; but, at a price of $25 it was still out of reach for many. Within a year or two the camera would be equipped with a viewfinder, transparent nitrocellulose film (a major breakthrough), an exposure counter and a lens that could be adjusted to several pre-set values. This process of continual refinement and improvement of its’ products on an annual basis would become standard operating procedure for the company. Although Eastman had little formal education, he saw the value in having technically trained employees and he hired college-trained chemists and engineers early on both to work on existing products but also to pursue research into technologies that did not yet exist so that Kodak could be the first there. Before discussing the Brownie I should note that the main designer for the Model No. 1 (and the Brownie as well) was Frank Brownell. Brownell, a Canadian by birth, had moved to upstate New York and was working as a cabinet maker when Eastman first contracted with him to make parts for a rollfilm holder.
In 1900 Eastman introduced the Kodak Brownie. Rarely in history has a product been both such a success (both immediate and long-term) and so impactful. The Brownie was a small, cheap (it sold for $1) box camera with a fixed-focus lens with a depth of field (f/14 aperture) such that pictures were in focus from several feet to infinity. The roll film for the camera, which produced 2-1/4″ square photos, was sold separately in six exposure rolls for a dime, while that six exposure roll would be developed by Kodak for 15 cents. In the first year, 150,000 Brownies were sold and the Brownie camera in one form or another was part of the Kodak product line for the better part of eight decades. Now anyone could afford a camera!
Regarding the Brownie moniker; it referred to the cartoon characters The Brownies created by Palmer Cox, which were popular at the time. And this gets me to the last item about Eastman Kodak I wanted to touch on – advertising. Although I think both the Kodak Model 1 (1888) and (especially) the Brownie would’ve been commercial successes without the aggressive and innovative marketing by Eastman because of the previously unknown need they satisfied to memorialize events by taking pictures, the Eastman advertising certainly didn’t hurt. The marketing for the 1888 Model 1 emphasized the ease of operation of the camera “You press the button – – – – – We do the rest.” The marketing also reminded people of the three simple steps involved with the Kodak – 1) turn the key (to wind the film), 2) pull the string (to set the shutter, and 3) press the button (to take the picture. Simple, right? With the Brownie that ease of operation aspect was still a part of the tale. However, the Brownie was also specifically advertised as something young children could easily and safely take part in as picture takers. That was part of the reason behind the Brownie name. And, finally from the beginning Eastman advertising featured women as picture takers. Oh, and other thing they attempted to make the work Kodak into a verb as well as a noun as in “Let the Children Kodak.”
For those who might be interested, pasted below is a short four and a half minute video showing the workings of the Kodak Brownie.
I think this 1969 song by the Kinks – “People Take Pictures of Each Other” is as good a way as any to end this post. | 1,898 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Haydock Collieries comprised several pits, some started in the 18th century, on land owned by the Leghs of Lyme around Haydock on the Lancashire CoalfieldThe Lancashire and Cheshire Coalfield in North West England was one of the most important British coalfields. Its coal seams were formed from the vegetation of tropical swampy forests in the Carboniferous period more than 300 million years ago. in north-west England. Richard Evans bought the Legh share of Turner and Legh after first acquiring Edge Green Colliery in 1830. After Turner’s death in 1847, the company became Richard Evans & Sons. Some pits were connected underground for ventilation and coal winding. Mining disasters Mining disasters in Lancashire in which five or more people were killed occurred most frequently in the 1850s, 1860s and 1870s. , mostly explosions of firedampDamps is the collective name given to all gases other than air found in coal mines in Great Britain. The chief pollutants are carbon dioxide and methane, known as blackdamp and firedamp respectively. , occurred in several pits, the worst was an explosion at Wood Pit that killed 189 men and boys on 7 June 1878.
The shallow coal measures around Haydock were worked from at least the 18th century when the major landowners were the Leghs of Lyme. Around 1830, the collieries, which had a horse-drawn tramway connection to the Sankey Canal, were owned by Thomas Legh and William Turner. A year later their collieries were connected to the railway network by a mineral line to the Warrington and Newton Railway at Newton Junction.
Richard Evans, (1778–1864), a printer from Paternoster Row in London, bought a share in Edge Green Colliery in Golborne in 1830. He bought Legh’s share of Turner and Legh’s business, which took the name Turner & Evans. When Turner died, in 1847, Evans acquired his share and the firm became Richard Evans & Sons. Two of Evans’ children, Josiah (1820–1873) and Henry (1823–1878) followed their father into the business. The company remained in the Evans’ family ownership until 1889 when it became a public limited company and remained as such until the formation of the National Coal Board in 1947.
The Haydock pits had access to considerable coal reserves but the workings were subject to flooding. Ram Pit sunk in 1901 never went into production because of flooding. Some pits were connected underground to rationalise winding operations and facilitate ventilation. In 1890 eight pits were working.
Four of the company’s pits survived to become part of the National Coal Board (NCB) in 1947. They were Golborne, Lyme Pits, Wood Pit and Old Boston which together employed 3,195 underground and 557 surface workers. The NCB’s St.Helens Area Central Workshops were at Haydock until 1963.
The company owned several pits in and around Haydock.
- Brynn Pit opened around 1870 and lasted until 1919.
- Downhall Green commenced winding in 1860 and lasted for 25 years.
- Edge Green opened before 1830 and finished winding coal in 1920.
- Engine Pit began winding in 1853 and finished in 1854.
- Golborne Colliery was started by Edward Johnson in 1878 and was bought by Evans and Company in 1880. It was still working 100 years later. In 1975 nearly 1000 men worked at the pit taking coal from the Crombouke, Lower Florida and Ince Six Feet mines.
- After Haydock Colliery closed, its workshops became the NCB Workshops. Its single-cylinder beam engine, used to drive the machinery until 1954, has been preserved.
- King Pit opened in 1891. It was connected underground to the Princess, Queen and Legh Pits.
- Legh Pit opened in 1855 and closed in 1911.
- Lyme Pit was started in 1876 but was shaft sinking was abandoned because the ingress of water could not be overcome by the technology of the time. Work recommenced in 1912 but was interrupted by the onset of the First World War. In 1919 shaft sinking again resumed and the first coal was produced in 1922. The colliery had three shafts. The downcast shaft, No. 1 was 395 yards (361 m) deep and wound coal from the Florida seam. The upcast shaft, No. 2, wound coal from the Potato Delf and Wigan Four Foot mines and No 3 shaft was used for pumping. The Lyme Pit disaster occurred in February 1930 killing 13 men. In 1964, 419 miners and 187 surface workers were employed. The pit closed in March that year.
- New Boston Colliery was sunk in 1854 and lasted until 1910.
- New Whint began winding coal in 1853 and finished a year later.
- Newton Colliery was operational in 1896 and was nationalised in 1947.
- North Florida Pit was sunk in 1861 and wound coal until 1870.
- Old Boston Pit began winding coal in 1868 and closed in 1952. On 29 June 1900, eight workers were killed when pockets of gas were encountered while shaft sinking. The deepest of its three shafts reached 476 yards. The pit closed after an underground fire in 1952. From 1953 until 1989 the pit-head buildings were used as the Area Training Centre for miners.
- Old Fold commenced winding coal in 1850 and closed in 1864.
- Old Whint began winding coal in 1853 and closed the same year.
- Parr Colliery Nos 1 and 2 shafts were sunk in 1871 and wound coal until 1926. Nos 3 and 4 shafts were sunk in 1893 and finished winding coal in 1931. No 3 shaft was possibly the Havannah Pit which opened in 1863 and closed in 1889.
- Pewfall Pit opened in 1860 and closed in 1911.
- Princess Pit began winding in 1892 and was worked until 1920. It was linked underground to the King, Queen and Legh Pits.
- Queen Pit opened before 1849 and closed in 1920. On 26 December 1868 an explosion killed 26 workers. It was linked underground to the King, Princess and Legh Pits.
- Ram Pit, sunk in 1901, never went into production because of flooding.
- Wood Pit was sunk in 1866. It closed in 1971.
An explosion of firedamp in May 1831 killed up to twelve workers and the following May another explosion killed another six at the Haydock Collieries. On 26 December 1868 an explosion killed 26 workers in the Queen Pit. An explosion at Wood Pit on 7 June 1878 killed 189 men and boys. The Lyme Pit disaster occurred in February 1930 when 13 men died.
Haydock Foundry produced six 0-6-0 well tank steam locomotives which were designed by Josiah Evans for the company. They had outside Gooch valve gear and piston valves. They were named Amazon (built 1868), Hercules (1869), Makerfield (1874), Bellerophon (1874), Parr (1886) and Golborne (1887). The locomotives were broadly similar but had some detail differences. The first two had valves driven by rocking levers. The last four had direct drive to the valves. Working pressure was initially 120 psi but was raised to 140 psi and then 160 psi. Josiah Evans died in 1873 and Smallwood attributes the design changes to his assistant, James Forrest.
The pits were served by railways that linked to the Liverpool and Manchester Railway and the Warrington and Newton Railway. Excepting Edge Green and Golborne Collieries, all Evans’ pits were connected to the company’s private railway network.
The earliest locomotives for use on the colliery system were obtained from the Vulcan Foundry and Jones and Potts. Little is known about them other than they were mostly tender locomotives of 0-4-0, 0-4-2 or 2-4-0 wheel arrangement. By 1864, 25 locomotives had been purchased. | <urn:uuid:5c4661e8-e52f-4eac-8341-e1d53a13be21> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://engole.info/haydock-collieries/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00235.warc.gz | en | 0.98493 | 1,680 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.28435510396957... | 9 | Haydock Collieries comprised several pits, some started in the 18th century, on land owned by the Leghs of Lyme around Haydock on the Lancashire CoalfieldThe Lancashire and Cheshire Coalfield in North West England was one of the most important British coalfields. Its coal seams were formed from the vegetation of tropical swampy forests in the Carboniferous period more than 300 million years ago. in north-west England. Richard Evans bought the Legh share of Turner and Legh after first acquiring Edge Green Colliery in 1830. After Turner’s death in 1847, the company became Richard Evans & Sons. Some pits were connected underground for ventilation and coal winding. Mining disasters Mining disasters in Lancashire in which five or more people were killed occurred most frequently in the 1850s, 1860s and 1870s. , mostly explosions of firedampDamps is the collective name given to all gases other than air found in coal mines in Great Britain. The chief pollutants are carbon dioxide and methane, known as blackdamp and firedamp respectively. , occurred in several pits, the worst was an explosion at Wood Pit that killed 189 men and boys on 7 June 1878.
The shallow coal measures around Haydock were worked from at least the 18th century when the major landowners were the Leghs of Lyme. Around 1830, the collieries, which had a horse-drawn tramway connection to the Sankey Canal, were owned by Thomas Legh and William Turner. A year later their collieries were connected to the railway network by a mineral line to the Warrington and Newton Railway at Newton Junction.
Richard Evans, (1778–1864), a printer from Paternoster Row in London, bought a share in Edge Green Colliery in Golborne in 1830. He bought Legh’s share of Turner and Legh’s business, which took the name Turner & Evans. When Turner died, in 1847, Evans acquired his share and the firm became Richard Evans & Sons. Two of Evans’ children, Josiah (1820–1873) and Henry (1823–1878) followed their father into the business. The company remained in the Evans’ family ownership until 1889 when it became a public limited company and remained as such until the formation of the National Coal Board in 1947.
The Haydock pits had access to considerable coal reserves but the workings were subject to flooding. Ram Pit sunk in 1901 never went into production because of flooding. Some pits were connected underground to rationalise winding operations and facilitate ventilation. In 1890 eight pits were working.
Four of the company’s pits survived to become part of the National Coal Board (NCB) in 1947. They were Golborne, Lyme Pits, Wood Pit and Old Boston which together employed 3,195 underground and 557 surface workers. The NCB’s St.Helens Area Central Workshops were at Haydock until 1963.
The company owned several pits in and around Haydock.
- Brynn Pit opened around 1870 and lasted until 1919.
- Downhall Green commenced winding in 1860 and lasted for 25 years.
- Edge Green opened before 1830 and finished winding coal in 1920.
- Engine Pit began winding in 1853 and finished in 1854.
- Golborne Colliery was started by Edward Johnson in 1878 and was bought by Evans and Company in 1880. It was still working 100 years later. In 1975 nearly 1000 men worked at the pit taking coal from the Crombouke, Lower Florida and Ince Six Feet mines.
- After Haydock Colliery closed, its workshops became the NCB Workshops. Its single-cylinder beam engine, used to drive the machinery until 1954, has been preserved.
- King Pit opened in 1891. It was connected underground to the Princess, Queen and Legh Pits.
- Legh Pit opened in 1855 and closed in 1911.
- Lyme Pit was started in 1876 but was shaft sinking was abandoned because the ingress of water could not be overcome by the technology of the time. Work recommenced in 1912 but was interrupted by the onset of the First World War. In 1919 shaft sinking again resumed and the first coal was produced in 1922. The colliery had three shafts. The downcast shaft, No. 1 was 395 yards (361 m) deep and wound coal from the Florida seam. The upcast shaft, No. 2, wound coal from the Potato Delf and Wigan Four Foot mines and No 3 shaft was used for pumping. The Lyme Pit disaster occurred in February 1930 killing 13 men. In 1964, 419 miners and 187 surface workers were employed. The pit closed in March that year.
- New Boston Colliery was sunk in 1854 and lasted until 1910.
- New Whint began winding coal in 1853 and finished a year later.
- Newton Colliery was operational in 1896 and was nationalised in 1947.
- North Florida Pit was sunk in 1861 and wound coal until 1870.
- Old Boston Pit began winding coal in 1868 and closed in 1952. On 29 June 1900, eight workers were killed when pockets of gas were encountered while shaft sinking. The deepest of its three shafts reached 476 yards. The pit closed after an underground fire in 1952. From 1953 until 1989 the pit-head buildings were used as the Area Training Centre for miners.
- Old Fold commenced winding coal in 1850 and closed in 1864.
- Old Whint began winding coal in 1853 and closed the same year.
- Parr Colliery Nos 1 and 2 shafts were sunk in 1871 and wound coal until 1926. Nos 3 and 4 shafts were sunk in 1893 and finished winding coal in 1931. No 3 shaft was possibly the Havannah Pit which opened in 1863 and closed in 1889.
- Pewfall Pit opened in 1860 and closed in 1911.
- Princess Pit began winding in 1892 and was worked until 1920. It was linked underground to the King, Queen and Legh Pits.
- Queen Pit opened before 1849 and closed in 1920. On 26 December 1868 an explosion killed 26 workers. It was linked underground to the King, Princess and Legh Pits.
- Ram Pit, sunk in 1901, never went into production because of flooding.
- Wood Pit was sunk in 1866. It closed in 1971.
An explosion of firedamp in May 1831 killed up to twelve workers and the following May another explosion killed another six at the Haydock Collieries. On 26 December 1868 an explosion killed 26 workers in the Queen Pit. An explosion at Wood Pit on 7 June 1878 killed 189 men and boys. The Lyme Pit disaster occurred in February 1930 when 13 men died.
Haydock Foundry produced six 0-6-0 well tank steam locomotives which were designed by Josiah Evans for the company. They had outside Gooch valve gear and piston valves. They were named Amazon (built 1868), Hercules (1869), Makerfield (1874), Bellerophon (1874), Parr (1886) and Golborne (1887). The locomotives were broadly similar but had some detail differences. The first two had valves driven by rocking levers. The last four had direct drive to the valves. Working pressure was initially 120 psi but was raised to 140 psi and then 160 psi. Josiah Evans died in 1873 and Smallwood attributes the design changes to his assistant, James Forrest.
The pits were served by railways that linked to the Liverpool and Manchester Railway and the Warrington and Newton Railway. Excepting Edge Green and Golborne Collieries, all Evans’ pits were connected to the company’s private railway network.
The earliest locomotives for use on the colliery system were obtained from the Vulcan Foundry and Jones and Potts. Little is known about them other than they were mostly tender locomotives of 0-4-0, 0-4-2 or 2-4-0 wheel arrangement. By 1864, 25 locomotives had been purchased. | 1,996 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Courageous and full of determination, Jake Garson in one of the short stories I’m Still Here, written by Veronica Ross, shows the set of characteristics that many Canadians regard as expressing their unique place and role in the world. He tried to fight and stand up for his own rights against the government through his act of bravery. By doing this, he had influenced many people in his hometown that faced the same situation as Jake; however, they did not show the same kind of courage that Jake showed. Readers who like to reevaluate and rethink what they are reading are recommended to read short stories such as I’m Still Here. It is one of the stories that teach us the moral lessons of standing up for yourself without anger or violence and to have a positive attitude at all times. This is one of the effects it had made to the short story. Some other effects also include a slow beginning introduction with an unpredictable ending. The author also does an excellent job of capturing the reader’s interest through plots twists, characters, theme, symbolism and much more, which made an effective short story. Although the use of vulgar language had made an unattractive impression, it showed the characteristics and emotions of the character inside the story, which made it more alive for the readers to read. Kezia, the main character from the short story The Wedding Gift, written by Thomas Raddall had a similar situation like Jake. Both of the short stories teaches us the moral lessons of standing up for yourself.
Courage and bravery was something Jake had successfully shown in the short story. “Glad to see you’re standing up for your rights. We had the same thing happen to us, but we didn’t have your courage. Good luck” (Ross 201). In the story, the government wanted to take away his land with fair compensation being paid. However, Jake was not caring about the money; he was determined to stay because he was born on that land and it had been in the family a hundred and...
Please join StudyMode to read the full document | <urn:uuid:32221a29-affb-453e-8b45-1aa6bb4135ba> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.studymode.com/essays/Short-Story-13-63608881.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00233.warc.gz | en | 0.98489 | 426 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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-0.239648744463920... | 1 | Courageous and full of determination, Jake Garson in one of the short stories I’m Still Here, written by Veronica Ross, shows the set of characteristics that many Canadians regard as expressing their unique place and role in the world. He tried to fight and stand up for his own rights against the government through his act of bravery. By doing this, he had influenced many people in his hometown that faced the same situation as Jake; however, they did not show the same kind of courage that Jake showed. Readers who like to reevaluate and rethink what they are reading are recommended to read short stories such as I’m Still Here. It is one of the stories that teach us the moral lessons of standing up for yourself without anger or violence and to have a positive attitude at all times. This is one of the effects it had made to the short story. Some other effects also include a slow beginning introduction with an unpredictable ending. The author also does an excellent job of capturing the reader’s interest through plots twists, characters, theme, symbolism and much more, which made an effective short story. Although the use of vulgar language had made an unattractive impression, it showed the characteristics and emotions of the character inside the story, which made it more alive for the readers to read. Kezia, the main character from the short story The Wedding Gift, written by Thomas Raddall had a similar situation like Jake. Both of the short stories teaches us the moral lessons of standing up for yourself.
Courage and bravery was something Jake had successfully shown in the short story. “Glad to see you’re standing up for your rights. We had the same thing happen to us, but we didn’t have your courage. Good luck” (Ross 201). In the story, the government wanted to take away his land with fair compensation being paid. However, Jake was not caring about the money; he was determined to stay because he was born on that land and it had been in the family a hundred and...
Please join StudyMode to read the full document | 415 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The launch date was first announced as January 16, 1962, then postponed to January 20 because of problems with the Atlas rocket fuel tanks. The launch then slipped day by day to January 27 due to unfavorable winter weather. On that day, Glenn was on board Mercury 6 and ready to launch, when, at T-29 minutes, the flight director called off the launch because of thick clouds that would have made it impossible to photograph or film the launch vehicle after the first 20 seconds of the mission (the inability of launch crews to film the failed Mercury-Atlas 1 launch 16 months earlier had proven the importance of flying only in clear skies). A large crowd of reporters gathered at Cape Canaveral for the launch went home disappointed. Mission Director Walter Williams felt a sense of relief at the bad weather, as there was still a general sense that the spacecraft and booster were not ready to fly yet. NASA informed the anxious public that the mission would take time to get ready since crewed launches required a high degree of preparation and safety standards. The launch was postponed until February 1, 1962. When technicians began to fuel the Atlas on January 30, they discovered a fuel leak had soaked an internal insulation blanket between the RP-1 and LOX tanks. This caused a two-week delay while necessary repairs were made. On February 14, the launch was again postponed due to weather. Finally on February 18, the weather started to break. It appeared that February 20, 1962 would be a favorable day to attempt a launch. | <urn:uuid:67d2c8f4-1ac7-4a9a-afae-2870cdd613a1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://orange-bleue.info/friendship-7-space-flight-recordings/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00545.warc.gz | en | 0.986049 | 301 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.30362606048583... | 7 | The launch date was first announced as January 16, 1962, then postponed to January 20 because of problems with the Atlas rocket fuel tanks. The launch then slipped day by day to January 27 due to unfavorable winter weather. On that day, Glenn was on board Mercury 6 and ready to launch, when, at T-29 minutes, the flight director called off the launch because of thick clouds that would have made it impossible to photograph or film the launch vehicle after the first 20 seconds of the mission (the inability of launch crews to film the failed Mercury-Atlas 1 launch 16 months earlier had proven the importance of flying only in clear skies). A large crowd of reporters gathered at Cape Canaveral for the launch went home disappointed. Mission Director Walter Williams felt a sense of relief at the bad weather, as there was still a general sense that the spacecraft and booster were not ready to fly yet. NASA informed the anxious public that the mission would take time to get ready since crewed launches required a high degree of preparation and safety standards. The launch was postponed until February 1, 1962. When technicians began to fuel the Atlas on January 30, they discovered a fuel leak had soaked an internal insulation blanket between the RP-1 and LOX tanks. This caused a two-week delay while necessary repairs were made. On February 14, the launch was again postponed due to weather. Finally on February 18, the weather started to break. It appeared that February 20, 1962 would be a favorable day to attempt a launch. | 335 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Napoleon was born on the island of Corsica- a french island in the Mediterranean. his family was actually of Italian descent and sequently, he spoke french with a marked accent, and was often teased as a youth
perhaps napoleons most important contribution was his set of civil laws known as the code civil, or the code napoleon
napoleon led successful military campaigns and as a result, became very popular and politically influential back in France
as a ruler, napoleon was quite effective, enacting numerous important reforms.
as a military man, napoleon had a thirst for battlefield glory. he signed a treaty with England in 1801, but it fell apart due to mutual distrust
in 1806, napoleon started a new foreign policy for all his conquered territories and for his allies--The continental system | <urn:uuid:4f149ed1-d9c0-4866-9c9b-e2decf3de9bd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.storyboardthat.com/storyboards/33d20be5/unknown-story | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00141.warc.gz | en | 0.99119 | 166 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.31564867496490... | 1 | Napoleon was born on the island of Corsica- a french island in the Mediterranean. his family was actually of Italian descent and sequently, he spoke french with a marked accent, and was often teased as a youth
perhaps napoleons most important contribution was his set of civil laws known as the code civil, or the code napoleon
napoleon led successful military campaigns and as a result, became very popular and politically influential back in France
as a ruler, napoleon was quite effective, enacting numerous important reforms.
as a military man, napoleon had a thirst for battlefield glory. he signed a treaty with England in 1801, but it fell apart due to mutual distrust
in 1806, napoleon started a new foreign policy for all his conquered territories and for his allies--The continental system | 171 | ENGLISH | 1 |
AP World History Unit V Chapter 23
Terms in this set (40)
It was the massive spike in the population of Europe due to unusually low death rates.
This is where people manufacture some products at their home to be sold to merchants that travel.
This was a fight in America between England and her North American colony. The colony ended up winning.
This was a big revolution in France where the people took over the country. It was an extremely bloody change.
He was the last king of France. He was executed at the guillotine by the revolutionists.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen
It was a document that stated that all Frenchmen were equal. Louis XVI was forced to sign while he was still alive.
This was a device that was created around the time of the French Revolution and it was used in the executions.
He was one of the leading members of the French Revolution. He ordered the death of many enemies.
He was the French military genius who took over France during the turmoil of the French Revolution.
Congress of Vienna
It was the meeting that was in Vienna to settle issues that were raised due the chaos created in Europe by France.
It is the belief that people should have a sat in the government, not just the supreme ruler.
They were the extreme version of the liberals. They demanded complete control by the people.
It is the belief that the people should be more equal in every way since there are those who have more than others.
Nationalism is pride in one's country or ethnic group. This pride became present in the time before WWI.
This was a revolution in Greece against the rule of the Ottoman Empire. They were able to kick the Ottomans out.
French Revolution of
It was another revolution against the royal family of France. It wasn't as brutal as the previous revolution.
Belgian Revolution of
It was a revolution by the Belgians against their Dutch rulers. The Belgians were able to succeed in removing them.
Reform Bill of
It was a bill made in England to give many of the people the right to vote, but people didn't take advantage of it really.
He was the man who invented the steam engine that became used in place of man power for some jobs.
It was a system where people when to a building to manufacture goods that would be sold to the world.
French Revolution of
It was an overthrow of the government that had been created in 1830. The old government lasted 18 years.
These were a series of revolutions that broke out in the majority of the countries in Europe. They mostly failed.
He was a scientist in Europe who discovered germs and the harmful effects that they can possibly have.
He was one of the conservative politicians of Britain who tried to make the industrial transition peaceful.
Camillo di Cavour
He was an Italian politician who was able to unite all of the smaller kingdoms of Italy.
Otto von Bismarck
He was the German politician that used wars and other tactics to unify all the German states into Germany.
American Civil War (-)
It was a civil war in America between the northern states and the southern states, where federal power was the issue.
It was a question asking whether the large amount of poor should be ruled by a small group of the wealthy.
He was a German thinker who believed in socialism. He thought the poor would rise up and destroy the wealthy.
It was an idea that slow changes should be made to eventually reach socialism in Europe.
These were groups of women who were trying to gain more freedom and rights for women since they were limited.
Mass Leisure Culture
It is where the people have time to do things for fun that do not involve work. It is still going on today.
He was a biologist who went to an island and noticed that the animals were similar. He used this to make evolution.
He was a physicist who dealt with and created a lot of our modern physics theories as well as quantum physics.
He was a psychologist who helped come up with theories about the human mind and how it works.
It was a time in literature where nature was the focus and passions about things were made into poems.
It was the belief that America was better and different than every country and that it's not affected like the others.
It was an alliance between Germany, Italy, and Austria that said the other would help when one was attacked.
It was an alliance between Great Britain, France, and Russia that said they would help each other in war.
It was the pride that the Baltic states had in their country. It led to tons of conflict between the Slavic states.
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essay questions ch. 19
OTHER SETS BY THIS CREATOR
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AP World History Unit V Chapter 26
AP World History Unit V Chapter 25
AP World History Unit V Chapter 24
THIS SET IS OFTEN IN FOLDERS WITH...
Chapter 29 Vocab - AP World History
Chapter 34 Vocab - AP World History
AP World History
AP World History Stearns Chapter 19 Terms | <urn:uuid:a2eea489-44a4-48e4-912a-96b596872852> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://quizlet.com/16433439/ap-world-history-unit-v-chapter-23-flash-cards/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00089.warc.gz | en | 0.981906 | 1,068 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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Terms in this set (40)
It was the massive spike in the population of Europe due to unusually low death rates.
This is where people manufacture some products at their home to be sold to merchants that travel.
This was a fight in America between England and her North American colony. The colony ended up winning.
This was a big revolution in France where the people took over the country. It was an extremely bloody change.
He was the last king of France. He was executed at the guillotine by the revolutionists.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen
It was a document that stated that all Frenchmen were equal. Louis XVI was forced to sign while he was still alive.
This was a device that was created around the time of the French Revolution and it was used in the executions.
He was one of the leading members of the French Revolution. He ordered the death of many enemies.
He was the French military genius who took over France during the turmoil of the French Revolution.
Congress of Vienna
It was the meeting that was in Vienna to settle issues that were raised due the chaos created in Europe by France.
It is the belief that people should have a sat in the government, not just the supreme ruler.
They were the extreme version of the liberals. They demanded complete control by the people.
It is the belief that the people should be more equal in every way since there are those who have more than others.
Nationalism is pride in one's country or ethnic group. This pride became present in the time before WWI.
This was a revolution in Greece against the rule of the Ottoman Empire. They were able to kick the Ottomans out.
French Revolution of
It was another revolution against the royal family of France. It wasn't as brutal as the previous revolution.
Belgian Revolution of
It was a revolution by the Belgians against their Dutch rulers. The Belgians were able to succeed in removing them.
Reform Bill of
It was a bill made in England to give many of the people the right to vote, but people didn't take advantage of it really.
He was the man who invented the steam engine that became used in place of man power for some jobs.
It was a system where people when to a building to manufacture goods that would be sold to the world.
French Revolution of
It was an overthrow of the government that had been created in 1830. The old government lasted 18 years.
These were a series of revolutions that broke out in the majority of the countries in Europe. They mostly failed.
He was a scientist in Europe who discovered germs and the harmful effects that they can possibly have.
He was one of the conservative politicians of Britain who tried to make the industrial transition peaceful.
Camillo di Cavour
He was an Italian politician who was able to unite all of the smaller kingdoms of Italy.
Otto von Bismarck
He was the German politician that used wars and other tactics to unify all the German states into Germany.
American Civil War (-)
It was a civil war in America between the northern states and the southern states, where federal power was the issue.
It was a question asking whether the large amount of poor should be ruled by a small group of the wealthy.
He was a German thinker who believed in socialism. He thought the poor would rise up and destroy the wealthy.
It was an idea that slow changes should be made to eventually reach socialism in Europe.
These were groups of women who were trying to gain more freedom and rights for women since they were limited.
Mass Leisure Culture
It is where the people have time to do things for fun that do not involve work. It is still going on today.
He was a biologist who went to an island and noticed that the animals were similar. He used this to make evolution.
He was a physicist who dealt with and created a lot of our modern physics theories as well as quantum physics.
He was a psychologist who helped come up with theories about the human mind and how it works.
It was a time in literature where nature was the focus and passions about things were made into poems.
It was the belief that America was better and different than every country and that it's not affected like the others.
It was an alliance between Germany, Italy, and Austria that said the other would help when one was attacked.
It was an alliance between Great Britain, France, and Russia that said they would help each other in war.
It was the pride that the Baltic states had in their country. It led to tons of conflict between the Slavic states.
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essay questions ch. 19
OTHER SETS BY THIS CREATOR
AP World History Final Review
AP World History Unit V Chapter 26
AP World History Unit V Chapter 25
AP World History Unit V Chapter 24
THIS SET IS OFTEN IN FOLDERS WITH...
Chapter 29 Vocab - AP World History
Chapter 34 Vocab - AP World History
AP World History
AP World History Stearns Chapter 19 Terms | 1,044 | ENGLISH | 1 |
World War II created the greatest refugee problem in human history. The problem began before the actual fighting broke out. And by the end of the War, millions were dead and the survivors on the move all over Europe trying to retirn home, although for masny this was not possible. The problem was concentrated in Europe, but not entirely confined there. There were refugee problems after and during and after World War I. The numbers of refugees were significant, but the refugees and displacements help to create bitterness that led to much more extensive and brutal operations during World War II. The problem began with with the NAZI take over in Germany (1933). Political opponents fled Germany as did many Jews. The NAZI regime's focus on biological racism was to play a major role in the World War II refugee problem. Refugees from the fighting were a small pat of the overall refugeee problem. The NAZIs were determined to remake not only the political map of Europe, but also the ethnic map. And to do this they decided not only to create a colonial empire, but to use genocide. There were forced deportation, mass evacuation and displacement, perscecution based on ethnicity, mass killing, conscription for forced labor, anti-partisan operations, intra-ethnic violence, stategic bombing and evacuation from the cities. The NAZI approach to many refugee groups shifted toward genocide as the War progressed. There were refugee problems in most of the countries involved in World War II. And the boirder chasnges at the end of the War caused additional refugees. The refugee crisis in Europe, especially Germany, resulted after the War in the creation of an international refugee and human rights infrastructure which is the basis of how refugee problems are handeled today. We have focused on the problem od displaced children, but the overall refugee problem is important to understand. NAZI Germany was at the heart of the refugee problem, but the Soviet Union also played a major role. Other countries were involved in a variety of ways both in creating and attempting to assist refugees.
World War II created the greatest refugee problem in human history. The problem began before the actual fighting broke out. And by the end of the War, millions were dead and the survivors on the move all over Europe trying to retirn home, although for many this was not possible.
A refugee is traditionally seen as an individuasl who flees his home to escape conflict, persecution or natural disaster. NAZI, Soviet, and other regimes persecuted people on the basis of race, religion, nationality, social class, political orientation, and other reasons. This traditional concept does not, however, even begin to cover the World War II problem. A term adopted which is more comprehensive is displsaced persons. This includes the people confined in concebntation camps, labor camps, and POW camps. It thus seems to fit the World War II crisis berter than refugee. And ther were large numbers of people evavuated from the cities as a result of the bombing. All of these groups have to be considered to fully understand the World War II situation.
The problem was concentrated in Europe, but not entirely confined there.
There were refugee problems after and during and after World War I. The numbers of refugees were significant. The bestknown group were the Belgians, created by the Germans at the beginning if the War. Amother group wee the Serbs, in this case resulting from the Great Serbian Retreat. Both the Serbian Army and the civilins who accompanied them were in a desperate stte when theyvreached the Adritic coast. The most trahic group were the Armenians, many of whom were murdered in the Turkish Genocide. The refugees and displacements help to create bitterness that led to much more extensive and brutal operations during World War II. Many new states were created which as a consequence created large numbers of minority groups who found themselves disadvantaged in a variety of ways from education to job opportunities. This was especially the case in eastern and central Europe. Many of the new states initiasted land reform programs to turn oiver land to the majority group. Often adversely affected were German land owners. In many cases this was the iwbners of lasrge estates. But in Poland even small-scale farmers were adversely affected. Those dispossed are expelled were bitter and many had the opportunity to seek revenge.
The European refugee problem began with with the NAZI take over in Germany (1933). Political opponents fled Germany as did many Jews. Immigration becamne a major issue. The NAZI regime's focus on biological racism was to play a major role in the World War II refugee problem. Refugees from the fighting were a small pat of the overall refugeee problem. The NAZIs were determined to remake not only the political map of Europe, but also the ethnic map. And to do this they decided not only to create a colonial empire, but to use genocide. The World War II Holocaust except for a brief initial phase did not create refugees because the Germans began rounding them up and creating ghettoes or intenment capms where they where they were fed starvation rations until the killing began. The Holocaust against the Jews, however, was just part of the German plan. The Jews were to be killed right away. Their larger plan of reshaping the ethnic map of Europe would take more time. They wanted to turn the East into a vast German colonization zone of farming communities. The existing population was to be killed, deported beyond the Urals or enslaved. This would iof course create millions of rrfugees. In pursuit of their goal they developed the Hunger Plan and General Plan Ost. There was thuus no effort to assist non-German refugees. In fact, as they planned on killing or deporting millions in Eastern and Central Europe, starvation was seen as a usefulm way of pursuing their plans. Himmler wanted go proceed with Generalplan Ost right away, and began just that in Poland, creating a huge wave of refugees. Hitler ordered him to slow down the process as it was interfearing with preparations for Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Siviet UNion. The Germans did implement the Hunger Plan. The only people to be fed in the Eat were those working for the Germans to support the war effort. And rations were curtailed in the ocupied West.
There were many causes of the refugee/displaced person crisis during World War II. It was much more complicated than the standarsd refugee crisis of World War I where the refugees were primarily, but not exclusively people fleeing invading armies. The concept of displaced persons is much more appropriate as in World War II, civilians were targeted to a far greater degree than any conflict in modern history. There certainly were people fleeing invading armies, the traditional meaning of refugees. But there was a serious new problem in World War II--mechanized warfare. This meant that invading moved much more rapidly than the refugees and thus refugees were less able to evade the invaders. Another problem was the success of aggressor nations (NAZIs, Soviets, and Japanese) early in the War. This mean that potential refugees had no where to fleet to or were unable to flee. Tragically this was just the beginning of the World War II tragedy. Another cause of refugee movements in World War II was fear of aerial bombardment or the actual bombing. Here there was a mixture of refuges and evacuations, bluring the differnce between the two concepts. Other World War II phenomnon generted larhe numbers of refugees/displaced persons. Much of this would fll into the category ofwar cromes bd crimes against humanity. Here NAZIs and Japanese would be procecuted, the Siviets would not. These phenomnon included: forced deportation, mass evacuation and displacement, perscecution based on ethnicity, mass killing, conscription for forced labor, anti-partisan operations, intra-ethnic violence, stategic bombing and evacuation from the cities. The NAZI approach to many refugee groups shifted toward genocide as the War progressed. There were refugee problems in most of the countries involved in World War II. And the border changes at the end of the War caused additional refugees. Many of these causes have been widely studied. Others are little known today.
Children were involved in the refugee crisis in large numbers. And they were the most vulnerable refuf\gees. They were also a targeted group. World War II left large numbers of people homeless are far removed from their homeland. Millions of homes had been destroyed. Whole populations had been removed. The Soviets transported large numbers of people from the Baltic Republics to Siberia. Poles were moved west. Chechens and other peoles were also transported. The NAZIs of course targeted the Jews for death camps. Many Poles were transported from the areas of Poland incorporated into the Reich. The Germans brought millions to the Reich for slave labor labor. Many were young people without children, but some had children which were left behind. Many parents were killed in the bombing and shelling. Among the displaced were huge numbers of children. The children were of course the least likely to survive. If separated from their parents their chances were not good. Jewish children were among the first to be killed by the NAZIs because they had no economic value which could be exploited. One can not forget the images of the starving Jewish children in the Warsaw Getto whose parents had been killed and they were left alone. Even non-Jewish children were unlikely to survive without their parents. But many did survive and at the end of the war there were hundreds of thousands of displaced children. Adding to the human tragedy were millions of Germans streaming back to the Reich to avoid the Red Army. After the War German populations in Poland and other countries were forcibly transported to occupied Germany.
The World War II refugee/displaced persons problem is an emensley complicated topic involving a large numbers of people. NAZI Germany was at the heart of the refugee problem, but the Soviet Union also played a major role. Other countries were involved in a variety of ways both in creating, attempting to utilize the refugee issues, and efforts to assist refugees. Belgian refugees featured prominently in World War I discussions, but this time there were relatively few. There were large numbers of French refugees, but after there country surrendered to the Germans, most retuned home after a montyh or so of flight. The Germans created large numbers of refugees in Pland by deporting Jews and Poles from areas annexed in Western Poland. The Jews were first ghettoized and then murderd. The Poles were left to their own devices in the General Government, but syuffered greatrly because of the German Hunger Plan. The refugee problem was at first limited because the early German vicgtories were so overwealming and swift. People in these countries had little time to flee and no where to which to flee. The ensuing guerrilla war in Yugoslavia did create refugees. The Gernman invasion of the Soviet Union created huge numbers of refugees with which Soviet authorities had difficulty coping, largely because a substantial part of the contry's agricultural land was occupied by the Germans. The Soviets also created many refugees. Courtries varied greatly in how they addressed the refugee problem over time. After the German surrender, the orincipal refugee problem was getting the millions of people brought into the Reich for forced labor home. Poland had an esoecially severe problem as the Soviets deported large numbers of Poles in eastern Poland to western Poland. While the Germans created much of the problem, there were also large numbers of German refugees. First they were fleeing the advancing Red Army. Than after the War, the countries of Eastern and central Europe deported ethnic Germans.
Many deportations occured during World War II. Deportation is the expulsion of a person or group of people from a place or country. The Germans began this process even before launching the War. Many Poles including Polish Jews were deported to Polnd. German Jews were not deported, but instead were driven from the country by a comprehensive policy of persecution. The Soviet Union also engaged in deportations. Unlike Germany, it was a multi-ethnic country, althouhgh dominated by the Russians. With the start of the war, deportations increased in number and dimensuons, mostly conducted by the Germans and Soviets. Much of the German deportations focused on the Jews, but also Poles were a major target. Czechs were deported fom the Sudetenland and French from Alsace Loraine. There were smaller scale deportations from Memel (Lithuania) and eastern Belgium. The Soviuets conducted deportations from the Baltic Republics they seized before the War They also deported several ethnic groups deemed disloyal, beginning with the Volksdeutsche, but including many other groups like the Chechens and Crimean Tartars. And this did not end aftervthe War. The Soviets deported Poles in large numbers of people from former eastern Polsnd, essentially moving the Polish nation west. The largest of these deportations were the Germans living in Eastern Europe deported west, essentially mass expulsions often with great brutality.
Refugees connitates indivuduals fleeing invading armies. Sometimes they suceded in reacjing safety. Often they did not. There were also the more controlled movenent of civilians, commonly called evcuations. Here the civilians were moved by the Governments involved or received support and assistance from their governments. The best known evacuation wa the British evacuation of children and other endangered peoples from the cities to protect them from aerial bombing (1939-44). The French (1939), Germans (1942-44), and Japanese (1945) also evacuated children. A smaller evacuation, but very substantial in terms of a percentage of the popultion, was conducted by the Finns because of the Soviet invasion. The Soviets eventually evacuated children from Lenningrad. The Germans evacuated the ethnic Germans from the Baltics and nothwestern Romania (1939-40). The operation was known as 'Home to the Reich'. The Germans did not conduct organized evacuations in the areas as the Red Army approached later in the War because Hitler wanted a fight to the death and local NAZIs were afraid as being seen as defeatists.
Repatriation was primarily a process which took place after the War and it concerned the millions of workers brought into the Reich for war work. This included different groups of people from all over occupied Europe. Many were slave workers, mostly from Eastern Europe. Other were conscript workers, mostly from Western Europe. Other had voluntarily come to Germany from neutral countries, including some from Spain. Getting all these people home was areal problem. This was not only were their numbers of Germanscflooding into occupied Germny from eastern anbd central Europe, but also millions of Germans attempting to get home from where they were when the War endd. This included millions of Germans, especilly the children, who had been evacuated from the cities into the countryside. Now the problem of moving all these people home might have been manageable had the German transport system, espoecially the rail system, had survived the War. It had not. In fact the German transport system had been a primary target of the strategic bombing, part of destroying the German war economy. Europe, especially Germany, was awash with people. And with the destruction of the German transport system there was no easy or quick way for these people to get home. Thus Displaced Persons (DP) camps had to be set up to care for people until they could get home. Some were in such poor condition thst they need immediate medical care to be kept alive. Many were beyond help and could not be saved. There are other issues concerning repaitriations. Most of the displaced people wanted to go home. Not all people wanted to go home. Some of these people did not want to return to a Communist dominsted Eastern Europe. Some were forcibly repatriated. This was primarily the Soviet citizens who fought with the Germans. The Jews were a special problem. Many did not want to return home to eastrn Europe, in part because of the Comminiust take over, the murder of their families, and the prevlant anti-Semitism. Most wanted to go to either America or Israel. British policy to placate the Arabs severely limited Jewish access to Palestine. Ametrican emogration policy was changing, but immediately after the War was still restrictive. Another major reptariation effort was getting the Japanese home. Japanese civilians were located in the Marianas, Philippines, Taiwan, Korea, and Manchuria and had to be repatriated. This was done in an orderly fashion except for the areas occupied by the Red Army (Manchuria and North Korea).
Food would play an important role in World War II as it did in World War I. People have to eat and without food, war economies grind to a hault. War impairs a country's ability to produce food. Men drafted to fight reuce the agricultural work force and war production reduces imports like farm mchinery nd fertilizer. And the success of Axis armies early in the War. The Germans seized France (1940) hich gave them access to Frnce's agricultural bounty. And their Barbarossa offensive in the East, the Germans seized much of the Soviet Union's richest agricultural land (1941). And the Japanese did the same in China over a longer time frame. And the German U-boat campaign was launched to deny the British food and war supplies. There was only one country able to massivly increase food production to supply the gap in production crrated by the War. That was the United States. And thanks to the Royal Navy and U.S. Navy, food and other rlief supplies got through to Britain and the Soviet Union. In World War I the Allies were unable to get supplies through to Russia in the quantities needed. In World War II they suceeded. Tragically for Chins, the Japanese seized all of China's ports, making it impossible to get food through to China until after the Japanese surrnder. Food is not the only item needed for relief activities, but it is by far the most important.
United States food aid saved millions of lives in World War I. There was a special effort placed on feeding children. The same mission of mercy also occurred in World War II. The enormous productivity of American farms allowed it not only to feeds its people, but also provide food to the armies of its allies as well as civilian populations. This began even before America entered the War. The American Lend Lease Program approved by Congess (March 1941) is best known for providing arms and military supplies to World War II allies. Lend Lease aid also included large quatities of food. Food shipments to Britain and the Soviets Union. American and Canadian food aid was vital in keeping Britain in the War. American food aid was also vital in assisting the Soviet Union which was near staevation after the Germabs seized much of the country's most productive agricultural land. Soviet agriculture was already weakened by Stalin's NKVD which he ordered to murder millions of Ukranian peasant farmers and their families before the War--many of the country's best farmers. Tragically it was not possible to get food aid to China because the Japanese controlled the ports. The American Army unlike the Axis armies brought its food with it.
The Allies, meaning primarily the United States, began organizing relief programs for the refugees created by the Axis aggressions even before entering the War. The United States had played a substntial role in World War I relief, saving million of lives. The same was the case during World War II. Two early American efforts were the Emergency Rescue Committee and the U.S. Committee for the Care of European Children. Once involved in the War, President Roosevelt began using the term United Nations. It was esentially the creation of Woodrow Wilson's League of Nations. Roosevelt had been a strong supporter of Wilson and the League. The League was so controversial and Roosevelt had such a know down drag out fight with the isolationists who hated the League that he came up with a new name and prepared for the creation of an actual organiation that would replace the League. The primary United Nations orgaization to assist refugees was the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA). This agency was created before the United Nations itself. During and in the immediate post-War period, it was largely financed and supported by the United States. Food was a priority. The Axis as a matter of policy sought to deny food to trgeted populations. The Allies as a result attempte to supply desperate refuges with food. Here UNRRA played a major role.
The refugee crisis in Europe, especially Germany, resulted after the War in the creation of an international refugee and human rights infrastructure which is the basis of how refugee problems are handeled today. This has had both positice and negative consequences. Institutions were established to aid refugees. And there is commonly an outpouring of sympathy for refugees commonly resulting in the provision of humanitarian aid to care for them. Often it is barely adequate for the need, but certainly more is done for modern refugeees than refugees during earlier periods. One negative impact is that the aid being provided permit refugees and political groups to avoid adjustment and assimilation. The Palestinian refugees were not assimilated by the Arab statess. In contrast the larger number of Jewish were assimilated by a much smaller state--Israel. The result that now more than a cetury later, there are many more Palestinian refugeees than immediately after the War. The people we now call Palestinian refugees are not actual refugees, but the children and granhdchildren of the refugees born in the refugee camps. Humanitarian aid as in essence not solved the Palesirinian refugee pronblem, but perpetuated.
Greenfeld, Howard. After the Holocaust (Greenwillow Books/HarperCollins Publishers, 2001).
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0.51054978370... | 2 | World War II created the greatest refugee problem in human history. The problem began before the actual fighting broke out. And by the end of the War, millions were dead and the survivors on the move all over Europe trying to retirn home, although for masny this was not possible. The problem was concentrated in Europe, but not entirely confined there. There were refugee problems after and during and after World War I. The numbers of refugees were significant, but the refugees and displacements help to create bitterness that led to much more extensive and brutal operations during World War II. The problem began with with the NAZI take over in Germany (1933). Political opponents fled Germany as did many Jews. The NAZI regime's focus on biological racism was to play a major role in the World War II refugee problem. Refugees from the fighting were a small pat of the overall refugeee problem. The NAZIs were determined to remake not only the political map of Europe, but also the ethnic map. And to do this they decided not only to create a colonial empire, but to use genocide. There were forced deportation, mass evacuation and displacement, perscecution based on ethnicity, mass killing, conscription for forced labor, anti-partisan operations, intra-ethnic violence, stategic bombing and evacuation from the cities. The NAZI approach to many refugee groups shifted toward genocide as the War progressed. There were refugee problems in most of the countries involved in World War II. And the boirder chasnges at the end of the War caused additional refugees. The refugee crisis in Europe, especially Germany, resulted after the War in the creation of an international refugee and human rights infrastructure which is the basis of how refugee problems are handeled today. We have focused on the problem od displaced children, but the overall refugee problem is important to understand. NAZI Germany was at the heart of the refugee problem, but the Soviet Union also played a major role. Other countries were involved in a variety of ways both in creating and attempting to assist refugees.
World War II created the greatest refugee problem in human history. The problem began before the actual fighting broke out. And by the end of the War, millions were dead and the survivors on the move all over Europe trying to retirn home, although for many this was not possible.
A refugee is traditionally seen as an individuasl who flees his home to escape conflict, persecution or natural disaster. NAZI, Soviet, and other regimes persecuted people on the basis of race, religion, nationality, social class, political orientation, and other reasons. This traditional concept does not, however, even begin to cover the World War II problem. A term adopted which is more comprehensive is displsaced persons. This includes the people confined in concebntation camps, labor camps, and POW camps. It thus seems to fit the World War II crisis berter than refugee. And ther were large numbers of people evavuated from the cities as a result of the bombing. All of these groups have to be considered to fully understand the World War II situation.
The problem was concentrated in Europe, but not entirely confined there.
There were refugee problems after and during and after World War I. The numbers of refugees were significant. The bestknown group were the Belgians, created by the Germans at the beginning if the War. Amother group wee the Serbs, in this case resulting from the Great Serbian Retreat. Both the Serbian Army and the civilins who accompanied them were in a desperate stte when theyvreached the Adritic coast. The most trahic group were the Armenians, many of whom were murdered in the Turkish Genocide. The refugees and displacements help to create bitterness that led to much more extensive and brutal operations during World War II. Many new states were created which as a consequence created large numbers of minority groups who found themselves disadvantaged in a variety of ways from education to job opportunities. This was especially the case in eastern and central Europe. Many of the new states initiasted land reform programs to turn oiver land to the majority group. Often adversely affected were German land owners. In many cases this was the iwbners of lasrge estates. But in Poland even small-scale farmers were adversely affected. Those dispossed are expelled were bitter and many had the opportunity to seek revenge.
The European refugee problem began with with the NAZI take over in Germany (1933). Political opponents fled Germany as did many Jews. Immigration becamne a major issue. The NAZI regime's focus on biological racism was to play a major role in the World War II refugee problem. Refugees from the fighting were a small pat of the overall refugeee problem. The NAZIs were determined to remake not only the political map of Europe, but also the ethnic map. And to do this they decided not only to create a colonial empire, but to use genocide. The World War II Holocaust except for a brief initial phase did not create refugees because the Germans began rounding them up and creating ghettoes or intenment capms where they where they were fed starvation rations until the killing began. The Holocaust against the Jews, however, was just part of the German plan. The Jews were to be killed right away. Their larger plan of reshaping the ethnic map of Europe would take more time. They wanted to turn the East into a vast German colonization zone of farming communities. The existing population was to be killed, deported beyond the Urals or enslaved. This would iof course create millions of rrfugees. In pursuit of their goal they developed the Hunger Plan and General Plan Ost. There was thuus no effort to assist non-German refugees. In fact, as they planned on killing or deporting millions in Eastern and Central Europe, starvation was seen as a usefulm way of pursuing their plans. Himmler wanted go proceed with Generalplan Ost right away, and began just that in Poland, creating a huge wave of refugees. Hitler ordered him to slow down the process as it was interfearing with preparations for Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Siviet UNion. The Germans did implement the Hunger Plan. The only people to be fed in the Eat were those working for the Germans to support the war effort. And rations were curtailed in the ocupied West.
There were many causes of the refugee/displaced person crisis during World War II. It was much more complicated than the standarsd refugee crisis of World War I where the refugees were primarily, but not exclusively people fleeing invading armies. The concept of displaced persons is much more appropriate as in World War II, civilians were targeted to a far greater degree than any conflict in modern history. There certainly were people fleeing invading armies, the traditional meaning of refugees. But there was a serious new problem in World War II--mechanized warfare. This meant that invading moved much more rapidly than the refugees and thus refugees were less able to evade the invaders. Another problem was the success of aggressor nations (NAZIs, Soviets, and Japanese) early in the War. This mean that potential refugees had no where to fleet to or were unable to flee. Tragically this was just the beginning of the World War II tragedy. Another cause of refugee movements in World War II was fear of aerial bombardment or the actual bombing. Here there was a mixture of refuges and evacuations, bluring the differnce between the two concepts. Other World War II phenomnon generted larhe numbers of refugees/displaced persons. Much of this would fll into the category ofwar cromes bd crimes against humanity. Here NAZIs and Japanese would be procecuted, the Siviets would not. These phenomnon included: forced deportation, mass evacuation and displacement, perscecution based on ethnicity, mass killing, conscription for forced labor, anti-partisan operations, intra-ethnic violence, stategic bombing and evacuation from the cities. The NAZI approach to many refugee groups shifted toward genocide as the War progressed. There were refugee problems in most of the countries involved in World War II. And the border changes at the end of the War caused additional refugees. Many of these causes have been widely studied. Others are little known today.
Children were involved in the refugee crisis in large numbers. And they were the most vulnerable refuf\gees. They were also a targeted group. World War II left large numbers of people homeless are far removed from their homeland. Millions of homes had been destroyed. Whole populations had been removed. The Soviets transported large numbers of people from the Baltic Republics to Siberia. Poles were moved west. Chechens and other peoles were also transported. The NAZIs of course targeted the Jews for death camps. Many Poles were transported from the areas of Poland incorporated into the Reich. The Germans brought millions to the Reich for slave labor labor. Many were young people without children, but some had children which were left behind. Many parents were killed in the bombing and shelling. Among the displaced were huge numbers of children. The children were of course the least likely to survive. If separated from their parents their chances were not good. Jewish children were among the first to be killed by the NAZIs because they had no economic value which could be exploited. One can not forget the images of the starving Jewish children in the Warsaw Getto whose parents had been killed and they were left alone. Even non-Jewish children were unlikely to survive without their parents. But many did survive and at the end of the war there were hundreds of thousands of displaced children. Adding to the human tragedy were millions of Germans streaming back to the Reich to avoid the Red Army. After the War German populations in Poland and other countries were forcibly transported to occupied Germany.
The World War II refugee/displaced persons problem is an emensley complicated topic involving a large numbers of people. NAZI Germany was at the heart of the refugee problem, but the Soviet Union also played a major role. Other countries were involved in a variety of ways both in creating, attempting to utilize the refugee issues, and efforts to assist refugees. Belgian refugees featured prominently in World War I discussions, but this time there were relatively few. There were large numbers of French refugees, but after there country surrendered to the Germans, most retuned home after a montyh or so of flight. The Germans created large numbers of refugees in Pland by deporting Jews and Poles from areas annexed in Western Poland. The Jews were first ghettoized and then murderd. The Poles were left to their own devices in the General Government, but syuffered greatrly because of the German Hunger Plan. The refugee problem was at first limited because the early German vicgtories were so overwealming and swift. People in these countries had little time to flee and no where to which to flee. The ensuing guerrilla war in Yugoslavia did create refugees. The Gernman invasion of the Soviet Union created huge numbers of refugees with which Soviet authorities had difficulty coping, largely because a substantial part of the contry's agricultural land was occupied by the Germans. The Soviets also created many refugees. Courtries varied greatly in how they addressed the refugee problem over time. After the German surrender, the orincipal refugee problem was getting the millions of people brought into the Reich for forced labor home. Poland had an esoecially severe problem as the Soviets deported large numbers of Poles in eastern Poland to western Poland. While the Germans created much of the problem, there were also large numbers of German refugees. First they were fleeing the advancing Red Army. Than after the War, the countries of Eastern and central Europe deported ethnic Germans.
Many deportations occured during World War II. Deportation is the expulsion of a person or group of people from a place or country. The Germans began this process even before launching the War. Many Poles including Polish Jews were deported to Polnd. German Jews were not deported, but instead were driven from the country by a comprehensive policy of persecution. The Soviet Union also engaged in deportations. Unlike Germany, it was a multi-ethnic country, althouhgh dominated by the Russians. With the start of the war, deportations increased in number and dimensuons, mostly conducted by the Germans and Soviets. Much of the German deportations focused on the Jews, but also Poles were a major target. Czechs were deported fom the Sudetenland and French from Alsace Loraine. There were smaller scale deportations from Memel (Lithuania) and eastern Belgium. The Soviuets conducted deportations from the Baltic Republics they seized before the War They also deported several ethnic groups deemed disloyal, beginning with the Volksdeutsche, but including many other groups like the Chechens and Crimean Tartars. And this did not end aftervthe War. The Soviets deported Poles in large numbers of people from former eastern Polsnd, essentially moving the Polish nation west. The largest of these deportations were the Germans living in Eastern Europe deported west, essentially mass expulsions often with great brutality.
Refugees connitates indivuduals fleeing invading armies. Sometimes they suceded in reacjing safety. Often they did not. There were also the more controlled movenent of civilians, commonly called evcuations. Here the civilians were moved by the Governments involved or received support and assistance from their governments. The best known evacuation wa the British evacuation of children and other endangered peoples from the cities to protect them from aerial bombing (1939-44). The French (1939), Germans (1942-44), and Japanese (1945) also evacuated children. A smaller evacuation, but very substantial in terms of a percentage of the popultion, was conducted by the Finns because of the Soviet invasion. The Soviets eventually evacuated children from Lenningrad. The Germans evacuated the ethnic Germans from the Baltics and nothwestern Romania (1939-40). The operation was known as 'Home to the Reich'. The Germans did not conduct organized evacuations in the areas as the Red Army approached later in the War because Hitler wanted a fight to the death and local NAZIs were afraid as being seen as defeatists.
Repatriation was primarily a process which took place after the War and it concerned the millions of workers brought into the Reich for war work. This included different groups of people from all over occupied Europe. Many were slave workers, mostly from Eastern Europe. Other were conscript workers, mostly from Western Europe. Other had voluntarily come to Germany from neutral countries, including some from Spain. Getting all these people home was areal problem. This was not only were their numbers of Germanscflooding into occupied Germny from eastern anbd central Europe, but also millions of Germans attempting to get home from where they were when the War endd. This included millions of Germans, especilly the children, who had been evacuated from the cities into the countryside. Now the problem of moving all these people home might have been manageable had the German transport system, espoecially the rail system, had survived the War. It had not. In fact the German transport system had been a primary target of the strategic bombing, part of destroying the German war economy. Europe, especially Germany, was awash with people. And with the destruction of the German transport system there was no easy or quick way for these people to get home. Thus Displaced Persons (DP) camps had to be set up to care for people until they could get home. Some were in such poor condition thst they need immediate medical care to be kept alive. Many were beyond help and could not be saved. There are other issues concerning repaitriations. Most of the displaced people wanted to go home. Not all people wanted to go home. Some of these people did not want to return to a Communist dominsted Eastern Europe. Some were forcibly repatriated. This was primarily the Soviet citizens who fought with the Germans. The Jews were a special problem. Many did not want to return home to eastrn Europe, in part because of the Comminiust take over, the murder of their families, and the prevlant anti-Semitism. Most wanted to go to either America or Israel. British policy to placate the Arabs severely limited Jewish access to Palestine. Ametrican emogration policy was changing, but immediately after the War was still restrictive. Another major reptariation effort was getting the Japanese home. Japanese civilians were located in the Marianas, Philippines, Taiwan, Korea, and Manchuria and had to be repatriated. This was done in an orderly fashion except for the areas occupied by the Red Army (Manchuria and North Korea).
Food would play an important role in World War II as it did in World War I. People have to eat and without food, war economies grind to a hault. War impairs a country's ability to produce food. Men drafted to fight reuce the agricultural work force and war production reduces imports like farm mchinery nd fertilizer. And the success of Axis armies early in the War. The Germans seized France (1940) hich gave them access to Frnce's agricultural bounty. And their Barbarossa offensive in the East, the Germans seized much of the Soviet Union's richest agricultural land (1941). And the Japanese did the same in China over a longer time frame. And the German U-boat campaign was launched to deny the British food and war supplies. There was only one country able to massivly increase food production to supply the gap in production crrated by the War. That was the United States. And thanks to the Royal Navy and U.S. Navy, food and other rlief supplies got through to Britain and the Soviet Union. In World War I the Allies were unable to get supplies through to Russia in the quantities needed. In World War II they suceeded. Tragically for Chins, the Japanese seized all of China's ports, making it impossible to get food through to China until after the Japanese surrnder. Food is not the only item needed for relief activities, but it is by far the most important.
United States food aid saved millions of lives in World War I. There was a special effort placed on feeding children. The same mission of mercy also occurred in World War II. The enormous productivity of American farms allowed it not only to feeds its people, but also provide food to the armies of its allies as well as civilian populations. This began even before America entered the War. The American Lend Lease Program approved by Congess (March 1941) is best known for providing arms and military supplies to World War II allies. Lend Lease aid also included large quatities of food. Food shipments to Britain and the Soviets Union. American and Canadian food aid was vital in keeping Britain in the War. American food aid was also vital in assisting the Soviet Union which was near staevation after the Germabs seized much of the country's most productive agricultural land. Soviet agriculture was already weakened by Stalin's NKVD which he ordered to murder millions of Ukranian peasant farmers and their families before the War--many of the country's best farmers. Tragically it was not possible to get food aid to China because the Japanese controlled the ports. The American Army unlike the Axis armies brought its food with it.
The Allies, meaning primarily the United States, began organizing relief programs for the refugees created by the Axis aggressions even before entering the War. The United States had played a substntial role in World War I relief, saving million of lives. The same was the case during World War II. Two early American efforts were the Emergency Rescue Committee and the U.S. Committee for the Care of European Children. Once involved in the War, President Roosevelt began using the term United Nations. It was esentially the creation of Woodrow Wilson's League of Nations. Roosevelt had been a strong supporter of Wilson and the League. The League was so controversial and Roosevelt had such a know down drag out fight with the isolationists who hated the League that he came up with a new name and prepared for the creation of an actual organiation that would replace the League. The primary United Nations orgaization to assist refugees was the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA). This agency was created before the United Nations itself. During and in the immediate post-War period, it was largely financed and supported by the United States. Food was a priority. The Axis as a matter of policy sought to deny food to trgeted populations. The Allies as a result attempte to supply desperate refuges with food. Here UNRRA played a major role.
The refugee crisis in Europe, especially Germany, resulted after the War in the creation of an international refugee and human rights infrastructure which is the basis of how refugee problems are handeled today. This has had both positice and negative consequences. Institutions were established to aid refugees. And there is commonly an outpouring of sympathy for refugees commonly resulting in the provision of humanitarian aid to care for them. Often it is barely adequate for the need, but certainly more is done for modern refugeees than refugees during earlier periods. One negative impact is that the aid being provided permit refugees and political groups to avoid adjustment and assimilation. The Palestinian refugees were not assimilated by the Arab statess. In contrast the larger number of Jewish were assimilated by a much smaller state--Israel. The result that now more than a cetury later, there are many more Palestinian refugeees than immediately after the War. The people we now call Palestinian refugees are not actual refugees, but the children and granhdchildren of the refugees born in the refugee camps. Humanitarian aid as in essence not solved the Palesirinian refugee pronblem, but perpetuated.
Greenfeld, Howard. After the Holocaust (Greenwillow Books/HarperCollins Publishers, 2001).
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[Return to Main World War II page] | 4,641 | ENGLISH | 1 |
- Dec 31, 2018
Resurrecting and compiling these millions of recovered historical and genealogical facts will transform how we understand Ireland’s past.
The project, launched on Tuesday, in Trinity College Dubin’s Library, Long Room, has the potential to transform how we understand Ireland's past and will be of great interest to the Irish diaspora and anyone tracing their Irish roots. It is estimated that up to 70 million people around the world claim Irish ancestry and heritage.
When Dublin’s Four Courts went up in flames on June 30th, 1922, seven centuries of Ireland’s historical and genealogical records, stored in a magnificent six-story Victorian archive building known as the Record Treasury, were lost. In one afternoon, hundreds of thousands of English Government records concerning Ireland, dating back to the 13th century, were destroyed - seemingly forever.
In 1688 the inhabitants of Enniskillen took up arms in defence of their town against the threat of occupation by the forces of James II. The troops so raised, The Inniskillingers, Foot and Dragoons, were not content to sit passively behind the walls of their town but made repeated expeditions into the surrounding district to seek out and destroy the enemy. So successful was this force it was incorporated into the army of William III, in which the Foot became “The Inniskilling Regiment”, its Colonel being Zachariah Tiffin, and as such it fought at the Battle of the Boyne
The cavalry could make little headway in the face of the cannon fire down the road, and so the fight was left to the infantry. Advancing at first slowly through the bog, they resisted the onslaught of fire from the Jacobite infantry long enough to reach firmer ground, from which they dashed forward and engaged the enemy in a wild melee. The Jacobites were forced back, and the cannon that had been guarding the road was captured.
Berry saw his chance and charged down the road. At this moment, the battle was decided when the Jacobite cavalry on the top of the hill turned and rode away south, leaving the battlefield at speed. Speculation exists that, in the heat of the skirmish, a misheard order caused the cavalry to turn about and ride off when Mountcashel actually wanted them to come to the assistance of the right flank. Either way, the cavalry left the field.
The sight of this caused what elements of the Jacobite infantry that were still holding some kind of shape to break apart and flee southwards as well. The rout was a bloody affair for Mountcashel’s force, with the pursuing Williamite cavalry and infantry having an easy time picking off the individuals and small bands of men who were trying to escape. Many of them were trapped by the waters of the Erne, either forced to face the pursuing Williamites or drown in an attempt to cross it. The Jacobite cavalry was mostly able to escape, but the infantry were nearly all killed or captured. The losses are not recorded with any great accuracy, but the majority of Mountcashel’s army was destroyed: it is likely at least 2’000 men died at Newtownbutler, or left as prisoners of the enemy. The Williamite loses were comparatively low.
At the Battle of the Boyne (1691), the Inniskilling Dragoons fought shoulder to shoulder with King William III himself, and the Regiment was constantly involved in the skirmishes which followed the battle.
Following this, the Inniskillings joined the army of King William III and over the next year fought at the Boyne, Athlone, Aughrim and Limerick.
As the battle progressed, the Inniskillings position in the centre became more and more exposed and at the same time more and more essential to the stability of Wellington’s line. Had the regiment broken, the entire line could have been breached, the road to Brussels would have been open and the consequences disastrous. The regiment did not break. At about 1900 hours that evening, an officer of the Rifle Brigade, describing the scene, said, ‘The 27th Regiment were lying literally dead, in square, a few yards behind us’. By then the Prussians were arriving on the battlefield. Wellington was able to bring all his reserves into the line, and when Napoleon tried his final throw, an attack by the veterans of the Imperial Guard, it failed and the French army began to disintegrate.
Wellington later said, ‘They (the 27th) saved the centre of my line at Waterloo’.
Napoleon commented, ‘That regiment with the castles on their caps is composed of the most obstinate mules I ever saw; they don’t know when they are beaten’.
The 6th Inniskillings were part of the Union Brigade of Heavy Cavalry along side the 1st Dragoons (Royals) and 2nd Dragoons (Scots Greys) and commanded by General Ponsonby. At a critical point in the battle, at 2.00 pm, the two brigades of Heavy cavalry (the other was the Household Brigade) were ordered to charge a massive French assault of infantry and cavalry which was bearing down on the allied line. The charge of the Heavy cavalry saved the day. The Union Brigade smashed into the French infantry and then on to the artillery. But the charge carried on too far and the Inniskillings were attacked by fresh French cavalry and suffered heavy casualties: | <urn:uuid:aabeb9aa-becc-4d5e-8a93-20bbf4303e75> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.politicalirish.com/threads/irish-history-folklore.33731/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00102.warc.gz | en | 0.980827 | 1,137 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.1223556771874... | 1 | - Dec 31, 2018
Resurrecting and compiling these millions of recovered historical and genealogical facts will transform how we understand Ireland’s past.
The project, launched on Tuesday, in Trinity College Dubin’s Library, Long Room, has the potential to transform how we understand Ireland's past and will be of great interest to the Irish diaspora and anyone tracing their Irish roots. It is estimated that up to 70 million people around the world claim Irish ancestry and heritage.
When Dublin’s Four Courts went up in flames on June 30th, 1922, seven centuries of Ireland’s historical and genealogical records, stored in a magnificent six-story Victorian archive building known as the Record Treasury, were lost. In one afternoon, hundreds of thousands of English Government records concerning Ireland, dating back to the 13th century, were destroyed - seemingly forever.
In 1688 the inhabitants of Enniskillen took up arms in defence of their town against the threat of occupation by the forces of James II. The troops so raised, The Inniskillingers, Foot and Dragoons, were not content to sit passively behind the walls of their town but made repeated expeditions into the surrounding district to seek out and destroy the enemy. So successful was this force it was incorporated into the army of William III, in which the Foot became “The Inniskilling Regiment”, its Colonel being Zachariah Tiffin, and as such it fought at the Battle of the Boyne
The cavalry could make little headway in the face of the cannon fire down the road, and so the fight was left to the infantry. Advancing at first slowly through the bog, they resisted the onslaught of fire from the Jacobite infantry long enough to reach firmer ground, from which they dashed forward and engaged the enemy in a wild melee. The Jacobites were forced back, and the cannon that had been guarding the road was captured.
Berry saw his chance and charged down the road. At this moment, the battle was decided when the Jacobite cavalry on the top of the hill turned and rode away south, leaving the battlefield at speed. Speculation exists that, in the heat of the skirmish, a misheard order caused the cavalry to turn about and ride off when Mountcashel actually wanted them to come to the assistance of the right flank. Either way, the cavalry left the field.
The sight of this caused what elements of the Jacobite infantry that were still holding some kind of shape to break apart and flee southwards as well. The rout was a bloody affair for Mountcashel’s force, with the pursuing Williamite cavalry and infantry having an easy time picking off the individuals and small bands of men who were trying to escape. Many of them were trapped by the waters of the Erne, either forced to face the pursuing Williamites or drown in an attempt to cross it. The Jacobite cavalry was mostly able to escape, but the infantry were nearly all killed or captured. The losses are not recorded with any great accuracy, but the majority of Mountcashel’s army was destroyed: it is likely at least 2’000 men died at Newtownbutler, or left as prisoners of the enemy. The Williamite loses were comparatively low.
At the Battle of the Boyne (1691), the Inniskilling Dragoons fought shoulder to shoulder with King William III himself, and the Regiment was constantly involved in the skirmishes which followed the battle.
Following this, the Inniskillings joined the army of King William III and over the next year fought at the Boyne, Athlone, Aughrim and Limerick.
As the battle progressed, the Inniskillings position in the centre became more and more exposed and at the same time more and more essential to the stability of Wellington’s line. Had the regiment broken, the entire line could have been breached, the road to Brussels would have been open and the consequences disastrous. The regiment did not break. At about 1900 hours that evening, an officer of the Rifle Brigade, describing the scene, said, ‘The 27th Regiment were lying literally dead, in square, a few yards behind us’. By then the Prussians were arriving on the battlefield. Wellington was able to bring all his reserves into the line, and when Napoleon tried his final throw, an attack by the veterans of the Imperial Guard, it failed and the French army began to disintegrate.
Wellington later said, ‘They (the 27th) saved the centre of my line at Waterloo’.
Napoleon commented, ‘That regiment with the castles on their caps is composed of the most obstinate mules I ever saw; they don’t know when they are beaten’.
The 6th Inniskillings were part of the Union Brigade of Heavy Cavalry along side the 1st Dragoons (Royals) and 2nd Dragoons (Scots Greys) and commanded by General Ponsonby. At a critical point in the battle, at 2.00 pm, the two brigades of Heavy cavalry (the other was the Household Brigade) were ordered to charge a massive French assault of infantry and cavalry which was bearing down on the allied line. The charge of the Heavy cavalry saved the day. The Union Brigade smashed into the French infantry and then on to the artillery. But the charge carried on too far and the Inniskillings were attacked by fresh French cavalry and suffered heavy casualties: | 1,138 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Windover Archeological site discovered in 1982 was purely by accident. While building a road over a pond for the new housing development, Windover Farms in Titusville, Florida, a backhoe operator noticed several skulls in the bucket of his machine. Examinations were done by the sheriff and medical examiner of Brevard County, both determined that the burials were not recent, and subsequently called in a forensic expert. Upon his examination, he determined the remains were modern Caucasian.
Construction on the project was stopped and the developers called in archaeologists. Using radiocarbon dating on two bones found in the backhoe, yielded dates of 7,210 years and 7,320 years Before Present. With the importance of this find, the developers changed their overall plans to preserve the pond and then donated $60,000 worth of pumping equipment to drain the pond for excavation.
What was discovered
When the excavation was completed, 168 individuals had been found that included both males and females. Ages spanned from infants to about 60 years old. About half of the remains were children. There were indications that there was a high value placed on children and teenagers, as they were buried with more grave goods.
Adult males had an average height of 5 feet 9 inches. In the skeletons, they found the effects of disease and healed wounds. In older females, osteoporosis was found, and in both sexes, adults showed high evidence of osteoarthritis. One skeleton discovered was a male about 15 years old who had spina bifida. One foot was missing, and the stump of his lower leg had healed. From the condition of his spine, the archaeologists were certain that he was paralyzed from the waist down. This was another important discovery in assessing the society’s commitment to the boy’s survival for 15 years in a hunter-gather community.
The archaeologists were able to recover a total of 86 pieces of fabric from 37 graves. The fabrics included different textile weaves, which appeared to have been used for clothing, bags, matting, and maybe blankets and ponchos. The people of Windover hunted animals, fished and gathered plants. Using bottle gourds for storage, showed the earliest evidence of vegetable container storage discovered in North America. From the bones and shells found in the graves, they indicate they ate white-tailed deer, raccoon, opossum, birds, fish, and shellfish.
History of the Windover Archeological Site
Windover is an Early Archaic (6000 to 5000 BC) archaeological site and was registered as a National Historic Landmark in 1987. Characteristics of the peat at the bottom of the muck pond kept the skeletons well preserved. Also, DNA from the well-preserved brain tissue has been sequenced. This discovery is the largest that has been found from the Archaic Period and considered one of the most important sites ever excavated.
Jerald T. Milanich states, “Windover has provided ‘unprecedented and dramatic’ information about the early Archaic people in Florida.” | <urn:uuid:cb3fd14c-7668-4787-b86c-ce89413e2b90> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.tropicmoonmedia.com/1990-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00130.warc.gz | en | 0.981264 | 630 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.7069572... | 2 | The Windover Archeological site discovered in 1982 was purely by accident. While building a road over a pond for the new housing development, Windover Farms in Titusville, Florida, a backhoe operator noticed several skulls in the bucket of his machine. Examinations were done by the sheriff and medical examiner of Brevard County, both determined that the burials were not recent, and subsequently called in a forensic expert. Upon his examination, he determined the remains were modern Caucasian.
Construction on the project was stopped and the developers called in archaeologists. Using radiocarbon dating on two bones found in the backhoe, yielded dates of 7,210 years and 7,320 years Before Present. With the importance of this find, the developers changed their overall plans to preserve the pond and then donated $60,000 worth of pumping equipment to drain the pond for excavation.
What was discovered
When the excavation was completed, 168 individuals had been found that included both males and females. Ages spanned from infants to about 60 years old. About half of the remains were children. There were indications that there was a high value placed on children and teenagers, as they were buried with more grave goods.
Adult males had an average height of 5 feet 9 inches. In the skeletons, they found the effects of disease and healed wounds. In older females, osteoporosis was found, and in both sexes, adults showed high evidence of osteoarthritis. One skeleton discovered was a male about 15 years old who had spina bifida. One foot was missing, and the stump of his lower leg had healed. From the condition of his spine, the archaeologists were certain that he was paralyzed from the waist down. This was another important discovery in assessing the society’s commitment to the boy’s survival for 15 years in a hunter-gather community.
The archaeologists were able to recover a total of 86 pieces of fabric from 37 graves. The fabrics included different textile weaves, which appeared to have been used for clothing, bags, matting, and maybe blankets and ponchos. The people of Windover hunted animals, fished and gathered plants. Using bottle gourds for storage, showed the earliest evidence of vegetable container storage discovered in North America. From the bones and shells found in the graves, they indicate they ate white-tailed deer, raccoon, opossum, birds, fish, and shellfish.
History of the Windover Archeological Site
Windover is an Early Archaic (6000 to 5000 BC) archaeological site and was registered as a National Historic Landmark in 1987. Characteristics of the peat at the bottom of the muck pond kept the skeletons well preserved. Also, DNA from the well-preserved brain tissue has been sequenced. This discovery is the largest that has been found from the Archaic Period and considered one of the most important sites ever excavated.
Jerald T. Milanich states, “Windover has provided ‘unprecedented and dramatic’ information about the early Archaic people in Florida.” | 656 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In Oxnard, segregation persisted for decades; library talk explores city's past racism
In La Colonia, the railroad tracks were the demarcation line. Life in Oxnard was different whether you were on the west or east side. Walking on the street was different, eating at a restaurant was different and going to school was very different.
Under Oxnard School District's segregation policies, which ended after 1970, white students played and learned in one area while Mexican American and African American students were in another area.
In his book "Strategies of Segregation: Race, Residence, and the Struggle for Educational Equality," David G. García looks at the unequal education opportunities that were given to students of Oxnard in the decades leading to integration.
García spent seven years doing archival research and conducting interviews with those who remembered that era. García, an Oxnard resident and a professor at the UCLA Graduate School of Education and Information Studies, will discuss his book at 3 p.m. Saturday at the Oxnard Main Library.
While much has been written about school segregation for African Americans, not many people know about segregation of Mexican American students, García said.
"Mexican students were consistently segregated and one of those places was Oxnard," García said.
If the railroad tracks marked the deep divisions in a community, a painted white line was what separated children of different races at school.
Through interviews, García learned that students of color couldn't cross a painted line in the playground to where the white students played. The bathrooms were on the side of the white students, forcing the Mexican American and African American students to urinate by the trees.
García said administrators created these situations to humiliate students.
"It's meant to push you out of school," he said. "Why would you want to be there?"
Before a school was built in La Colonia, officials practiced segregation within a school, García said. Students weren't just physically separated by race but white children had different recess times and got out of school earlier than others.
Mexican American students, some of whom were U.S. citizens, were punished for speaking Spanish. One former student García interviewed talked about having to draw a circle in the dirt and being forced to stand in the middle as a form of punishment for saying a Spanish word.
García conducted more than 60 interviews for the book. These first-person accounts show the racism that permeated in the everyday lives of students and families of color in Oxnard.
"It's one thing to read about it, and it's another to hear those former students talk about it," García said. "It was emotional to talk about it 60, 70 years later."
La Colonia residents who went to the restaurants of the white neighborhoods on the other side of the tracks were never served. Women who went to buy a dress were ignored by shopkeepers. Men found walking in the wrong neighborhood were picked up by police and taken back to the other side of the tracks. African Americans and Mexican Americans sat in the balcony level of the movie theater, separate from whites.
García called this "mundane racism." There were no posted signs that spelled out where people of color could or could not go. Unlike elsewhere in the country where signs spelled out where blacks and others weren't allowed, segregation in Oxnard was unspoken.
In many ways, this unspoken but understood segregation was more effective, García said.
"It's hard to protest without the evidence," García said. "It's hard to bring it to court."
Somebody did challenge it in court. Labor organizer Juan Soria filed a lawsuit in 1970 on behalf of his nieces against the school district and won.
Ramona School was the convincing evidence, García said. The La Colonia school was 80% to 90% Mexican American and African American.
The result of the lawsuit was integration through forced busing. Students who lived on the east side of the tracks had to be bused into the west side and vice versa. A school off Fifth Street is named after Soria.
García's book does not go into detail about the years following integration but he said there was resistance and white families moved out of the area. During Saturday's library talk, former students interviewed will be there to join the discussion.
In the coming months, García will give book talks elsewhere in the county. He will be at Oxnard College at 6 p.m. on Oct. 23 and at the Museum of Ventura County at 3 p.m. on Nov. 16.
Wendy Leung is a staff writer for the Ventura County Star. Reach her at firstname.lastname@example.org or 805-437-0339. You can also find her on Twitter @Leung__Wendy. | <urn:uuid:fce35a4c-84b1-42ac-85ef-d0952e2fa703> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.vcstar.com/story/news/2019/09/19/segregation-oxnard-persisted-decades-ucla-professor-talk-explores-past/2342906001/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00135.warc.gz | en | 0.986115 | 1,006 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.316271424293... | 6 | In Oxnard, segregation persisted for decades; library talk explores city's past racism
In La Colonia, the railroad tracks were the demarcation line. Life in Oxnard was different whether you were on the west or east side. Walking on the street was different, eating at a restaurant was different and going to school was very different.
Under Oxnard School District's segregation policies, which ended after 1970, white students played and learned in one area while Mexican American and African American students were in another area.
In his book "Strategies of Segregation: Race, Residence, and the Struggle for Educational Equality," David G. García looks at the unequal education opportunities that were given to students of Oxnard in the decades leading to integration.
García spent seven years doing archival research and conducting interviews with those who remembered that era. García, an Oxnard resident and a professor at the UCLA Graduate School of Education and Information Studies, will discuss his book at 3 p.m. Saturday at the Oxnard Main Library.
While much has been written about school segregation for African Americans, not many people know about segregation of Mexican American students, García said.
"Mexican students were consistently segregated and one of those places was Oxnard," García said.
If the railroad tracks marked the deep divisions in a community, a painted white line was what separated children of different races at school.
Through interviews, García learned that students of color couldn't cross a painted line in the playground to where the white students played. The bathrooms were on the side of the white students, forcing the Mexican American and African American students to urinate by the trees.
García said administrators created these situations to humiliate students.
"It's meant to push you out of school," he said. "Why would you want to be there?"
Before a school was built in La Colonia, officials practiced segregation within a school, García said. Students weren't just physically separated by race but white children had different recess times and got out of school earlier than others.
Mexican American students, some of whom were U.S. citizens, were punished for speaking Spanish. One former student García interviewed talked about having to draw a circle in the dirt and being forced to stand in the middle as a form of punishment for saying a Spanish word.
García conducted more than 60 interviews for the book. These first-person accounts show the racism that permeated in the everyday lives of students and families of color in Oxnard.
"It's one thing to read about it, and it's another to hear those former students talk about it," García said. "It was emotional to talk about it 60, 70 years later."
La Colonia residents who went to the restaurants of the white neighborhoods on the other side of the tracks were never served. Women who went to buy a dress were ignored by shopkeepers. Men found walking in the wrong neighborhood were picked up by police and taken back to the other side of the tracks. African Americans and Mexican Americans sat in the balcony level of the movie theater, separate from whites.
García called this "mundane racism." There were no posted signs that spelled out where people of color could or could not go. Unlike elsewhere in the country where signs spelled out where blacks and others weren't allowed, segregation in Oxnard was unspoken.
In many ways, this unspoken but understood segregation was more effective, García said.
"It's hard to protest without the evidence," García said. "It's hard to bring it to court."
Somebody did challenge it in court. Labor organizer Juan Soria filed a lawsuit in 1970 on behalf of his nieces against the school district and won.
Ramona School was the convincing evidence, García said. The La Colonia school was 80% to 90% Mexican American and African American.
The result of the lawsuit was integration through forced busing. Students who lived on the east side of the tracks had to be bused into the west side and vice versa. A school off Fifth Street is named after Soria.
García's book does not go into detail about the years following integration but he said there was resistance and white families moved out of the area. During Saturday's library talk, former students interviewed will be there to join the discussion.
In the coming months, García will give book talks elsewhere in the county. He will be at Oxnard College at 6 p.m. on Oct. 23 and at the Museum of Ventura County at 3 p.m. on Nov. 16.
Wendy Leung is a staff writer for the Ventura County Star. Reach her at firstname.lastname@example.org or 805-437-0339. You can also find her on Twitter @Leung__Wendy. | 994 | ENGLISH | 1 |
An ancient Chinese text recorded the height of Confucius as nine feet six inches tall. While that document may have exaggerated his physical size, there’s no doubt that Confucius was a teacher and philosopher of tremendous stature. His ideals have become intrinsically entwined with the national identity of China and the civilization of East Asia.
The individual known in the West as Confucius was born Kongqiu in 551 B.C. near Qufu, in eastern China. His family may once have been aristocratic, but they apparently fell on hard times, because he took menial jobs as a young man.
Love of learning
Confucius showed a zeal for academics early on. “At 15, I set my heart on learning,” he later told his disciples. He studied music, mathematics, the classics, history, and more. He was especially entranced by the early years of the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 B.C.), a peaceful period he perceived as a golden age to be emulated.
Confucius believed that education and reflection led to virtue, and that those who aspired to command others must cultivate discipline and moral authority in themselves. He strove to rise through the government ranks, but he tended to offend others with his forceful personality, using his position as a bully pulpit for preaching good governance. He eventually was appointed to the influential post of minister of crime in the state of Lu but fell from favor through his aggressive reform efforts.
He tried for years to reenter public service in order to improve it from within, but he found far greater success as a teacher instead. Confucius broke with tradition in his belief that all human beings could benefit from education. He espoused lifelong learning “for the sake of the self,” meaning self- knowledge and self-improvement. He attracted a wide circle of followers, who knew him as Kongfuzi (Master Kong). Those pupils recorded his words in The Analects, a collection of ethical concepts.
As stated in The Analects, Confucius believed that social harmony would naturally follow from the proper ordering of individuals in relation to
one another, with the family unit as the basic building block of society. He therefore stressed the cultivation of personal qualities such as benevolence, reciprocity, and filial piety as essential to the formation of well-educated, conscientious individuals who would benefit society through public service.
Spreading his wisdom
Confucius was largely ignored in his own day. When he died in 479 B.C., he left behind perhaps 3,000 students, who devoted themselves to preserving and propagating their master’s precepts. Confucius’s teachings were enthusiastically adopted as Chinese state ideology by the Han dynasty in the second century B.C. The Analects would go on to guide governments and individuals for millennia, informing and influencing Chinese history and civilization in the process.
This text is an excerpt from the National Geographic special issue The Most Influential Figures of Ancient History. | <urn:uuid:cbeae9ed-cf45-4c97-8c5a-21344d472e44> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/people/reference/confucius/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00193.warc.gz | en | 0.980141 | 629 | 4.125 | 4 | [
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0.2530439496040344... | 3 | An ancient Chinese text recorded the height of Confucius as nine feet six inches tall. While that document may have exaggerated his physical size, there’s no doubt that Confucius was a teacher and philosopher of tremendous stature. His ideals have become intrinsically entwined with the national identity of China and the civilization of East Asia.
The individual known in the West as Confucius was born Kongqiu in 551 B.C. near Qufu, in eastern China. His family may once have been aristocratic, but they apparently fell on hard times, because he took menial jobs as a young man.
Love of learning
Confucius showed a zeal for academics early on. “At 15, I set my heart on learning,” he later told his disciples. He studied music, mathematics, the classics, history, and more. He was especially entranced by the early years of the Zhou dynasty (1046–256 B.C.), a peaceful period he perceived as a golden age to be emulated.
Confucius believed that education and reflection led to virtue, and that those who aspired to command others must cultivate discipline and moral authority in themselves. He strove to rise through the government ranks, but he tended to offend others with his forceful personality, using his position as a bully pulpit for preaching good governance. He eventually was appointed to the influential post of minister of crime in the state of Lu but fell from favor through his aggressive reform efforts.
He tried for years to reenter public service in order to improve it from within, but he found far greater success as a teacher instead. Confucius broke with tradition in his belief that all human beings could benefit from education. He espoused lifelong learning “for the sake of the self,” meaning self- knowledge and self-improvement. He attracted a wide circle of followers, who knew him as Kongfuzi (Master Kong). Those pupils recorded his words in The Analects, a collection of ethical concepts.
As stated in The Analects, Confucius believed that social harmony would naturally follow from the proper ordering of individuals in relation to
one another, with the family unit as the basic building block of society. He therefore stressed the cultivation of personal qualities such as benevolence, reciprocity, and filial piety as essential to the formation of well-educated, conscientious individuals who would benefit society through public service.
Spreading his wisdom
Confucius was largely ignored in his own day. When he died in 479 B.C., he left behind perhaps 3,000 students, who devoted themselves to preserving and propagating their master’s precepts. Confucius’s teachings were enthusiastically adopted as Chinese state ideology by the Han dynasty in the second century B.C. The Analects would go on to guide governments and individuals for millennia, informing and influencing Chinese history and civilization in the process.
This text is an excerpt from the National Geographic special issue The Most Influential Figures of Ancient History. | 620 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The English Civil War, as it is usually known, should really be seen as a wider conflict, as there were few areas of the British Isles which were not in some way affected. The fighting extended beyond England to Scotland, Ireland and Wales.
From 1629 to 1640, King Charles I ruled without Parliament, denying its involvement in passing laws and authorising taxes. To raise money, Charles resorted to a number of unpopular measures, such as the notorious ‘ship money’ (a tax to maintain the Royal Navy). But without Parliament, the country had no outlet for the redress of grievances.
England was largely a Protestant country. There was widespread fear of Roman Catholicism, which was associated with oppression and with England’s traditional enemies, France and Spain.
Charles’s marriage to a Catholic, Princess Henrietta Maria of France, and his introduction of what were considered ‘popish’ practices into the English Church, aroused mistrust. The King’s foreign policy, which did little to assist Protestants abroad, was also viewed with suspicion.
In 1637, Charles attempted to impose religious changes in Scotland. This was met with immediate resistance. In 1639 and 1640, the King conducted two campaigns (known as the Bishops’ Wars) to enforce his authority. He was twice defeated by a Scottish army, which then occupied northern England.
Charles eventually agreed not to interfere in Scotland's religion and paid the Scots' war expenses. Faced also with the need to pay his English troops, Charles was in a desperate financial state. He was now forced to recall Parliament.
When Parliament met in 1640, Charles expected to be granted money and support against the Scots. Instead, Parliament embarked upon a programme of legislation to restrict the King’s powers and to eliminate the ‘popish’ practices from the Church. It also tried to gain control of England’s armed forces by means of a Militia Bill.
Opposition to Royal policy was almost unanimous in 1640. But by 1641, it had weakened. Suspicion of the Scots, alarm at the proposed extension of Parliament’s powers, and fear of radical Protestant sects all helped to promote support for the King.
However, Charles’s refusal to compromise alienated many moderates who might otherwise have trusted and supported him.
In October 1641, encouraged by the King’s weakness against the Scots, Catholics in Ireland rose in rebellion, massacring Protestants in Ulster. Exaggerated tales of atrocities intensified the political crisis in England.
Some suspected that Charles himself was behind the rising. They feared that he would use any army raised for Ireland to suppress opposition in England.
In January 1642, Charles was foiled in his attempt to arrest five Members of Parliament who led the opposition to his policies. He left London for York, and both sides prepared for war.
7 December 1640
5 March 1642
4 January 1642
10 January 1842
23 April 1642
6 June 1642
12 July 1642
22 August 1642
In the months that followed, armies loyal to the King and Parliament fought for control of key cities and strongholds all over the country.
Parliament soon established control of most of the east and south-east of England. Support for the King centred mostly in the west, north and Wales. Elsewhere, loyalties were divided. And it was in these disputed areas that most of the fighting occurred.
Parliament's victory at Naseby in June 1645 proved to be the decisive engagement. This 'First Civil War' ended with the surrender of the Royalist headquarters at Oxford in June 1646.
23 October 1642
13 November 1642
30 June 1643
26 July 1643
20 September 1643
11 October 1643
2 July 1644
31 August 1644
14 June 1645
10 July 1645
11 September 1645
13 September 1645
5 May 1646
24 June 1646
'The air was so darkened by the smoke of powder that for a quarter of an hour there was no light seen, but what the fire of the volleys of the shot gave, and ’twas the greatest storm I ever saw'.
Captain Richard Atkyns at the Battle of Lansdown, 1643
The coming of the Civil War in 1642 divided friends, families, and local communities. There was no such thing as a ‘typical’ Royalist or Parliamentarian. Soldiers on both sides fought for a variety of motives, and with varying degrees of enthusiasm. Religious conviction, mistrust of Royal power, local rivalry, economic discontent or loyalty to King, landlord, family or friends could all influence allegiances.
Self-interest also played its part. There was profit to be made from confiscated lands, while professional soldiers on both sides were suspected of wanting to prolong the fighting to keep themselves in employment.
Many of those who filled the ranks of both armies had little choice in the matter, often following the lead of their landlord or local gentry. If captured, they were often drafted into the opposing army.
Some saw the conflict as a way of achieving radical political, social and religious change. They included 'Levellers' and 'Diggers', many of whom served in the Parliamentarian armies. Radical soldiers’ views were expressed at the Putney Debates of 1647, a series of discussions about the future constitution of Britain.
Many of the ideas expressed by soldiers and others challenged the entire social and political establishment of 17th-century Britain.
‘For really I think that the poorest he that is in England hath a life to live, as the greatest he; and therefore... I think it clear, that every man that is to live under a Government ought first by his own consent to put himself under that Government; and I do think that the poorest man in England is not at all bound in a strict sense to that Government that he hath not had a voice to put himself under.’
Colonel Thomas Rainsborough at Putney, 1647
England had no standing army in 1642, yet both sides managed to raise and sustain large forces. The money and men they needed came from many different sources.
English and Scottish officers who had fought in Europe during the Thirty Years’ War (1618-48) provided valuable military experience. Both sides also employed foreign mercenaries.
England’s militia, based on the Trained Bands, was often reluctant to fight outside its own localities. Most other recruits came from the labouring classes, but many ‘gentleman volunteers’ also fought in the ranks, particularly in cavalry units.
‘I care not for your cause; I come to fight for your half-crown, and your handsome women.’
Croatian mercenary Captain Carlo Fantom, c1643
By the end of 1643, both sides were desperately short of soldiers and were forced to resort to local conscription. This did little to solve the problem as desertion was rife and local officials always tried to get rid of the worst men. Prisoners of war were also pressed into service.
Both sides were always short of money. They raised what they could by taxation, forced loans, gifts and outright plunder. The King also obtained supplies on credit in Europe.
As the war progressed, Parliament’s methods of raising money became very well-organised, allowing it to maintain first the army of the Eastern Association and later the New Model Army.
Formed in 1645 from the remains of three older Parliamentarian armies, the New Model Army was a radical departure from the past - a national fighting force not tied to a region or locality.
Full-time, disciplined, ideologically motivated, regularly paid and commanded by officers promoted on the basis of ability, not blood, it was the most important force in the country. It became the model for a future British standing army. Indeed, many of its soldiers continued to serve after 1660 in the army of the restored King Charles II.
The New Model Army eventually secured victory for Parliament in the war, winning the decisive Battle of Naseby (14 June 1645).
‘I had rather have a plain, russet-coated Captain, that knows what he fights for, and loves what he knows, than that which you call a Gentleman and is nothing else.’
Lieutenant-General Oliver Cromwell, 1645
The common belief is that Royalist ‘Cavaliers’ all wore large floppy hats with feathers, while Parliamentary ‘Roundheads’ wore what the Victorians called ‘lobster pot helmets’. This is a 19th-century myth. Both sides in the war would have looked similar and the quality of any item of dress would depend on the status of the wearer, not his allegiance.
Officers on both sides were members of the gentry. Most wore their own fine-quality civilian clothes under a buff coat and gorget. A sash worn over the left shoulder across the body, or around the waist, indicated an officer’s rank.
It was often difficult to distinguish friend from foe. To overcome this problem, both sides made use of field signs, such as a piece of white paper in the hat or passwords. But even so, mistakes were frequently made, sometimes with fatal consequences. Later on, the New Model Army wore distinctive red uniforms and its individual regiments were distinguished by the colours of their cuffs.
Known as the 'Foot', infantry were usually organised in regiments. About two-thirds of a regiment was armed with a matchlock musket, the rest with a sixteen-foot, steel-tipped pike. Muskets were wildly inaccurate, but lethal at close range. Pikemen were needed to protect the musketeers from cavalry - no horse would charge onto the closely-packed points of their pikes.
Called the 'Horse', cavalry were also formed into regiments, but sometimes operated in independent troops. Ideally a cavalry trooper would possess a sword, a pair of pistols, helmet, buff coat, back and breastplate, and a steel gauntlet to cover his bridle hand. In practice, few were so lavishly equipped.
Dragoons were mounted infantry, who dismounted to fight. They were armed with muskets and swords.
Artillery pieces were fairly clumsy and difficult to move. They varied in calibre and their rate of fire was slow. They were more useful for sieges than on the open battlefield.
Many soldiers were employed on garrison duty in towns, and saw little fighting. A large number never left their own counties. To those with the field armies, however, the war meant frequent marches, cold, hunger, tiredness and disease.
Most armies fluctuated in size during the conflict as a result of losses and desertion, but usually numbered in the thousands. At Edgehill (1642) both sides fielded about 14,000 soldiers. At Naseby (1645), the 9,000 Royalists were outnumbered by the 13,500-strong Parliamentarians.
The initial establishment of the New Model Army in 1645 was around 24,000 men. This was based upon infantry regiments 1,200 men strong, cavalry regiments of 600 troopers and a dragoon regiment of 1,000 soldiers. In practice, such unit strengths were rarely attained during the conflict.
'The enemy’s cannon...were somewhat dreadful when bowels and brains flew in our faces.'
Sergeant Henry Foster at the First Battle of Newbury, 1643
Although Charles’s forces had been beaten in the field, he still refused to reach a settlement, hoping to exploit the political divisions of his opponents. The King continued to negotiate in secret for support.
In 1648, there was a series of Royalist uprisings across England and Wales, and an invasion of northern England by the Scots. These were all defeated by Parliament's New Model Army.
The events of 1648 convinced Parliament that the King could never be trusted. In January 1649, he was brought to trial and found to have 'traitorously and maliciously levied war against the present Parliament and the people'.
Charles was executed outside the Banqueting House in Whitehall on 30 January. He is the only English monarch to have been executed for treason.
Soon after, Oliver Cromwell landed in Ireland to defeat the supporters of Charles's son and heir, the exiled Charles II. His bloody conquest completed the British colonisation of Ireland, which was merged into the newly-formed Commonwealth alongside England and Scotland.
The invasion destroyed the native Irish Catholic land-owning classes, replacing them with colonists with a British Protestant identity.
3 June 1647
28 April 1648
8 July 1648
17 August 1648
6 December 1648
30 January 1649
15 May 1649
19 May 1649
11 September 1649
11 October 1649
‘This is a righteous judgement of God upon these barbarous wretches, who have imbrued their hands in so much innocent blood and that it will tend to prevent the effusion of blood for the future, which are satisfactory grounds for such actions, which otherwise cannot but work remorse and regret.’
Lieutenant-General Oliver Cromwell after the Siege of Drogheda, 1649
In 1650, the exiled Charles II landed in Scotland and was crowned at Scone the following year. In a move designed to stop any possible Scottish invasion of England, Cromwell marched north in response.
At first out-manoeuvred by the Scots, Cromwell then destroyed a Scottish army at the Battle of Dunbar on 3 September 1650. Despite this, Charles himself then invaded England at the head of another army. This was defeated at Worcester on 3 September 1651 and Charles was forced back into exile.
In 1653, Cromwell used the New Model Army to disband Parliament, irritated by its self-serving interests and slowness in developing political solutions for the Commonwealth. In the process, he became Lord Protector, going on to rule England until his death in 1658.
But Cromwell could not agree with his new Protectorate Parliaments either. He dismissed them and, instead, ruled the country through his major-generals. England became a military dictatorship.
This military involvement in politics created a popular suspicion of standing armies that lasted well into the 19th century.
27 April 1650
24 June 1650
3 September 1650
3 September 1651
3 September 1658
A recent estimate suggests that there were around 250,000 war-related deaths (military and civilian) in Britain during the conflicts - nearly 5 per cent of the population. This was a greater proportion than the 2.6 per cent of the population who died in the First World War (1914-18).
Deaths in Ireland probably numbered well over 250,000, possibly around 15-20 per cent of the estimated pre-war population.
The Civil Wars ensured that kings and queens would never again be supreme in British politics. Although the monarchy was restored in 1660 with the accession of Charles II, the later Stuart and Hanoverian kings had a very different, conditional relationship with their parliaments compared to some of their Continental cousins.
The possibility of absolute monarchy died with Charles I. Indeed, attempts by another of his sons, James II, to strengthen royal power - including using the army as an instrument of political control - led to his downfall in the 'Glorious Revolution' of 1688.
This finally secured the primacy of Parliament over the monarchy. It also gave Parliament control over the army, one of the issues that had helped cause the civil war. | <urn:uuid:80fa4392-5638-4828-842c-205ab4f56b48> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://nam.ac.uk/explore/british-civil-wars | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00013.warc.gz | en | 0.98147 | 3,257 | 4.25 | 4 | [
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0.2846857607... | 1 | The English Civil War, as it is usually known, should really be seen as a wider conflict, as there were few areas of the British Isles which were not in some way affected. The fighting extended beyond England to Scotland, Ireland and Wales.
From 1629 to 1640, King Charles I ruled without Parliament, denying its involvement in passing laws and authorising taxes. To raise money, Charles resorted to a number of unpopular measures, such as the notorious ‘ship money’ (a tax to maintain the Royal Navy). But without Parliament, the country had no outlet for the redress of grievances.
England was largely a Protestant country. There was widespread fear of Roman Catholicism, which was associated with oppression and with England’s traditional enemies, France and Spain.
Charles’s marriage to a Catholic, Princess Henrietta Maria of France, and his introduction of what were considered ‘popish’ practices into the English Church, aroused mistrust. The King’s foreign policy, which did little to assist Protestants abroad, was also viewed with suspicion.
In 1637, Charles attempted to impose religious changes in Scotland. This was met with immediate resistance. In 1639 and 1640, the King conducted two campaigns (known as the Bishops’ Wars) to enforce his authority. He was twice defeated by a Scottish army, which then occupied northern England.
Charles eventually agreed not to interfere in Scotland's religion and paid the Scots' war expenses. Faced also with the need to pay his English troops, Charles was in a desperate financial state. He was now forced to recall Parliament.
When Parliament met in 1640, Charles expected to be granted money and support against the Scots. Instead, Parliament embarked upon a programme of legislation to restrict the King’s powers and to eliminate the ‘popish’ practices from the Church. It also tried to gain control of England’s armed forces by means of a Militia Bill.
Opposition to Royal policy was almost unanimous in 1640. But by 1641, it had weakened. Suspicion of the Scots, alarm at the proposed extension of Parliament’s powers, and fear of radical Protestant sects all helped to promote support for the King.
However, Charles’s refusal to compromise alienated many moderates who might otherwise have trusted and supported him.
In October 1641, encouraged by the King’s weakness against the Scots, Catholics in Ireland rose in rebellion, massacring Protestants in Ulster. Exaggerated tales of atrocities intensified the political crisis in England.
Some suspected that Charles himself was behind the rising. They feared that he would use any army raised for Ireland to suppress opposition in England.
In January 1642, Charles was foiled in his attempt to arrest five Members of Parliament who led the opposition to his policies. He left London for York, and both sides prepared for war.
7 December 1640
5 March 1642
4 January 1642
10 January 1842
23 April 1642
6 June 1642
12 July 1642
22 August 1642
In the months that followed, armies loyal to the King and Parliament fought for control of key cities and strongholds all over the country.
Parliament soon established control of most of the east and south-east of England. Support for the King centred mostly in the west, north and Wales. Elsewhere, loyalties were divided. And it was in these disputed areas that most of the fighting occurred.
Parliament's victory at Naseby in June 1645 proved to be the decisive engagement. This 'First Civil War' ended with the surrender of the Royalist headquarters at Oxford in June 1646.
23 October 1642
13 November 1642
30 June 1643
26 July 1643
20 September 1643
11 October 1643
2 July 1644
31 August 1644
14 June 1645
10 July 1645
11 September 1645
13 September 1645
5 May 1646
24 June 1646
'The air was so darkened by the smoke of powder that for a quarter of an hour there was no light seen, but what the fire of the volleys of the shot gave, and ’twas the greatest storm I ever saw'.
Captain Richard Atkyns at the Battle of Lansdown, 1643
The coming of the Civil War in 1642 divided friends, families, and local communities. There was no such thing as a ‘typical’ Royalist or Parliamentarian. Soldiers on both sides fought for a variety of motives, and with varying degrees of enthusiasm. Religious conviction, mistrust of Royal power, local rivalry, economic discontent or loyalty to King, landlord, family or friends could all influence allegiances.
Self-interest also played its part. There was profit to be made from confiscated lands, while professional soldiers on both sides were suspected of wanting to prolong the fighting to keep themselves in employment.
Many of those who filled the ranks of both armies had little choice in the matter, often following the lead of their landlord or local gentry. If captured, they were often drafted into the opposing army.
Some saw the conflict as a way of achieving radical political, social and religious change. They included 'Levellers' and 'Diggers', many of whom served in the Parliamentarian armies. Radical soldiers’ views were expressed at the Putney Debates of 1647, a series of discussions about the future constitution of Britain.
Many of the ideas expressed by soldiers and others challenged the entire social and political establishment of 17th-century Britain.
‘For really I think that the poorest he that is in England hath a life to live, as the greatest he; and therefore... I think it clear, that every man that is to live under a Government ought first by his own consent to put himself under that Government; and I do think that the poorest man in England is not at all bound in a strict sense to that Government that he hath not had a voice to put himself under.’
Colonel Thomas Rainsborough at Putney, 1647
England had no standing army in 1642, yet both sides managed to raise and sustain large forces. The money and men they needed came from many different sources.
English and Scottish officers who had fought in Europe during the Thirty Years’ War (1618-48) provided valuable military experience. Both sides also employed foreign mercenaries.
England’s militia, based on the Trained Bands, was often reluctant to fight outside its own localities. Most other recruits came from the labouring classes, but many ‘gentleman volunteers’ also fought in the ranks, particularly in cavalry units.
‘I care not for your cause; I come to fight for your half-crown, and your handsome women.’
Croatian mercenary Captain Carlo Fantom, c1643
By the end of 1643, both sides were desperately short of soldiers and were forced to resort to local conscription. This did little to solve the problem as desertion was rife and local officials always tried to get rid of the worst men. Prisoners of war were also pressed into service.
Both sides were always short of money. They raised what they could by taxation, forced loans, gifts and outright plunder. The King also obtained supplies on credit in Europe.
As the war progressed, Parliament’s methods of raising money became very well-organised, allowing it to maintain first the army of the Eastern Association and later the New Model Army.
Formed in 1645 from the remains of three older Parliamentarian armies, the New Model Army was a radical departure from the past - a national fighting force not tied to a region or locality.
Full-time, disciplined, ideologically motivated, regularly paid and commanded by officers promoted on the basis of ability, not blood, it was the most important force in the country. It became the model for a future British standing army. Indeed, many of its soldiers continued to serve after 1660 in the army of the restored King Charles II.
The New Model Army eventually secured victory for Parliament in the war, winning the decisive Battle of Naseby (14 June 1645).
‘I had rather have a plain, russet-coated Captain, that knows what he fights for, and loves what he knows, than that which you call a Gentleman and is nothing else.’
Lieutenant-General Oliver Cromwell, 1645
The common belief is that Royalist ‘Cavaliers’ all wore large floppy hats with feathers, while Parliamentary ‘Roundheads’ wore what the Victorians called ‘lobster pot helmets’. This is a 19th-century myth. Both sides in the war would have looked similar and the quality of any item of dress would depend on the status of the wearer, not his allegiance.
Officers on both sides were members of the gentry. Most wore their own fine-quality civilian clothes under a buff coat and gorget. A sash worn over the left shoulder across the body, or around the waist, indicated an officer’s rank.
It was often difficult to distinguish friend from foe. To overcome this problem, both sides made use of field signs, such as a piece of white paper in the hat or passwords. But even so, mistakes were frequently made, sometimes with fatal consequences. Later on, the New Model Army wore distinctive red uniforms and its individual regiments were distinguished by the colours of their cuffs.
Known as the 'Foot', infantry were usually organised in regiments. About two-thirds of a regiment was armed with a matchlock musket, the rest with a sixteen-foot, steel-tipped pike. Muskets were wildly inaccurate, but lethal at close range. Pikemen were needed to protect the musketeers from cavalry - no horse would charge onto the closely-packed points of their pikes.
Called the 'Horse', cavalry were also formed into regiments, but sometimes operated in independent troops. Ideally a cavalry trooper would possess a sword, a pair of pistols, helmet, buff coat, back and breastplate, and a steel gauntlet to cover his bridle hand. In practice, few were so lavishly equipped.
Dragoons were mounted infantry, who dismounted to fight. They were armed with muskets and swords.
Artillery pieces were fairly clumsy and difficult to move. They varied in calibre and their rate of fire was slow. They were more useful for sieges than on the open battlefield.
Many soldiers were employed on garrison duty in towns, and saw little fighting. A large number never left their own counties. To those with the field armies, however, the war meant frequent marches, cold, hunger, tiredness and disease.
Most armies fluctuated in size during the conflict as a result of losses and desertion, but usually numbered in the thousands. At Edgehill (1642) both sides fielded about 14,000 soldiers. At Naseby (1645), the 9,000 Royalists were outnumbered by the 13,500-strong Parliamentarians.
The initial establishment of the New Model Army in 1645 was around 24,000 men. This was based upon infantry regiments 1,200 men strong, cavalry regiments of 600 troopers and a dragoon regiment of 1,000 soldiers. In practice, such unit strengths were rarely attained during the conflict.
'The enemy’s cannon...were somewhat dreadful when bowels and brains flew in our faces.'
Sergeant Henry Foster at the First Battle of Newbury, 1643
Although Charles’s forces had been beaten in the field, he still refused to reach a settlement, hoping to exploit the political divisions of his opponents. The King continued to negotiate in secret for support.
In 1648, there was a series of Royalist uprisings across England and Wales, and an invasion of northern England by the Scots. These were all defeated by Parliament's New Model Army.
The events of 1648 convinced Parliament that the King could never be trusted. In January 1649, he was brought to trial and found to have 'traitorously and maliciously levied war against the present Parliament and the people'.
Charles was executed outside the Banqueting House in Whitehall on 30 January. He is the only English monarch to have been executed for treason.
Soon after, Oliver Cromwell landed in Ireland to defeat the supporters of Charles's son and heir, the exiled Charles II. His bloody conquest completed the British colonisation of Ireland, which was merged into the newly-formed Commonwealth alongside England and Scotland.
The invasion destroyed the native Irish Catholic land-owning classes, replacing them with colonists with a British Protestant identity.
3 June 1647
28 April 1648
8 July 1648
17 August 1648
6 December 1648
30 January 1649
15 May 1649
19 May 1649
11 September 1649
11 October 1649
‘This is a righteous judgement of God upon these barbarous wretches, who have imbrued their hands in so much innocent blood and that it will tend to prevent the effusion of blood for the future, which are satisfactory grounds for such actions, which otherwise cannot but work remorse and regret.’
Lieutenant-General Oliver Cromwell after the Siege of Drogheda, 1649
In 1650, the exiled Charles II landed in Scotland and was crowned at Scone the following year. In a move designed to stop any possible Scottish invasion of England, Cromwell marched north in response.
At first out-manoeuvred by the Scots, Cromwell then destroyed a Scottish army at the Battle of Dunbar on 3 September 1650. Despite this, Charles himself then invaded England at the head of another army. This was defeated at Worcester on 3 September 1651 and Charles was forced back into exile.
In 1653, Cromwell used the New Model Army to disband Parliament, irritated by its self-serving interests and slowness in developing political solutions for the Commonwealth. In the process, he became Lord Protector, going on to rule England until his death in 1658.
But Cromwell could not agree with his new Protectorate Parliaments either. He dismissed them and, instead, ruled the country through his major-generals. England became a military dictatorship.
This military involvement in politics created a popular suspicion of standing armies that lasted well into the 19th century.
27 April 1650
24 June 1650
3 September 1650
3 September 1651
3 September 1658
A recent estimate suggests that there were around 250,000 war-related deaths (military and civilian) in Britain during the conflicts - nearly 5 per cent of the population. This was a greater proportion than the 2.6 per cent of the population who died in the First World War (1914-18).
Deaths in Ireland probably numbered well over 250,000, possibly around 15-20 per cent of the estimated pre-war population.
The Civil Wars ensured that kings and queens would never again be supreme in British politics. Although the monarchy was restored in 1660 with the accession of Charles II, the later Stuart and Hanoverian kings had a very different, conditional relationship with their parliaments compared to some of their Continental cousins.
The possibility of absolute monarchy died with Charles I. Indeed, attempts by another of his sons, James II, to strengthen royal power - including using the army as an instrument of political control - led to his downfall in the 'Glorious Revolution' of 1688.
This finally secured the primacy of Parliament over the monarchy. It also gave Parliament control over the army, one of the issues that had helped cause the civil war. | 3,447 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Although it is usually difficult to estimate the ages of wild animals, scientists have devised methods of calculating some of them. In fact, we are very sure of the ages of some critters that have lived around us, either in private ownership or in zoos. You’ll be surprised by how old these animals can become.
10. Charlie The Parrot
Charlie is a macaw parrot born in 1899, making him 119 years old as of 2018. He is owned by Peter Oram, who purchased the bird for his pet shop in 1965. Oram later took Charlie home because the bird was fond of swearing and chanting anti-Nazi slurs. Charlie is said to have learned the anti-Nazi slurs in the home of wartime British prime minister, Sir Winston Churchill, who reportedly bought him in 1937.
Churchill’s daughter denied her father’s ownership of the macaw. She said that the family searched through her father’s pictures and records and found nothing about Charlie. She confirmed that her father had a parrot in the 1930s, but it was an African grey parrot and not a macaw.
Some say that the family is only denying Winston Churchill’s ownership of Charlie because the bird’s behavior doesn’t promote them in a positive light.
9. Minivan-Sized Sea Sponge
At 3.7 meters (12 ft) wide and 2.1 meters (7 ft) long, a sea sponge the size of a minivan is the largest ever recorded. It was discovered 2,100 meters (7,000 ft) underwater between Hawaii and Midway Atoll. Researchers could not determine its exact age, but its extraordinary size means that it could be thousands of years old.
Smaller sponges in similar shallow waters are known to have lived for over 2,300 years. So this sponge could be around the same age if not older. Scientists have even proposed that it could be the oldest living animal.
Age is not the only mystery surrounding the minivan-sized sea sponge. Researchers couldn’t determine its genus, either.
8. George The Lobster
At 140 years old in 2009, George held the title of the oldest lobster ever found. He was caught off Newfoundland, Canada, and was sold to City Crab and Seafood restaurant in New York City. There, he sat in a tank like a mascot as kids had their pictures taken with him. Then George was spotted by two diners who called PETA.
PETA requested that George be returned to the sea. The restaurant agreed, and George was back in the Atlantic Ocean 10 days after he was caught. PETA and the restaurant estimated George’s age from his weight.
A close contender for oldest lobster is 132-year-old Louie, which spent 20 years in the aquarium of a New York restaurant before he was released back into the sea. Butch Yamali, the owner of the restaurant, came to possess Louie after he bought the business from its former owner. Yamali refused several offers from people who wanted to eat Louie. Someone even offered $1,000 to have him cooked for Father’s Day.
7. Unnamed Greenland Shark
An unnamed female Greenland shark holds the title of the world’s oldest vertebrate. She is believed to have been born between 1501 and 1744, so she is probably between 274 and 517 years old as of 2018. Even her lowest possible age of 274 makes her the oldest-known living vertebrate. Before she was discovered, the title of the oldest vertebrate alive was held by a 211-year-old bowhead whale.
Scientists have always known that Greenland sharks have long life spans, but they couldn’t tell how long. These sharks grow one centimeter (0.4 in) per year, reach sexual maturity at 150 years old, and could reach 5 meters (16 ft) when fully grown.
To calculate the average age of Greenland sharks, scientists developed a method that dated each animal’s eye lens. They tried this method on 28 Greenland sharks entangled in trawler nets. The unnamed female was among them. Some sharks died after they were caught, but there is no account of this female shark dying.
6. Muja The Alligator
The oldest American alligator in captivity is in a Serbian zoo. His name is Muja, and he is believed to be at least 80 years old. He arrived at Belgrade Zoo from Germany as an adult in 1937, two years before World War II.
Muja survived three bombings of the Serbian capital and the Balkan crisis of the 1990s. The first two bombings happened during World War II in 1941 and 1944, killing every animal in the zoo except Muja.
Muja has been in good health for most of his life. However, in 2012, his right front foot was amputated after he developed gangrene. Before Muja, the world’s oldest alligator was Cabulitis, which died in Riga Zoo in Latvia in 2007 at age 75.
5. Jonathan The Tortoise
Jonathan is estimated to have been born in 1832. If this is so, then he’s 186 years old as of 2018. His vet, Joe Hollins, believes that Jonathan is no younger than 160 years old. The average life expectancy of a tortoise is 150 years.
Jonathan lives on the island of St. Helena, which is part of a British Overseas Territory in the South Atlantic Ocean. He was brought to the island in 1882, and there is even a picture of him taken in 1902. He lives at Plantation House, the official residence of the governor of St. Helena, with five other tortoises.
In 1991, the French consul to St. Helena gave a female tortoise called Frederica to the governor in the hopes that Jonathan would mate with her. Jonathan never did, although he did pay occasional visits to Frederica.
It was only when Frederica went to a vet to treat an injury on her shell that everyone realized that Frederica was actually a Frederick. Or let’s just say that she was a he.
4. Dakshayani The Elephant
An Asian elephant called Lin Wang is the current Guinness World Records holder for the oldest elephant that ever lived. Grandpa Lin, as he was fondly called, died at a Taiwanese zoo in February 2003 at age 86, which is impressive for an Asian elephant. On average, Asian elephants have a life span of 60 years in the wild.
Grandpa Lin’s life was well-documented. The Japanese used him to transport supplies during World War II until he was captured by the Chinese in 1943. In 1954, he was taken to the Taiwanese zoo, where
As this list is concerned with living animals, the title of the world’s oldest elephant should go to Dakshayani. This Asian elephant is owned by Travancore Devaswom Board (TDB), which runs several temples in India. In 2016, TDB said that Dakshayani was 86 years old. Supposedly, they had applied to Guinness World Records for Dakshayani to receive the title of world’s oldest elephant. But there is no record that Dakshayani has been awarded the title.
However, there are some who believe that neither Lin Wang nor Dakshayani is the world’s oldest elephant. These people believe that the oldest elephant is actually another Asian elephant called Indria, which lived in an Indian sanctuary. Indria was said to be between the ages of 85 and 90 when she died.
3. An Unnamed Brandt’s Myotis (Bat)
An unnamed 41-year-old male Brandt’s myotis from Siberia holds the record of the oldest bat alive. It is also the smallest mammal alive. More interesting is the fact that the bat reached this age in the wild. The age of the unnamed bat became known after it was captured to be tagged in 2005. It was found wearing an earlier band that had been attached when the animal was first captured in 1964.
Ideally, the size of a mammal determines how long it will live. Bigger mammals usually have longer life spans, while smaller ones have shorter life spans. Scientists call this the “longevity quotient.”
In general, bats have an unusually high longevity quotient, although the Brandt’s myotis value of 9.8 is the highest of all mammals. For comparison, humans have a longevity quotient of 4.5 and a maximum lifespan of 122.
Scientists believe that food supply and hibernation play a huge role in the higher-than-usual life expectancy of Brandt’s myotis. The bats hibernate for nine months a year. The absence of predators might also be a significant factor. Brandt’s bats found in Siberia live longer than those in Leningrad.
2. Wisdom The Albatross
Sixty-seven-year-old Wisdom is the world’s oldest wild bird. She is a Laysan albatross, a type of bird which has an average life span of about 50 years. Wisdom lives in the wild, and we only learned her age after she was captured to be tagged in 2002. She was found with an earlier tag from 1956.
Wisdom was estimated to be six years old in 1956. If she had been younger, she wouldn’t have been below five. Wisdom has been spotted every year since 2002, landing in the same nest she has always used at the nesting grounds in Midway Atoll.
More interesting is the fact that she lays an egg every year and has hatched 39 in her lifetime. Not all albatrosses lay eggs every year. When they do, they do not raise more than one chick. Albatrosses are usually monogamous, and Wisdom has outlived at least one partner.
1. Granny The Orca
J2, or “Granny” as she is fondly called, is the oldest-known killer whale. She is believed to have been born in 1911, which would put her age at 107 as of 2018. She lives in the wild, where she leads the J pod that lives around Puget Sound and the Strait of Georgia. For comparison, the life expectancy of female killer whales in the wild is 50 years, although they can live up to 80.
Granny has no identity tag and is recognized by a distinctive cut on her fin. She was first captured in Puget Sound in the 1960s along with several other whales that were supposed to be shipped off to a marine aquarium. She was found to be past childbearing age and was returned to the sea.
However, there are indications that Granny might be dead. She was last spotted in fall 2016 swimming alongside an orphaned whale she had adopted. The orphaned whale was later seen swimming alone. Granny’s real age is also a source of controversy. An analysis of her bodily chemicals indicated that her age could be between the mid-sixties and the eighties. | <urn:uuid:5d97fc19-7d0b-4cdb-8044-24ce920bb906> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://amorq.com/article/5682/10-oldest-animals-alive | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00375.warc.gz | en | 0.983442 | 2,303 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.23381023108959... | 3 | Although it is usually difficult to estimate the ages of wild animals, scientists have devised methods of calculating some of them. In fact, we are very sure of the ages of some critters that have lived around us, either in private ownership or in zoos. You’ll be surprised by how old these animals can become.
10. Charlie The Parrot
Charlie is a macaw parrot born in 1899, making him 119 years old as of 2018. He is owned by Peter Oram, who purchased the bird for his pet shop in 1965. Oram later took Charlie home because the bird was fond of swearing and chanting anti-Nazi slurs. Charlie is said to have learned the anti-Nazi slurs in the home of wartime British prime minister, Sir Winston Churchill, who reportedly bought him in 1937.
Churchill’s daughter denied her father’s ownership of the macaw. She said that the family searched through her father’s pictures and records and found nothing about Charlie. She confirmed that her father had a parrot in the 1930s, but it was an African grey parrot and not a macaw.
Some say that the family is only denying Winston Churchill’s ownership of Charlie because the bird’s behavior doesn’t promote them in a positive light.
9. Minivan-Sized Sea Sponge
At 3.7 meters (12 ft) wide and 2.1 meters (7 ft) long, a sea sponge the size of a minivan is the largest ever recorded. It was discovered 2,100 meters (7,000 ft) underwater between Hawaii and Midway Atoll. Researchers could not determine its exact age, but its extraordinary size means that it could be thousands of years old.
Smaller sponges in similar shallow waters are known to have lived for over 2,300 years. So this sponge could be around the same age if not older. Scientists have even proposed that it could be the oldest living animal.
Age is not the only mystery surrounding the minivan-sized sea sponge. Researchers couldn’t determine its genus, either.
8. George The Lobster
At 140 years old in 2009, George held the title of the oldest lobster ever found. He was caught off Newfoundland, Canada, and was sold to City Crab and Seafood restaurant in New York City. There, he sat in a tank like a mascot as kids had their pictures taken with him. Then George was spotted by two diners who called PETA.
PETA requested that George be returned to the sea. The restaurant agreed, and George was back in the Atlantic Ocean 10 days after he was caught. PETA and the restaurant estimated George’s age from his weight.
A close contender for oldest lobster is 132-year-old Louie, which spent 20 years in the aquarium of a New York restaurant before he was released back into the sea. Butch Yamali, the owner of the restaurant, came to possess Louie after he bought the business from its former owner. Yamali refused several offers from people who wanted to eat Louie. Someone even offered $1,000 to have him cooked for Father’s Day.
7. Unnamed Greenland Shark
An unnamed female Greenland shark holds the title of the world’s oldest vertebrate. She is believed to have been born between 1501 and 1744, so she is probably between 274 and 517 years old as of 2018. Even her lowest possible age of 274 makes her the oldest-known living vertebrate. Before she was discovered, the title of the oldest vertebrate alive was held by a 211-year-old bowhead whale.
Scientists have always known that Greenland sharks have long life spans, but they couldn’t tell how long. These sharks grow one centimeter (0.4 in) per year, reach sexual maturity at 150 years old, and could reach 5 meters (16 ft) when fully grown.
To calculate the average age of Greenland sharks, scientists developed a method that dated each animal’s eye lens. They tried this method on 28 Greenland sharks entangled in trawler nets. The unnamed female was among them. Some sharks died after they were caught, but there is no account of this female shark dying.
6. Muja The Alligator
The oldest American alligator in captivity is in a Serbian zoo. His name is Muja, and he is believed to be at least 80 years old. He arrived at Belgrade Zoo from Germany as an adult in 1937, two years before World War II.
Muja survived three bombings of the Serbian capital and the Balkan crisis of the 1990s. The first two bombings happened during World War II in 1941 and 1944, killing every animal in the zoo except Muja.
Muja has been in good health for most of his life. However, in 2012, his right front foot was amputated after he developed gangrene. Before Muja, the world’s oldest alligator was Cabulitis, which died in Riga Zoo in Latvia in 2007 at age 75.
5. Jonathan The Tortoise
Jonathan is estimated to have been born in 1832. If this is so, then he’s 186 years old as of 2018. His vet, Joe Hollins, believes that Jonathan is no younger than 160 years old. The average life expectancy of a tortoise is 150 years.
Jonathan lives on the island of St. Helena, which is part of a British Overseas Territory in the South Atlantic Ocean. He was brought to the island in 1882, and there is even a picture of him taken in 1902. He lives at Plantation House, the official residence of the governor of St. Helena, with five other tortoises.
In 1991, the French consul to St. Helena gave a female tortoise called Frederica to the governor in the hopes that Jonathan would mate with her. Jonathan never did, although he did pay occasional visits to Frederica.
It was only when Frederica went to a vet to treat an injury on her shell that everyone realized that Frederica was actually a Frederick. Or let’s just say that she was a he.
4. Dakshayani The Elephant
An Asian elephant called Lin Wang is the current Guinness World Records holder for the oldest elephant that ever lived. Grandpa Lin, as he was fondly called, died at a Taiwanese zoo in February 2003 at age 86, which is impressive for an Asian elephant. On average, Asian elephants have a life span of 60 years in the wild.
Grandpa Lin’s life was well-documented. The Japanese used him to transport supplies during World War II until he was captured by the Chinese in 1943. In 1954, he was taken to the Taiwanese zoo, where
As this list is concerned with living animals, the title of the world’s oldest elephant should go to Dakshayani. This Asian elephant is owned by Travancore Devaswom Board (TDB), which runs several temples in India. In 2016, TDB said that Dakshayani was 86 years old. Supposedly, they had applied to Guinness World Records for Dakshayani to receive the title of world’s oldest elephant. But there is no record that Dakshayani has been awarded the title.
However, there are some who believe that neither Lin Wang nor Dakshayani is the world’s oldest elephant. These people believe that the oldest elephant is actually another Asian elephant called Indria, which lived in an Indian sanctuary. Indria was said to be between the ages of 85 and 90 when she died.
3. An Unnamed Brandt’s Myotis (Bat)
An unnamed 41-year-old male Brandt’s myotis from Siberia holds the record of the oldest bat alive. It is also the smallest mammal alive. More interesting is the fact that the bat reached this age in the wild. The age of the unnamed bat became known after it was captured to be tagged in 2005. It was found wearing an earlier band that had been attached when the animal was first captured in 1964.
Ideally, the size of a mammal determines how long it will live. Bigger mammals usually have longer life spans, while smaller ones have shorter life spans. Scientists call this the “longevity quotient.”
In general, bats have an unusually high longevity quotient, although the Brandt’s myotis value of 9.8 is the highest of all mammals. For comparison, humans have a longevity quotient of 4.5 and a maximum lifespan of 122.
Scientists believe that food supply and hibernation play a huge role in the higher-than-usual life expectancy of Brandt’s myotis. The bats hibernate for nine months a year. The absence of predators might also be a significant factor. Brandt’s bats found in Siberia live longer than those in Leningrad.
2. Wisdom The Albatross
Sixty-seven-year-old Wisdom is the world’s oldest wild bird. She is a Laysan albatross, a type of bird which has an average life span of about 50 years. Wisdom lives in the wild, and we only learned her age after she was captured to be tagged in 2002. She was found with an earlier tag from 1956.
Wisdom was estimated to be six years old in 1956. If she had been younger, she wouldn’t have been below five. Wisdom has been spotted every year since 2002, landing in the same nest she has always used at the nesting grounds in Midway Atoll.
More interesting is the fact that she lays an egg every year and has hatched 39 in her lifetime. Not all albatrosses lay eggs every year. When they do, they do not raise more than one chick. Albatrosses are usually monogamous, and Wisdom has outlived at least one partner.
1. Granny The Orca
J2, or “Granny” as she is fondly called, is the oldest-known killer whale. She is believed to have been born in 1911, which would put her age at 107 as of 2018. She lives in the wild, where she leads the J pod that lives around Puget Sound and the Strait of Georgia. For comparison, the life expectancy of female killer whales in the wild is 50 years, although they can live up to 80.
Granny has no identity tag and is recognized by a distinctive cut on her fin. She was first captured in Puget Sound in the 1960s along with several other whales that were supposed to be shipped off to a marine aquarium. She was found to be past childbearing age and was returned to the sea.
However, there are indications that Granny might be dead. She was last spotted in fall 2016 swimming alongside an orphaned whale she had adopted. The orphaned whale was later seen swimming alone. Granny’s real age is also a source of controversy. An analysis of her bodily chemicals indicated that her age could be between the mid-sixties and the eighties. | 2,416 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Gender inequality within the home can reduce the benefits women get from household electrification, according to a survey of homes in India.
Research has suggested that after households gain access to electricity, women spend less time on tasks such as cooking — a saving that helps to decrease gender inequality. To investigate this finding, Daniel Armanios at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and his colleagues surveyed households in the Indian state of Gujarat about their appliance usage.
The majority of homes surveyed had more appliances, including televisions, that were used primarily by men than devices, such as irons, used mainly by women. Households had a mean of three to six light bulbs, but less than half had a kitchen light. The team also analysed previously collected data on appliance use in six other Indian states, and found similar results.
The findings suggest that household electrification might not help to address gender disparities in the home — a key component of gender inequality, according to the researchers. | <urn:uuid:ad244df4-709f-42eb-9ab9-93548f34aefd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-03929-y?referral=true&error=cookies_not_supported&code=0b1b7d37-bf02-4392-99a3-b245c614deaf | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00174.warc.gz | en | 0.98025 | 196 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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Research has suggested that after households gain access to electricity, women spend less time on tasks such as cooking — a saving that helps to decrease gender inequality. To investigate this finding, Daniel Armanios at Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and his colleagues surveyed households in the Indian state of Gujarat about their appliance usage.
The majority of homes surveyed had more appliances, including televisions, that were used primarily by men than devices, such as irons, used mainly by women. Households had a mean of three to six light bulbs, but less than half had a kitchen light. The team also analysed previously collected data on appliance use in six other Indian states, and found similar results.
The findings suggest that household electrification might not help to address gender disparities in the home — a key component of gender inequality, according to the researchers. | 193 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Start of the Great Smog
We still have huge concerns today about air pollution, but much work has been done to reduce such problems in Britain, and The Great Smog of December 1952 was one of the most significant events driving the realisation home to both the man in the street and the authorities that filthy air brings a very human toll.
A multitude of factors combined to create The Great Smog in London. Coal fires were still very much the norm for home heating, and the quality of coal in the capital was poor - the good stuff was exported to earn foreign currency. Early December 1952 was exceptionally cold, so more of this rough coal was burned than would normally be the case.
Meteorological circumstances weighed in too. Winds from the continent had blown in heavily polluted air from industrial areas over the channel. An inversion of an anticyclone in London and the South East trapped the smoke laden air beneath it. As the sun was blocked, and the damp air made people feel colder still, yet more coal was heaped on domestic fires.
It has to be remembered too that this was an era when the majority of adults smoked, with consequent damage to their lungs.
On Friday December 5 the Great Smog arrived. Drivers abandoned cars; cinemas and theatres found that smog seeping into their buildings made performances impossible. Visibility dropped to a matter of feet, and in the very worst hit area, the Isle of Dogs, visibility was officially recorded as nil - in the open you literally could not see your hand in front of your face.
Inevitably the smog took its toll on those with existing breathing problems - asthmatics, sick children, those with bronchial complaints, the elderly. Some were asphyxiated. Some died from the sheer amount of pus in their lungs caused by infections brought on by the acrid air.
It is calculated that some 4,000 people died as a result of the smog in the week during which it occurred - it cleared with strengthening winds on December 9 - and that a further 8,000 died shortly afterwards, their health destroyed by the foul conditions of the five days' horror.
Politicians reacted with their usual alacrity - legislation was passed two years later covering certain air regulations for London, and in 1956 the first Clean Air Act saw the light of day. Which was more than could be said of Londoners for those few days of choking terror in December 1952.
More famous dates here
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We still have huge concerns today about air pollution, but much work has been done to reduce such problems in Britain, and The Great Smog of December 1952 was one of the most significant events driving the realisation home to both the man in the street and the authorities that filthy air brings a very human toll.
A multitude of factors combined to create The Great Smog in London. Coal fires were still very much the norm for home heating, and the quality of coal in the capital was poor - the good stuff was exported to earn foreign currency. Early December 1952 was exceptionally cold, so more of this rough coal was burned than would normally be the case.
Meteorological circumstances weighed in too. Winds from the continent had blown in heavily polluted air from industrial areas over the channel. An inversion of an anticyclone in London and the South East trapped the smoke laden air beneath it. As the sun was blocked, and the damp air made people feel colder still, yet more coal was heaped on domestic fires.
It has to be remembered too that this was an era when the majority of adults smoked, with consequent damage to their lungs.
On Friday December 5 the Great Smog arrived. Drivers abandoned cars; cinemas and theatres found that smog seeping into their buildings made performances impossible. Visibility dropped to a matter of feet, and in the very worst hit area, the Isle of Dogs, visibility was officially recorded as nil - in the open you literally could not see your hand in front of your face.
Inevitably the smog took its toll on those with existing breathing problems - asthmatics, sick children, those with bronchial complaints, the elderly. Some were asphyxiated. Some died from the sheer amount of pus in their lungs caused by infections brought on by the acrid air.
It is calculated that some 4,000 people died as a result of the smog in the week during which it occurred - it cleared with strengthening winds on December 9 - and that a further 8,000 died shortly afterwards, their health destroyed by the foul conditions of the five days' horror.
Politicians reacted with their usual alacrity - legislation was passed two years later covering certain air regulations for London, and in 1956 the first Clean Air Act saw the light of day. Which was more than could be said of Londoners for those few days of choking terror in December 1952.
More famous dates here
9637 views since 5th December 2008 | 533 | ENGLISH | 1 |
1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/David (Welsh princes)
DAVID, the name of three Welsh princes.
David I. (d. 1203), a son of Prince Owen Gwynedd (d. 1169), came into prominence as a leader of the Welsh during the expedition of Henry II. in 1157. In 1170 he became lord of Gwynedd (i.e. the district around Snowdon), but some regarded him as a bastard, and Gwynedd was also claimed by other members of his family. After fighting with varying fortunes he sought an ally in the English king, whom he supported during the baronial rising in 1173; then after this event he married Henry’s half-sister Emma. But his enemies increased in power, and about 1194 he was driven from Wales by the partisans of his half-brother Llewelyn ab Iorwerth. The chronicler Benedictus Abbas calls David rex, and Rhuddlan castle was probably the centre of his vague authority.
DAVID II. (c. 1208–1246) was a son of the great Welsh prince, Llewelyn ab Iorwerth, and through his mother Joanna was a grandson of King John. He married an English lady, Isabella de Braose, and, having been recognized as his father’s heir both by Henry III. and by the Welsh lords, he had to face the hostility of his half-brother Gruffydd, whom he seized and imprisoned in 1239. When Llewelyn died in April 1240, David, who had already taken some part in the duties of government, was acknowledged as a prince of North Wales, doing homage to Henry III. at Gloucester. However, he was soon at variance with the English king, who appears .to have espoused the cause of the captive Gruffydd. Henry’s Welsh campaign in 1241 was bloodless but decisive. Gruffydd was surrendered to him; David went to London and made a full submission, but two or three years later he was warring against some English barons on the borders. To check the English king he opened negotiations with Innocent IV., doubtless hoping that the pope would recognize Wales as an independent state, but here, as on the field of battle, Henry III. was too strong for him. Just after Henry’s second campaign in Wales the prince died in March 1246.
DAVID III. (d. 1283) was a son of Gruffydd and thus a nephew of David II. His life was mainly spent in fighting against his brother, the reigning prince, Llewelyn ab Gruffydd. His first revolt took place in 1254 or 1255, and after a second about eight years later he took refuge in England, returning to Wales when Henry III. made peace with Llewelyn in 1267. Then about 1274 the same process was repeated. David attended Edward I. during the Welsh expedition of 1277, receiving from the English king lands in North Wales; but in 1282 he made peace with Llewelyn and suddenly attacked the English garrisons, a proceeding which led to Edward’s final conquest of Wales. After Llewelyn’s death in December 1282 David maintained the last struggle of the Welsh for independence. All his efforts, however, were vain; in June 1283 he was betrayed to Edward, was tried by a special court and sentenced to death, and was executed with great barbarity at Shrewsbury in October 1283. As the last native prince of Wales, David’s praises have been sung by the Welsh bards, but his character was not attractive, and a Welsh historian says “his life was the bane of Wales.” | <urn:uuid:b4616e88-a3e7-46a4-9289-364679e46842> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/David_(Welsh_princes) | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00460.warc.gz | en | 0.990056 | 791 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.029044857248663... | 1 | 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/David (Welsh princes)
DAVID, the name of three Welsh princes.
David I. (d. 1203), a son of Prince Owen Gwynedd (d. 1169), came into prominence as a leader of the Welsh during the expedition of Henry II. in 1157. In 1170 he became lord of Gwynedd (i.e. the district around Snowdon), but some regarded him as a bastard, and Gwynedd was also claimed by other members of his family. After fighting with varying fortunes he sought an ally in the English king, whom he supported during the baronial rising in 1173; then after this event he married Henry’s half-sister Emma. But his enemies increased in power, and about 1194 he was driven from Wales by the partisans of his half-brother Llewelyn ab Iorwerth. The chronicler Benedictus Abbas calls David rex, and Rhuddlan castle was probably the centre of his vague authority.
DAVID II. (c. 1208–1246) was a son of the great Welsh prince, Llewelyn ab Iorwerth, and through his mother Joanna was a grandson of King John. He married an English lady, Isabella de Braose, and, having been recognized as his father’s heir both by Henry III. and by the Welsh lords, he had to face the hostility of his half-brother Gruffydd, whom he seized and imprisoned in 1239. When Llewelyn died in April 1240, David, who had already taken some part in the duties of government, was acknowledged as a prince of North Wales, doing homage to Henry III. at Gloucester. However, he was soon at variance with the English king, who appears .to have espoused the cause of the captive Gruffydd. Henry’s Welsh campaign in 1241 was bloodless but decisive. Gruffydd was surrendered to him; David went to London and made a full submission, but two or three years later he was warring against some English barons on the borders. To check the English king he opened negotiations with Innocent IV., doubtless hoping that the pope would recognize Wales as an independent state, but here, as on the field of battle, Henry III. was too strong for him. Just after Henry’s second campaign in Wales the prince died in March 1246.
DAVID III. (d. 1283) was a son of Gruffydd and thus a nephew of David II. His life was mainly spent in fighting against his brother, the reigning prince, Llewelyn ab Gruffydd. His first revolt took place in 1254 or 1255, and after a second about eight years later he took refuge in England, returning to Wales when Henry III. made peace with Llewelyn in 1267. Then about 1274 the same process was repeated. David attended Edward I. during the Welsh expedition of 1277, receiving from the English king lands in North Wales; but in 1282 he made peace with Llewelyn and suddenly attacked the English garrisons, a proceeding which led to Edward’s final conquest of Wales. After Llewelyn’s death in December 1282 David maintained the last struggle of the Welsh for independence. All his efforts, however, were vain; in June 1283 he was betrayed to Edward, was tried by a special court and sentenced to death, and was executed with great barbarity at Shrewsbury in October 1283. As the last native prince of Wales, David’s praises have been sung by the Welsh bards, but his character was not attractive, and a Welsh historian says “his life was the bane of Wales.” | 827 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Throughout history, minorities have been stripped of rights and privileges by the majority because of a sense of superiority from the majority. Two examples of these groups are the women who participated in the Suffrage movement and the African Americans who were part of the civil rights movement of the 50’s and 60’s. While bot movements shared similar goals and used similar methods to achieve these goals, the two movements had many differences between them in their actions and how they achieved their goals.
The Civil rights movement in the 50’s and 60’s shared many similar goals and methods with the women’s suffrage movement of the 1800’s and early 1900s. One example is both had speakers and influential figures of both movements give speeches to during the movement. Many would gather to hear someone like Susan B Anthony speak on the hardship she faces due to the fact that she is a female (Doc. 1). This is similar to the way that many would gather to hear speeches from Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. during the civil rights movement.
Another similarity that the Civil Rights Movement shares with the Suffrage movement is that both would hold peaceful marches to further get their point across to others (Doc. 3b). It is shown in the document that woman marched with signs showing why they needed suffrage. The final similarities that the two movements share is their similar goals, the Civil Rights movements sought equality for African Americans, while the Suffrage movement sought equality for women, the goal of both was to achieve equality for a certain minority group.
While there were many similarities between the two movements, there were also many differences. One of the major differences was that in the Civil Rights movement, African Americans were not just seeking the right to vote, they sought to gain the basic rights they felt every person deserved, the sought to finally not be viewed as blacks, but to have everyone be viewed as a human being. There was also much more hatred towards the African Americans in the civil rights movement than there was towards women in the suffrage movement, and they had much more direct action then the suffrage ovement (Doc. 7).
While the Suffrage movement barely used direct action at all, the Civil Rights movement used direct action such as sit-ins to establish a point and to open the eyes of people and to move past the ideas of prejudice and racism, and onto the idea of unity. Another goal of the sit-ins was to stress the importance of non-violence, no matter how harshly they were treated or forcibly removed, civil rights activists participating in sit-ins they avoided violence as much as possible (Doc. b). This is another difference between the two movements because women were not facing violence and the level of prejudice African Americans experience during and before the civil rights movement. A final difference between the two movements is that African Americans faced cruelty from the public, and when acts of cruelty were reported to law officials, nothing was done, simply because the victim was black.
A specific example is the events that occurred on busses in Montgomery, Alabama and the national attention it eventually received, thanks to Rosa Parks, people like her opened others eyes through their actions, showing there is no reason someone should be forced to sit in a specific spot due to their skin tone (Doc. 5a). The civil rights movement and woman suffrage movement are two movements that have many similar goals and used similar methods to achieve these goals. Although there are many similarities between the two, there are also many differences in the goals of each movement and how they were achieved. | <urn:uuid:52575617-4029-454b-afe3-85c150513500> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bootables.net/dbq-civil-rights/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00155.warc.gz | en | 0.983766 | 722 | 4.4375 | 4 | [
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-0.0565529912710189... | 2 | Throughout history, minorities have been stripped of rights and privileges by the majority because of a sense of superiority from the majority. Two examples of these groups are the women who participated in the Suffrage movement and the African Americans who were part of the civil rights movement of the 50’s and 60’s. While bot movements shared similar goals and used similar methods to achieve these goals, the two movements had many differences between them in their actions and how they achieved their goals.
The Civil rights movement in the 50’s and 60’s shared many similar goals and methods with the women’s suffrage movement of the 1800’s and early 1900s. One example is both had speakers and influential figures of both movements give speeches to during the movement. Many would gather to hear someone like Susan B Anthony speak on the hardship she faces due to the fact that she is a female (Doc. 1). This is similar to the way that many would gather to hear speeches from Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. during the civil rights movement.
Another similarity that the Civil Rights Movement shares with the Suffrage movement is that both would hold peaceful marches to further get their point across to others (Doc. 3b). It is shown in the document that woman marched with signs showing why they needed suffrage. The final similarities that the two movements share is their similar goals, the Civil Rights movements sought equality for African Americans, while the Suffrage movement sought equality for women, the goal of both was to achieve equality for a certain minority group.
While there were many similarities between the two movements, there were also many differences. One of the major differences was that in the Civil Rights movement, African Americans were not just seeking the right to vote, they sought to gain the basic rights they felt every person deserved, the sought to finally not be viewed as blacks, but to have everyone be viewed as a human being. There was also much more hatred towards the African Americans in the civil rights movement than there was towards women in the suffrage movement, and they had much more direct action then the suffrage ovement (Doc. 7).
While the Suffrage movement barely used direct action at all, the Civil Rights movement used direct action such as sit-ins to establish a point and to open the eyes of people and to move past the ideas of prejudice and racism, and onto the idea of unity. Another goal of the sit-ins was to stress the importance of non-violence, no matter how harshly they were treated or forcibly removed, civil rights activists participating in sit-ins they avoided violence as much as possible (Doc. b). This is another difference between the two movements because women were not facing violence and the level of prejudice African Americans experience during and before the civil rights movement. A final difference between the two movements is that African Americans faced cruelty from the public, and when acts of cruelty were reported to law officials, nothing was done, simply because the victim was black.
A specific example is the events that occurred on busses in Montgomery, Alabama and the national attention it eventually received, thanks to Rosa Parks, people like her opened others eyes through their actions, showing there is no reason someone should be forced to sit in a specific spot due to their skin tone (Doc. 5a). The civil rights movement and woman suffrage movement are two movements that have many similar goals and used similar methods to achieve these goals. Although there are many similarities between the two, there are also many differences in the goals of each movement and how they were achieved. | 722 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mental abuse is sometimes overlooked, because of the rough physical abuse, but soldiers see a good side of both during wars. Maria Remarque shows the mental part of abuse on the book All Quiet on the Western Front. The narrator discusses all the hard times that went on during World War I, all through the book. Paul Baumer, the narrator, explains it when he and his friends enter the German army, very deeply although he is only eighteen. Baumer tells a story about fighting for their own sanity as well as their country. As the war begun, he and his friends got an real look at what the war was truly about. This book shows the conflict coming during the actual war, the boys use their spirits to try to overcome it. But the mind against reality that is described in the books, gives them a reality check on how life really is.
During the beginning of the book, Remarque explains the boy’s job, relating it to how hard it is to be in the war. Their was always something, not getting much sleep, relieving the front line, and they also didn’t have much to eat. What was going to happen, is described good by the way that the author talked about the life of the soldiers, but the boys failed to realize reality. Thinking that the war was just an ideal character. Convincing the reader to believe the boys didn’t know the risk they were taking by being in this war. They way the boys viewed it, shows that, true their are some hard times in wars, but their minds are young and they thought it was just another thing to talk about. When they should have been taking things more serious, but thinking about the good parts helped them to keep a hold on their sanity.
“They ought to have been mediators and guides to the world of maturity, the world of work, of duty, of culture, of progress to the future”, was the beliefs of the boys after their friend Behn dies. Their generation thought that the authorities were going to look after, and take care of them, the authorities were thought of real highly by them. Until their friend passed away, then everything changed. “We had to realize that our generation was more to be trusted than theirs”, this is where they came to reality that, everybody was taking care of their selves, and didn’t want anything to do with other peoples problems. Letting the reader see the transition of the boys beliefs, and also their inturputation of war as it should be looked at. The boys whole outlook on life and the world started changing after that moment. They thought less about fighting for their country, and more about how things will be when peace finally arrives.
“….We were all at once terribly alone; and alone we must see it though”, this was how they separated the true away from the false after Behn died. Explaining how the boys looked at war, showed the understanding of what must be done in order for them to survive, and also how it must be done. After a while the understood that they were basically on their own, and that no one was going to help them. Before the boys had their mothers to depend on, and they rarely look at the future, at this point it was nothing but the war. “We had suddenly learned to see!” Was letting the reader know that they were understanding how the world really is. In saying this Paul let the reader know how his beliefs changed, and that the struggles of keeping their minds straight was over. Because they finally began to see everything clear and how it should be looked at.
Describing all that they went through just to get into the army, Remarque lets the reader know that the authorities took advantage of the minds and the egos of the soldiers. Simply by saying, “We became soldiers with eagerness and enthusiasm, but they have done everything to knock that out of us.” The conflict becomes big after this is said, because the soldiers had their minds already set, thinking that they were good soldiers. But the commanders broke their ego’s down quickly to make sure that they didn’t get too high. Fight to keep their high egos or give in and go along with the way authorities wanted them to be, were the only two choices that the soldiers had.
In conclusion, this has good examples of the mind against reality and the conflicts that come along with them, and Remarque describes them well. But the story wasn’t to mainly just look at the conflicts, but to get a look at the war from Germany’s side. Although the conflict does help the reader to understand the book and the message from it. Hopefully people will see that war is the same on both sides, and that someone is going to get hurt whether their side wins or loses. The author showed a look at war, in reality, and not sugar coated, and he also did it in a interesting way. This is a very good book, and it will be excellent for anyone who wants to understand the entire meaning of war and not just bits and pieces.
I have seen war on land and sea. I have seen blood running from the wounded…..I have seen the dead in the mud. I have seen cities destroyed….I have seen children starving. I have seen the agony of mothers and wives. | <urn:uuid:0be16303-c8c5-4ad3-b659-ac9231d3aa1a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://aero-net.org/all-quiet-on-the-western-front1/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00319.warc.gz | en | 0.989009 | 1,112 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.4732391238212... | 2 | Mental abuse is sometimes overlooked, because of the rough physical abuse, but soldiers see a good side of both during wars. Maria Remarque shows the mental part of abuse on the book All Quiet on the Western Front. The narrator discusses all the hard times that went on during World War I, all through the book. Paul Baumer, the narrator, explains it when he and his friends enter the German army, very deeply although he is only eighteen. Baumer tells a story about fighting for their own sanity as well as their country. As the war begun, he and his friends got an real look at what the war was truly about. This book shows the conflict coming during the actual war, the boys use their spirits to try to overcome it. But the mind against reality that is described in the books, gives them a reality check on how life really is.
During the beginning of the book, Remarque explains the boy’s job, relating it to how hard it is to be in the war. Their was always something, not getting much sleep, relieving the front line, and they also didn’t have much to eat. What was going to happen, is described good by the way that the author talked about the life of the soldiers, but the boys failed to realize reality. Thinking that the war was just an ideal character. Convincing the reader to believe the boys didn’t know the risk they were taking by being in this war. They way the boys viewed it, shows that, true their are some hard times in wars, but their minds are young and they thought it was just another thing to talk about. When they should have been taking things more serious, but thinking about the good parts helped them to keep a hold on their sanity.
“They ought to have been mediators and guides to the world of maturity, the world of work, of duty, of culture, of progress to the future”, was the beliefs of the boys after their friend Behn dies. Their generation thought that the authorities were going to look after, and take care of them, the authorities were thought of real highly by them. Until their friend passed away, then everything changed. “We had to realize that our generation was more to be trusted than theirs”, this is where they came to reality that, everybody was taking care of their selves, and didn’t want anything to do with other peoples problems. Letting the reader see the transition of the boys beliefs, and also their inturputation of war as it should be looked at. The boys whole outlook on life and the world started changing after that moment. They thought less about fighting for their country, and more about how things will be when peace finally arrives.
“….We were all at once terribly alone; and alone we must see it though”, this was how they separated the true away from the false after Behn died. Explaining how the boys looked at war, showed the understanding of what must be done in order for them to survive, and also how it must be done. After a while the understood that they were basically on their own, and that no one was going to help them. Before the boys had their mothers to depend on, and they rarely look at the future, at this point it was nothing but the war. “We had suddenly learned to see!” Was letting the reader know that they were understanding how the world really is. In saying this Paul let the reader know how his beliefs changed, and that the struggles of keeping their minds straight was over. Because they finally began to see everything clear and how it should be looked at.
Describing all that they went through just to get into the army, Remarque lets the reader know that the authorities took advantage of the minds and the egos of the soldiers. Simply by saying, “We became soldiers with eagerness and enthusiasm, but they have done everything to knock that out of us.” The conflict becomes big after this is said, because the soldiers had their minds already set, thinking that they were good soldiers. But the commanders broke their ego’s down quickly to make sure that they didn’t get too high. Fight to keep their high egos or give in and go along with the way authorities wanted them to be, were the only two choices that the soldiers had.
In conclusion, this has good examples of the mind against reality and the conflicts that come along with them, and Remarque describes them well. But the story wasn’t to mainly just look at the conflicts, but to get a look at the war from Germany’s side. Although the conflict does help the reader to understand the book and the message from it. Hopefully people will see that war is the same on both sides, and that someone is going to get hurt whether their side wins or loses. The author showed a look at war, in reality, and not sugar coated, and he also did it in a interesting way. This is a very good book, and it will be excellent for anyone who wants to understand the entire meaning of war and not just bits and pieces.
I have seen war on land and sea. I have seen blood running from the wounded…..I have seen the dead in the mud. I have seen cities destroyed….I have seen children starving. I have seen the agony of mothers and wives. | 1,073 | ENGLISH | 1 |
From the idea of the ‘dark ages’ to the myth that everyone was short, Hannah Skoda challenges the misconceptions that…
Women were so oppressed in the Middle Ages that they never did anything of interest
Medieval society was certainly deeply patriarchal, and women were severely oppressed. However, this does not mean that women were passive victims. There are many examples of extraordinary women who achieved great notoriety: Eleanor of Aquitaine, Joan of Arc, Catherine of Siena, to name a few.
An illumination displays Eleanor of Aquitaine’s marriage to Louis VII of France. (Photo by Ann Ronan Pictures/Print Collector/Getty Images)
But we also now know much more about the day-to-day lives of women across the social spectrum. Women participated in social, economic and political life, actively and often critically.
For instance, peasant women played critical roles in their small-holdings; single women in towns were very economically active; merchant women sometimes ran businesses very successfully. And women stuck together. We find cases of women helping each other in cases of sickness; sisters, mothers and daughters sticking up for one another; and women accompanying one another on difficult journeys.
History events: Medieval Life and Death
Get the lowdown on everyday life in the medieval era, with a day of talks from leading historians in 2020. You can catch the event in London or York, and both days will include five lectures, a buffet lunch and refreshments.
Find out more here
Everyone was short and died young
Evidence such as the small size of many medieval door-frames has led many to believe that people were significantly shorter in the Middle Ages. In fact, archaeological analysis shows that average heights have changed little over the past 1,000 years. From the 10th century through to the 19th-century, the average height did not shift more than a few centimetres from about 158cm for women, and 170cm for men.
It’s also misleading to think that life span was considerably reduced. Averages are skewed by the very high mortality rates in periods of epidemic disease, such as the Black Death of 1348 and by the high incidence of childhood mortality. In fact, sources provide many examples of village elders in their eighties, able to reminisce about the profound social changes since their childhood.
Peasants were revolting and irrational
It’s true that medieval peasants had little access to education or literacy, but they were by no means stupid. When they were involved in protests, they did so strategically, and knowingly evoked important documents about their ancient rights like the Domesday book of 1086.
As for their more general acumen, many peasants were able to draw effectively on strategic and quite sophisticated rationales about how to manage their agricultural concerns. And the surviving legal evidence right across Europe demonstrates that peasants knew how to engage with legal systems and courts to their advantage – whether in disputes with neighbours, with their husbands and wives, or indeed their overlords.
Many peasants were able to draw on quite sophisticated rationales about how to manage their agricultural concerns. (Photo by Fine Art Images/Heritage Images/Getty Images)
Medieval towns were unhygienic and squalid
Whilst many medieval towns probably did stink, people were certainly bothered about this. More and more recent scholarly work has focused on the efforts to keep medieval towns clean and healthy, particularly in the late medieval period.
While we might often see or read portrayals of urban filth and squalor, there was an enormous amount of regulation about such matters as dumping sewage in the streets or allowing animals to roam free.
Medieval people were brutally and mindlessly violent
Although it’s very hard to assess this statistically, levels of interpersonal physical violence were indeed probably very high. However, this was something which really bothered medieval people: across a range of contexts, they really agonised about levels of violence and the harm which it could cause, whilst also acknowledging that sometimes it was a useful way of restoring ‘order’.
For example, domestic violence was sometimes encouraged as a way to ‘discipline’ unruly wives, but it was also the subject of real concern that it could go too far. Codes of chivalry provided ways to glorify violence, but at the same time tried to channel and contain it.
A depiction of Death strangling a victim of the Plague. From the Stiny Codex, 14th century. (Photo by Fine Art Images/Heritage Images/Getty Images)
Medieval people thought the world was flat and had little conception of the wider world
Whilst medieval people loved fantastical stories about monstrous peoples in far-off lands, most were perhaps surprisingly well-informed about the world beyond their home.
This was partly because travel was very common in the Middle Ages: pilgrimages, trade and commerce, and diplomacy all meant that there was a lot of moving around.
And did medieval people all think the world was flat? Actually, most understood that the world was spherical. If medieval maps look rather naïve to modern eyes, it’s often because their function was different: many maps were intended as devotional objects rather than scaled geographical representations.
A medieval map of London, c1265. (Photo By DEA PICTURE LIBRARY/De Agostini via Getty Images)
Medieval people had no sense of humour
This is perhaps the most glaring misconception of all. Whilst it may not always be to our taste, medieval life was imbued with wit and humour. There was an appetite for jokes, ranging from the subtle and sophisticated to the obscene and bawdy.
Sometimes the surviving evidence is material. For example, one jester called ‘Fromage’, from northern France, sealed his invoice with a piece of cheese, the mould of which still lingers unpleasantly on the parchment. Another merchant from the Netherlands wrote a witty line to explain that he had to begin a new sheet of parchment in his accounts because his cat had urinated on the page.
Funny stories were also ubiquitous, as people loved to be entertained. Stories by writers such as Italian poet Giovanni Boccaccio and English writer Geoffrey Chaucer often drew on older folk tales and revelled in rude jokes and cases of mistaken identity.
Religious dogma meant that no one thought for themselves
The medieval Church did not value toleration, but nor did it try (or have the means) to impose absolute religious uniformity. Whilst the Middle Ages are punctuated by moments of censorship and persecution, religious thinking of a remarkably sophisticated kind was actively encouraged in many medieval universities. Paradigm-shifting advances in knowledge were made by posing fundamental questions: for example, on the nature of God.
On a more popular level, people also held a wide range of religious views. The line between magic and religion was blurred, and a range of religious practices developed which may seem to us frankly bizarre. Amulets and charms were a popular and largely tolerated way to deal with ill health or pregnancy.
Execution of three witches by hanging, woodcut, 1589. (© INTERFOTO/Alamy)
Torture was used often, and cruel corporal punishment was ubiquitous
In very many cases, corporal punishment was actually commuted to a monetary payment instead. Very often authorities were quite reluctant to punish people in a bodily manner. And when executions did happen, they often provoked pity and horror: in fact, that was precisely the point.
Torture was used in some cases, but again, we know that medieval thinkers agonised about the problems which it raised: not least that it might elicit desperate and false confessions.
There was little concept of childhood in the Middle Ages
This myth originated with a famous book by historian Philippe Ariès, first published in 1960, which claimed that there was no distinctive notion of childhood in the Middle Ages.
It is patently untrue – medieval children were certainly treated differently from modern children, but there was a real sense that children had different needs and different behaviours from adults.
Schoolchildren at their books, UK, AD 1338-1344. From Bodleian manuscript MS. Bodl. Misc. 264. An illustration from ‘A Short History of the English People, Volume 2’, by John Richard Green. (Photo by Hulton Archive/Getty Images)
This has since been most comprehensively illustrated in the work of Nicholas Orme on medieval education. The survival of medieval toys provides a touching indication that children were often thought of as rather special. They rode hobby-horses, played with marbles, and cuddled dolls.
There was little trade or commerce, partly because credit was underdeveloped
The origins of modern commercial practices lie precisely in this period. Extremely sophisticated commercial patterns emerged – both at a local level and internationally. These tended to be underpinned by complex systems of credit, and the 14th-century even saw the establishment of what are known today as ‘super companies’. And it is untrue that all lending at interest was undertaken by Jewish communities, even if this formed an increasingly dangerous anti-Semitic trope.
The Renaissance was a breakthrough moment in terms of critical thinking, rediscovery of the classics, and a sense of the individual
The idea of the ‘dark ages’ was one dreamed up by Italian scholar Francis Petrarch in the mid-14th century. Petrarch was an early humanist thinker, and one of the features of humanism was to disparage the Middle Ages as an era of blind and uncritical dogmatism. Needless to say, this is rubbish.
Medieval thinkers, particularly in the context of the universities, were mind-blowingly sophisticated. Many classical texts were well known and taken as important authorities for history writing in particular. And the idea that it was only during the Renaissance that a true sense of the individual emerged is nonsense. Medieval people articulated the relationship between the individual and the community in fascinating ways and agonised about the role of individual conscience.
In any case, the 15th- and 16th-century Renaissance had precursors. The Middle Ages saw at least two previous ‘Renaissances’: the Carolingian Renaissance of the 8th–9th centuries; and what is known as the ‘12th-century Renaissance’, a period of flourishing intellectual debate and provocative ideas.
Hannah Skoda is fellow and tutor in medieval history at St John’s College, Oxford. She works on the social and cultural history of the later Middle Ages, and has published notably on Medieval Violence (OUP, 2013), and co-edited two volumes on Legalism (OUP, 2012 and 2018).
Hannah will be speaking at our Medieval Life and Death events in 2020, taking place in London and York – tickets on sale now. | <urn:uuid:65e8eeb0-634b-4d93-bd94-bb4b5a7f8743> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historyextra.com/period/medieval/myths-middle-ages-what-life-like-facts/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00202.warc.gz | en | 0.980461 | 2,236 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.149489670991897... | 1 | From the idea of the ‘dark ages’ to the myth that everyone was short, Hannah Skoda challenges the misconceptions that…
Women were so oppressed in the Middle Ages that they never did anything of interest
Medieval society was certainly deeply patriarchal, and women were severely oppressed. However, this does not mean that women were passive victims. There are many examples of extraordinary women who achieved great notoriety: Eleanor of Aquitaine, Joan of Arc, Catherine of Siena, to name a few.
An illumination displays Eleanor of Aquitaine’s marriage to Louis VII of France. (Photo by Ann Ronan Pictures/Print Collector/Getty Images)
But we also now know much more about the day-to-day lives of women across the social spectrum. Women participated in social, economic and political life, actively and often critically.
For instance, peasant women played critical roles in their small-holdings; single women in towns were very economically active; merchant women sometimes ran businesses very successfully. And women stuck together. We find cases of women helping each other in cases of sickness; sisters, mothers and daughters sticking up for one another; and women accompanying one another on difficult journeys.
History events: Medieval Life and Death
Get the lowdown on everyday life in the medieval era, with a day of talks from leading historians in 2020. You can catch the event in London or York, and both days will include five lectures, a buffet lunch and refreshments.
Find out more here
Everyone was short and died young
Evidence such as the small size of many medieval door-frames has led many to believe that people were significantly shorter in the Middle Ages. In fact, archaeological analysis shows that average heights have changed little over the past 1,000 years. From the 10th century through to the 19th-century, the average height did not shift more than a few centimetres from about 158cm for women, and 170cm for men.
It’s also misleading to think that life span was considerably reduced. Averages are skewed by the very high mortality rates in periods of epidemic disease, such as the Black Death of 1348 and by the high incidence of childhood mortality. In fact, sources provide many examples of village elders in their eighties, able to reminisce about the profound social changes since their childhood.
Peasants were revolting and irrational
It’s true that medieval peasants had little access to education or literacy, but they were by no means stupid. When they were involved in protests, they did so strategically, and knowingly evoked important documents about their ancient rights like the Domesday book of 1086.
As for their more general acumen, many peasants were able to draw effectively on strategic and quite sophisticated rationales about how to manage their agricultural concerns. And the surviving legal evidence right across Europe demonstrates that peasants knew how to engage with legal systems and courts to their advantage – whether in disputes with neighbours, with their husbands and wives, or indeed their overlords.
Many peasants were able to draw on quite sophisticated rationales about how to manage their agricultural concerns. (Photo by Fine Art Images/Heritage Images/Getty Images)
Medieval towns were unhygienic and squalid
Whilst many medieval towns probably did stink, people were certainly bothered about this. More and more recent scholarly work has focused on the efforts to keep medieval towns clean and healthy, particularly in the late medieval period.
While we might often see or read portrayals of urban filth and squalor, there was an enormous amount of regulation about such matters as dumping sewage in the streets or allowing animals to roam free.
Medieval people were brutally and mindlessly violent
Although it’s very hard to assess this statistically, levels of interpersonal physical violence were indeed probably very high. However, this was something which really bothered medieval people: across a range of contexts, they really agonised about levels of violence and the harm which it could cause, whilst also acknowledging that sometimes it was a useful way of restoring ‘order’.
For example, domestic violence was sometimes encouraged as a way to ‘discipline’ unruly wives, but it was also the subject of real concern that it could go too far. Codes of chivalry provided ways to glorify violence, but at the same time tried to channel and contain it.
A depiction of Death strangling a victim of the Plague. From the Stiny Codex, 14th century. (Photo by Fine Art Images/Heritage Images/Getty Images)
Medieval people thought the world was flat and had little conception of the wider world
Whilst medieval people loved fantastical stories about monstrous peoples in far-off lands, most were perhaps surprisingly well-informed about the world beyond their home.
This was partly because travel was very common in the Middle Ages: pilgrimages, trade and commerce, and diplomacy all meant that there was a lot of moving around.
And did medieval people all think the world was flat? Actually, most understood that the world was spherical. If medieval maps look rather naïve to modern eyes, it’s often because their function was different: many maps were intended as devotional objects rather than scaled geographical representations.
A medieval map of London, c1265. (Photo By DEA PICTURE LIBRARY/De Agostini via Getty Images)
Medieval people had no sense of humour
This is perhaps the most glaring misconception of all. Whilst it may not always be to our taste, medieval life was imbued with wit and humour. There was an appetite for jokes, ranging from the subtle and sophisticated to the obscene and bawdy.
Sometimes the surviving evidence is material. For example, one jester called ‘Fromage’, from northern France, sealed his invoice with a piece of cheese, the mould of which still lingers unpleasantly on the parchment. Another merchant from the Netherlands wrote a witty line to explain that he had to begin a new sheet of parchment in his accounts because his cat had urinated on the page.
Funny stories were also ubiquitous, as people loved to be entertained. Stories by writers such as Italian poet Giovanni Boccaccio and English writer Geoffrey Chaucer often drew on older folk tales and revelled in rude jokes and cases of mistaken identity.
Religious dogma meant that no one thought for themselves
The medieval Church did not value toleration, but nor did it try (or have the means) to impose absolute religious uniformity. Whilst the Middle Ages are punctuated by moments of censorship and persecution, religious thinking of a remarkably sophisticated kind was actively encouraged in many medieval universities. Paradigm-shifting advances in knowledge were made by posing fundamental questions: for example, on the nature of God.
On a more popular level, people also held a wide range of religious views. The line between magic and religion was blurred, and a range of religious practices developed which may seem to us frankly bizarre. Amulets and charms were a popular and largely tolerated way to deal with ill health or pregnancy.
Execution of three witches by hanging, woodcut, 1589. (© INTERFOTO/Alamy)
Torture was used often, and cruel corporal punishment was ubiquitous
In very many cases, corporal punishment was actually commuted to a monetary payment instead. Very often authorities were quite reluctant to punish people in a bodily manner. And when executions did happen, they often provoked pity and horror: in fact, that was precisely the point.
Torture was used in some cases, but again, we know that medieval thinkers agonised about the problems which it raised: not least that it might elicit desperate and false confessions.
There was little concept of childhood in the Middle Ages
This myth originated with a famous book by historian Philippe Ariès, first published in 1960, which claimed that there was no distinctive notion of childhood in the Middle Ages.
It is patently untrue – medieval children were certainly treated differently from modern children, but there was a real sense that children had different needs and different behaviours from adults.
Schoolchildren at their books, UK, AD 1338-1344. From Bodleian manuscript MS. Bodl. Misc. 264. An illustration from ‘A Short History of the English People, Volume 2’, by John Richard Green. (Photo by Hulton Archive/Getty Images)
This has since been most comprehensively illustrated in the work of Nicholas Orme on medieval education. The survival of medieval toys provides a touching indication that children were often thought of as rather special. They rode hobby-horses, played with marbles, and cuddled dolls.
There was little trade or commerce, partly because credit was underdeveloped
The origins of modern commercial practices lie precisely in this period. Extremely sophisticated commercial patterns emerged – both at a local level and internationally. These tended to be underpinned by complex systems of credit, and the 14th-century even saw the establishment of what are known today as ‘super companies’. And it is untrue that all lending at interest was undertaken by Jewish communities, even if this formed an increasingly dangerous anti-Semitic trope.
The Renaissance was a breakthrough moment in terms of critical thinking, rediscovery of the classics, and a sense of the individual
The idea of the ‘dark ages’ was one dreamed up by Italian scholar Francis Petrarch in the mid-14th century. Petrarch was an early humanist thinker, and one of the features of humanism was to disparage the Middle Ages as an era of blind and uncritical dogmatism. Needless to say, this is rubbish.
Medieval thinkers, particularly in the context of the universities, were mind-blowingly sophisticated. Many classical texts were well known and taken as important authorities for history writing in particular. And the idea that it was only during the Renaissance that a true sense of the individual emerged is nonsense. Medieval people articulated the relationship between the individual and the community in fascinating ways and agonised about the role of individual conscience.
In any case, the 15th- and 16th-century Renaissance had precursors. The Middle Ages saw at least two previous ‘Renaissances’: the Carolingian Renaissance of the 8th–9th centuries; and what is known as the ‘12th-century Renaissance’, a period of flourishing intellectual debate and provocative ideas.
Hannah Skoda is fellow and tutor in medieval history at St John’s College, Oxford. She works on the social and cultural history of the later Middle Ages, and has published notably on Medieval Violence (OUP, 2013), and co-edited two volumes on Legalism (OUP, 2012 and 2018).
Hannah will be speaking at our Medieval Life and Death events in 2020, taking place in London and York – tickets on sale now. | 2,224 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Charles II.—How the King Came to His Own, and How Death Walked in the Streets of London
O LIVER CROMWELL had been so strong and powerful that it seemed quite natural to the people to choose his son, Richard, as the next Protector. But Richard was a very different man from his father. He had not that in him which makes a great soldier or a great ruler. The army, the Parliament, and the people soon found this out, and troubles began. In a few months, Richard gave up his office of Protector, and went away to live quietly in his house in the country.
The people were tired of being ruled by the army. They were tired of the gloom and the sternness of the Puritans. They remembered with regret the days of Charles I., when people dressed in gay colors, when they sang and played, when it was not thought wicked to have Christmas games or village dances, and they longed for these days to come again. They forgot how cruel and bad Charles had been, they remembered that he had a son—the son whom the Scots had already crowned King.
General Monk, who had ruled Scotland under Cromwell, saw that many of the Scots had never forgotten their King. So thinking great things, but saying little, he began to march to London.
The Parliament and the army were already quarrelling and as Monk passed through England, people flocked to him from all sides begging him to try to bring peace and order into the country again. This was what Monk meant to do, how he had not settled, but letters and messages were secretly passing between him and Charles, who was at this time living in Holland.
At last Monk reached London, and one day, when Parliament was sitting, he entered the House and told the members that there was a messenger at the door with a letter from Charles.
Amid great excitement the messenger was brought in and the letter read. It promised pardon to all those who had rebelled against Charles I.; it promised freedom to all to worship God as they thought right. It seemed to bring once more the promise of happiness and peace to Britain. The people rejoiced, and shouted, "God save the King!" The Commonwealth was at an end. Britain had a King again.
A few days later Charles landed at Dover, where he was met by Monk, and, 'mid the cheers and rejoicing of the people, rode to London. Charles landed upon his birthday, 29th May 1660 A.D., and people thought it was a good sign that he should have arrived upon such a happy day.
The soldiers alone did not rejoice. They had always hated the name of king, they hated it still, and when Charles II. rode gaily into London, the army, which was drawn up on Blackheath to do him honour, stood sullen, gloomy, and silent.
For more than ten years the army had been the greatest power in the country. But Charles saw that, because the soldiers disliked him, for him it was a danger rather than a safeguard. So he disbanded the army, and sent the soldiers back to their homes.
Charles was very glad to return to his own country. From being poor and homeless he had become the ruler over one of the greatest kingdoms of the world. But, in spite of all he had suffered, he had not learned to be kind or good.
As soon as Charles was safely on the throne he forgot all the promises which he had made. Many of the people who had helped to put Charles I. to death were punished, some of them being beheaded. The old quarrels about religion began again as fiercely as ever, for the King was a Roman Catholic at heart, although he dared not own it, and pretended to belong to the Church of England. The new Parliament was called the Cavalier Parliament, because it was so full of the King's friends, and they made laws which were very hard for the Puritans and Presbyterians.
Scotland suffered much from these laws, and Charles sent a cruel man, called Lauderdale, to govern for him there. He, helped by another man called Claverhouse, tortured and put to death all those who would not worship God as the King commanded.
During the reign of Charles II. there was another war between the Dutch and the British. The Dutch had good ships, brave sailors, and brave leaders. The British, too, were brave, but their ships were badly managed. The money which should have been used to pay and feed the sailors was wasted by the King and his friends. The war, however, went fiercely on, sometimes one side, sometimes the other, having the best of it. But the Dutch grew very bold, and at last sailed up the Thames, burning and destroying many of the British ships. Then, for the only time in all history, the roar of an enemy's guns was heard in London. The people went mad with fear and shame and anger. They thought the kingdom itself was threatened, and, recalling the days of Cromwell, asked themselves if he would have suffered an enemy so to insult his country. But the danger passed, and peace was made.
While this war was going on a terrible sickness called the plague broke out in London. It began in winter time. At first no one thought much about it, for such sickness was common in those days when people were careless about keeping their houses and towns clean. But as the days became warmer, the plague became worse, and soon it was so terrible that all who could fled from the town.
It was a dreadful time. No business was done, the shops were shut, the churches were empty. The streets, which used to be so full of people hurrying to and fro, were silent, deserted, and grass-grown.
As soon as it became known that any one in a house had the plague, all who lived in that house were forbidden to leave it lest they should carry the dreadful sickness to others. Then the door was marked with a great red cross, and the words, "The Lord have mercy on us."
At night, the awful silence of the streets was broken by the sounds of heavy, rumbling carts, and the mournful cry of the men in charge of them, "Bring out your dead! bring out your dead!" For those who died of this sickness could not be buried in a peaceful green churchyard where their friends could come to put flowers upon their graves. There were far too many of them for that. Those who died during the day were carried away in a cart at night, and buried all together in a great grave which was dug for them outside the town.
The story is told of a boatman who, when his wife became ill of the plague, could no longer go near his house, but slept in his boat. He worked hard all day, and in the evening used to bring what he had earned and lay it upon a stone not far from his house. Then he would go a little distance off and call to his wife. When she heard his call, she sent one of their children out to take the money and the food which he had brought. They would speak to each other for a short time at a distance, and then the boatman would go away again, sad at heart, wondering if his wife and children would be still alive when he came again next evening. But at least he knew that his dear ones would not die of hunger, as so many of the poor people did whose friends had run away and deserted them.
This dreadful sickness was greatly caused, and made much worse, by the dirt of the streets and the houses. In those days no one thought of keeping the streets clean. People threw all the rubbish from their houses into them, and there it lay rotting and poisoning the air. The streets, too, were very narrow, and windows small, so that little air or light could come into the houses. In fact, people never thought about fresh air and light.
The doctors did not know how to cure this sickness. Make-believe doctors offered the people all kinds of medicines which could do no good, but which were eagerly bought. Many went mad with terror and horror, and at one time a thousand people died every day. But at last the dreadful summer passed, and, with the coming of the winter and the frost, the terrible sickness gradually disappeared. | <urn:uuid:00a3f3c5-cec1-4d9a-8920-4f5f09733a9d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/display.php?author=marshall&book=island&story=death | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00242.warc.gz | en | 0.994542 | 1,722 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.182799533... | 1 | Charles II.—How the King Came to His Own, and How Death Walked in the Streets of London
O LIVER CROMWELL had been so strong and powerful that it seemed quite natural to the people to choose his son, Richard, as the next Protector. But Richard was a very different man from his father. He had not that in him which makes a great soldier or a great ruler. The army, the Parliament, and the people soon found this out, and troubles began. In a few months, Richard gave up his office of Protector, and went away to live quietly in his house in the country.
The people were tired of being ruled by the army. They were tired of the gloom and the sternness of the Puritans. They remembered with regret the days of Charles I., when people dressed in gay colors, when they sang and played, when it was not thought wicked to have Christmas games or village dances, and they longed for these days to come again. They forgot how cruel and bad Charles had been, they remembered that he had a son—the son whom the Scots had already crowned King.
General Monk, who had ruled Scotland under Cromwell, saw that many of the Scots had never forgotten their King. So thinking great things, but saying little, he began to march to London.
The Parliament and the army were already quarrelling and as Monk passed through England, people flocked to him from all sides begging him to try to bring peace and order into the country again. This was what Monk meant to do, how he had not settled, but letters and messages were secretly passing between him and Charles, who was at this time living in Holland.
At last Monk reached London, and one day, when Parliament was sitting, he entered the House and told the members that there was a messenger at the door with a letter from Charles.
Amid great excitement the messenger was brought in and the letter read. It promised pardon to all those who had rebelled against Charles I.; it promised freedom to all to worship God as they thought right. It seemed to bring once more the promise of happiness and peace to Britain. The people rejoiced, and shouted, "God save the King!" The Commonwealth was at an end. Britain had a King again.
A few days later Charles landed at Dover, where he was met by Monk, and, 'mid the cheers and rejoicing of the people, rode to London. Charles landed upon his birthday, 29th May 1660 A.D., and people thought it was a good sign that he should have arrived upon such a happy day.
The soldiers alone did not rejoice. They had always hated the name of king, they hated it still, and when Charles II. rode gaily into London, the army, which was drawn up on Blackheath to do him honour, stood sullen, gloomy, and silent.
For more than ten years the army had been the greatest power in the country. But Charles saw that, because the soldiers disliked him, for him it was a danger rather than a safeguard. So he disbanded the army, and sent the soldiers back to their homes.
Charles was very glad to return to his own country. From being poor and homeless he had become the ruler over one of the greatest kingdoms of the world. But, in spite of all he had suffered, he had not learned to be kind or good.
As soon as Charles was safely on the throne he forgot all the promises which he had made. Many of the people who had helped to put Charles I. to death were punished, some of them being beheaded. The old quarrels about religion began again as fiercely as ever, for the King was a Roman Catholic at heart, although he dared not own it, and pretended to belong to the Church of England. The new Parliament was called the Cavalier Parliament, because it was so full of the King's friends, and they made laws which were very hard for the Puritans and Presbyterians.
Scotland suffered much from these laws, and Charles sent a cruel man, called Lauderdale, to govern for him there. He, helped by another man called Claverhouse, tortured and put to death all those who would not worship God as the King commanded.
During the reign of Charles II. there was another war between the Dutch and the British. The Dutch had good ships, brave sailors, and brave leaders. The British, too, were brave, but their ships were badly managed. The money which should have been used to pay and feed the sailors was wasted by the King and his friends. The war, however, went fiercely on, sometimes one side, sometimes the other, having the best of it. But the Dutch grew very bold, and at last sailed up the Thames, burning and destroying many of the British ships. Then, for the only time in all history, the roar of an enemy's guns was heard in London. The people went mad with fear and shame and anger. They thought the kingdom itself was threatened, and, recalling the days of Cromwell, asked themselves if he would have suffered an enemy so to insult his country. But the danger passed, and peace was made.
While this war was going on a terrible sickness called the plague broke out in London. It began in winter time. At first no one thought much about it, for such sickness was common in those days when people were careless about keeping their houses and towns clean. But as the days became warmer, the plague became worse, and soon it was so terrible that all who could fled from the town.
It was a dreadful time. No business was done, the shops were shut, the churches were empty. The streets, which used to be so full of people hurrying to and fro, were silent, deserted, and grass-grown.
As soon as it became known that any one in a house had the plague, all who lived in that house were forbidden to leave it lest they should carry the dreadful sickness to others. Then the door was marked with a great red cross, and the words, "The Lord have mercy on us."
At night, the awful silence of the streets was broken by the sounds of heavy, rumbling carts, and the mournful cry of the men in charge of them, "Bring out your dead! bring out your dead!" For those who died of this sickness could not be buried in a peaceful green churchyard where their friends could come to put flowers upon their graves. There were far too many of them for that. Those who died during the day were carried away in a cart at night, and buried all together in a great grave which was dug for them outside the town.
The story is told of a boatman who, when his wife became ill of the plague, could no longer go near his house, but slept in his boat. He worked hard all day, and in the evening used to bring what he had earned and lay it upon a stone not far from his house. Then he would go a little distance off and call to his wife. When she heard his call, she sent one of their children out to take the money and the food which he had brought. They would speak to each other for a short time at a distance, and then the boatman would go away again, sad at heart, wondering if his wife and children would be still alive when he came again next evening. But at least he knew that his dear ones would not die of hunger, as so many of the poor people did whose friends had run away and deserted them.
This dreadful sickness was greatly caused, and made much worse, by the dirt of the streets and the houses. In those days no one thought of keeping the streets clean. People threw all the rubbish from their houses into them, and there it lay rotting and poisoning the air. The streets, too, were very narrow, and windows small, so that little air or light could come into the houses. In fact, people never thought about fresh air and light.
The doctors did not know how to cure this sickness. Make-believe doctors offered the people all kinds of medicines which could do no good, but which were eagerly bought. Many went mad with terror and horror, and at one time a thousand people died every day. But at last the dreadful summer passed, and, with the coming of the winter and the frost, the terrible sickness gradually disappeared. | 1,712 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Readers Question: In early American banking history, banks would issue banknotes to patrons that were supposed to be backed by gold and silver. My questions is, what did the patrons give the banks to get the bank notes, and why were many banks unable to make payment on demand when the patrons tried to exchange their notes?
Banknotes have evolved over time. Initially bank notes were issues in lieu of precious metals and were essentially I O U’s. A more technical term is that bank notes were ‘promissory’ – Rather than give gold to customers, banks gave a credit note saying they promised to exchange this credit note for an equivalent sum of gold or silver.
Over time, gold and silver were no longer used in the monetary system, thus bank notes became effective credit notes.
It was the banks who were most keen to use promissory notes rather than deal in precious metals. Bank notes had the advantage that is was easier to transport, lower costs and, most importantly, enabled the banks to make better use of their assets.
Therefore, to gain bank notes I think that the patrons merely had to have an account with the bank.
My issuing notes, banks were able to use there assets to much better effect.
The basis of the Banking system is that banks only keep a small percentage of their deposits and then lend out the remainder to borrowers. Banks can charge a higher rate to the borrowers than it pays to savers and this is how the bank can make profit.
If people deposited £100 million and the bank had to keep £100 million in gold, then the deposits at the bank would be unprofitable because it couldn’t lend anything out.
Therefore, if a bank has deposits of £100 million. It may only keep 1% £1 million in actual cash. Therefore if people come to the bank wanting to withdraw all their money, the bank is stuck. It cannot give all the bank customers their money because the money is tied up in the form of loans to other businesses.
In the Great Depression of the 1930s, people lost confidence in the banking system and so went to withdraw their money. But small and medium sized firms soon ran out of liquid cash and this led to the bankruptcy of many banks. | <urn:uuid:36460b1a-088d-469b-9ccf-c53098302e81> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.economicshelp.org/blog/392/finance/american-banking-history/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00555.warc.gz | en | 0.986296 | 462 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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-0.015351506... | 2 | Readers Question: In early American banking history, banks would issue banknotes to patrons that were supposed to be backed by gold and silver. My questions is, what did the patrons give the banks to get the bank notes, and why were many banks unable to make payment on demand when the patrons tried to exchange their notes?
Banknotes have evolved over time. Initially bank notes were issues in lieu of precious metals and were essentially I O U’s. A more technical term is that bank notes were ‘promissory’ – Rather than give gold to customers, banks gave a credit note saying they promised to exchange this credit note for an equivalent sum of gold or silver.
Over time, gold and silver were no longer used in the monetary system, thus bank notes became effective credit notes.
It was the banks who were most keen to use promissory notes rather than deal in precious metals. Bank notes had the advantage that is was easier to transport, lower costs and, most importantly, enabled the banks to make better use of their assets.
Therefore, to gain bank notes I think that the patrons merely had to have an account with the bank.
My issuing notes, banks were able to use there assets to much better effect.
The basis of the Banking system is that banks only keep a small percentage of their deposits and then lend out the remainder to borrowers. Banks can charge a higher rate to the borrowers than it pays to savers and this is how the bank can make profit.
If people deposited £100 million and the bank had to keep £100 million in gold, then the deposits at the bank would be unprofitable because it couldn’t lend anything out.
Therefore, if a bank has deposits of £100 million. It may only keep 1% £1 million in actual cash. Therefore if people come to the bank wanting to withdraw all their money, the bank is stuck. It cannot give all the bank customers their money because the money is tied up in the form of loans to other businesses.
In the Great Depression of the 1930s, people lost confidence in the banking system and so went to withdraw their money. But small and medium sized firms soon ran out of liquid cash and this led to the bankruptcy of many banks. | 458 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The latter's lifelike busts give the most reliable likenesses of Lorenzo Medici's father Piero and uncle Giovanni. He designed many important buildings in London.
In this painting, the young Leonardo presents the humanist face of the Virgin Mary, recognising humanity's role in God's incarnation. Leonardo is thought to have used Salai as the model. Some of his famous scientific accomplishments include: Mikhail Lomonosov — was a Russian poet, educator, artist, physicist and chemist education.
She leans forward to restrain the Christ Child as he plays roughly with a lamb, the sign of his own impending sacrifice. He spent two years designing and painting a mural of The Battle of Anghiari for the Signoria, with Michelangelo designing its companion piece, The Battle of Cascina.
Mary is not submissive, however, in the larger piece. Leonardo dad Vinci had many innovative designs, scientific accomplishments, and artistic masterpieces. Leonardo da Vinci in Milan. His first significant commission, The Adoration of the Magi for the Monks of Scopeto, was never completed.
They competently delivered commissions to well-satisfied patrons who appreciated Ghirlandaio's ability to portray the wealthy citizens of Florence within large religious frescoes, and Perugino's ability to deliver a multitude of saints and angels of unfailing sweetness and innocence.
Later in the year, Leonardo produced another map for his patron, one of Chiana ValleyTuscany, so as to give his patron a better overlay of the land and greater strategic position.
Leonardo is called a "Renaissance man". This lack of higher education was apparent in his struggle to understand Latin. Upon seeing it, Cesare hired Leonardo as his chief military engineer and architect. Upon seeing it, Cesare hired Leonardo as his chief military engineer and architect.
Leonardo went beyond his teachings by making a scientific study of light and shadow in nature. Rabindranath Tagore 7 May — 7 August was a Bengali poet, artist, playwright, novelist, educationist, social reformer, nationalist, business-manager and composer.
Annethe composition again picks up the theme of figures in a landscape, which Wasserman describes as "breathtakingly beautiful" and harkens back to the St Jerome picture with the figure set at an oblique angle.
His development of calculusand his three laws of motion were landmarks in applied mathematics. For the first time, it was possible to make books—and, by extension, knowledge—widely available. The Italian Renaissance was over.
He also built a powerful telescope and used it to show that the Earth and other planets revolved around the sun and not, as religious authorities argued, the other way around.
In later life, Leonardo recorded only two childhood incidents. American president who was a horticulturist, architect, archaeologist, inventor, and founder of a university. He created this map in conjunction with his other project of constructing a dam from the sea to Florence, in order to allow a supply of water to sustain the canal during all seasons.
Inhe painted a nude version of the Mona Lisaknown as Monna Vanna. Init was announced that DNA tests were to be conducted to investigate the veracity of the attribution, with results expected in When she died inthe list of funeral expenditures suggests that she was his mother.
Some say that it was his lack of recognition by Lorenzo de Medici, also the artist had been overlooked for the decoration of the walls of the Sistine Chapel. His schooling was basic and followed the traditional educational teachings of the time.Leonardo da Vinci is the Renaissance man because he excelled in art, science, and engineering.
Art was Leonardo's earliest passion, and it is his most famous talent.
Art was Leonardo's earliest passion, and it is his most famous talent. Overall, Leonardo Da Vinci has been described as the archetype of the "Renaissance man" and as a universal genius, a man infinitely curious, infinitely inventive, and infinitely influential to the modern world.
The term Renaissance man or polymath is used for a very clever person who is good at many different things.
The idea comes from a time of history called the Renaissance which lasted from about to about One of the most famous people alive during this time was Leonardo da Vinci.
Leonardo da Vinci was considered a Renaissance man due to his long list of accomplishments across several fields. He was an artist, a musician, an inventor and a scientist. His sketches and paintings include world renowned pieces like the Mona Lisa, the Last Supper, and the Vitruvian Man.
Leonardo da Vinci was regarded as an astonishing virtuoso, even by his contemporaries of the time. Born in he was at work long before Michelangelo and Raphael who are considered to be the two other great masters of High Renaissance Art.
A man who has broad intellectual interests and is accomplished in areas of both the arts and the sciences. That is the definition of a Renaissance man.Download | <urn:uuid:e099a478-dd82-47a1-a2eb-acbde91ab0f8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://kazysat.indianmotorcycleofmelbournefl.com/why-leonardo-da-vinci-considered-renaissance-man-79630pc.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00067.warc.gz | en | 0.980662 | 1,046 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.38041007518768... | 1 | The latter's lifelike busts give the most reliable likenesses of Lorenzo Medici's father Piero and uncle Giovanni. He designed many important buildings in London.
In this painting, the young Leonardo presents the humanist face of the Virgin Mary, recognising humanity's role in God's incarnation. Leonardo is thought to have used Salai as the model. Some of his famous scientific accomplishments include: Mikhail Lomonosov — was a Russian poet, educator, artist, physicist and chemist education.
She leans forward to restrain the Christ Child as he plays roughly with a lamb, the sign of his own impending sacrifice. He spent two years designing and painting a mural of The Battle of Anghiari for the Signoria, with Michelangelo designing its companion piece, The Battle of Cascina.
Mary is not submissive, however, in the larger piece. Leonardo dad Vinci had many innovative designs, scientific accomplishments, and artistic masterpieces. Leonardo da Vinci in Milan. His first significant commission, The Adoration of the Magi for the Monks of Scopeto, was never completed.
They competently delivered commissions to well-satisfied patrons who appreciated Ghirlandaio's ability to portray the wealthy citizens of Florence within large religious frescoes, and Perugino's ability to deliver a multitude of saints and angels of unfailing sweetness and innocence.
Later in the year, Leonardo produced another map for his patron, one of Chiana ValleyTuscany, so as to give his patron a better overlay of the land and greater strategic position.
Leonardo is called a "Renaissance man". This lack of higher education was apparent in his struggle to understand Latin. Upon seeing it, Cesare hired Leonardo as his chief military engineer and architect. Upon seeing it, Cesare hired Leonardo as his chief military engineer and architect.
Leonardo went beyond his teachings by making a scientific study of light and shadow in nature. Rabindranath Tagore 7 May — 7 August was a Bengali poet, artist, playwright, novelist, educationist, social reformer, nationalist, business-manager and composer.
Annethe composition again picks up the theme of figures in a landscape, which Wasserman describes as "breathtakingly beautiful" and harkens back to the St Jerome picture with the figure set at an oblique angle.
His development of calculusand his three laws of motion were landmarks in applied mathematics. For the first time, it was possible to make books—and, by extension, knowledge—widely available. The Italian Renaissance was over.
He also built a powerful telescope and used it to show that the Earth and other planets revolved around the sun and not, as religious authorities argued, the other way around.
In later life, Leonardo recorded only two childhood incidents. American president who was a horticulturist, architect, archaeologist, inventor, and founder of a university. He created this map in conjunction with his other project of constructing a dam from the sea to Florence, in order to allow a supply of water to sustain the canal during all seasons.
Inhe painted a nude version of the Mona Lisaknown as Monna Vanna. Init was announced that DNA tests were to be conducted to investigate the veracity of the attribution, with results expected in When she died inthe list of funeral expenditures suggests that she was his mother.
Some say that it was his lack of recognition by Lorenzo de Medici, also the artist had been overlooked for the decoration of the walls of the Sistine Chapel. His schooling was basic and followed the traditional educational teachings of the time.Leonardo da Vinci is the Renaissance man because he excelled in art, science, and engineering.
Art was Leonardo's earliest passion, and it is his most famous talent.
Art was Leonardo's earliest passion, and it is his most famous talent. Overall, Leonardo Da Vinci has been described as the archetype of the "Renaissance man" and as a universal genius, a man infinitely curious, infinitely inventive, and infinitely influential to the modern world.
The term Renaissance man or polymath is used for a very clever person who is good at many different things.
The idea comes from a time of history called the Renaissance which lasted from about to about One of the most famous people alive during this time was Leonardo da Vinci.
Leonardo da Vinci was considered a Renaissance man due to his long list of accomplishments across several fields. He was an artist, a musician, an inventor and a scientist. His sketches and paintings include world renowned pieces like the Mona Lisa, the Last Supper, and the Vitruvian Man.
Leonardo da Vinci was regarded as an astonishing virtuoso, even by his contemporaries of the time. Born in he was at work long before Michelangelo and Raphael who are considered to be the two other great masters of High Renaissance Art.
A man who has broad intellectual interests and is accomplished in areas of both the arts and the sciences. That is the definition of a Renaissance man.Download | 1,012 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In Term 1 we started our class novel Matilda. While reading we were able to link many areas of our learning to the novel.
First, we created our class charter and thought about our UNCRC Rights of the child. We considered Matilda’s rights as we discussed and used evidence from the text to identify if all her rights were being met. Then we we able to use our knowledge of children’s rights later on in the term to create a recipe of courage
for Bruce Bogtrotter. We were able to link this to Broomhill’s recipe for success.
We also started our learning about coding in ICT. We learned about what coding is and why it is needed. We created out own code steps to make a character move around the screen. We were lucky enough to spend some time working with the professionals at Apple to extend our learning. | <urn:uuid:101af3d6-d401-4dad-8055-399d24ebffba> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://broomhill.aberdeen.sch.uk/2019/12/13/p4-room-13-term-1-highlights/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00362.warc.gz | en | 0.983415 | 181 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.276878744... | 11 | In Term 1 we started our class novel Matilda. While reading we were able to link many areas of our learning to the novel.
First, we created our class charter and thought about our UNCRC Rights of the child. We considered Matilda’s rights as we discussed and used evidence from the text to identify if all her rights were being met. Then we we able to use our knowledge of children’s rights later on in the term to create a recipe of courage
for Bruce Bogtrotter. We were able to link this to Broomhill’s recipe for success.
We also started our learning about coding in ICT. We learned about what coding is and why it is needed. We created out own code steps to make a character move around the screen. We were lucky enough to spend some time working with the professionals at Apple to extend our learning. | 173 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Where does the word "bunting" come from?
The origin of the term "bunting"
On a navy ship, the sailor whose job it is to raise the flags is still referred to as a bunt. Bunting used to describe the material to make the flags – an individual triangular flag was called the tammy, a word derived from estamet, the French word meaning lightweight wool fabric. Bunting (or bunt) was manufactured from the turn of the 17th century, and used for making ribbons and flags, including signal flags for the Royal Navy. Amongst other properties that made the fabric suitable for ribbons and flags was its high glaze, achieved by a process including hot-pressing.
Small flags were used to relay messages between boats. The most famous message using the numeric flag code by this method , was by Lord Nelson on the HMS Victory at The start of the Battle of Trafalgar communicating to his fleet. " England expects that every man will do his duty" | <urn:uuid:0788bf8e-a82b-44aa-9139-fa11cf445e2f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://colorbrite.com.au/about/where-does-the-word-bunting-come-from | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00157.warc.gz | en | 0.980212 | 209 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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-0.2451800704002380... | 7 | Where does the word "bunting" come from?
The origin of the term "bunting"
On a navy ship, the sailor whose job it is to raise the flags is still referred to as a bunt. Bunting used to describe the material to make the flags – an individual triangular flag was called the tammy, a word derived from estamet, the French word meaning lightweight wool fabric. Bunting (or bunt) was manufactured from the turn of the 17th century, and used for making ribbons and flags, including signal flags for the Royal Navy. Amongst other properties that made the fabric suitable for ribbons and flags was its high glaze, achieved by a process including hot-pressing.
Small flags were used to relay messages between boats. The most famous message using the numeric flag code by this method , was by Lord Nelson on the HMS Victory at The start of the Battle of Trafalgar communicating to his fleet. " England expects that every man will do his duty" | 207 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Hillslike White Elephants
ErnestMiller Hemingway was a writer whose work was mainly novels and shortstories. Hemingway had six short story collections including “Menwithout women” and seven novels. Hemingway’s work was mainlyinfluenced by his economic status and his experiences in war.Hemingway worked in various capacities during the First and SecondWorld Wars. Hemingway married four women in his lifetime, and heeventually committed suicide at his home in Idaho, Ketchum in July1961. Hemingway’s writing style was influenced by music lessonsthat he was taught by his mother who was a musician.
Hemingwayavoided complex writing and he normally used simple short sentencesto covey his message. His writing style resulted in gripping storiesthat were seen as a rejection of Western Civilization. Hemingwaybelonged to the modernist category of writers who believed in theculture of simple styles of writing so as to communicate with theirreaders. This was also an influence on his short stories, where hebelieved in using few words to convey deep messages. The use of shortsentences was also influenced by the desire to use few words toconvey the messages in a cohesive manner.
Hemingway’sthemes focused on love, loss, war and wilderness and they were allinfluenced by the wilderness, which recurs in his work. Thewilderness seemed to be Hemingway’s refreshment point, where he gotthe inspiration to write. Initially, his work seemed to admonishwomen, but later analysis revealed that Hemingway gave women power inhis works by using different characters. “Hills like whiteelephants” was a classic style of Hemingway’s writing in whichthe meanings of the story are hidden within the short sentences(Svoboda 168). Hemingway also used a lot of symbolism, which was away of using few words to convey a deep message.
Thestory “Hills like white elephants’ was written at a time theworld was recovering from the effects of the First World War. Theperiod was characterized by male domination of women, and the men hadreturned home from war. As the men tried to settle in, they werefaced by various challenges, and they used the rules of wartime torun their love lives (Svoboda 126). This often resulted in conflictsbetween men and women. In the story “Hills like white elephants,”the American, who represented men, was in conflict with a woman as hewanted her to have an abortion. This depicted how men were interestedin having no emotional attachments and having a child would meanhaving an attachment with the woman. The men were not used to stayingin one place for too long or having attachment to a place or event.
Thestory was also reflective of Hemingway’s inability to build lastingrelationships after he left the army. The story was a dialoguebetween the American and a woman he had impregnated. The Americanwanted her to have an abortion, and male superiority was wellrepresented as the man did not care about the Jig’s feelingstowards the pregnancy (Hemingway 36). The man even dismissed thewoman’s symbolism such as the use of white elephants in which shemeant the child was a special gift to her and the American simplysaid that he had never seen a white elephant.
“Hillslike white elephants” was set at a train station in which the twomain characters, the American and Jig. The American was detached fromthe environment and cared less about the activities in theenvironment. The two were waiting for a train to Spain and theAmerican was trying to convince a girl to have an operation, whichwas an abortion. Jig was unsure of what she wanted and as such, sheseemed to agree and disagree with the American. The American was atypical representation of the male chauvinism of the era as hethought that the girl was unreasonable and thus, did not care aboutwhat the girl was saying (Svoboda 197). The girl was also a depictionof how men viewed women at that time. Jig was confused andindecisive, and she seemed to depend entirely on the American and hisreasoning.
“Hillslike white elephants” was set at a train station where the two maincharacters were at train station. The two characters were havingalcohol at the train station while discussing the operation.According to the American, the operation would take them back to ahappy place, where they were before. The girl, however, seemeddisinterested as she started talking about the surroundings anddescribing what she saw. Jig made the American promise that he wouldstill love her even after she had had an operation. The American toldher, however, that if she did not want to have it, she was free torefuse because he realized that the girl was not interested in whatwould happen to her (Gammel 109). Throughout the conversation, theAmerican did not seem to take the operation seriously.
Themain symbolism in the story was centered on the white elephants andthe hills that Jig mentioned. The white elephants represented thepregnancy, which both the American and Jig did not want. At first,Jig referred to the surrounding hills as looking as beautiful aswhite elephants. The elephants represented the unborn child, whichnone of them was eager to discuss. The white elephant, which Jig wasreferring to, was the issue of the pregnancy that was being avoided.Jig later said that the hills looked lovely, which suggested that shewished to keep the pregnancy. The alcohol represented the lack ofcommunication between the American and Jig as they both drank so asto avoid having a conversation about Jig’s pregnancy. The two thusdrank as a way of keeping busy. The train station symbolized thepoint at which each walked out of the other’s life.
Inconclusion, Ernest Hemingway was a journalist who wrote seven novelsand six short story books. His work was characterized by symbolismand the use of few words to convey deep meanings. Hemingway lived ata time when male Chauvinism was rife, and this was well- representedin his work. The story “Hills like white elephants” was about theAmerican and Jig, who were having a discussion at train station aboutgetting rid of Jig’s pregnancy. The American did not concentratemuch on the conversation, and he did not even understand what Jig wastalking about when she used white elephants to symbolize herpregnancy. The two disagreed on whether to get rid of the pregnancyor not and throughout the conversation, Jig seemed confused andunsure of what she wanted.
Gammel,Irene. BaronessElsa: Gender, Dada, and Everyday Modernity.Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2002. Print.
Hemingway,Ernest. “Hills like white elephants.” MenWithout Women. NewYork: Scribner, 1927. Print.
Svoboda,Frederic. "The Great Themes in Hemingway," inWagner-Martin, Linda (ed). AHistorical Guide to Ernest Hemingway.New York: Oxford UP, 2000. Print. | <urn:uuid:07d9763b-2629-42aa-96ea-c2d372a037c5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://muv2work.com/hills-like-white-elephants/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00453.warc.gz | en | 0.984811 | 1,532 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
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0.2085668742656707... | 4 | Hillslike White Elephants
ErnestMiller Hemingway was a writer whose work was mainly novels and shortstories. Hemingway had six short story collections including “Menwithout women” and seven novels. Hemingway’s work was mainlyinfluenced by his economic status and his experiences in war.Hemingway worked in various capacities during the First and SecondWorld Wars. Hemingway married four women in his lifetime, and heeventually committed suicide at his home in Idaho, Ketchum in July1961. Hemingway’s writing style was influenced by music lessonsthat he was taught by his mother who was a musician.
Hemingwayavoided complex writing and he normally used simple short sentencesto covey his message. His writing style resulted in gripping storiesthat were seen as a rejection of Western Civilization. Hemingwaybelonged to the modernist category of writers who believed in theculture of simple styles of writing so as to communicate with theirreaders. This was also an influence on his short stories, where hebelieved in using few words to convey deep messages. The use of shortsentences was also influenced by the desire to use few words toconvey the messages in a cohesive manner.
Hemingway’sthemes focused on love, loss, war and wilderness and they were allinfluenced by the wilderness, which recurs in his work. Thewilderness seemed to be Hemingway’s refreshment point, where he gotthe inspiration to write. Initially, his work seemed to admonishwomen, but later analysis revealed that Hemingway gave women power inhis works by using different characters. “Hills like whiteelephants” was a classic style of Hemingway’s writing in whichthe meanings of the story are hidden within the short sentences(Svoboda 168). Hemingway also used a lot of symbolism, which was away of using few words to convey a deep message.
Thestory “Hills like white elephants’ was written at a time theworld was recovering from the effects of the First World War. Theperiod was characterized by male domination of women, and the men hadreturned home from war. As the men tried to settle in, they werefaced by various challenges, and they used the rules of wartime torun their love lives (Svoboda 126). This often resulted in conflictsbetween men and women. In the story “Hills like white elephants,”the American, who represented men, was in conflict with a woman as hewanted her to have an abortion. This depicted how men were interestedin having no emotional attachments and having a child would meanhaving an attachment with the woman. The men were not used to stayingin one place for too long or having attachment to a place or event.
Thestory was also reflective of Hemingway’s inability to build lastingrelationships after he left the army. The story was a dialoguebetween the American and a woman he had impregnated. The Americanwanted her to have an abortion, and male superiority was wellrepresented as the man did not care about the Jig’s feelingstowards the pregnancy (Hemingway 36). The man even dismissed thewoman’s symbolism such as the use of white elephants in which shemeant the child was a special gift to her and the American simplysaid that he had never seen a white elephant.
“Hillslike white elephants” was set at a train station in which the twomain characters, the American and Jig. The American was detached fromthe environment and cared less about the activities in theenvironment. The two were waiting for a train to Spain and theAmerican was trying to convince a girl to have an operation, whichwas an abortion. Jig was unsure of what she wanted and as such, sheseemed to agree and disagree with the American. The American was atypical representation of the male chauvinism of the era as hethought that the girl was unreasonable and thus, did not care aboutwhat the girl was saying (Svoboda 197). The girl was also a depictionof how men viewed women at that time. Jig was confused andindecisive, and she seemed to depend entirely on the American and hisreasoning.
“Hillslike white elephants” was set at a train station where the two maincharacters were at train station. The two characters were havingalcohol at the train station while discussing the operation.According to the American, the operation would take them back to ahappy place, where they were before. The girl, however, seemeddisinterested as she started talking about the surroundings anddescribing what she saw. Jig made the American promise that he wouldstill love her even after she had had an operation. The American toldher, however, that if she did not want to have it, she was free torefuse because he realized that the girl was not interested in whatwould happen to her (Gammel 109). Throughout the conversation, theAmerican did not seem to take the operation seriously.
Themain symbolism in the story was centered on the white elephants andthe hills that Jig mentioned. The white elephants represented thepregnancy, which both the American and Jig did not want. At first,Jig referred to the surrounding hills as looking as beautiful aswhite elephants. The elephants represented the unborn child, whichnone of them was eager to discuss. The white elephant, which Jig wasreferring to, was the issue of the pregnancy that was being avoided.Jig later said that the hills looked lovely, which suggested that shewished to keep the pregnancy. The alcohol represented the lack ofcommunication between the American and Jig as they both drank so asto avoid having a conversation about Jig’s pregnancy. The two thusdrank as a way of keeping busy. The train station symbolized thepoint at which each walked out of the other’s life.
Inconclusion, Ernest Hemingway was a journalist who wrote seven novelsand six short story books. His work was characterized by symbolismand the use of few words to convey deep meanings. Hemingway lived ata time when male Chauvinism was rife, and this was well- representedin his work. The story “Hills like white elephants” was about theAmerican and Jig, who were having a discussion at train station aboutgetting rid of Jig’s pregnancy. The American did not concentratemuch on the conversation, and he did not even understand what Jig wastalking about when she used white elephants to symbolize herpregnancy. The two disagreed on whether to get rid of the pregnancyor not and throughout the conversation, Jig seemed confused andunsure of what she wanted.
Gammel,Irene. BaronessElsa: Gender, Dada, and Everyday Modernity.Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2002. Print.
Hemingway,Ernest. “Hills like white elephants.” MenWithout Women. NewYork: Scribner, 1927. Print.
Svoboda,Frederic. "The Great Themes in Hemingway," inWagner-Martin, Linda (ed). AHistorical Guide to Ernest Hemingway.New York: Oxford UP, 2000. Print. | 1,497 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There were many opposing opinions between the North and South so a peaceful resolution was out of reach. Although the government attempted at creating harmony between the North and South, it would not be achieved because of the violence caused by slavery, contradicting political views, and economic stance. Even though the government tried to make amends by the Compromise of 1850, finding peace was unclear and impossible in this climate. They tried seeking compromise between the North and South by making New Mexico a territory without restrictions of slavery, but this only created more violence for those who didn’t want slavery. Slavery was the main cause for the Civil War, as the South didn’t want to give it up because it was their main source of income for their economic standing. In document four, the painting “Southern Chivalry: Argument versus Club’s,” created in 1856, is shown. The painting shows the violence that occurred over the Kansas-Nebraska Act. This act allowed people in Kansas or Nebraska to decide if they wanted to allow slavery in the borders. Many people went to Kansas to determine whether or not slavery would be allowed, this of course led to a lot of conflict and brutality, as depicted in document four. This act made it impossible for peace and harmony, it only continued the cruelty in America. Document four was sympathetic for Sumner (the man being beaten and who’s bleeding), who lead an anti-slavery force in Massachusetts. Political disagreements about slavery created a harsh environment for the North and South. As in document two, slave owners are depicted as “man stealers.” This document was written by the American Anti-Slavery Society in 1834, who declared an anti-slavery convention where they expressed the need for slaves to be set free. They demanded emancipation by comparing laws created by man to laws made by God to invalidate them. This shows the continuity of discrimination towards black people, and how that hate prevents and withholds peace between the North and South. In document three, Daniel Webster speaks as an American nationalist. He states that the North has not obeyed the Fugitive Slave Law, and that they should. The Fugitive Slave Act was passed in 1850 as a way to get escaped slaves back to their masters. This was also called the “Bloodhound Law,” as dogs tracked down runaway slaves. This displays the continuation of political controversy between the North and South. In document six, Abraham Lincoln is questioning the reasoning behind slavery. He says the anti-slavery agitation is a sign of ambitious politicians. He implies that slavery doesn’t just affect the politics, but religion as well. He wonders how anyone could enforce it. In document seven, the presidential election of 1860 is shown. Abraham Lincoln, a republican, won the election in the popular and electoral vote. The states prohibiting slaves were the ones who voted for him. This is a prime example of the two vast differences between the states. The economic stance of the North and South created conflict as well. In document five, a southern man expresses his hatred toward a free society. So he is clearly pro-slavery. He attacks the low class workers and farmers in the North and praises the men in the South. He says that northerners are “hardly fit for association with a southern gentleman’s body servant.” He sees so poorly for the people of the North because their working conditions were not what the South had, the North used “greasy mechanics” and the South had slaves to work for them. The economics were faily different between the two, as the North were more industrialized and the South worked more in agriculture. In conclusion, peace would not be achieved because of the violence caused by slavery, contradicting political views, and economic stance. These were a couple causes of the Civil War, as the North and South were vastly different. They had many different views towards many things and they had different morals and ethics. They could not agree on one thing and could not compromise, so their idealiality of peace could never be reached. | <urn:uuid:24edb43b-5ada-4c33-875b-0389de3af64f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wallaceandjames.com/there-tried-seeking-compromise-between-the-north-and/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00015.warc.gz | en | 0.983669 | 840 | 4.46875 | 4 | [
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0.29458674788... | 2 | There were many opposing opinions between the North and South so a peaceful resolution was out of reach. Although the government attempted at creating harmony between the North and South, it would not be achieved because of the violence caused by slavery, contradicting political views, and economic stance. Even though the government tried to make amends by the Compromise of 1850, finding peace was unclear and impossible in this climate. They tried seeking compromise between the North and South by making New Mexico a territory without restrictions of slavery, but this only created more violence for those who didn’t want slavery. Slavery was the main cause for the Civil War, as the South didn’t want to give it up because it was their main source of income for their economic standing. In document four, the painting “Southern Chivalry: Argument versus Club’s,” created in 1856, is shown. The painting shows the violence that occurred over the Kansas-Nebraska Act. This act allowed people in Kansas or Nebraska to decide if they wanted to allow slavery in the borders. Many people went to Kansas to determine whether or not slavery would be allowed, this of course led to a lot of conflict and brutality, as depicted in document four. This act made it impossible for peace and harmony, it only continued the cruelty in America. Document four was sympathetic for Sumner (the man being beaten and who’s bleeding), who lead an anti-slavery force in Massachusetts. Political disagreements about slavery created a harsh environment for the North and South. As in document two, slave owners are depicted as “man stealers.” This document was written by the American Anti-Slavery Society in 1834, who declared an anti-slavery convention where they expressed the need for slaves to be set free. They demanded emancipation by comparing laws created by man to laws made by God to invalidate them. This shows the continuity of discrimination towards black people, and how that hate prevents and withholds peace between the North and South. In document three, Daniel Webster speaks as an American nationalist. He states that the North has not obeyed the Fugitive Slave Law, and that they should. The Fugitive Slave Act was passed in 1850 as a way to get escaped slaves back to their masters. This was also called the “Bloodhound Law,” as dogs tracked down runaway slaves. This displays the continuation of political controversy between the North and South. In document six, Abraham Lincoln is questioning the reasoning behind slavery. He says the anti-slavery agitation is a sign of ambitious politicians. He implies that slavery doesn’t just affect the politics, but religion as well. He wonders how anyone could enforce it. In document seven, the presidential election of 1860 is shown. Abraham Lincoln, a republican, won the election in the popular and electoral vote. The states prohibiting slaves were the ones who voted for him. This is a prime example of the two vast differences between the states. The economic stance of the North and South created conflict as well. In document five, a southern man expresses his hatred toward a free society. So he is clearly pro-slavery. He attacks the low class workers and farmers in the North and praises the men in the South. He says that northerners are “hardly fit for association with a southern gentleman’s body servant.” He sees so poorly for the people of the North because their working conditions were not what the South had, the North used “greasy mechanics” and the South had slaves to work for them. The economics were faily different between the two, as the North were more industrialized and the South worked more in agriculture. In conclusion, peace would not be achieved because of the violence caused by slavery, contradicting political views, and economic stance. These were a couple causes of the Civil War, as the North and South were vastly different. They had many different views towards many things and they had different morals and ethics. They could not agree on one thing and could not compromise, so their idealiality of peace could never be reached. | 826 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Failing to plan for the aftermath of a military campaign is not a new problem.
In 1099 a ragbag army of crusaders retook Jerusalem. Once they had finished looting, celebrating, dishing out jobs, and seizing land, those with nothing further to stay for went home.
What the settlers had not done was think carefully about how many fighting men were needed to defend the new territory. The result was a shortage of soldiers, and a requirement constantly to move their limited armies around the crusader states to fend off a range of attackers.
By 1119 things had gone from bad to worse. At Easter, three hundred pilgrims were massacred by a Syrian raiding party while celebrating at the River Jordan. Then, in June, an even bigger disaster struck. Antioch was garrisoned by Italian Norman forces, and all 700 knights and 3,000 soldiers were butchered in a battle afterwards named the Ager Sanguinis, or Field of Blood.
In normal crusader style, the kingdom’s dignitaries deliberated long and hard on the problem, and concluded that God was angry with them for their notably lax morality. They called a meeting of state and church, and decided to pass some tough laws.
The council met on 16 January 1120 around 30 miles north of Jerusalem, at Nablus. One of the laws they passed was highly novel, saying that a priest was entitled to fight in self-defence. Most of the provisions, though, dealt with sexual crimes and practices – rape, pimping, adultery, bigamy, sodomy, and intimate relations between Christians and Muslims. The punishments they doled out were the standard fare of the day: amputation of genitals and limbs, facial mutilation, and exile. Sodomy was treated especially harshly, with those caught to be burnt to death. These are the earliest-known laws of the Crusader kingdom.
The Council of Nablus is also famous as the setting in which Hugh of Payns, a knight from Champagne, outlined his ideas about a new kind of Christian soldier – half knight, half monk. The council approved his proposal, and the legendary Knights Templar were born. | <urn:uuid:7d7cb919-a3a5-4460-8b83-83ded61a5d23> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/01/16/day-1120-knights-templar-order-warrior-monks-formed/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00147.warc.gz | en | 0.984217 | 444 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.2431278824806... | 5 | Failing to plan for the aftermath of a military campaign is not a new problem.
In 1099 a ragbag army of crusaders retook Jerusalem. Once they had finished looting, celebrating, dishing out jobs, and seizing land, those with nothing further to stay for went home.
What the settlers had not done was think carefully about how many fighting men were needed to defend the new territory. The result was a shortage of soldiers, and a requirement constantly to move their limited armies around the crusader states to fend off a range of attackers.
By 1119 things had gone from bad to worse. At Easter, three hundred pilgrims were massacred by a Syrian raiding party while celebrating at the River Jordan. Then, in June, an even bigger disaster struck. Antioch was garrisoned by Italian Norman forces, and all 700 knights and 3,000 soldiers were butchered in a battle afterwards named the Ager Sanguinis, or Field of Blood.
In normal crusader style, the kingdom’s dignitaries deliberated long and hard on the problem, and concluded that God was angry with them for their notably lax morality. They called a meeting of state and church, and decided to pass some tough laws.
The council met on 16 January 1120 around 30 miles north of Jerusalem, at Nablus. One of the laws they passed was highly novel, saying that a priest was entitled to fight in self-defence. Most of the provisions, though, dealt with sexual crimes and practices – rape, pimping, adultery, bigamy, sodomy, and intimate relations between Christians and Muslims. The punishments they doled out were the standard fare of the day: amputation of genitals and limbs, facial mutilation, and exile. Sodomy was treated especially harshly, with those caught to be burnt to death. These are the earliest-known laws of the Crusader kingdom.
The Council of Nablus is also famous as the setting in which Hugh of Payns, a knight from Champagne, outlined his ideas about a new kind of Christian soldier – half knight, half monk. The council approved his proposal, and the legendary Knights Templar were born. | 460 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Celebrated on the fourth Sunday of every July in the United States, Parent’s Day is a day for children to honor both of their parents at the same time. Mother’s Day falls in May and Father’s Day in June, which means Parent’s Day completes the trilogy of parental holidays and is a day for children to show their appreciation to both parents at the same time.
History of Parent’s Day
Parent’s Day can be traced back to 1994 when then U.S. President William Jefferson Clinton signed into a law a resolution that made the fourth Sunday of July Parent’s Day. That bill (36 U.S.C. § 135) was originally introduced in the Senate by Senator Trent Lott. According to the resolution, Parent’s Day was created to recognize, uplift and support the role of parents in the rearing of children.
However, while it was only made a holiday in 1994 in the United States, the roots of this holiday goes back further than that. In fact, the original bill that was signed by Bill Clinton was endorsed by the Unification Church – a South Korean Christian church that celebrates Parent’s Day on May 8th every year. In South Korea, this holiday is both a public one as well as one observed by the South Korean government.
If you look further back, you’ll see that Parent’s Day actually began during the early 1930s. That is when many Christian communities began to celebrate Mother’s Day. When Christianity was exported to South Korea, then this celebration of Mother’s Day became infused with the culture of traditional Korean Confucianism. For many years, Mother’s Day was celebrated by individuals in Korea but it didn’t become a national holiday until 1956. That is when the State Council of South Korea decided that the 8th of May should be celebrated as Mother’s Day every year. For a few years, it continued on in this way but many people questioned why there wasn’t a holiday for fathers. It was only then that a national holiday dedicated to both parents was proposed. Finally, on March 30th, 1973, May 8th was established as Parent’s Day according to South Korea’s Presidential Decree 6615. Originally, the entire week of May 8th was celebrated as a way to show respect to the elderly, but that was abolished during the 1990s when October was designated as the month for respecting elders.
Parent’s Day Customs & Celebrations
In the United States, Parent’s Day is not a public holiday but only a national observance. Which means that all businesses, government agencies and transit lines will function as normal on this day. However, on this day many people take the time out of their day to show their parent’s respect, love, and appreciation. This is done by children throwing their parents parties, by giving them cards or other such gifts.
When is Parent’s Day?
|This year (2020)|| May 8 (Friday)|
July 26 (Sunday)
August 1 (Saturday)
|Multiple dates - more|
|Last year (2019)|| May 8 (Wednesday)|
August 1 (Thursday)
July 28 (Sunday)
|Multiple dates - more| | <urn:uuid:115d4a1f-800b-4a1f-94bc-f36d66a4579d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.holidayscalendar.com/event/parents-day/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00215.warc.gz | en | 0.983277 | 690 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.098864652216434... | 4 | Celebrated on the fourth Sunday of every July in the United States, Parent’s Day is a day for children to honor both of their parents at the same time. Mother’s Day falls in May and Father’s Day in June, which means Parent’s Day completes the trilogy of parental holidays and is a day for children to show their appreciation to both parents at the same time.
History of Parent’s Day
Parent’s Day can be traced back to 1994 when then U.S. President William Jefferson Clinton signed into a law a resolution that made the fourth Sunday of July Parent’s Day. That bill (36 U.S.C. § 135) was originally introduced in the Senate by Senator Trent Lott. According to the resolution, Parent’s Day was created to recognize, uplift and support the role of parents in the rearing of children.
However, while it was only made a holiday in 1994 in the United States, the roots of this holiday goes back further than that. In fact, the original bill that was signed by Bill Clinton was endorsed by the Unification Church – a South Korean Christian church that celebrates Parent’s Day on May 8th every year. In South Korea, this holiday is both a public one as well as one observed by the South Korean government.
If you look further back, you’ll see that Parent’s Day actually began during the early 1930s. That is when many Christian communities began to celebrate Mother’s Day. When Christianity was exported to South Korea, then this celebration of Mother’s Day became infused with the culture of traditional Korean Confucianism. For many years, Mother’s Day was celebrated by individuals in Korea but it didn’t become a national holiday until 1956. That is when the State Council of South Korea decided that the 8th of May should be celebrated as Mother’s Day every year. For a few years, it continued on in this way but many people questioned why there wasn’t a holiday for fathers. It was only then that a national holiday dedicated to both parents was proposed. Finally, on March 30th, 1973, May 8th was established as Parent’s Day according to South Korea’s Presidential Decree 6615. Originally, the entire week of May 8th was celebrated as a way to show respect to the elderly, but that was abolished during the 1990s when October was designated as the month for respecting elders.
Parent’s Day Customs & Celebrations
In the United States, Parent’s Day is not a public holiday but only a national observance. Which means that all businesses, government agencies and transit lines will function as normal on this day. However, on this day many people take the time out of their day to show their parent’s respect, love, and appreciation. This is done by children throwing their parents parties, by giving them cards or other such gifts.
When is Parent’s Day?
|This year (2020)|| May 8 (Friday)|
July 26 (Sunday)
August 1 (Saturday)
|Multiple dates - more|
|Last year (2019)|| May 8 (Wednesday)|
August 1 (Thursday)
July 28 (Sunday)
|Multiple dates - more| | 677 | ENGLISH | 1 |
EC Washington English School Students Design Spaceship to keep Astronauts safe!
Yesterday EC Washington English School had a free academic workshop (we do these twice a week!) and this one was extra special. With the guidance and direction of our lovely teacher, Cecilia, and competed against one another to help their ‘astronaut’ land safely to to ground. The ‘astronaut’ was a raw egg, and the ‘spaceship’ consisted of various materials, including straws, newspaper and tape. When asked about the experience, one student said the following: “We made a spaceship with some materials. It was a group activity. We were divided into three teams, and we needed to build a spaceship using the budget money. Every material had a different price, so we had to decide together what to spend the money on…the point was to land the astronaut safely when he/she (the egg) was dropped off a high table. My design won! We made a parachute!”
Another student added “The teacher was great, she even spoke a little French. She taught us some things about space, and about the first astronaut who went to the moon. I would totally recommend this activity again for future students. To build a spaceship you need to talk a lot- it is a team building activity. We learned English without realizing we were learning. I think that is a good method to learn. If you learn something while you have fun, it stays in your brain.” EC Washington English School always makes an effort to come up with academic activities we think students will not only learn from, but have a fun time doing. Thank you to everyone who participated, and our lovely teacher, Cecilia, for planning such an creative activity! | <urn:uuid:edd28af3-36ad-4e3f-8f4c-112bbe944ba5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ecenglish.com/en/social/blog/washington/2018/04/05/ec-students-compete-fun-astronaut-activity/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00000.warc.gz | en | 0.984555 | 364 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.26091250777... | 2 | EC Washington English School Students Design Spaceship to keep Astronauts safe!
Yesterday EC Washington English School had a free academic workshop (we do these twice a week!) and this one was extra special. With the guidance and direction of our lovely teacher, Cecilia, and competed against one another to help their ‘astronaut’ land safely to to ground. The ‘astronaut’ was a raw egg, and the ‘spaceship’ consisted of various materials, including straws, newspaper and tape. When asked about the experience, one student said the following: “We made a spaceship with some materials. It was a group activity. We were divided into three teams, and we needed to build a spaceship using the budget money. Every material had a different price, so we had to decide together what to spend the money on…the point was to land the astronaut safely when he/she (the egg) was dropped off a high table. My design won! We made a parachute!”
Another student added “The teacher was great, she even spoke a little French. She taught us some things about space, and about the first astronaut who went to the moon. I would totally recommend this activity again for future students. To build a spaceship you need to talk a lot- it is a team building activity. We learned English without realizing we were learning. I think that is a good method to learn. If you learn something while you have fun, it stays in your brain.” EC Washington English School always makes an effort to come up with academic activities we think students will not only learn from, but have a fun time doing. Thank you to everyone who participated, and our lovely teacher, Cecilia, for planning such an creative activity! | 347 | ENGLISH | 1 |
$19.95 Buy and instantly download this paper now
This is a descriptive paper on the life of Fidel Castro up until he came into power in Cuba. The author examines the way that Fidel Castro came into power, the changes that he made once in power and his stance today. The author argues that Fidel Castro originally gave hope and promise to his nation, yet today he stands for oppression.
From the Paper:"Castro took Cuba on January 1st 1959 and is currently holding it. He is one of the few leaders whose country is still communist. Castro has put the country through some difficult times such as the Cuban Missile Crisis. Castro was an idealist who believed that the way things were need to be changed but he ended up leaving things the same as they were if not making them worse. He started off wanting to help the people, but now he's oppressing his people."
Cite this Term Paper:
Fidel Castro (2003, September 12) Retrieved January 26, 2020, from https://www.academon.com/term-paper/fidel-castro-3276/
"Fidel Castro" 12 September 2003. Web. 26 January. 2020. <https://www.academon.com/term-paper/fidel-castro-3276/> | <urn:uuid:24cde1d4-d190-4530-baaa-7d52d064b94a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.academon.com/term-paper/fidel-castro-3276/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00512.warc.gz | en | 0.980322 | 267 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.050298295915126... | 1 | $19.95 Buy and instantly download this paper now
This is a descriptive paper on the life of Fidel Castro up until he came into power in Cuba. The author examines the way that Fidel Castro came into power, the changes that he made once in power and his stance today. The author argues that Fidel Castro originally gave hope and promise to his nation, yet today he stands for oppression.
From the Paper:"Castro took Cuba on January 1st 1959 and is currently holding it. He is one of the few leaders whose country is still communist. Castro has put the country through some difficult times such as the Cuban Missile Crisis. Castro was an idealist who believed that the way things were need to be changed but he ended up leaving things the same as they were if not making them worse. He started off wanting to help the people, but now he's oppressing his people."
Cite this Term Paper:
Fidel Castro (2003, September 12) Retrieved January 26, 2020, from https://www.academon.com/term-paper/fidel-castro-3276/
"Fidel Castro" 12 September 2003. Web. 26 January. 2020. <https://www.academon.com/term-paper/fidel-castro-3276/> | 289 | ENGLISH | 1 |
One of the most peculiar episodes of World War II is the fate of Rudolf Hess, Adolf Hitler’s right-hand man – a lunatic according to many. His 1941 solo flight and capture in Scotland left both the German and the Allied leadership perplexed for a good while. Hess spent the rest of his long life in prison, and these years gave birth to several theories regarding his intentions and several much wilder aspects of his life. For example, some have claimed that Hess was actually murdered during the war, and the man in his cell was a body double.
Hess was born on April 26, 1894, in Alexandria, Egypt, where his father operated an import-export business. In 1904 they moved back to Germany, but the young Hess was subsequently sent to school in Switzerland, with the intent of having him follow in his father’s footsteps. These plans were interrupted by the outbreak of World War I: Hess served in the 7th Bavarian Field Artillery Division on the frontline, where he earned the Iron Cross, second class. Following a chest injury he was reassigned to the new Air Corps as a pilot in a Bavarian fighter squadron, where he remained until the end of the war.
This article is not part of our free offer. You either have to purchase this article or buy a subscription in order to read it. | <urn:uuid:94fe035e-f278-4339-b4ec-6dfe2cdf4456> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://magazine.welovehistory.com/issue/The_Mad_Gasser_of_Mattoon/article/A_Flight_and_Countless_Conspiracy_Theories | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00469.warc.gz | en | 0.989422 | 277 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.3510032892227173... | 1 | One of the most peculiar episodes of World War II is the fate of Rudolf Hess, Adolf Hitler’s right-hand man – a lunatic according to many. His 1941 solo flight and capture in Scotland left both the German and the Allied leadership perplexed for a good while. Hess spent the rest of his long life in prison, and these years gave birth to several theories regarding his intentions and several much wilder aspects of his life. For example, some have claimed that Hess was actually murdered during the war, and the man in his cell was a body double.
Hess was born on April 26, 1894, in Alexandria, Egypt, where his father operated an import-export business. In 1904 they moved back to Germany, but the young Hess was subsequently sent to school in Switzerland, with the intent of having him follow in his father’s footsteps. These plans were interrupted by the outbreak of World War I: Hess served in the 7th Bavarian Field Artillery Division on the frontline, where he earned the Iron Cross, second class. Following a chest injury he was reassigned to the new Air Corps as a pilot in a Bavarian fighter squadron, where he remained until the end of the war.
This article is not part of our free offer. You either have to purchase this article or buy a subscription in order to read it. | 283 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Pope Benedict VIII was the 143rd pope and chosen after the short reign of antipope Gregory VI. He was Italian and ruled as pope during the 11th century. This article looks at his life as pope and the time before.
Before becoming pope, Benedict VIII was a young man born into a noble family. Known as the counts of Tusculum, they lived in Latium and controlled much of that area. He used the name Theophylactus and also Teofilatto di Tuscolo, which was his personal name. The pope received his first appointment in 1001 and became the Cardinal Bishop of Porto. That same year, he became a full cardinal. He spent much of his life working there before becoming pope.
Opposition and Antipope
Though chosen as the next pope in May of 1012, Benedict VIII did not take the throne for several months due to opposition from Gregory VI. Gregory VI used force and threats to make the real pope leave Rome. He would then take the throne as an antipope and reign until December of the year. Henry II of Germany stepped in later in the year and helped restore Benedict VIII to his rightful position. Gregory VI visited Germany and begged the ruler to side with him. Henry II instead stripped Gregory VI of his position and gave the throne back to Benedict VIII.
Pope Benedict VIII became known for the support he gave to the Normans. He felt that they were better for Rome than the Saracens who were quite violent in their efforts to take part of the Papal States. In honor of the work done by his predecessors, the pope held a synod to speak out against simony and the action of buying religious titles for money. The reformation efforts that he led brought new rules to the Church and gained support from abbeys across the Papal States. Pope Benedict VIII sided with the Peace and Truce of God movement and spoke in favor of it not long before he passed away.
Quick Facts About Pope Benedict VIII
*Pope Benedict VIII was born circa 980 in Rome.
*His family name was noble and gave him the name Theophylactus.
*He died in Rome on April 9, 1024.
*After the pope died of natural causes, the Church had him buried in the original St. Peter’s Basilica.
*His papacy began on May 18, 1012.
*The papacy of Benedict VIII ended with his death on April 9, 1024.
*Pope John XIX became the pope after the next election.
Interesting Facts About Pope Benedict VIII
*Due to his noble roots, family tree records are available. These records show that Pope Benedict VIII was related to four popes who came before him: Sergius III, John XI, John XII and Benedict VII. Pope Benedict IX is also a familial relation.
*Though he was pope for 11 years and 327 days, he spent more than six months living outside of Rome. Following threats from Gregory VI, he traveled to Germany and other areas. Benedict VIII did not officially take the throne until the end of his first year.
*Not only did Benedict VIII face opposition from Gregory VI, he also faced opposition from a small and loyal group who sided with the antipope. He was so grateful to Henry II for helping him get back to Rome that he later named him the Holy Roman Emperor.
*Benedict VIII was close friends with Odilo of Cluny who would later become a saint.
*Sixteen popes in history chose the name Benedict upon their election or naming. Benedict VIII was the eighth and one of the few who did not have a similar personal name. | <urn:uuid:52e46d27-5440-47b7-879c-6cfc114c2857> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://popehistory.com/popes/pope-benedict-viii/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00044.warc.gz | en | 0.989478 | 748 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.46034151315689... | 13 | Pope Benedict VIII was the 143rd pope and chosen after the short reign of antipope Gregory VI. He was Italian and ruled as pope during the 11th century. This article looks at his life as pope and the time before.
Before becoming pope, Benedict VIII was a young man born into a noble family. Known as the counts of Tusculum, they lived in Latium and controlled much of that area. He used the name Theophylactus and also Teofilatto di Tuscolo, which was his personal name. The pope received his first appointment in 1001 and became the Cardinal Bishop of Porto. That same year, he became a full cardinal. He spent much of his life working there before becoming pope.
Opposition and Antipope
Though chosen as the next pope in May of 1012, Benedict VIII did not take the throne for several months due to opposition from Gregory VI. Gregory VI used force and threats to make the real pope leave Rome. He would then take the throne as an antipope and reign until December of the year. Henry II of Germany stepped in later in the year and helped restore Benedict VIII to his rightful position. Gregory VI visited Germany and begged the ruler to side with him. Henry II instead stripped Gregory VI of his position and gave the throne back to Benedict VIII.
Pope Benedict VIII became known for the support he gave to the Normans. He felt that they were better for Rome than the Saracens who were quite violent in their efforts to take part of the Papal States. In honor of the work done by his predecessors, the pope held a synod to speak out against simony and the action of buying religious titles for money. The reformation efforts that he led brought new rules to the Church and gained support from abbeys across the Papal States. Pope Benedict VIII sided with the Peace and Truce of God movement and spoke in favor of it not long before he passed away.
Quick Facts About Pope Benedict VIII
*Pope Benedict VIII was born circa 980 in Rome.
*His family name was noble and gave him the name Theophylactus.
*He died in Rome on April 9, 1024.
*After the pope died of natural causes, the Church had him buried in the original St. Peter’s Basilica.
*His papacy began on May 18, 1012.
*The papacy of Benedict VIII ended with his death on April 9, 1024.
*Pope John XIX became the pope after the next election.
Interesting Facts About Pope Benedict VIII
*Due to his noble roots, family tree records are available. These records show that Pope Benedict VIII was related to four popes who came before him: Sergius III, John XI, John XII and Benedict VII. Pope Benedict IX is also a familial relation.
*Though he was pope for 11 years and 327 days, he spent more than six months living outside of Rome. Following threats from Gregory VI, he traveled to Germany and other areas. Benedict VIII did not officially take the throne until the end of his first year.
*Not only did Benedict VIII face opposition from Gregory VI, he also faced opposition from a small and loyal group who sided with the antipope. He was so grateful to Henry II for helping him get back to Rome that he later named him the Holy Roman Emperor.
*Benedict VIII was close friends with Odilo of Cluny who would later become a saint.
*Sixteen popes in history chose the name Benedict upon their election or naming. Benedict VIII was the eighth and one of the few who did not have a similar personal name. | 767 | ENGLISH | 1 |
December 11, 2019 by directorfsm
He was an illegitimate child–his mother’s third. A child who might have been a casualty of abortion in today’s world, grew up to have a name that will forever be associated with the Christmas season.
Students of history remember that in 1792, King Louis XVI of France went on trial for treason before the Revolutionary Convention that had replaced the French National Assembly. His head would roll the following January. But on this day, December 11, 1792, a few days before Christmas–the same day, in fact, that the French king faced his cruel judges–a much quieter event took place. Joseph Mohr was born in Salzburg.
At the time of his birth, it appeared his name would be associated with nothing but disgrace. When Franz Joseph Mohr learned he’d gotten Ann Schoiber pregnant, he fled the home and deserted the army, leaving the mother to face the music alone, including a steep fine. She was a knitter who earned little. It would have taken her a full year’s wage to pay the penalty.
The town’s brutal executioner stepped into the picture. He would pay the fine and become the child’s godfather. He hoped by doing this to improve his own reputation. But little Joseph’s life now bore another stigma: godson of the feared and hated executioner. He was banned from attending school or learning a trade, or even from holding a job.
He loved to sing. While playing on steps leading up to a Capuchin monastery, he was overheard singing by Johann Nepomuk Hiernle, a Benedictine monk and cathedral choirmaster. Hiernle thought the boy’s voice so good, he could not bear to see it wasted. He found Ann Schoiber and arranged for Mohr to study with his elite group of students.
Hiernle’s kindness was not wasted. Mohr proved to be an outstanding pupil and mastered the organ, violin and guitar by the time he was twelve. He always placed in the top quarter of the class. His training continued and he was ordained a priest in 1815.
Over the course of his life, he was assigned duties in many towns. But it was while he was yet a young assistant in Oberndorf that he won lasting fame. He wrote the words to a new Christmas carol and asked the church organist, Franz Gruber, to set them to music. On Christmas Eve, 1818, the two first sang what has since become the most popular Christmas carol of all time: “Silent Night, Holy Night.”
“Silent Night” captures the awesome humility of a God who stooped not just to the level of mankind, but to the lowest level–born among animals and announced to common shepherds.
In his last post, at Wagrain, Mohr opened a school which took in poor children. He gave virtually his entire income to this project and died as poor as he was born. But he left us the riches of “Silent Night” which has been translated into 200 languages. Millions who have never given a thought to Louis XVI sing Joseph Mohr’s words every Christmas. | <urn:uuid:ef6b0090-6841-47b2-8faf-e2c1ab2c012f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://fsmandfsmwo.blog/2019/12/11/today-in-church-history-75/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00052.warc.gz | en | 0.987005 | 678 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.267585277... | 2 | December 11, 2019 by directorfsm
He was an illegitimate child–his mother’s third. A child who might have been a casualty of abortion in today’s world, grew up to have a name that will forever be associated with the Christmas season.
Students of history remember that in 1792, King Louis XVI of France went on trial for treason before the Revolutionary Convention that had replaced the French National Assembly. His head would roll the following January. But on this day, December 11, 1792, a few days before Christmas–the same day, in fact, that the French king faced his cruel judges–a much quieter event took place. Joseph Mohr was born in Salzburg.
At the time of his birth, it appeared his name would be associated with nothing but disgrace. When Franz Joseph Mohr learned he’d gotten Ann Schoiber pregnant, he fled the home and deserted the army, leaving the mother to face the music alone, including a steep fine. She was a knitter who earned little. It would have taken her a full year’s wage to pay the penalty.
The town’s brutal executioner stepped into the picture. He would pay the fine and become the child’s godfather. He hoped by doing this to improve his own reputation. But little Joseph’s life now bore another stigma: godson of the feared and hated executioner. He was banned from attending school or learning a trade, or even from holding a job.
He loved to sing. While playing on steps leading up to a Capuchin monastery, he was overheard singing by Johann Nepomuk Hiernle, a Benedictine monk and cathedral choirmaster. Hiernle thought the boy’s voice so good, he could not bear to see it wasted. He found Ann Schoiber and arranged for Mohr to study with his elite group of students.
Hiernle’s kindness was not wasted. Mohr proved to be an outstanding pupil and mastered the organ, violin and guitar by the time he was twelve. He always placed in the top quarter of the class. His training continued and he was ordained a priest in 1815.
Over the course of his life, he was assigned duties in many towns. But it was while he was yet a young assistant in Oberndorf that he won lasting fame. He wrote the words to a new Christmas carol and asked the church organist, Franz Gruber, to set them to music. On Christmas Eve, 1818, the two first sang what has since become the most popular Christmas carol of all time: “Silent Night, Holy Night.”
“Silent Night” captures the awesome humility of a God who stooped not just to the level of mankind, but to the lowest level–born among animals and announced to common shepherds.
In his last post, at Wagrain, Mohr opened a school which took in poor children. He gave virtually his entire income to this project and died as poor as he was born. But he left us the riches of “Silent Night” which has been translated into 200 languages. Millions who have never given a thought to Louis XVI sing Joseph Mohr’s words every Christmas. | 665 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The right to education was one that had to be earned for blacks in the United States of America. Events such as Brown vs. Board of Education, the Little Rock Nine, and Ruby Bridges helped advance the right of black students to receive an education alongside their white counterparts. Yet nearly a century prior, during the slavery era, blacks were outlawed from learning to read, write, or learn in any capacity. Education allows for additional opportunities and more efficient communication. The role of education during the slavery era helped advance the progression of blacks obtaining their freedom.
America during the slavery era is well-known and one of the lowest points of this countrys history. Between 1525 and 1866, over 388,000 slaves were brought over from Africa to what is now called America (Gates Jr., September 20, 2013.) Slaves were used as free labor around plantations and were subjected to beatings, rapes, lynchings, and other forms of abuse if the did not comply with their owners. Blacks were not considered citizens for a significant portion of this era and were subsequently denied rights that white citizens had including owning land, businesses, earning an income for their work, and the right to learn to read and write (Carson, 2018.) The denial of education to blacks was a strategic plan by white slave owners and the government to keep the institution of slavery going. There were several laws passed during the slavery era to prevent blacks from receiving an education.
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One of the first laws was passed in the state of Missouri in 1819 and and this law explicitly stated that white citizen were not allowed to teach slaves how to read or write. By 1847, Missouri made this law even stricter and prohibited whites to teach any black, whether a slave or freeman, how to read or write. Nearly a decade after Missouri banned slaves from reading or writing, Georgia mirrored this law and made the offense punishable by imprisonment and fines. Georgias laws also became stricter by broadening the law to apply to all blacks in 1829. Georgias updated laws also prevented freed blacks to work in any job position that required reading and writing which significantly limited their employment opportunities even further than they were before.
The trend of preventing blacks from reading and writing continued throughout the southern states in states such as Alabama and Virginia (Bruce, 1999.) The outlaw of reading and writing for blacks in America was done in order to keep whites in control. Those in control of the government officers during the slavery era had high chances of being slave owners themselves. By passing laws that prevented slaves from secretly communicating without verbal communication, the chances of rebellions and escapes were decreased dramatically (Carson, 2018.) This was a strategic method by slave owners and politicians in the south because slaves were their main source of income. Blacks, despite their status of freedom, were viewed as property instead of citizens during this time. By keeping slaves in order and unable to organize efficiently, slave owners believed that slaves would continue to do the work that they required and bring in income to the plantation.
The inability to read or write also had additional downfalls. Without a person willing to risk their lives to teach blacks how to read or write, or blacks hearing of information through word-of-mouth, they were left in the dark on several issues. During the slavery era, laws were constantly being passed to promote the slavery industry. Although blacks were not allowed to vote at the time, it was crucial that they stayed up to date on laws so that they would not unknowingly violate them and risk jail or harsher punishment. The inability to read or write was detrimental to blacks, specifically in the south, and may have led to additional unnecessary punishment of blacks. The drawbacks of illiteracy continued for blacks even if they escaped or were released from slavery. The lack of education affected freedman, or escaped slaves, just as much as it affected slaves.
If illiterate slaves managed to escape, they were unable to read directions or understand where they were without assistance from literate allies or slaves. This was an issue because slaves needed to be aware of where they were to understand whether they were in a slave or free state. Along with this, once they successfully got to an area where slavery was outlawed, they were disqualified from many jobs. Even in Northern states, illiterate blacks continued to suffer. Despite slavery being illegal in northern states, this did not mean that racism was not present. It was difficult for blacks to find well paying jobs solely based on skin color but being unqualified for professional jobs increased the socioeconomic status between blacks and whites (Gates Jr., September 17, 2013.) Jobs that required reading and writing were unable to hire saves due to them being a liability. This inability to find work had subsequent effects even in northern states such as not being able to afford to purchase a home or start a business. This disparity also reflected in the education system.
Many slaves had the impression that escaping to the North would solve all of their problems, however this was not the case. Although there were no laws prohibiting educating blacks in the north, schools built for white students did not accept blacks. Blacks who wanted to learn still had to rely on other blacks or on white allies who did not express racism (Gates Jr., September 17, 2013.) One of the last detriments to the lack of education was the difficult process of relocating family members that blacks had been torn away from. The inability to read and write caused many slaves to spell their first and surnames differently and this increased difficulty in tracking down their kin. In spite of the regulations of blacks obtaining educations, black leaders found ways to learn to read and write and use their knowledge to advance the black race.
Frederick Douglass has gone down in black history as a revolutionaries and a key component in the journey to black liberation in America. After being betrayed by a fellow slave during his first escape attempt, Douglass was jailed and sent to Baltimore, Maryland as punishment. His second escape was a success and landed him in the colony of New York. While here, Douglass still had to fight hard to avoid slave catchers. He eventually relocated to Massachusetts with his wife and began to advocate against the institution of slavery. His followers raised enough money to help him purchase his freedom so that he could speak out more publicly and a political figure for abolitionist (Klein, 2013.) Douglass had one of the more fortunate stories during the slavery era and this may be contributed due to his ability to read and write.
Many hurdles throughout Frederick Douglasss life as both a slave and a freeman were made less difficult due to his ability to read. Douglass shared his experiences of education in his autobiography My Bondage and my Freedom. In this work, he shared that during his time as a slave with the Auld family. His master’s wife secretly taught him but once the master found out of their secret lessons, he ordered her to immediately stop stating that teaching a slave to read would make him forever unfit to be a slave (Douglass, 2000.) This phrase insinuated that the slave owner was well aware that if Douglass or any other slave learned to read, they would no longer comply with the demands of slavery. Regardless of his masters and mistresses disapproval of his learning, he found a way to continue his lessons.
The determination that Douglass showed towards furthering his education put himself and those around him at risk of negative consequences. However, he continued to use his free time to get small reading lessons from the dictionary from his white counterparts in exchange for bread. The ability to read and write opened many doors for Douglass including the ability to read the book The Columbian Orator. This book involved a passage in which a slave and his master had a debate on the necessity of the institution of slavery. The slaves well thought out and logical answers to his owners arguments sparked the fire in Douglass to become an abolitionist (Douglass, 2000.) Had Douglass not been able to read, he may have never been as inspired to speak out against the institution of slavery. The ability to read also helped other slaves in their journey to freedom.
The life of Harriet Jacobs reflected that of Frederick Douglass. She also had a relatively positive experience as a slave in regards to her ability to learn how to read and write when compared to illiterate slaves. At an early age, Jacobs had a mistress that was willing to teach her skill sets such as sewing and reading. Unfortunately, this mistress passed away at an early age and resulted in Jacobs being transferred to much stricter masters (Jacobs, 2003.) Her eventual escape allowed her to work with those who also knew Frederick Douglass. Her supporters also helped her purchase her freedom so that she would no longer have to sneak around as a fugitive slave. The motivation to better the lives of herself and her children were correlated with her determination to achieve freedom.
Harriet Jacobs completed a feat in which many could not, she escaped. For several years in her life, she lived in a small crawl space to avoid being captured by her owner. She eventually escaped this crawl space and made her way up North. Jacobs wrote her autobiography Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl in which she constantly shared her desire to help her children obtain their education (Jacobs, 2003.) This book is credited as one of the first documented accounts of the sexual harassment and abuse that black, slave women suffered through. Jacobs contributions to the documentation of slavery left a lasting impact on the way historians interpreted the time period. Along with documenting her experiences, she also was a vocal activist during the abolition movement and helped raise money for blacks who were freed during this time with no financial support (Harriet Jacobs n.d.) Education was a necessary element in the progression of blacks in America during and after the slavery era.
The role that education had in the slavery era was evident. Without having the capability to read or write, blacks were put at an even higher level of disadvantage. The ability to organize, secretly communicate, understand their surroundings and advance financially were all limited by their inability to read and write. Slaves such as Frederick Douglass and Harriet Ann Jacobs used their educational skills to fight towards emancipation and the end of the slavery era. White slave owners and politicians put their best efforts forward to prevent the education of the black race, however the strong determination of blacks to destroy slavery prevailed.
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0.240302264690... | 1 | The right to education was one that had to be earned for blacks in the United States of America. Events such as Brown vs. Board of Education, the Little Rock Nine, and Ruby Bridges helped advance the right of black students to receive an education alongside their white counterparts. Yet nearly a century prior, during the slavery era, blacks were outlawed from learning to read, write, or learn in any capacity. Education allows for additional opportunities and more efficient communication. The role of education during the slavery era helped advance the progression of blacks obtaining their freedom.
America during the slavery era is well-known and one of the lowest points of this countrys history. Between 1525 and 1866, over 388,000 slaves were brought over from Africa to what is now called America (Gates Jr., September 20, 2013.) Slaves were used as free labor around plantations and were subjected to beatings, rapes, lynchings, and other forms of abuse if the did not comply with their owners. Blacks were not considered citizens for a significant portion of this era and were subsequently denied rights that white citizens had including owning land, businesses, earning an income for their work, and the right to learn to read and write (Carson, 2018.) The denial of education to blacks was a strategic plan by white slave owners and the government to keep the institution of slavery going. There were several laws passed during the slavery era to prevent blacks from receiving an education.
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One of the first laws was passed in the state of Missouri in 1819 and and this law explicitly stated that white citizen were not allowed to teach slaves how to read or write. By 1847, Missouri made this law even stricter and prohibited whites to teach any black, whether a slave or freeman, how to read or write. Nearly a decade after Missouri banned slaves from reading or writing, Georgia mirrored this law and made the offense punishable by imprisonment and fines. Georgias laws also became stricter by broadening the law to apply to all blacks in 1829. Georgias updated laws also prevented freed blacks to work in any job position that required reading and writing which significantly limited their employment opportunities even further than they were before.
The trend of preventing blacks from reading and writing continued throughout the southern states in states such as Alabama and Virginia (Bruce, 1999.) The outlaw of reading and writing for blacks in America was done in order to keep whites in control. Those in control of the government officers during the slavery era had high chances of being slave owners themselves. By passing laws that prevented slaves from secretly communicating without verbal communication, the chances of rebellions and escapes were decreased dramatically (Carson, 2018.) This was a strategic method by slave owners and politicians in the south because slaves were their main source of income. Blacks, despite their status of freedom, were viewed as property instead of citizens during this time. By keeping slaves in order and unable to organize efficiently, slave owners believed that slaves would continue to do the work that they required and bring in income to the plantation.
The inability to read or write also had additional downfalls. Without a person willing to risk their lives to teach blacks how to read or write, or blacks hearing of information through word-of-mouth, they were left in the dark on several issues. During the slavery era, laws were constantly being passed to promote the slavery industry. Although blacks were not allowed to vote at the time, it was crucial that they stayed up to date on laws so that they would not unknowingly violate them and risk jail or harsher punishment. The inability to read or write was detrimental to blacks, specifically in the south, and may have led to additional unnecessary punishment of blacks. The drawbacks of illiteracy continued for blacks even if they escaped or were released from slavery. The lack of education affected freedman, or escaped slaves, just as much as it affected slaves.
If illiterate slaves managed to escape, they were unable to read directions or understand where they were without assistance from literate allies or slaves. This was an issue because slaves needed to be aware of where they were to understand whether they were in a slave or free state. Along with this, once they successfully got to an area where slavery was outlawed, they were disqualified from many jobs. Even in Northern states, illiterate blacks continued to suffer. Despite slavery being illegal in northern states, this did not mean that racism was not present. It was difficult for blacks to find well paying jobs solely based on skin color but being unqualified for professional jobs increased the socioeconomic status between blacks and whites (Gates Jr., September 17, 2013.) Jobs that required reading and writing were unable to hire saves due to them being a liability. This inability to find work had subsequent effects even in northern states such as not being able to afford to purchase a home or start a business. This disparity also reflected in the education system.
Many slaves had the impression that escaping to the North would solve all of their problems, however this was not the case. Although there were no laws prohibiting educating blacks in the north, schools built for white students did not accept blacks. Blacks who wanted to learn still had to rely on other blacks or on white allies who did not express racism (Gates Jr., September 17, 2013.) One of the last detriments to the lack of education was the difficult process of relocating family members that blacks had been torn away from. The inability to read and write caused many slaves to spell their first and surnames differently and this increased difficulty in tracking down their kin. In spite of the regulations of blacks obtaining educations, black leaders found ways to learn to read and write and use their knowledge to advance the black race.
Frederick Douglass has gone down in black history as a revolutionaries and a key component in the journey to black liberation in America. After being betrayed by a fellow slave during his first escape attempt, Douglass was jailed and sent to Baltimore, Maryland as punishment. His second escape was a success and landed him in the colony of New York. While here, Douglass still had to fight hard to avoid slave catchers. He eventually relocated to Massachusetts with his wife and began to advocate against the institution of slavery. His followers raised enough money to help him purchase his freedom so that he could speak out more publicly and a political figure for abolitionist (Klein, 2013.) Douglass had one of the more fortunate stories during the slavery era and this may be contributed due to his ability to read and write.
Many hurdles throughout Frederick Douglasss life as both a slave and a freeman were made less difficult due to his ability to read. Douglass shared his experiences of education in his autobiography My Bondage and my Freedom. In this work, he shared that during his time as a slave with the Auld family. His master’s wife secretly taught him but once the master found out of their secret lessons, he ordered her to immediately stop stating that teaching a slave to read would make him forever unfit to be a slave (Douglass, 2000.) This phrase insinuated that the slave owner was well aware that if Douglass or any other slave learned to read, they would no longer comply with the demands of slavery. Regardless of his masters and mistresses disapproval of his learning, he found a way to continue his lessons.
The determination that Douglass showed towards furthering his education put himself and those around him at risk of negative consequences. However, he continued to use his free time to get small reading lessons from the dictionary from his white counterparts in exchange for bread. The ability to read and write opened many doors for Douglass including the ability to read the book The Columbian Orator. This book involved a passage in which a slave and his master had a debate on the necessity of the institution of slavery. The slaves well thought out and logical answers to his owners arguments sparked the fire in Douglass to become an abolitionist (Douglass, 2000.) Had Douglass not been able to read, he may have never been as inspired to speak out against the institution of slavery. The ability to read also helped other slaves in their journey to freedom.
The life of Harriet Jacobs reflected that of Frederick Douglass. She also had a relatively positive experience as a slave in regards to her ability to learn how to read and write when compared to illiterate slaves. At an early age, Jacobs had a mistress that was willing to teach her skill sets such as sewing and reading. Unfortunately, this mistress passed away at an early age and resulted in Jacobs being transferred to much stricter masters (Jacobs, 2003.) Her eventual escape allowed her to work with those who also knew Frederick Douglass. Her supporters also helped her purchase her freedom so that she would no longer have to sneak around as a fugitive slave. The motivation to better the lives of herself and her children were correlated with her determination to achieve freedom.
Harriet Jacobs completed a feat in which many could not, she escaped. For several years in her life, she lived in a small crawl space to avoid being captured by her owner. She eventually escaped this crawl space and made her way up North. Jacobs wrote her autobiography Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl in which she constantly shared her desire to help her children obtain their education (Jacobs, 2003.) This book is credited as one of the first documented accounts of the sexual harassment and abuse that black, slave women suffered through. Jacobs contributions to the documentation of slavery left a lasting impact on the way historians interpreted the time period. Along with documenting her experiences, she also was a vocal activist during the abolition movement and helped raise money for blacks who were freed during this time with no financial support (Harriet Jacobs n.d.) Education was a necessary element in the progression of blacks in America during and after the slavery era.
The role that education had in the slavery era was evident. Without having the capability to read or write, blacks were put at an even higher level of disadvantage. The ability to organize, secretly communicate, understand their surroundings and advance financially were all limited by their inability to read and write. Slaves such as Frederick Douglass and Harriet Ann Jacobs used their educational skills to fight towards emancipation and the end of the slavery era. White slave owners and politicians put their best efforts forward to prevent the education of the black race, however the strong determination of blacks to destroy slavery prevailed.
We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper | 2,219 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A brief history of English part two: Old English
We continue the story of the English language, and we now enter the period known as ‘Old English’.
Around 410AD, what was left of the Roman Empire finally left the shores of Britain, and for those communities that remained – the Celtic-Romano communities – were now defenceless from any attacks from overseas and from those remote parts of the land where many Celtic tribes had been forced to habit during Roman rule.
It was around 449AD that the first major attacks came, and these were the Anglo-Saxons who were from the parts of Europe that are now Northern Germany. And it was their language that formed the basis of what we understand as the English language today. The original English came from mainland Europe! Now I suppose at this point you are perhaps saying, 'wait a minute, so where did that English come from?' Well, if we start discussing that, we will then go back to something called Sanskrit, which is the source of several languages around the world, and it was a very different language. Academics, and me, agree that the starting point(s) are those early Anglo-Saxon invasions.
Anyway, what remained of those Celtic communities were now being pushed back further, west and north into those areas that we know as Cornwall, Scotland and Wales, the result being that the Celtic dialects began developing separately and evolved into the languages that we know today as Welsh and Gaelic. It is assumed that those who chose to stay soon became part of Anglo-Saxon society. Indeed, the influence of the Anglo-Saxons and their language was so great, that what remained of the Celtic languages spoken within these communities were completely lost, except for a small handful of words.
Unfortunately for us as historians, there is very little evidence of the language in those early years, so it is difficult for us to understand what English was like then. The invaders brought an alphabet with them – a Runic inscription - known as the ‘futhorc’, and it was designed by using simple lines that could be easily cut into stone with a blade. Some texts exist from those times and provide us with the first physical evidence of the English language. In those days scribes (people who write books or documents by hand as a profession) would spell words as they sounded; as a result there would be different spellings, suggesting that there were different accents. As far as we are aware, there were two main dialects: the area in the midlands and east of England, and the area covered by the north and into the lowlands of Scotland.
The next event on the language was around the end of the sixth century, when Christian missionaries from Rome introduced literacy, a considerable Latin vocabulary, and of course, the alphabet that we are all familiar with. It became the written language of religious texts, legal documents and science. As a consequence, the church virtually controlled the skills of writing and the first books in English used the Latin model of writing. What texts exist from those times were often colourful and decorative – almost like pieces of art! However, the missionary influence ensured that around 450 new words would enter the English language, many of which are still used today. But Latin would remain a considerable influence and would continue to do so for many centuries to come.
The next invasion – both from an army and into the language – were the Viking invasions from Denmark in 787 AD, and would continue over the next few centuries. Within a century, the Danes controlled most of Eastern England. This effectively became part of Denmark as it was subject to Danish law. As a result, a significant number of place names in present-day England have their roots from Scandinavia; names ending in –by (meaning ‘farm’ or ‘town’) for example: Derby, Grimsby and Corby. Even so, considerable close contact would remain between the Anglo-Saxons and the Vikings, ensuring that English would borrow many words, particularly from Denmark.
At this point the English that you and I know today was, at that time, in a form that we would find difficult to read and understand. Indeed, its structure followed many European modals – not too surprising as its roots were from Northern Europe. Word order was flexible, and there were many ‘endings’ to words that were used to describe their function in a sentence. These endings are known in modern grammar as inflections, and are used in modern English today: we add the letter ‘s’, for example, to make countable nouns plural. This, however, would change, although it is still not clear as to how exactly Old English evolved to having a fixed word order and losing many of its inflections. It is suggested that many English words simply began to put more stress at the start of words and the endings becoming more weakly stressed, and so losing their endings; another is that to ease contact between speakers, whose origins were from invading nations, they simply got rid of the inflections to make it easier to talk and understand each other.
But as all this was happening, a French-speaking dynasty from the dukedom of Normandy was looking across the English Channel. And 1066, led by William of Normandy, saw the Norman Conquest.
This was not only decisive as regards the history of England, but also for the English language itself. For one thing; French would become the official language, William became the first recognised King of England. The other was the fact that the continued existence of the English language was now under threat… | <urn:uuid:7c87d69b-09bd-4d31-8460-7a4a2cf88dd3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.typicalerrorsinenglish.com/old-english | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00453.warc.gz | en | 0.987918 | 1,152 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
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0.2575079... | 13 | A brief history of English part two: Old English
We continue the story of the English language, and we now enter the period known as ‘Old English’.
Around 410AD, what was left of the Roman Empire finally left the shores of Britain, and for those communities that remained – the Celtic-Romano communities – were now defenceless from any attacks from overseas and from those remote parts of the land where many Celtic tribes had been forced to habit during Roman rule.
It was around 449AD that the first major attacks came, and these were the Anglo-Saxons who were from the parts of Europe that are now Northern Germany. And it was their language that formed the basis of what we understand as the English language today. The original English came from mainland Europe! Now I suppose at this point you are perhaps saying, 'wait a minute, so where did that English come from?' Well, if we start discussing that, we will then go back to something called Sanskrit, which is the source of several languages around the world, and it was a very different language. Academics, and me, agree that the starting point(s) are those early Anglo-Saxon invasions.
Anyway, what remained of those Celtic communities were now being pushed back further, west and north into those areas that we know as Cornwall, Scotland and Wales, the result being that the Celtic dialects began developing separately and evolved into the languages that we know today as Welsh and Gaelic. It is assumed that those who chose to stay soon became part of Anglo-Saxon society. Indeed, the influence of the Anglo-Saxons and their language was so great, that what remained of the Celtic languages spoken within these communities were completely lost, except for a small handful of words.
Unfortunately for us as historians, there is very little evidence of the language in those early years, so it is difficult for us to understand what English was like then. The invaders brought an alphabet with them – a Runic inscription - known as the ‘futhorc’, and it was designed by using simple lines that could be easily cut into stone with a blade. Some texts exist from those times and provide us with the first physical evidence of the English language. In those days scribes (people who write books or documents by hand as a profession) would spell words as they sounded; as a result there would be different spellings, suggesting that there were different accents. As far as we are aware, there were two main dialects: the area in the midlands and east of England, and the area covered by the north and into the lowlands of Scotland.
The next event on the language was around the end of the sixth century, when Christian missionaries from Rome introduced literacy, a considerable Latin vocabulary, and of course, the alphabet that we are all familiar with. It became the written language of religious texts, legal documents and science. As a consequence, the church virtually controlled the skills of writing and the first books in English used the Latin model of writing. What texts exist from those times were often colourful and decorative – almost like pieces of art! However, the missionary influence ensured that around 450 new words would enter the English language, many of which are still used today. But Latin would remain a considerable influence and would continue to do so for many centuries to come.
The next invasion – both from an army and into the language – were the Viking invasions from Denmark in 787 AD, and would continue over the next few centuries. Within a century, the Danes controlled most of Eastern England. This effectively became part of Denmark as it was subject to Danish law. As a result, a significant number of place names in present-day England have their roots from Scandinavia; names ending in –by (meaning ‘farm’ or ‘town’) for example: Derby, Grimsby and Corby. Even so, considerable close contact would remain between the Anglo-Saxons and the Vikings, ensuring that English would borrow many words, particularly from Denmark.
At this point the English that you and I know today was, at that time, in a form that we would find difficult to read and understand. Indeed, its structure followed many European modals – not too surprising as its roots were from Northern Europe. Word order was flexible, and there were many ‘endings’ to words that were used to describe their function in a sentence. These endings are known in modern grammar as inflections, and are used in modern English today: we add the letter ‘s’, for example, to make countable nouns plural. This, however, would change, although it is still not clear as to how exactly Old English evolved to having a fixed word order and losing many of its inflections. It is suggested that many English words simply began to put more stress at the start of words and the endings becoming more weakly stressed, and so losing their endings; another is that to ease contact between speakers, whose origins were from invading nations, they simply got rid of the inflections to make it easier to talk and understand each other.
But as all this was happening, a French-speaking dynasty from the dukedom of Normandy was looking across the English Channel. And 1066, led by William of Normandy, saw the Norman Conquest.
This was not only decisive as regards the history of England, but also for the English language itself. For one thing; French would become the official language, William became the first recognised King of England. The other was the fact that the continued existence of the English language was now under threat… | 1,137 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There is an article that explains why we make bad judgments. This article is by Daniel Kahneman. He talks about the ways people make bad judgments and why they make bad judgments. Why do people make bad judgments? Do they think they’re confident enough to know if they’re making a good judgment? What goes through someone’s head when they are making a judgment on someone? In the article, Kahneman explains the different types of cognitive fallacies. A cognitive fallacy is something wrong in your thinking and a mistaken belief in something that is wrong. Kahneman writes about many different fallacies, but, I’m only going to talk about a few. One example of a cognitive fallacy is the WYSIATI, which stands for, “What You See Is All There Is”. This cognitive fallacy is creating judgments on people you know almost nothing about, which is why it is named what you see is all there is. People making judgments only judge what they see in front of them, even if there is more to that person. There are people that do this every day without even realizing it. They take a look at a person and how they look and make a judgment about them behind their back thinking that they’re mean or annoying without even knowing what is behind the curtains. The people who are being judged could be the nicest person you’d ever meet or the rudest person you’d ever meet. You’ll never know much about a person until you get to know them and not judge them at first look.
Another cognitive fallacy that Kahneman describes is the illusion of validity. The illusion of validity is the illusion of sound. Kahneman made this cognitive fallacy when he and a group of other people went a had to judge soldiers. He and the group watched a group of soldiers try and get a log over a wall without touching the wall. He made judgments that included who was the star of the procedure, who was good but not great, and who didn’t work enough. He made those judgments with confidence. He thought that he was correct and he was confident in his judgments. Confidence is a feeling, you feel confident. Kahneman felt confident in his judgments, even if they were not correct.
Kahneman explains how we make bad judgments and why we make bad judgments. We think that we know a lot about a person that we’re judging when there is more to a person than we know. We don’t know everything about someone we just met, you have to get to know a person to make a good judgment of them. | <urn:uuid:c61831fc-379e-4db7-8337-387827758562> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://adelisle2.uneportfolio.org/2019/11/08/case-study-part-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00211.warc.gz | en | 0.982778 | 538 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.3469377756118... | 2 | There is an article that explains why we make bad judgments. This article is by Daniel Kahneman. He talks about the ways people make bad judgments and why they make bad judgments. Why do people make bad judgments? Do they think they’re confident enough to know if they’re making a good judgment? What goes through someone’s head when they are making a judgment on someone? In the article, Kahneman explains the different types of cognitive fallacies. A cognitive fallacy is something wrong in your thinking and a mistaken belief in something that is wrong. Kahneman writes about many different fallacies, but, I’m only going to talk about a few. One example of a cognitive fallacy is the WYSIATI, which stands for, “What You See Is All There Is”. This cognitive fallacy is creating judgments on people you know almost nothing about, which is why it is named what you see is all there is. People making judgments only judge what they see in front of them, even if there is more to that person. There are people that do this every day without even realizing it. They take a look at a person and how they look and make a judgment about them behind their back thinking that they’re mean or annoying without even knowing what is behind the curtains. The people who are being judged could be the nicest person you’d ever meet or the rudest person you’d ever meet. You’ll never know much about a person until you get to know them and not judge them at first look.
Another cognitive fallacy that Kahneman describes is the illusion of validity. The illusion of validity is the illusion of sound. Kahneman made this cognitive fallacy when he and a group of other people went a had to judge soldiers. He and the group watched a group of soldiers try and get a log over a wall without touching the wall. He made judgments that included who was the star of the procedure, who was good but not great, and who didn’t work enough. He made those judgments with confidence. He thought that he was correct and he was confident in his judgments. Confidence is a feeling, you feel confident. Kahneman felt confident in his judgments, even if they were not correct.
Kahneman explains how we make bad judgments and why we make bad judgments. We think that we know a lot about a person that we’re judging when there is more to a person than we know. We don’t know everything about someone we just met, you have to get to know a person to make a good judgment of them. | 515 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Concpets of Evil in Frankenstein
How does someone become an evil person? Does the person need to be hurt to become angry for the rest of his life, or maybe he is born with revulsion to the world hidden somewhere in his heart? Mary Shelley shows how discrimination happens in her novel Frankenstein. She demonstrates the individual who wants to live and love, but is not able to do this because of his displeasing appearance. Everyone, even monsters are born innocent, but if society rejects them, they can develop into truly evil creatures.
The monster from Shelley’s novel is left alone by his creator, is hated by the society and nobody is able to show him love and kindness, even though he himself is full of love. This story serves as an example of how discrimination can influence anyone’s character. Frankenstein’s monster is created as a baby in an adult’s body – defenseless and pure, but the first thing he sees is disgust from his “father”. Victor Frankenstein does not really plan creating someone he needs to take care of. He makes a discovery, without thinking about the consequences of playing with death and the results are even worse than he could only imagine.
Victor creates a gigantic monster, with enormous, disproportionate parts of the body. After Frankenstein succeeds in bringing this creature to life he says: “The dead body was an ugly thing, but alive, it was more horrible” (11). It is obvious that the creature Victor made, terrified him. That is why he does the first thing that comes to his mind – runs away to hide in his room. In fact, innocent being, which was only created, is left alone. Although Frankenstein is afraid of the monster at first sight, he does not even give him the second chance.
When he wakes up the next day, the beast is right beside him, smiling, which makes Victor even more afraid: “The horrible thing that I Had created was standing by my bed Before it could touch me, I jumped off the bed and ran downstairs into the garden” (12). Instead of communicating with the product of his ambitions, he runs out of the house, without even a thought of going back. Victor Frankenstein of all people should understand the importance of love and care of a parent in order to become moral and a good human being in general.
He often talks about how attentive his parents were with him growing up: “I learnt that to love and to be patient are the most important things in the world”. (4) So why doesn’t he show any of this things to his own “child”? Fear is definitely not an excuse to leave his “newborn child” in this big dangerous world all alone. Victor is not the only one who rejects the monster, society also hates him. When he leaves the house and goes to the nearest village he doesn’t even have an idea of killing somebody. Just as a child, he wants to explore a new place, and see the magnificence of our planet.
He discovers the fruits, the river and the snow, but he does not learn anything about other people yet. That’s why when his feet get cold, he just goes into the first hut where senior is cooking a dinner. Of course he does not realize why the elder is horrified by him: “When the old man saw me, he shouted loudly and ran away as fast as he could. I didn’t understand what the man was doing, but I wanted to be near the fire”. (22) Monster’s incomprehension of the situation only proves that he does not do anything to scare people. It is only his appearance, which makes everyone around him terrified.
The only one in this whole story who does not judge a poor creature for his look is a blind man. Sadly enough, he was the first one who listened to willful monster. By that time, beast already knows how to speak, to read and why does not anyone love him. By looking at a blind man’s family, he understands that all he wants was love: “I learnt the love between mother and father and child. And I realized that I had no family. The more I learnt, the more unhappy I became”. (27) Monster’s main goal was to find someone he can talk to, not someone he can kill or injure.
This creature sees what friendship is and of course he finds it completely unfair not to have any friends only because he is not pretty enough. Monster is full of love, but society does not even give him a chance to show how kind and helpful he could be. Obviously, he is not wanted anywhere. Unfortunate creature is expelled everywhere he goes. That’s why he decides to go to the beginning, to his creator – Victor Frankenstein. But Victor hates the thing he made, he wants to kill his monster as well as everyone else wants that.
And when Frankenstein tells that miserable truth to the beast he replies as a very smart person: “You say I am a murderer, but you want to kill your own creature. Is not that wrong too? You made me, and you should love me and be kind to me, like a father. ” (20-21) But Victor does not see anything for what he can love his “son”. Eventually monster understands that there is no one in the World, who will be able to understand him and love him for who he really is. Loneliness is now his only companion for the rest of his days. But monster finds the way out, he asks Victor for simply one thing: “Only someone as ugly as I am could love me.
You must make another creature like me, a woman monster to be my wife” (33). Having someone like him would certainly make him feel much better. Nevertheless, Frankenstein is too afraid to make another beast so he refuses to help the creature. Monster’s heart fills up with abhorrence to everyone. He begins to detest his inventor more than he ever did before. That is the moment when passion for living dies inside of him and his heart becomes a stone full of insults, disappointments and a desire for revenge – the moment when he became truly evil.
Mary Shelley clearly shows how judgmental society can kill everything good in a person, and make him become immoral. Even the monster from this particular novel is created with aspiration to love, learn new things and make friends. But people around him either run away from him, or hate him, so there is simply no one who is be able to understand him. People need to understand, that there is no one completely evil on this planet. All we need to do is just show them at least a bit of love and that will bring their best character traits back to life. | <urn:uuid:28d963c8-e6d4-4a8f-a18c-5a485a485de1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://freebooksummary.com/concpets-of-evil-in-frankenstein-117119 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00217.warc.gz | en | 0.985024 | 1,415 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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How does someone become an evil person? Does the person need to be hurt to become angry for the rest of his life, or maybe he is born with revulsion to the world hidden somewhere in his heart? Mary Shelley shows how discrimination happens in her novel Frankenstein. She demonstrates the individual who wants to live and love, but is not able to do this because of his displeasing appearance. Everyone, even monsters are born innocent, but if society rejects them, they can develop into truly evil creatures.
The monster from Shelley’s novel is left alone by his creator, is hated by the society and nobody is able to show him love and kindness, even though he himself is full of love. This story serves as an example of how discrimination can influence anyone’s character. Frankenstein’s monster is created as a baby in an adult’s body – defenseless and pure, but the first thing he sees is disgust from his “father”. Victor Frankenstein does not really plan creating someone he needs to take care of. He makes a discovery, without thinking about the consequences of playing with death and the results are even worse than he could only imagine.
Victor creates a gigantic monster, with enormous, disproportionate parts of the body. After Frankenstein succeeds in bringing this creature to life he says: “The dead body was an ugly thing, but alive, it was more horrible” (11). It is obvious that the creature Victor made, terrified him. That is why he does the first thing that comes to his mind – runs away to hide in his room. In fact, innocent being, which was only created, is left alone. Although Frankenstein is afraid of the monster at first sight, he does not even give him the second chance.
When he wakes up the next day, the beast is right beside him, smiling, which makes Victor even more afraid: “The horrible thing that I Had created was standing by my bed Before it could touch me, I jumped off the bed and ran downstairs into the garden” (12). Instead of communicating with the product of his ambitions, he runs out of the house, without even a thought of going back. Victor Frankenstein of all people should understand the importance of love and care of a parent in order to become moral and a good human being in general.
He often talks about how attentive his parents were with him growing up: “I learnt that to love and to be patient are the most important things in the world”. (4) So why doesn’t he show any of this things to his own “child”? Fear is definitely not an excuse to leave his “newborn child” in this big dangerous world all alone. Victor is not the only one who rejects the monster, society also hates him. When he leaves the house and goes to the nearest village he doesn’t even have an idea of killing somebody. Just as a child, he wants to explore a new place, and see the magnificence of our planet.
He discovers the fruits, the river and the snow, but he does not learn anything about other people yet. That’s why when his feet get cold, he just goes into the first hut where senior is cooking a dinner. Of course he does not realize why the elder is horrified by him: “When the old man saw me, he shouted loudly and ran away as fast as he could. I didn’t understand what the man was doing, but I wanted to be near the fire”. (22) Monster’s incomprehension of the situation only proves that he does not do anything to scare people. It is only his appearance, which makes everyone around him terrified.
The only one in this whole story who does not judge a poor creature for his look is a blind man. Sadly enough, he was the first one who listened to willful monster. By that time, beast already knows how to speak, to read and why does not anyone love him. By looking at a blind man’s family, he understands that all he wants was love: “I learnt the love between mother and father and child. And I realized that I had no family. The more I learnt, the more unhappy I became”. (27) Monster’s main goal was to find someone he can talk to, not someone he can kill or injure.
This creature sees what friendship is and of course he finds it completely unfair not to have any friends only because he is not pretty enough. Monster is full of love, but society does not even give him a chance to show how kind and helpful he could be. Obviously, he is not wanted anywhere. Unfortunate creature is expelled everywhere he goes. That’s why he decides to go to the beginning, to his creator – Victor Frankenstein. But Victor hates the thing he made, he wants to kill his monster as well as everyone else wants that.
And when Frankenstein tells that miserable truth to the beast he replies as a very smart person: “You say I am a murderer, but you want to kill your own creature. Is not that wrong too? You made me, and you should love me and be kind to me, like a father. ” (20-21) But Victor does not see anything for what he can love his “son”. Eventually monster understands that there is no one in the World, who will be able to understand him and love him for who he really is. Loneliness is now his only companion for the rest of his days. But monster finds the way out, he asks Victor for simply one thing: “Only someone as ugly as I am could love me.
You must make another creature like me, a woman monster to be my wife” (33). Having someone like him would certainly make him feel much better. Nevertheless, Frankenstein is too afraid to make another beast so he refuses to help the creature. Monster’s heart fills up with abhorrence to everyone. He begins to detest his inventor more than he ever did before. That is the moment when passion for living dies inside of him and his heart becomes a stone full of insults, disappointments and a desire for revenge – the moment when he became truly evil.
Mary Shelley clearly shows how judgmental society can kill everything good in a person, and make him become immoral. Even the monster from this particular novel is created with aspiration to love, learn new things and make friends. But people around him either run away from him, or hate him, so there is simply no one who is be able to understand him. People need to understand, that there is no one completely evil on this planet. All we need to do is just show them at least a bit of love and that will bring their best character traits back to life. | 1,369 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Camp 132 by Jochim Kessler
Camp 132 by Jochim Kessler
During World War II, the Canadian Government housed over 34,000 German Prisoners of War in 25 camps across Canada. Camps for refugees were already in existence before the POWs arrived. There was such great urgency to find places for these people that in both cases the settlement happened before the terms of agreement had been signed with Great Britain.
The first “civilian internees” arrived in June 1940 while Britain and Canada were still negotiating. As the talks proceeded, POWs started arriving. But even this didn’t follow the rules. The first shipment included Jewish refugees. The Jews and die-hard Nazis were being shipped and, at first, settled together.
The largest camps, in Medicine Hat and Lethbridge, Alberta opened in the winter of 1943. Camp 132 in Medicine Hat covered 50 hectares of land and could hold 12,000 prisoners. Surrounding the camp were barbed wire fences and sentinel towers placed in strategic spots. Each of the 36 dorms housed 350 men who slept in double bunks. There was also a mess hall, education huts, workshops, storage barracks and kitchens, which were worked by the men. There was also a dental clinic, a hospital and a morgue.
Camp 132 held the high-ranking Nazi officers. This is where most of the Nazi propaganda took place, causing problems with those who had lost their devotion to Nazism or never had it in the first place.
The prisoners were generally treated well by their guards — most guards didn’t even have rifles, and were retired WW I soldiers who could understand and sympathize. The food was plentiful, the barracks warm and the men could purchase goods from a mail order catalogue. Some even managed to get jobs with local businesses such as Medalta Potteries or they worked as farm hands in the region.
One such prisoner was Joachim Kessler who became a close friend of the Freeman family and was so admired by the children, they called Kessler “uncle.” He remained in Canada after the war.
Artimus Freeman is one of the Freeman children who remembers Kessler with great affection. He provided the two photos and the travel documents he received from Joachim Kessler that are posted here.
There are two or three Master’s and PhD thesis written about the camps in Canada. These studies deal with government studies of the camps and the activities among the prisoners.
There are also two books, Behind Canadian Barbed Wire by David Carter (1980) and Escape from Canada by John Melady (1981). Both attempt to reveal what camp life was like.
Camp 132 was where the Medicine Hat Exhibition and Stampede grounds are located today. The camp closed in January 1946. | <urn:uuid:81b256bf-2d71-49f6-aeb9-da44b4f7128c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://chickenbustales.com/content/camp-132-jochim-kessler | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00248.warc.gz | en | 0.986507 | 570 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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Camp 132 by Jochim Kessler
During World War II, the Canadian Government housed over 34,000 German Prisoners of War in 25 camps across Canada. Camps for refugees were already in existence before the POWs arrived. There was such great urgency to find places for these people that in both cases the settlement happened before the terms of agreement had been signed with Great Britain.
The first “civilian internees” arrived in June 1940 while Britain and Canada were still negotiating. As the talks proceeded, POWs started arriving. But even this didn’t follow the rules. The first shipment included Jewish refugees. The Jews and die-hard Nazis were being shipped and, at first, settled together.
The largest camps, in Medicine Hat and Lethbridge, Alberta opened in the winter of 1943. Camp 132 in Medicine Hat covered 50 hectares of land and could hold 12,000 prisoners. Surrounding the camp were barbed wire fences and sentinel towers placed in strategic spots. Each of the 36 dorms housed 350 men who slept in double bunks. There was also a mess hall, education huts, workshops, storage barracks and kitchens, which were worked by the men. There was also a dental clinic, a hospital and a morgue.
Camp 132 held the high-ranking Nazi officers. This is where most of the Nazi propaganda took place, causing problems with those who had lost their devotion to Nazism or never had it in the first place.
The prisoners were generally treated well by their guards — most guards didn’t even have rifles, and were retired WW I soldiers who could understand and sympathize. The food was plentiful, the barracks warm and the men could purchase goods from a mail order catalogue. Some even managed to get jobs with local businesses such as Medalta Potteries or they worked as farm hands in the region.
One such prisoner was Joachim Kessler who became a close friend of the Freeman family and was so admired by the children, they called Kessler “uncle.” He remained in Canada after the war.
Artimus Freeman is one of the Freeman children who remembers Kessler with great affection. He provided the two photos and the travel documents he received from Joachim Kessler that are posted here.
There are two or three Master’s and PhD thesis written about the camps in Canada. These studies deal with government studies of the camps and the activities among the prisoners.
There are also two books, Behind Canadian Barbed Wire by David Carter (1980) and Escape from Canada by John Melady (1981). Both attempt to reveal what camp life was like.
Camp 132 was where the Medicine Hat Exhibition and Stampede grounds are located today. The camp closed in January 1946. | 602 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Life of Muhammad
By Sally Mallam
Orphaned at 6, Muhammad was saved from a life of slavery by his uncle who gave him a job in his successful caravan business. Married to a successful businesswoman in her own right, Muhammad saw firsthand how the leading families of the Quraysh lived. They were arrogant, reckless, niggardly and egotistical, believed only in riches, and took no responsibility for people outside their immediate, elite circle. Muhammad saw this decline in traditional values as a threat to the very existence of his tribe. He was sure that social reform had to be based on a new spiritual foundation, though before the revelations, he had no idea that his destiny would be to implement these changes.
Nevertheless we need to keep in mind that the stories of Muhammad’s life were written to satisfy contemporary norms and included miraculous and legendary stories that might be misinterpreted today. As we have noted with the stories surrounding the Axial Sages, the Old Testament and the Gospels, such accounts are not to be taken literally. According to Reza Aslan in No god but God, The Origins, Evolution, and Future of Islam they “function as prophetic topos: a conventional literacy theme that can be found in most mythologies. Like the infancy narratives in the Gospels, these stories are not intended to relate historical events, but to elucidate the mystery of the prophetic experience. They answer the questions: What does it mean to be a prophet? … It is not important whether the stories describing the childhood of Muhammad, Jesus or David are true. What is important is what these stories say about our prophets, our messiahs, our kings: that theirs is a holy and eternal vocation, established by God from the moment of creation.”
Not much is known about his early childhood, but according to tradition Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570, the year known as the Year of the Elephant, in which Mecca was miraculously saved.
Tradition tells that Abraha, the Abyssinian Christian ruler of Yemen, attacked Mecca with a herd of elephants imported from Africa. Abraha’s goal was to destroy the Ka’ba and make the Christian church at Sana’ the new religious center of the Arab world. The terrified Quraysh had never seen an elephant, much less a whole herd, so they ran to the mountains to escape, leaving the Ka’ba with no defense. But just as it was about to be attacked, the sky went dark as a flock of birds, each carrying a stone in its beak, rained down on the invading army which was forced to retreat.
Muhammad was a Quraysh from the clan of Hashim. Many stories surround his childhood and birth, which was announced in a tale similar to the Christian story of Mary: Muhammad’s mother, a widow named Amina, one day heard a voice say to her: “You carry in your womb the lord of this people, and when he is born, say: ‘I place him beneath the protection of the One, from the evil of every envious person’, then name him Muhammad.”
At twenty-five, when Muhammad was still unmarried and dependent on his uncle, he met a very distant cousin, Khadija, a beautiful widow, then probably in her late thirties. Khadija was unusual for a woman of her time, she was a respected member of Meccan society and a very successful businesswoman in her own right. In spite of his tenuous social circumstances, according to Ibn Hisham, Muhammad had a reputation for “truthfulness, reliability, and nobility of character,” and Khadija entrusted him to take a caravan of goods to Syria and sell it. When he returned home with more profits than she anticipated, she proposed marriage to him and he accepted, thus acquiring status and entry into Meccan society. Although polygamy was the norm at the time, Muhammad and Khadija were in a monogamous marriage for twenty-five years until her death. They had six children.
As an orphan himself, Muhammad would have been aware of just how easy it was to fall outside Mecca’s religio-economic system. With his marriage and his businesses doing well, he now had access to the prosperous life. He saw firsthand that although the leading families of the Quraysh believed in the one God, this belief was not relevant to their lives; they had forgotten that everything depended upon Him. Now that they were rich, they adhered to the very worst aspects of murawah and had thrown away the best: they were arrogant, reckless, niggardly and egotistical; they had become self-centered, no longer believing in anything but riches and took no responsibility for people outside their immediate, elite circle.
Muhammad saw the decline in traditional values as a threat to the very existence of his tribe. He was sure that social reform had to be based on a new spiritual foundation for it to actually take effect. As a trader, Muhammad came in frequent contact with Jews and Christians. According to the scholar Ikbal Ali Shah, Muhammad made “an exhaustive study of other religions.” He was aware that his own people, although they believed in al-Lah, lacked a sacred book of their own. “The people of the Book” had codified Laws that were both religious and social, governing their behavior from dawn to dusk. His own people had no such thing and because of this their lives were in chaos, many were suffering and destitute, and the whole tribe was in danger of extinction.
Before the revelations, he had no idea that his destiny would be to implement these vital changes. He was from a minor clan, the Hashim, and scholars point out that, in common with other prophets before him, he initially wanted nothing to do with what was happening to him and was extremely upset, so much so that without Khadija’s intervention “Mohammad might have gone through with his plan to end it all, and history would have turned out quite differently,” writes Reza Aslan. | <urn:uuid:7fc0a948-1902-4ecd-8dfe-f1141fcbc9e8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://humanjourney.us/ideas-that-shaped-our-modern-world-section/history-of-mohammad/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00507.warc.gz | en | 0.990794 | 1,269 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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-0.10728495568... | 9 | The Life of Muhammad
By Sally Mallam
Orphaned at 6, Muhammad was saved from a life of slavery by his uncle who gave him a job in his successful caravan business. Married to a successful businesswoman in her own right, Muhammad saw firsthand how the leading families of the Quraysh lived. They were arrogant, reckless, niggardly and egotistical, believed only in riches, and took no responsibility for people outside their immediate, elite circle. Muhammad saw this decline in traditional values as a threat to the very existence of his tribe. He was sure that social reform had to be based on a new spiritual foundation, though before the revelations, he had no idea that his destiny would be to implement these changes.
Nevertheless we need to keep in mind that the stories of Muhammad’s life were written to satisfy contemporary norms and included miraculous and legendary stories that might be misinterpreted today. As we have noted with the stories surrounding the Axial Sages, the Old Testament and the Gospels, such accounts are not to be taken literally. According to Reza Aslan in No god but God, The Origins, Evolution, and Future of Islam they “function as prophetic topos: a conventional literacy theme that can be found in most mythologies. Like the infancy narratives in the Gospels, these stories are not intended to relate historical events, but to elucidate the mystery of the prophetic experience. They answer the questions: What does it mean to be a prophet? … It is not important whether the stories describing the childhood of Muhammad, Jesus or David are true. What is important is what these stories say about our prophets, our messiahs, our kings: that theirs is a holy and eternal vocation, established by God from the moment of creation.”
Not much is known about his early childhood, but according to tradition Muhammad was born in Mecca in 570, the year known as the Year of the Elephant, in which Mecca was miraculously saved.
Tradition tells that Abraha, the Abyssinian Christian ruler of Yemen, attacked Mecca with a herd of elephants imported from Africa. Abraha’s goal was to destroy the Ka’ba and make the Christian church at Sana’ the new religious center of the Arab world. The terrified Quraysh had never seen an elephant, much less a whole herd, so they ran to the mountains to escape, leaving the Ka’ba with no defense. But just as it was about to be attacked, the sky went dark as a flock of birds, each carrying a stone in its beak, rained down on the invading army which was forced to retreat.
Muhammad was a Quraysh from the clan of Hashim. Many stories surround his childhood and birth, which was announced in a tale similar to the Christian story of Mary: Muhammad’s mother, a widow named Amina, one day heard a voice say to her: “You carry in your womb the lord of this people, and when he is born, say: ‘I place him beneath the protection of the One, from the evil of every envious person’, then name him Muhammad.”
At twenty-five, when Muhammad was still unmarried and dependent on his uncle, he met a very distant cousin, Khadija, a beautiful widow, then probably in her late thirties. Khadija was unusual for a woman of her time, she was a respected member of Meccan society and a very successful businesswoman in her own right. In spite of his tenuous social circumstances, according to Ibn Hisham, Muhammad had a reputation for “truthfulness, reliability, and nobility of character,” and Khadija entrusted him to take a caravan of goods to Syria and sell it. When he returned home with more profits than she anticipated, she proposed marriage to him and he accepted, thus acquiring status and entry into Meccan society. Although polygamy was the norm at the time, Muhammad and Khadija were in a monogamous marriage for twenty-five years until her death. They had six children.
As an orphan himself, Muhammad would have been aware of just how easy it was to fall outside Mecca’s religio-economic system. With his marriage and his businesses doing well, he now had access to the prosperous life. He saw firsthand that although the leading families of the Quraysh believed in the one God, this belief was not relevant to their lives; they had forgotten that everything depended upon Him. Now that they were rich, they adhered to the very worst aspects of murawah and had thrown away the best: they were arrogant, reckless, niggardly and egotistical; they had become self-centered, no longer believing in anything but riches and took no responsibility for people outside their immediate, elite circle.
Muhammad saw the decline in traditional values as a threat to the very existence of his tribe. He was sure that social reform had to be based on a new spiritual foundation for it to actually take effect. As a trader, Muhammad came in frequent contact with Jews and Christians. According to the scholar Ikbal Ali Shah, Muhammad made “an exhaustive study of other religions.” He was aware that his own people, although they believed in al-Lah, lacked a sacred book of their own. “The people of the Book” had codified Laws that were both religious and social, governing their behavior from dawn to dusk. His own people had no such thing and because of this their lives were in chaos, many were suffering and destitute, and the whole tribe was in danger of extinction.
Before the revelations, he had no idea that his destiny would be to implement these vital changes. He was from a minor clan, the Hashim, and scholars point out that, in common with other prophets before him, he initially wanted nothing to do with what was happening to him and was extremely upset, so much so that without Khadija’s intervention “Mohammad might have gone through with his plan to end it all, and history would have turned out quite differently,” writes Reza Aslan. | 1,238 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Sculptor 12 November 1840 – 17 November 1917
François Auguste René Rodin was a French sculptor known for his sculptures such as The Thinker and The Kiss.
As a child he experienced severe difficulties in school. He was extremely nearsighted as well as exhibiting traits of dyslexia. His father once said, ‘I have an idiot for a son,’ and an uncle claimed that he was ineducable. At age 14 he could barely read or write and struggled with mathematics, but had started drawing at an early age. Although his artistic talent was clear, because of his academic difficulties, his family sent him to a school that trained craftsmen.
At age 17, Rodin applied to attend the prestigious École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, but his application was rejected. He tried again, but two subsequent applications were also turned down.
As a young man, Rodin earned his living working with more established artists and decorators, usually on publicly commissioned works such as memorials or architectural pieces. He began to achieve recognition for his work with The Age of Bronze, created in 1876.
Over the next decade, as he entered his 40s, he further established his distinctive artistic style with many acclaimed and sometimes controversial works. By 1900, he was a world-renowned artist.
Sculpturally, Rodin possessed a unique ability to model a complex, turbulent, deeply pocketed surface in clay. Many of his most notable sculptures were roundly criticized during his lifetime. They clashed with predominant figurative sculpture traditions, in which works were decorative, formulaic, or highly thematic. Rodin’s most original work departed from traditional themes of mythology and allegory, modeled the human body with realism, and celebrated individual character and physicality. Rodin was sensitive to the controversy surrounding his work, but refused to change his style. Successive works brought increasing favor from the government and the artistic community.
Many in the art establishment disliked the realism of the Age of Bronze and because it was life size said it was just a mould of a live model. In future Rodin ensured his sculpture was larger or smaller than life size.
Camille Claudel was both Rodin’s model, lover and collaborator though a powerful sculptor in her own right. After she broke up with Rodin her brother and mother had her sectioned where she remained for 30 years in a mental hospital though many doctors sought to prove her sane.
From the unexpected realism of his first major figure – inspired by his 1875 trip to Italy – to the unconventional memorials whose commissions he later sought, Rodin’s reputation grew, such that he became the preeminent French sculptor of his time. By 1900, he was a world-renowned artist. Wealthy private clients sought Rodin’s work after his World’s Fair exhibit, and he kept company with a variety of high-profile intellectuals and artists. He married his lifelong companion, Rose Beuret, in the last year of both their lives. His sculptures suffered a decline in popularity after his death in 1917, but within a few decades, his legacy solidified. Rodin remains one of the few sculptors widely known outside the visual arts community.
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François Auguste René Rodin was a French sculptor known for his sculptures such as The Thinker and The Kiss.
As a child he experienced severe difficulties in school. He was extremely nearsighted as well as exhibiting traits of dyslexia. His father once said, ‘I have an idiot for a son,’ and an uncle claimed that he was ineducable. At age 14 he could barely read or write and struggled with mathematics, but had started drawing at an early age. Although his artistic talent was clear, because of his academic difficulties, his family sent him to a school that trained craftsmen.
At age 17, Rodin applied to attend the prestigious École des Beaux-Arts in Paris, but his application was rejected. He tried again, but two subsequent applications were also turned down.
As a young man, Rodin earned his living working with more established artists and decorators, usually on publicly commissioned works such as memorials or architectural pieces. He began to achieve recognition for his work with The Age of Bronze, created in 1876.
Over the next decade, as he entered his 40s, he further established his distinctive artistic style with many acclaimed and sometimes controversial works. By 1900, he was a world-renowned artist.
Sculpturally, Rodin possessed a unique ability to model a complex, turbulent, deeply pocketed surface in clay. Many of his most notable sculptures were roundly criticized during his lifetime. They clashed with predominant figurative sculpture traditions, in which works were decorative, formulaic, or highly thematic. Rodin’s most original work departed from traditional themes of mythology and allegory, modeled the human body with realism, and celebrated individual character and physicality. Rodin was sensitive to the controversy surrounding his work, but refused to change his style. Successive works brought increasing favor from the government and the artistic community.
Many in the art establishment disliked the realism of the Age of Bronze and because it was life size said it was just a mould of a live model. In future Rodin ensured his sculpture was larger or smaller than life size.
Camille Claudel was both Rodin’s model, lover and collaborator though a powerful sculptor in her own right. After she broke up with Rodin her brother and mother had her sectioned where she remained for 30 years in a mental hospital though many doctors sought to prove her sane.
From the unexpected realism of his first major figure – inspired by his 1875 trip to Italy – to the unconventional memorials whose commissions he later sought, Rodin’s reputation grew, such that he became the preeminent French sculptor of his time. By 1900, he was a world-renowned artist. Wealthy private clients sought Rodin’s work after his World’s Fair exhibit, and he kept company with a variety of high-profile intellectuals and artists. He married his lifelong companion, Rose Beuret, in the last year of both their lives. His sculptures suffered a decline in popularity after his death in 1917, but within a few decades, his legacy solidified. Rodin remains one of the few sculptors widely known outside the visual arts community.
St John the Baptiste The Thinker 1879-1889 | 701 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The first piece of advice, of course, would be for the player to have their eyes tested, in case there is a fundamental eyesight problem. Assuming the result is normal, the likely explanation is that the player is either taking their eyes of the ball, in response to movement by the opponents, or that the player hasn’t prepared properly to catch the ball.
Meir (2005) implemented some visual training into the players at Gloucester Rugby Club. The coaching staff had found that problems with passing and catching in drills occurred because players often simply failed to either identify the target when they were passing, or didn’t look at the ball when receiving a pass from a teammate.
To improve concentration on the ball in volleyball, Vickers & Adolphe (1997) marked the ball with numbers. The receiver had to call out the numbers when they could perceive them in flight. This could obviously be adapted to a rugby ball being passed, and this was indeed one of the training methods that Meir used, along with patching one eye. This meant that the player had to turn his head round in order to focus on the ball or the target. He also got players to train with “agility balls”: these have an uneven shape, so bounce in unpredictable ways.
If your passing practice is carried out unopposed, it’s more likely that players will take their eyes off the ball when faced with opposition in a match. So doing a passing drill in a confined space with opponents trying to win the ball should help with passing under pressure, quick hands, communication and concentration.
More on rugby in due course. | <urn:uuid:785cd16d-f098-45a3-a79e-c6a8c2520d1d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://donneroptometrists.blogspot.com/2015/03/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00509.warc.gz | en | 0.982874 | 336 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.6510944962501526... | 2 | The first piece of advice, of course, would be for the player to have their eyes tested, in case there is a fundamental eyesight problem. Assuming the result is normal, the likely explanation is that the player is either taking their eyes of the ball, in response to movement by the opponents, or that the player hasn’t prepared properly to catch the ball.
Meir (2005) implemented some visual training into the players at Gloucester Rugby Club. The coaching staff had found that problems with passing and catching in drills occurred because players often simply failed to either identify the target when they were passing, or didn’t look at the ball when receiving a pass from a teammate.
To improve concentration on the ball in volleyball, Vickers & Adolphe (1997) marked the ball with numbers. The receiver had to call out the numbers when they could perceive them in flight. This could obviously be adapted to a rugby ball being passed, and this was indeed one of the training methods that Meir used, along with patching one eye. This meant that the player had to turn his head round in order to focus on the ball or the target. He also got players to train with “agility balls”: these have an uneven shape, so bounce in unpredictable ways.
If your passing practice is carried out unopposed, it’s more likely that players will take their eyes off the ball when faced with opposition in a match. So doing a passing drill in a confined space with opponents trying to win the ball should help with passing under pressure, quick hands, communication and concentration.
More on rugby in due course. | 329 | ENGLISH | 1 |
[ Gioseffe ]
(b Padua, ?1575–80; d Padua, 1631).
Italian theorist, architect, cartographer and painter. He was trained by his father Giulio, city architect of Padua, and at the school of Vincenzo Dotto (1572–1629), a Paduan cosmographer and architect in the Palladian tradition. Despite his vast and genuine erudition, Viola Zanini never held an important post and was beset with financial difficulties throughout his life. He worked as an architect and, by necessity, as a painter of architectural perspectives; none of his work has survived, however, apart from the Palazzo Cumano in Padua (1628–31; now Liceo Ippolito Nievo), which is generally attributed to him. His town plan of Padua, drawn in 1599, was widely imitated, and his treatise on architecture (1629) brought him fame. The organization of topics seems to have been influenced in particular by Leon Battista Alberti’s De re aedificatoria, while its architectural forms were inspired by Vitruvius and the writings and buildings of Andrea Palladio. Viola Zanini’s work differed from these sources, however, in omitting all considerations of urban planning, ethics and aesthetics. Dry, schematic in content and limited in its aspirations, his work reflects the transition from Renaissance expository writing to the purely technical works that began to appear in the 17th century.... | <urn:uuid:0414e714-2ff6-4bbc-ba9d-965a0beb73ef> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.oxfordartonline.com/groveart/abstract/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-e-7000089774?rskey=WNhq9S&result=3 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00421.warc.gz | en | 0.983815 | 319 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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(b Padua, ?1575–80; d Padua, 1631).
Italian theorist, architect, cartographer and painter. He was trained by his father Giulio, city architect of Padua, and at the school of Vincenzo Dotto (1572–1629), a Paduan cosmographer and architect in the Palladian tradition. Despite his vast and genuine erudition, Viola Zanini never held an important post and was beset with financial difficulties throughout his life. He worked as an architect and, by necessity, as a painter of architectural perspectives; none of his work has survived, however, apart from the Palazzo Cumano in Padua (1628–31; now Liceo Ippolito Nievo), which is generally attributed to him. His town plan of Padua, drawn in 1599, was widely imitated, and his treatise on architecture (1629) brought him fame. The organization of topics seems to have been influenced in particular by Leon Battista Alberti’s De re aedificatoria, while its architectural forms were inspired by Vitruvius and the writings and buildings of Andrea Palladio. Viola Zanini’s work differed from these sources, however, in omitting all considerations of urban planning, ethics and aesthetics. Dry, schematic in content and limited in its aspirations, his work reflects the transition from Renaissance expository writing to the purely technical works that began to appear in the 17th century.... | 329 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Analysis of woman in The Good Earth
The Good Earth, by Pearl S. Buck, truly illustrates the life of Chinese women in the twentieth century. Not only does it describe the daily life of women but it also goes in depth about the perceptions of women back then. Although there are several other women in the story who leave an imprint on Wang Lung’s life.
By seeing this, the readers realize and connect the land and the family together and find some logic between them. Moreover, “she was, after all, only a woman.” (Chapter 4) Here is another symbolism at the beginning of the Novel. Throughout the novel, it seems that women are oppressed and treated unfairly. And this quotation represents some kind of idea of men of thinking about women.
One of the most important ways for Buck to look at O-lan and other women in society is to describe the lack of women’s rights through their description of O-lan and Wang Lung. Because of her appearance, Wang Long did not like his wife. In Chapter 4, he asked his wife, O-lan, to help him cultivate the land, even if she was pregnant, like a slave. His patriarchal tradition concept is strong, his wife He gave birth to a child with a first child. He was not sympathetic to his wife, and he was eager to ask whether he was a man or a woman. In addition, after a day of giving birth to a baby, Wang still asked his wife for help, and no one expressed severeness to this behavior and pointed out that this should not happen.
In order to grasp how poor woman right in the society of ancient China, readers must analyze the layers of comparison and contrast. Comparing to both characterizations of O-lan’s and prostitute. They both are the woman, with little right to survive in that society. But there is a huge difference between them is the performance. The prostitute has a beautiful face, a hot body, small foot and so on, that ‘s O-lan did not have. Only because the prostitute has a good performance, so she had more love for Wang, more rights, more money. A man can divorce his wife as he likes because of his supreme authority in a family. As for Wang Lung, he takes Lotus as his concubine because love does do not blossom between him and O-lan. O-lan cannot thwart Wang Lung from taking a concubine. She only can remain silent all the time when Lotus moves into her house, “Then when they slept and O-lan still sat at the table dreaming she washed for sleeping and at last she went into her accustomed room and slept along upon her bed”(Chapter 20). This reveals that women have to accept their fate of being betrayed by their husband. Men are allowed to do anything to a concubine as long as he provides the concubine with comfort and pleasant things. When he first sees Lotus, he is entirely attracted to her physical appearance especially her bound feet which O-Lan does not have. this is the reason:” This was easy for Lotus Flower since Wang Lung has an all-consuming desire for Lotus Flower.
Her beauty, including her small feet, totally captivated him.” If the love foundation between Wang Lung and O-lan is strong enough, he will not be tempted that easily to exercise his lust with Lotus. There is some news about women who cannot bear her husband for betraying them and kill themselves,” Some women will even hang themselves upon a beam with a rope when a man takes a second woman into the house”(Chapter 16). As such, Wang Lung feels guilty and ashamed for his affair with Lotus. The feeling of guilty does not hinder him from demanding the pearls from O-lan to give to Lotus since she is too irresistible for him to stop continue having such affair. Wang Lung even releases anger on O-lan when his uncle’s wife arranges all the matter regarding Wang Lung and Lotu’s reunion. O-lan’s depression is shown by the quote, “I have borne you sons- I have borne you sons” (Chapter 20). He tries to convince himself that he has done nothing wrong as rich people taking concubine is a practice at that time. Thus, this shows that the woman has no power at all and is subjected to any kind of suffering in every facet of life
I think liberate women is appropriate, things that happened to O-lan should not occur in the life as it is unjust, we neither should adjust to prejudice and discrimination. | <urn:uuid:e7e46998-2491-4eb3-8d47-35edb4be984d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://myssec.com/analysis-of-woman-in-the-good-earth-the-good-earth/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00152.warc.gz | en | 0.984416 | 950 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.2602103948593139... | 4 | Analysis of woman in The Good Earth
The Good Earth, by Pearl S. Buck, truly illustrates the life of Chinese women in the twentieth century. Not only does it describe the daily life of women but it also goes in depth about the perceptions of women back then. Although there are several other women in the story who leave an imprint on Wang Lung’s life.
By seeing this, the readers realize and connect the land and the family together and find some logic between them. Moreover, “she was, after all, only a woman.” (Chapter 4) Here is another symbolism at the beginning of the Novel. Throughout the novel, it seems that women are oppressed and treated unfairly. And this quotation represents some kind of idea of men of thinking about women.
One of the most important ways for Buck to look at O-lan and other women in society is to describe the lack of women’s rights through their description of O-lan and Wang Lung. Because of her appearance, Wang Long did not like his wife. In Chapter 4, he asked his wife, O-lan, to help him cultivate the land, even if she was pregnant, like a slave. His patriarchal tradition concept is strong, his wife He gave birth to a child with a first child. He was not sympathetic to his wife, and he was eager to ask whether he was a man or a woman. In addition, after a day of giving birth to a baby, Wang still asked his wife for help, and no one expressed severeness to this behavior and pointed out that this should not happen.
In order to grasp how poor woman right in the society of ancient China, readers must analyze the layers of comparison and contrast. Comparing to both characterizations of O-lan’s and prostitute. They both are the woman, with little right to survive in that society. But there is a huge difference between them is the performance. The prostitute has a beautiful face, a hot body, small foot and so on, that ‘s O-lan did not have. Only because the prostitute has a good performance, so she had more love for Wang, more rights, more money. A man can divorce his wife as he likes because of his supreme authority in a family. As for Wang Lung, he takes Lotus as his concubine because love does do not blossom between him and O-lan. O-lan cannot thwart Wang Lung from taking a concubine. She only can remain silent all the time when Lotus moves into her house, “Then when they slept and O-lan still sat at the table dreaming she washed for sleeping and at last she went into her accustomed room and slept along upon her bed”(Chapter 20). This reveals that women have to accept their fate of being betrayed by their husband. Men are allowed to do anything to a concubine as long as he provides the concubine with comfort and pleasant things. When he first sees Lotus, he is entirely attracted to her physical appearance especially her bound feet which O-Lan does not have. this is the reason:” This was easy for Lotus Flower since Wang Lung has an all-consuming desire for Lotus Flower.
Her beauty, including her small feet, totally captivated him.” If the love foundation between Wang Lung and O-lan is strong enough, he will not be tempted that easily to exercise his lust with Lotus. There is some news about women who cannot bear her husband for betraying them and kill themselves,” Some women will even hang themselves upon a beam with a rope when a man takes a second woman into the house”(Chapter 16). As such, Wang Lung feels guilty and ashamed for his affair with Lotus. The feeling of guilty does not hinder him from demanding the pearls from O-lan to give to Lotus since she is too irresistible for him to stop continue having such affair. Wang Lung even releases anger on O-lan when his uncle’s wife arranges all the matter regarding Wang Lung and Lotu’s reunion. O-lan’s depression is shown by the quote, “I have borne you sons- I have borne you sons” (Chapter 20). He tries to convince himself that he has done nothing wrong as rich people taking concubine is a practice at that time. Thus, this shows that the woman has no power at all and is subjected to any kind of suffering in every facet of life
I think liberate women is appropriate, things that happened to O-lan should not occur in the life as it is unjust, we neither should adjust to prejudice and discrimination. | 924 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A rare occurrence in the late nineteenth century, Charlotte Perkins Gilman separated from her husband in 1888 and divorced him in 1894. She was remarried again to her first cousin George Houghton Gilman and it lasted from 1900 until 1934 due to his sudden death. In 1932, Gilman was diagnosed with breast cancer and she committed suicide in 1935, one year after the death of her second husband, by inhaling chloroform. Gilman’s death was widely speculated to be in line with depression, a common mental health problem among women in the 19th century.
Today, Gilman is best remembered through her written short story which is 6,000-word in length entitled “The Yellow Wallpaper”, which primarily depicts her real life experience. The story is narrated from the perspective of the main character whose husband is a doctor. The narrator’s husband diagnosed her with “temporary nervous depression- a slight hysterical tendency” common among women in the 19th century.
The story of “The Yellow Wallpaper” talks about the loss of voice of a woman within the society in the 19th century. The author emphasizes this by mentioning that the narrator was put in isolation and controlled over by her husband. Isolation was not the best thing for the narrator because she knew it only worsened her condition, which her husband was entirely oblivious about. She was confined in an old nursery room where she learned many things about her isolation and hated it in the first place. “No wonder the children hated it! I should hate it myself if I had to live in this room long” (Gilman 5). However, prior to this, she made necessary suggestions that the old nursery room would not contribute positively on her condition, but it would be other things instead. “Personally, I believe that congenial work, with excitement and change, would do me good” (2). Despite of this desperate move of the narrator, her husband was firmed on his stand and she was instead locked up inside the old nursery room.
Gilman’s separation from her first husband was a depiction of how the narrator would love to stay away from the old nursery room and be completely separated from it. That was a very act of trying to stay away from man’s control, dominion and do something significant. “I meant to be such a help to John, such a real rest and comfort, and here I am a comparative burden already” (Gilman 5). The narrator just wanted her freedom and the ultimate treatment for her nervousness and depression was not the isolation in an old nursery room. It was the ultimate suggestion she desperately explicated to her husband though.
The author tried to emphasize that the loss of voice of a woman in 19th century was due to the existence of a male-dominated society. Society expected much more from men than women which substantially put the former in control over the latter in almost every aspect, just as how the narrator’s husband locked her wife up in an old nursery room. It was a strong depiction of how men inflicted limitations against every woman’s capacity to prove her self. “It is so discouraging not to have any advice and companionship about my work. When I get really well, John says we will ask Cousin Henry and Julia down for a long visit; but he says he would as soon put fireworks in my pillow-case as to let me have those stimulating people about now” (Gilman 7). The author also tried to emphasize the old nursery room as a way of treating woman incapable about something great just like how the infants rely their survival on adults. “Nobody would believe what an effort it is to do what little I am able – to dress and entertain, and other things” (5). The author pointed out that the narrator’s mental problem was a depiction of how women struggled to fight the prevailing society’s expectations of gender role and it was a revolutionary way to gain significant voice of women in the society. In fact, this is evident from the fact that in 1930’s women did not experience greater economic opportunities, sexual freedom and equality to men in many aspects compared today in the 21st century (Murrin et al. 681).
Today, many women are actually trying to prove something great. Just like how the narrator suggested to her husband that the ultimate treatment for depression and nervousness was not the isolation, many women today have succeeded to prove things differently from how they were viewed in the 19th century. As stated earlier, Gilman’s separation from her husband was viewed rare occurrence before, but she managed to do it, which eventually depicts how she integrated the idea of how the narrator successfully proved to her husband that the isolation within the old nursery room was not the best idea for her treatment.
Gilman, Charlotte Perkins. The Yellow Wallpaper. New Hampshire: Forgotten Books, 1973.
Murrin, John M., Paul E. Johnson, James M. McPherson, Gary Gerstle, Alice Fahs and Emily S. Rosenberg. Liberty, Equality, Power: A History of the American People: Since 1863. 5th ed. Massachusetts: Cengage Learning, 2010. | <urn:uuid:9d924804-8c4e-4edf-8499-459687b55e37> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://freebookessay.com/free-essay-examples/society-and-gender-role-expectation-in-the-yellow-wallpaper/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00418.warc.gz | en | 0.980371 | 1,075 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.4692929387092590... | 1 | A rare occurrence in the late nineteenth century, Charlotte Perkins Gilman separated from her husband in 1888 and divorced him in 1894. She was remarried again to her first cousin George Houghton Gilman and it lasted from 1900 until 1934 due to his sudden death. In 1932, Gilman was diagnosed with breast cancer and she committed suicide in 1935, one year after the death of her second husband, by inhaling chloroform. Gilman’s death was widely speculated to be in line with depression, a common mental health problem among women in the 19th century.
Today, Gilman is best remembered through her written short story which is 6,000-word in length entitled “The Yellow Wallpaper”, which primarily depicts her real life experience. The story is narrated from the perspective of the main character whose husband is a doctor. The narrator’s husband diagnosed her with “temporary nervous depression- a slight hysterical tendency” common among women in the 19th century.
The story of “The Yellow Wallpaper” talks about the loss of voice of a woman within the society in the 19th century. The author emphasizes this by mentioning that the narrator was put in isolation and controlled over by her husband. Isolation was not the best thing for the narrator because she knew it only worsened her condition, which her husband was entirely oblivious about. She was confined in an old nursery room where she learned many things about her isolation and hated it in the first place. “No wonder the children hated it! I should hate it myself if I had to live in this room long” (Gilman 5). However, prior to this, she made necessary suggestions that the old nursery room would not contribute positively on her condition, but it would be other things instead. “Personally, I believe that congenial work, with excitement and change, would do me good” (2). Despite of this desperate move of the narrator, her husband was firmed on his stand and she was instead locked up inside the old nursery room.
Gilman’s separation from her first husband was a depiction of how the narrator would love to stay away from the old nursery room and be completely separated from it. That was a very act of trying to stay away from man’s control, dominion and do something significant. “I meant to be such a help to John, such a real rest and comfort, and here I am a comparative burden already” (Gilman 5). The narrator just wanted her freedom and the ultimate treatment for her nervousness and depression was not the isolation in an old nursery room. It was the ultimate suggestion she desperately explicated to her husband though.
The author tried to emphasize that the loss of voice of a woman in 19th century was due to the existence of a male-dominated society. Society expected much more from men than women which substantially put the former in control over the latter in almost every aspect, just as how the narrator’s husband locked her wife up in an old nursery room. It was a strong depiction of how men inflicted limitations against every woman’s capacity to prove her self. “It is so discouraging not to have any advice and companionship about my work. When I get really well, John says we will ask Cousin Henry and Julia down for a long visit; but he says he would as soon put fireworks in my pillow-case as to let me have those stimulating people about now” (Gilman 7). The author also tried to emphasize the old nursery room as a way of treating woman incapable about something great just like how the infants rely their survival on adults. “Nobody would believe what an effort it is to do what little I am able – to dress and entertain, and other things” (5). The author pointed out that the narrator’s mental problem was a depiction of how women struggled to fight the prevailing society’s expectations of gender role and it was a revolutionary way to gain significant voice of women in the society. In fact, this is evident from the fact that in 1930’s women did not experience greater economic opportunities, sexual freedom and equality to men in many aspects compared today in the 21st century (Murrin et al. 681).
Today, many women are actually trying to prove something great. Just like how the narrator suggested to her husband that the ultimate treatment for depression and nervousness was not the isolation, many women today have succeeded to prove things differently from how they were viewed in the 19th century. As stated earlier, Gilman’s separation from her husband was viewed rare occurrence before, but she managed to do it, which eventually depicts how she integrated the idea of how the narrator successfully proved to her husband that the isolation within the old nursery room was not the best idea for her treatment.
Gilman, Charlotte Perkins. The Yellow Wallpaper. New Hampshire: Forgotten Books, 1973.
Murrin, John M., Paul E. Johnson, James M. McPherson, Gary Gerstle, Alice Fahs and Emily S. Rosenberg. Liberty, Equality, Power: A History of the American People: Since 1863. 5th ed. Massachusetts: Cengage Learning, 2010. | 1,088 | ENGLISH | 1 |
History is replete with wars and conflicts. The Holocaust was one such thing but it was somewhat different as it covered a huge number of people altogether. Holocaust also called Shoah basically means, sacrificing or killing by fire. It is derived from two Greek words, Holos and Kaustos. Holos means whole and Kaustos means burned. In early history, the word used to have its usual meaning which means sacrifice by fire but this remained only until World War II.
The Germans used to consider themselves racially superior. They at any cost did not want a mixed progeny. At that time many Jews used to live in Europe and the Germans found them racially inferior and hence a series of mass killings began. The Holocaust referred to these mass killings or in other words, “genocide” (genocide because it was intended to end the whole race of Jews so all those genes would disappear from the gene pool). From 1941 to 1945 six million Jews were killed which included 1.5 million children. This operation of mass murders is considered one of the deadliest that has ever happened. Not only the Jews, the Germans targeted other races too who they considered inferior, like the gypsies and the Slavic people.
It all began when Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933. At that time the number of Jews that existed were approximately 9 million. This was something unacceptable to Hitler as he considered them racially inferior. Therefore, he proposed a plan named as “the final solution” to eliminate Jews completely and this operation was later renamed the Holocaust. Even before Hitler came to power (in 1919), he wrote, “Rational anti-Semitism, however, must lead to systematic legal opposition and its final objective must unswervingly be the removal of the Jews altogether.” To this anti-Semitism, later racial aspect was also added.
Thus soon after Hitler took over the office, his main aim was to culminate the non-Aryans and of course his policy of expansion. Laws were made to restrict the marriage between Germans and Jews and the Jews were also not given the basic rights. Therefore, the Jews tried their best to move out of Germany. The ones who were left behind suffered. This happened till 1940 after the expansion policy of Hitler accelerated. At this time, the religious institutions of Germany and the famous leaders expressed their resentment towards Hitler’s attitude and hence he stopped his regime even though secret killings continued.
The expansion policy still continued and in 1941, the Soviet Union was captured. This was the time when Hitler’s policy of eliminating the Jews gained momentum and a policy named “the final solution” came up. Beginning from that time, every Jew was openly killed and there was no stop. Mass gassings began so that maximum people could be killed in a go. The first targets were the old, sick and children. And of course, since there was gassing, along with the Jews many other people also succumbed to it.
As the World War II came to an end and Germany lost its power with Hitler committing suicide the Holocaust too came to an end but the aftermath was devastating. Things could not be restored quickly since so many people had lost their lives.
Watch the narration of the spine-chilling experience that Eva Mozes Kor and her twin sister faced during the Holocaust, as they were used as a human experiment on being Mengele twins. | <urn:uuid:58454b9a-2378-4ff0-9c82-d13c40636d0a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.amazingscribbles.com/the-holocaust-world-war-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00246.warc.gz | en | 0.987818 | 694 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.4263826012611... | 19 | History is replete with wars and conflicts. The Holocaust was one such thing but it was somewhat different as it covered a huge number of people altogether. Holocaust also called Shoah basically means, sacrificing or killing by fire. It is derived from two Greek words, Holos and Kaustos. Holos means whole and Kaustos means burned. In early history, the word used to have its usual meaning which means sacrifice by fire but this remained only until World War II.
The Germans used to consider themselves racially superior. They at any cost did not want a mixed progeny. At that time many Jews used to live in Europe and the Germans found them racially inferior and hence a series of mass killings began. The Holocaust referred to these mass killings or in other words, “genocide” (genocide because it was intended to end the whole race of Jews so all those genes would disappear from the gene pool). From 1941 to 1945 six million Jews were killed which included 1.5 million children. This operation of mass murders is considered one of the deadliest that has ever happened. Not only the Jews, the Germans targeted other races too who they considered inferior, like the gypsies and the Slavic people.
It all began when Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933. At that time the number of Jews that existed were approximately 9 million. This was something unacceptable to Hitler as he considered them racially inferior. Therefore, he proposed a plan named as “the final solution” to eliminate Jews completely and this operation was later renamed the Holocaust. Even before Hitler came to power (in 1919), he wrote, “Rational anti-Semitism, however, must lead to systematic legal opposition and its final objective must unswervingly be the removal of the Jews altogether.” To this anti-Semitism, later racial aspect was also added.
Thus soon after Hitler took over the office, his main aim was to culminate the non-Aryans and of course his policy of expansion. Laws were made to restrict the marriage between Germans and Jews and the Jews were also not given the basic rights. Therefore, the Jews tried their best to move out of Germany. The ones who were left behind suffered. This happened till 1940 after the expansion policy of Hitler accelerated. At this time, the religious institutions of Germany and the famous leaders expressed their resentment towards Hitler’s attitude and hence he stopped his regime even though secret killings continued.
The expansion policy still continued and in 1941, the Soviet Union was captured. This was the time when Hitler’s policy of eliminating the Jews gained momentum and a policy named “the final solution” came up. Beginning from that time, every Jew was openly killed and there was no stop. Mass gassings began so that maximum people could be killed in a go. The first targets were the old, sick and children. And of course, since there was gassing, along with the Jews many other people also succumbed to it.
As the World War II came to an end and Germany lost its power with Hitler committing suicide the Holocaust too came to an end but the aftermath was devastating. Things could not be restored quickly since so many people had lost their lives.
Watch the narration of the spine-chilling experience that Eva Mozes Kor and her twin sister faced during the Holocaust, as they were used as a human experiment on being Mengele twins. | 698 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Public health, preparedness and the World Health Organization response to swine flu in 2009
From March 1918 to June 1920, an influenza pandemic swept the world, spreading among the Inuit tribes in the Arctic and to remote Pacific Islanders, killing over 10 million people in the Indian subcontinent. It is estimated that about one in three people was infected and that between 50 and 100 million people died worldwide. At the start of the epidemic, the medical profession believed that influenza was caused by Pfeiffer’s bacillus, but by the end, they were convinced that this was no bacterial disease, but a form of respiratory infection spread by secretions, spitting, coughs and sneezes. There was no cure and supportive therapies were limited, though quacks abounded and recommended strange potions to prevent disease. Unlike the seasonal flu, this new version, or “Spanish flu”, killed mainly young people, with between 2% and 20% of those infected dying. Bodies were buried without coffins in mass graves because there were not enough coffin makers or grave diggers to cope with the number of deaths. By some estimates, 3-6% of the world’s population died in two years. In today’s world, that would mean wiping out the entire population of North America.
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... | 2 | Public health, preparedness and the World Health Organization response to swine flu in 2009
From March 1918 to June 1920, an influenza pandemic swept the world, spreading among the Inuit tribes in the Arctic and to remote Pacific Islanders, killing over 10 million people in the Indian subcontinent. It is estimated that about one in three people was infected and that between 50 and 100 million people died worldwide. At the start of the epidemic, the medical profession believed that influenza was caused by Pfeiffer’s bacillus, but by the end, they were convinced that this was no bacterial disease, but a form of respiratory infection spread by secretions, spitting, coughs and sneezes. There was no cure and supportive therapies were limited, though quacks abounded and recommended strange potions to prevent disease. Unlike the seasonal flu, this new version, or “Spanish flu”, killed mainly young people, with between 2% and 20% of those infected dying. Bodies were buried without coffins in mass graves because there were not enough coffin makers or grave diggers to cope with the number of deaths. By some estimates, 3-6% of the world’s population died in two years. In today’s world, that would mean wiping out the entire population of North America.
There are currently no refbacks. | 286 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Pilgrims wanted to celebrate their bountiful harvest, as was the English custom, with a time of feasting and rest from fieldwork. While they did give thanks to God, they did not consider this festival a "thanksgiving," which to them was a religious time of prayer and fasting.
The men hunted game birds in preparation. The neighboring Wampanoags joined the festivities, bringing the venison of five deer. Together, there were 53 surviving colonists and about 90 natives. Besides the wild game, the menu included cod and bass, the harvest wheat and corn, and perhaps barley and peas.
Additional native foods were seafood, nuts, squashes, and beans. Strawberries, raspberries, and grapes grew wild. House-gardens may have included vegetables such as onions, lettuce, carrots, and radishes. With no oven and most likely a depleted sugar supply, the feast did not include pies, cakes, or other baked desserts.
The feast was not one big sit-down meal, as we know Thanksgiving today. The Pilgrims and their guests feasted for three whole days. Between meals, they amused themselves with "recreations" that probably included games, displays of strength and skill, and singing and dancing. They also demonstrated their weapons skills with muskets and bows and arrows.
At the end of the great feast, the Wampanoags returned home, and the Pilgrims returned to their daily work. Thus the Pilgrims celebrated their survival and their hope for abundance and good fortune in the coming year.
The Pilgrims did not have forks. They ate with spoons, knives, their fingers, and large napkins.
Plates and drinking cups were often shared at the table.
Children served meals to their parents before sitting down to eat.
The largest meal of the day, called dinner or "noon-meat," was eaten at noon. Supper was a small meal eaten in the evening. Breakfast usually consisted of leftovers.
While the Pilgrims had a set eating schedule, the Wampanoags simply ate whenever they were hungry from pots of food that cooked all day long. | <urn:uuid:17405f4b-5cdb-48ff-aad9-cd390eb94c0b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.okmayflower.com/first-thanksgiving | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00307.warc.gz | en | 0.988403 | 444 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
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0.1124774292111... | 10 | The Pilgrims wanted to celebrate their bountiful harvest, as was the English custom, with a time of feasting and rest from fieldwork. While they did give thanks to God, they did not consider this festival a "thanksgiving," which to them was a religious time of prayer and fasting.
The men hunted game birds in preparation. The neighboring Wampanoags joined the festivities, bringing the venison of five deer. Together, there were 53 surviving colonists and about 90 natives. Besides the wild game, the menu included cod and bass, the harvest wheat and corn, and perhaps barley and peas.
Additional native foods were seafood, nuts, squashes, and beans. Strawberries, raspberries, and grapes grew wild. House-gardens may have included vegetables such as onions, lettuce, carrots, and radishes. With no oven and most likely a depleted sugar supply, the feast did not include pies, cakes, or other baked desserts.
The feast was not one big sit-down meal, as we know Thanksgiving today. The Pilgrims and their guests feasted for three whole days. Between meals, they amused themselves with "recreations" that probably included games, displays of strength and skill, and singing and dancing. They also demonstrated their weapons skills with muskets and bows and arrows.
At the end of the great feast, the Wampanoags returned home, and the Pilgrims returned to their daily work. Thus the Pilgrims celebrated their survival and their hope for abundance and good fortune in the coming year.
The Pilgrims did not have forks. They ate with spoons, knives, their fingers, and large napkins.
Plates and drinking cups were often shared at the table.
Children served meals to their parents before sitting down to eat.
The largest meal of the day, called dinner or "noon-meat," was eaten at noon. Supper was a small meal eaten in the evening. Breakfast usually consisted of leftovers.
While the Pilgrims had a set eating schedule, the Wampanoags simply ate whenever they were hungry from pots of food that cooked all day long. | 441 | ENGLISH | 1 |
FREE Catholic Classes
Second Lord Baltimore, founder of Maryland, born 1606, died 1675. At the age of thirteen, he entered Trinity College, Oxford, where he was educated. In 1629 he married Anne Arundell, of Wardour. When his father died, in 1632, the charter of Maryland was granted to Cecilius, who was made a palatine, and "Absolute Lord of Maryland and Avalon." It was Lord Baltimore's intention, at first to come to America with the colonists, but as there were many enemies of his colonial project at home, he concluded to send his brothers, Leonard and George, at the head of the expedition. The former was appointed governor. The enemies of the charter, chiefly members of the London Company, did everything in their power to defeat the objects of the proprietor. It was claimed that the charter interfered with the grant of land of the Virginia Company and that, owing to its liberality, it would attract people from other colonies and depopulate them. The arguments of the enemies of the charter were of no avail, and finally the colonists, numbering twenty gentlemen and about three hundred labourers, embarked on the Ark and the Dove, in the harbour of Cowes, Nov., 1633. Before sailing, Leonard received instructions for the government of the colonists. Religious toleration was the keynote of Baltimore's policy throughout his long career. In spite of the fact that the Catholics were persecuted when Calvert's government was overthrown, every time his authority was restored persecution ceased and every faith had equal rights. When the Puritans were persecuted in Massachusetts, Baltimore offered them a refuge in Maryland, with freedom of worship.
Lord Baltimore paid for the expedition, which cost him in the first two years forty thousand pounds in transportation, provisions, and stores. He provided them not only with the necessity but also many of the conveniences adapted to a new country. So well were they equipped for the founding of a colony that it was said they as much progress in six months as Virginia made in many years. Unable to go with the first settlers he believed that he could soon follow them to Maryland. The privilege was forever denied him, as the enemies of his charter kept him at home fighting fore his rights. His absence from the colony produced a peculiar condition, the absence of laws. The charter gave the proprietor the right to make laws with the advice and consent of the freemen. The latter met in 1634-35 and passed "wholesome laws and ordinances." Feeling that this act had infringed on his rights, in his commission to the governor, April, 1637, the proprietor expressed his disapproval of all laws passed by the colonists. For the endorsement of the assembly of 1637-38, he sent a body of laws with his secretary, John Lewger. These laws were rejected by the assembly, as they were considered unsuited to the colony. A few laws not differing materially from those sent by Baltimore were agreed to and sent to the proprietor for his consent. At first his approval was withheld, and the colony was without laws. Later, however, his sanction was given to the laws in a commission to the governor, authorizing him to give his assent to the laws made by the freemen, which would make the laws binding until they were either approved or rejected by the proprietor. With this commission the privilege of initiative in matters of legislation was conceded to the colonists, the proprietor retaining the right of absolute veto. As this power was never used by Baltimore except in extreme cases, the colonists practically enjoyed freedom in self-government.
The difficulties between Baltimore and the Jesuits were very difficult for the welfare of the colony. Jesuit priests were on the first expedition. From the Indians they received grants of large tracts of land. Baltimore objected to this, believing that any other grants than those coming from the proprietor were illegal. The Jesuits believed that they, their domestic servants, and half their planting servants should be exempted from taxation and military service; that they and their adherents should not be tried by the civil authority in temporal matters; and that they should have the same privileges here that were enjoyed by religious orders in Catholic countries. On each of these points, their views clashed with those of the proprietor. Baltimore applied to the Propaganda in Rome "to appoint a prefect and send secular priests to take charge of the Maryland Mission." Dom Rosetti, titular Archbishop of Tarsus, was appointed prefect, and two secular priests were sent to the colony. To this the Jesuits objected, claiming that they were the first on the ground, and had endured great hardships in the interests of the colony. Finally an agreement was entered into between the provincial, acting for the Jesuits, and Baltimore which, if not satisfactory to both parties, closed the matter. The whole affair seems even to this day somewhat cloudy, as good authorities take opposing points of view. Cecilius Calvert ruled over the colony for nearly forty years. Although he never interfered with the administration of details, he ruled at every turn with an iron hand.
Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited.
Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law. | <urn:uuid:c0c46996-36de-4019-9417-69f735e73dda> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.catholic.org/encyclopedia/view.php?id=2414 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00349.warc.gz | en | 0.986725 | 1,170 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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Second Lord Baltimore, founder of Maryland, born 1606, died 1675. At the age of thirteen, he entered Trinity College, Oxford, where he was educated. In 1629 he married Anne Arundell, of Wardour. When his father died, in 1632, the charter of Maryland was granted to Cecilius, who was made a palatine, and "Absolute Lord of Maryland and Avalon." It was Lord Baltimore's intention, at first to come to America with the colonists, but as there were many enemies of his colonial project at home, he concluded to send his brothers, Leonard and George, at the head of the expedition. The former was appointed governor. The enemies of the charter, chiefly members of the London Company, did everything in their power to defeat the objects of the proprietor. It was claimed that the charter interfered with the grant of land of the Virginia Company and that, owing to its liberality, it would attract people from other colonies and depopulate them. The arguments of the enemies of the charter were of no avail, and finally the colonists, numbering twenty gentlemen and about three hundred labourers, embarked on the Ark and the Dove, in the harbour of Cowes, Nov., 1633. Before sailing, Leonard received instructions for the government of the colonists. Religious toleration was the keynote of Baltimore's policy throughout his long career. In spite of the fact that the Catholics were persecuted when Calvert's government was overthrown, every time his authority was restored persecution ceased and every faith had equal rights. When the Puritans were persecuted in Massachusetts, Baltimore offered them a refuge in Maryland, with freedom of worship.
Lord Baltimore paid for the expedition, which cost him in the first two years forty thousand pounds in transportation, provisions, and stores. He provided them not only with the necessity but also many of the conveniences adapted to a new country. So well were they equipped for the founding of a colony that it was said they as much progress in six months as Virginia made in many years. Unable to go with the first settlers he believed that he could soon follow them to Maryland. The privilege was forever denied him, as the enemies of his charter kept him at home fighting fore his rights. His absence from the colony produced a peculiar condition, the absence of laws. The charter gave the proprietor the right to make laws with the advice and consent of the freemen. The latter met in 1634-35 and passed "wholesome laws and ordinances." Feeling that this act had infringed on his rights, in his commission to the governor, April, 1637, the proprietor expressed his disapproval of all laws passed by the colonists. For the endorsement of the assembly of 1637-38, he sent a body of laws with his secretary, John Lewger. These laws were rejected by the assembly, as they were considered unsuited to the colony. A few laws not differing materially from those sent by Baltimore were agreed to and sent to the proprietor for his consent. At first his approval was withheld, and the colony was without laws. Later, however, his sanction was given to the laws in a commission to the governor, authorizing him to give his assent to the laws made by the freemen, which would make the laws binding until they were either approved or rejected by the proprietor. With this commission the privilege of initiative in matters of legislation was conceded to the colonists, the proprietor retaining the right of absolute veto. As this power was never used by Baltimore except in extreme cases, the colonists practically enjoyed freedom in self-government.
The difficulties between Baltimore and the Jesuits were very difficult for the welfare of the colony. Jesuit priests were on the first expedition. From the Indians they received grants of large tracts of land. Baltimore objected to this, believing that any other grants than those coming from the proprietor were illegal. The Jesuits believed that they, their domestic servants, and half their planting servants should be exempted from taxation and military service; that they and their adherents should not be tried by the civil authority in temporal matters; and that they should have the same privileges here that were enjoyed by religious orders in Catholic countries. On each of these points, their views clashed with those of the proprietor. Baltimore applied to the Propaganda in Rome "to appoint a prefect and send secular priests to take charge of the Maryland Mission." Dom Rosetti, titular Archbishop of Tarsus, was appointed prefect, and two secular priests were sent to the colony. To this the Jesuits objected, claiming that they were the first on the ground, and had endured great hardships in the interests of the colony. Finally an agreement was entered into between the provincial, acting for the Jesuits, and Baltimore which, if not satisfactory to both parties, closed the matter. The whole affair seems even to this day somewhat cloudy, as good authorities take opposing points of view. Cecilius Calvert ruled over the colony for nearly forty years. Although he never interfered with the administration of details, he ruled at every turn with an iron hand.
Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited.
Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law. | 1,209 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Water on exoplanets less than scientists expected, according to new study
When it comes to finding inhabitable planets in space, one of the most important things that must be present for any sort of long-term living situation is water. If there's no water on a planet, that basically rules it out as being a viable option for human colonization in the future. Researchers believe there may be a decent amount on Mars just below the surface in the form of ice, as well as elsewhere throughout the universe. One such source, according to many scientists, would be exoplanets. Many have been thought to contain water, but a new study has confirmed that there may actually be less water on exoplanets than previously thought.
Scientists gathered a series of data points from across 19 exoplanets via both ground- and space-based telescopes. They analyzed worlds that remain nearly ablaze at around 3,630 degrees Fahrenheit to a comfortable 70 degrees as well as planets as large as 600 times Earth's mass to come to a startling conclusion. While water vapor was indeed common in 14 of the 19 worlds explored, it was less than what was projected based on the amount of carbon relative to hydrogen in their atmospheres.
The silver lining that came along with this extensive research, however, is that there was detailed measurement data available for the planets in question.
"The fact that we are making detailed measurements of water vapor in exoplanets is remarkable, because we have not yet made any significant detection of water for the giant planets in our own solar system," study co-author Nikku Madhusudhan told Space.com. "We can measure water better with exoplanets than in our own solar system."
The only issue that arose was that there was much less than predicted. The rest of the chemicals that made of the exoplanets' atmospheres were mainly sodium and potassium, which were mostly in line with what scientists had predicted. Water vapor was the only "problem child," so to speak, since there was much less of it, which researchers called "a big surprise."
Previous studies had suggested that exoplanets rich in certain elements, other than carbon, would also be high in water. For example, if a larger exoplanet with additional mass was rich in oxygen, it was assumed that water (an oxygen-bearing molecule) would also be found in abundance there. However, that was not the case.
With these findings in mind, scientists are re-evaluating what they know about the way planets accrue matter and chemicals such as oxygen, as well as how the Solar System's planets could have been formed in the past.
"There may be ways of making a giant planet that is underabundant in oxygen and therefore water," Madhusudhan explained. "By looking at exoplanets, we are reconsidering how planets may have also formed in our own solar system."
Scientists aren't putting a pin in their research yet, not by a long shot. In fact, they'll be continuing to inspect additional exoplanets to see if the trends they discovered previously continue throughout the rest of the solar system and beyond. With each new helping of information, it's possible that we might one day be able to complete the picture of which planets are rich in water and which ones are not. | <urn:uuid:8b6813d9-c8b9-4099-807b-8116d689152b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mic.com/p/water-on-exoplanets-less-than-scientists-expected-according-to-new-study-19739544 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00316.warc.gz | en | 0.984559 | 674 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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When it comes to finding inhabitable planets in space, one of the most important things that must be present for any sort of long-term living situation is water. If there's no water on a planet, that basically rules it out as being a viable option for human colonization in the future. Researchers believe there may be a decent amount on Mars just below the surface in the form of ice, as well as elsewhere throughout the universe. One such source, according to many scientists, would be exoplanets. Many have been thought to contain water, but a new study has confirmed that there may actually be less water on exoplanets than previously thought.
Scientists gathered a series of data points from across 19 exoplanets via both ground- and space-based telescopes. They analyzed worlds that remain nearly ablaze at around 3,630 degrees Fahrenheit to a comfortable 70 degrees as well as planets as large as 600 times Earth's mass to come to a startling conclusion. While water vapor was indeed common in 14 of the 19 worlds explored, it was less than what was projected based on the amount of carbon relative to hydrogen in their atmospheres.
The silver lining that came along with this extensive research, however, is that there was detailed measurement data available for the planets in question.
"The fact that we are making detailed measurements of water vapor in exoplanets is remarkable, because we have not yet made any significant detection of water for the giant planets in our own solar system," study co-author Nikku Madhusudhan told Space.com. "We can measure water better with exoplanets than in our own solar system."
The only issue that arose was that there was much less than predicted. The rest of the chemicals that made of the exoplanets' atmospheres were mainly sodium and potassium, which were mostly in line with what scientists had predicted. Water vapor was the only "problem child," so to speak, since there was much less of it, which researchers called "a big surprise."
Previous studies had suggested that exoplanets rich in certain elements, other than carbon, would also be high in water. For example, if a larger exoplanet with additional mass was rich in oxygen, it was assumed that water (an oxygen-bearing molecule) would also be found in abundance there. However, that was not the case.
With these findings in mind, scientists are re-evaluating what they know about the way planets accrue matter and chemicals such as oxygen, as well as how the Solar System's planets could have been formed in the past.
"There may be ways of making a giant planet that is underabundant in oxygen and therefore water," Madhusudhan explained. "By looking at exoplanets, we are reconsidering how planets may have also formed in our own solar system."
Scientists aren't putting a pin in their research yet, not by a long shot. In fact, they'll be continuing to inspect additional exoplanets to see if the trends they discovered previously continue throughout the rest of the solar system and beyond. With each new helping of information, it's possible that we might one day be able to complete the picture of which planets are rich in water and which ones are not. | 674 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By 1700 the New England and the Chesapeake regions had evolved into two distinct societies, despite the fact that people of English origin had largely settled both of these regions. The emigrants on the ships bound for New England were mainly made up of families. Alternatively, the emigrants on the ships that were bound for Virginia were largely made up of men. Few of these emigrants headed for Virginia were women. In Massachusetts, all people, whether rich or poor, were given a convenient proportion for a house lot and everyone was given a share of the meadow or planting ground. In Virginia, on the other hand, the rich were treated with much greater superiority than the poor. This difference in society occurred due to the fact that the New England region was mainly composed of families and all people were treated with respect, rich or poor. The Chesapeake region was primarily constructed of men and the well-to-do people were treated with much greater respect and supremacy.
Although New England and the Chesapeake region were both settled .
largely by the people of English origin, by 1700 the regions had .
evolved into two distinct societies. The reasons for this distinct .
development were mostly based on the type on people from England who .
chose to settle in the two areas, and on the manner in which the areas .
were settled. .
New England was a refuge for religious separatists leaving England, .
while people who immigrated to the Chesapeake region had no religious .
motives. As a result, New England formed a much more religious society .
then the Chesapeake region. John Winthrop states that their goal was to .
form "a city upon a hill", which represented a "pure" community, where .
Christianity would be pursued in the most correct manner. Both the .
Pilgrims and the Puritans were very religious people. In both cases, .
the local government was controlled by the same people who controlled .
the church, and the bible was the basis for all laws and regulations. | <urn:uuid:53d9f797-c0b9-484a-a5a6-eec2fdd6bcfb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/63473.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00225.warc.gz | en | 0.991102 | 417 | 4.21875 | 4 | [
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Although New England and the Chesapeake region were both settled .
largely by the people of English origin, by 1700 the regions had .
evolved into two distinct societies. The reasons for this distinct .
development were mostly based on the type on people from England who .
chose to settle in the two areas, and on the manner in which the areas .
were settled. .
New England was a refuge for religious separatists leaving England, .
while people who immigrated to the Chesapeake region had no religious .
motives. As a result, New England formed a much more religious society .
then the Chesapeake region. John Winthrop states that their goal was to .
form "a city upon a hill", which represented a "pure" community, where .
Christianity would be pursued in the most correct manner. Both the .
Pilgrims and the Puritans were very religious people. In both cases, .
the local government was controlled by the same people who controlled .
the church, and the bible was the basis for all laws and regulations. | 410 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There are four villages in the town: Merrimack Village (formerly known as Souhegan Village), Thornton's Ferry, Reed's Ferry, and South Merrimack.
The first known settlers of the area currently known as Merrimack appeared sometime after the last ice age. European settlers first came to the area in the late 17th century when the area was still in dispute between the Province of New Hampshire and Massachusetts Bay Colony.
Merrimack is a Native American term meaning sturgeon, a type of fish. The Pennacook Indians named the Merrimack River after this fish because of the vast population that once existed there. The Penacooks spelled it Monnomoke or Merramake. "When the town was incorporated, it took the name of the river and spelled it Merrymac.", according to the Merrimack Historical Society.
Merrimack was officially incorporated in 1746, a year largely regarded as Merrimack's birthday, although only the southern portion (primarily what is known as Thornton's Ferry) of the current boundaries of town was included in the original town, with the northern portion of what is now Merrimack (primarily what is known as Reed's Ferry) being added a few years later.
As of the census of 2000, there were 25,119 people, 8,832 households, and 6,986 families residing in the town. The population density was 770.6 people per square mile (297.5/km²). There were 8,959 housing units at an average density of 274.8 per square mile (106.1/km²). The racial makeup of the town was 96.58% White, 0.73% African American, 0.19% Native American, 1.50% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 0.21% from other races, and 0.74% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.08% of the population.
There were 8,832 households out of which 41.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 68.1% were married couples living together, 7.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 20.9% were non-families. 15.8% of all households were made up of individuals and 3.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.84 and the average family size was 3.19.
In the town the population was spread out with 29.0% under the age of 18, 5.8% from 18 to 24, 34.2% from 25 to 44, 24.7% from 45 to 64, and 6.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females there were 99.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.7 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $68,817, and the median income for a family was $72,011. Males had a median income of $51,725 versus $31,528 for females. The per capita income for the town was $27,748. About 1.2% of families and 1.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2.9% of those under age 18 and 3.1% of those age 65 or over.
Merrimack, NH Properties
Copyright 2020 New England Real Estate Network, Inc. All rights reserved. This information is deemed reliable, but not guaranteed. The data relating to real estate displayed on this Site comes in part from the IDX Program of NEREN. The information being provided is for consumers' personal, non-commercial use and may not be used for any purpose other than to identify prospective properties consumers may be interested in purchasing. Data last updated Jan 20, 2020 6:11:pm. | <urn:uuid:837c1cc9-8de4-4e3d-b1d1-6d0b94dc1d13> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.findnashuahome.com/community/id/95623/area/Merrimack%2C%20NH/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00324.warc.gz | en | 0.983177 | 817 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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-0.002750173... | 1 | There are four villages in the town: Merrimack Village (formerly known as Souhegan Village), Thornton's Ferry, Reed's Ferry, and South Merrimack.
The first known settlers of the area currently known as Merrimack appeared sometime after the last ice age. European settlers first came to the area in the late 17th century when the area was still in dispute between the Province of New Hampshire and Massachusetts Bay Colony.
Merrimack is a Native American term meaning sturgeon, a type of fish. The Pennacook Indians named the Merrimack River after this fish because of the vast population that once existed there. The Penacooks spelled it Monnomoke or Merramake. "When the town was incorporated, it took the name of the river and spelled it Merrymac.", according to the Merrimack Historical Society.
Merrimack was officially incorporated in 1746, a year largely regarded as Merrimack's birthday, although only the southern portion (primarily what is known as Thornton's Ferry) of the current boundaries of town was included in the original town, with the northern portion of what is now Merrimack (primarily what is known as Reed's Ferry) being added a few years later.
As of the census of 2000, there were 25,119 people, 8,832 households, and 6,986 families residing in the town. The population density was 770.6 people per square mile (297.5/km²). There were 8,959 housing units at an average density of 274.8 per square mile (106.1/km²). The racial makeup of the town was 96.58% White, 0.73% African American, 0.19% Native American, 1.50% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 0.21% from other races, and 0.74% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.08% of the population.
There were 8,832 households out of which 41.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 68.1% were married couples living together, 7.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 20.9% were non-families. 15.8% of all households were made up of individuals and 3.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.84 and the average family size was 3.19.
In the town the population was spread out with 29.0% under the age of 18, 5.8% from 18 to 24, 34.2% from 25 to 44, 24.7% from 45 to 64, and 6.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 36 years. For every 100 females there were 99.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.7 males.
The median income for a household in the town was $68,817, and the median income for a family was $72,011. Males had a median income of $51,725 versus $31,528 for females. The per capita income for the town was $27,748. About 1.2% of families and 1.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2.9% of those under age 18 and 3.1% of those age 65 or over.
Merrimack, NH Properties
Copyright 2020 New England Real Estate Network, Inc. All rights reserved. This information is deemed reliable, but not guaranteed. The data relating to real estate displayed on this Site comes in part from the IDX Program of NEREN. The information being provided is for consumers' personal, non-commercial use and may not be used for any purpose other than to identify prospective properties consumers may be interested in purchasing. Data last updated Jan 20, 2020 6:11:pm. | 949 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The church with Rev. Gloucester’s burial marker. No one knows what has become of that.
By Kellie Patrick Gates
Born a slave in Tennessee, Stephen H. Gloucester spent his adult life in Philadelphia, fighting for the freedom, education and civil rights of African Americans in 19th Century America.
He ran a school for black children, assisted the Underground Railroad, founded at least two anti-slavery societies, and was one of the publishers of the Colored American, described by The Black Abolitionist Papers as perhaps the most important African American publication of its time.
Reverend Gloucester was already nationally known in 1844, when he founded Lombard Street Central Presbyterian Church. But nearly 160 years after his death, Gloucester’s grave lay unmarked and unknown to most in modern Philadelphia.
That is about to change.
This is the story of the husband-and-wife team of developers, two archaeologists and an anthropologist who found Gloucester’s remains in front of the white, Greek Revival church he founded, and the efforts they and a group of church leaders are taking to honor his memory and resurrect his legacy.
The Gloucester History
Stephen Gloucester was born in 1802, one of the four sons of John Gloucester, who was the first African American to become an ordained Presbyterian minister in the United States.
According to a brief biography posted on the website of the John Gloucester House – an outreach center operated by the Philadelphia Presbytery in Point Breeze – the elder Gloucester was purchased by a white Presbyterian minister named Gideon Blackburn, who saw in him potential for the ministry. He was ordained in Tennessee, but came to Philadelphia in 1807 at the request of Archibald Alexander, a Presbyterian minister and chairman of the Evangelical Society of Philadelphia.
John Gloucester founded The First African Presbyterian Church at Girard Avenue and 42nd Street, which had 123 members by 1811. He traveled as far as England to borrow money from friends – including Benjamin Rush – in hopes of buying his family’s freedom. When Stephen Gloucester was 12, his father purchased his freedom for $400, and he joined him in Philadelphia. (John Gloucester was also able to purchase the freedom of his wife and his other three sons, who also became ministers.)
In adulthood, Stephen Gloucester became an activist.
Between 1820 and 1840, Reverend Gloucester ran a school for black children and established a reading room for black adults. He was among the group of people primarily responsible for Underground Railroad activities in this city. He organized the Leavitt Anti-Slavery Society and encouraged black churches to start similar groups, and was one of eight black pastors who founded the American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society.
In 1938, he became a publisher and proprietor of the Colored American. The publication advocated for abolition, educational improvements, and civil rights while rallying against prejudice and oppression.
In 1831, Gloucester married Anne Crusoe of Washington, D.C. and raised a family with her. Gloucester was a talented fundraiser who held fairs in Philadelphia and New York to raise money to pay off the Second African Presbyterian Church’s debts. The Gloucesters did not themselves become wealthy, however. Anne took in washing and Stephen sold used clothes to supplement their income.
When the pastor of Second African Presbyterian died, the congregation appointed Gloucester to take over. But the church became a victim of the prejudice and oppression that Gloucester fought.
A mob destroyed Second African Presbyterian in the 1842 race riots. The event profoundly changed Gloucester’s personality and activism in ways that led some abolitionists to condemn him.
After the church was destroyed, he feared for the safety of his family and other black people as a direct result of abolitionist activities.
According to the Black Abolitionist Papers, “he became cautious, defensive and accommodating. In soliciting funds to build a new church, he publicly disavowed his church’s involvement with abolitionism.” Gloucester did not change his anti-slavery stance, nor did he cease his work to help the black community. But he distanced himself from the abolitionist movement, and took on a less aggressive demeanor.
In 1844, Gloucester became the founding pastor at Lombard Street Central Presbyterian Church – a church that was formed after the congregation of Second Presbyterian split into two factions.
While in Britain in 1847, Gloucester spoke both to the British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society and the Free Church of Scotland, which, according to the Abolitionist Papers, was known to associate with slaveholders. He criticized the abolitionist movement as “violent, impolitic and detrimental to the anti-slavery cause,” thus enraging abolitionists at home and abroad.
Frederick Douglass is said to have called Gloucester “one of the vilest traitors to his race that ever lived.”
This schism with other activists led Gloucester to concentrate on his church, which moved into the white, Greek Revival-style building on the 800 block of Lombard upon its completion in 1848. The church eventually dropped the “street” in its name and became known as Lombard Central Presbyterian. In 1850 while on a church-related trip to Reading, Gloucester died of pneumonia. President Abraham Lincoln would not sign the Emancipation Proclamation for another 13 years.
Gloucester’s congregation buried him in a brick vault in the front of the building he had raised money to construct. There they placed a marble obelisk, inscribed:
Rev. Stephen Henry Gloucester
First Pastor of the
Lombard St. Central Presbyterian Church
Died May 21st, 1850
Erected by the Congregation and Citizens among whom he labored, as an expression of esteem and affection for him – a devoted and successful minister of Jesus Christ.
In 1880, Ann Gloucester died, and her remains were placed with her husband in the brick vault.
At some point since an 1895 photograph was taken, the large obelisk that marked the Gloucesters’ grave went missing.
In 1939, the congregation outgrew their original church, which is on the National Register of Historic Places, and moved to a historic former Quaker meeting house on Powelton Avenue in West Philadelphia.
Lombard Church Elder Jerry Cousins, 82, said he was not a member back then, but his late wife was. Cousins, who joined the church 10 years later, said the congregants knew their founding pastor was there. “They didn’t have a burial spot, so they just left the remains where they were,” he said.
For a time after the Lombard Church left, another church held services there. But developers Naomi Alter-Ohayon and Isaac Ohayon say the building had been vacant for at least 50 years when they bought it about four years ago.
The Ohayons had considered buying the former church more than a decade earlier, when it was up for auction. “I’ve always loved it since the first time I saw it,” Isaac Ohayon said. They offered $35,000. The couple was just starting their rehab and development business, Masada Custom Builders, and Naomi Ohayon said she was intimidated by the building. When someone else bid $45,000, they let it go.
But while the couple was gaining experience – including the renovation of their own home, which they had planned to sell but couldn’t part with – nothing ever happened with the building they were so drawn to. So four years ago, they bought it for $500,000 – a price which included rotting wood, a small flock of pigeons, and a tiny kitten who is now the Ohayon’s fat cat, Whiskers.
The couple is now in the process of converting the worn-out structure into a 10,000 square foot luxury home they hope to sell for $4.95 million. This past summer, while beginning the landscaping for the front yard, workers hit a piece of slate.
“We removed the slate, and we found a hole,” Isaac said. They also saw the domed brick vault. They called the Historical Commission, a group they were already working with to get assistance in accurately restoring the church’s façade, and learned that the Gloucesters had been buried there.
There is no law requiring the developers to move the remains. But the Ohayons said they did not feel right leaving anyone buried and forgotten beneath a front lawn. And the more they found out about Stephen Gloucester, the more intrigued they became.
At the Historical Commission’s suggestion, the Ohayons called The Philadelphia Presbytery and an archaeologist.
The Archaeology Team
Senior Archaeologist Douglas Mooney, Project Archaeologist, Kim Morrell and Forensic Anthropologist Thomas Crist, all with URS Corporation, Inc. of Fort Washington, spent the past week at and in the Gloucester’s vault.
Mooney did not at first expect to find the Gloucester’s remains in the vault. He knew Lombard Central had moved, and he thought there was a strong possibility that they had taken their pastor and his wife with them.
Mooney had heard second-hand that someone had broken into the grave in the past. When he began working at the site, he saw a jagged hole cut into the vault. “Someone had been in the vault before,” he said.
But everyone wanted to be certain, so they began removing the six feet of soil the vault contained.
Not only were human remains found, but there are three sets. The third is thought to be those of John Winrow, a member of the congregation who died in 1853 and requested to be interred in the vault, Mooney said.
On Friday, the archaeology team removed the remains from the vault as snow steadily fell.
“Snow is better than rain,” Crist said. “Rain is the enemy of archaeology, because all the dirt turns to mud, and nothing will go through the screen.”
Morrell – who has been involved with the re-interment of several thousand sets of remains – gingerly brushed away the last layers of dirt.
No caskets remained in the vault, she said. There were some small wooden fragments, but the rest of the wood had dissolved into “just something like a clay-like smear,” she said.
She handed Mooney some remnants that did survive: A handle, thought to be brass, and some ornamental elements made from a lead alloy. A few minutes later, her brushing revealed several white buttons.
“These would have been at the elbow,” she said.
Mooney said in an email Saturday morning that all evidence at the site backs up the documentary evidence that the vault contained the remains of the Gloucesters and Winrow. Now Crist, who works for URS on an as-needed basis but spends much of his time teaching at Utica College, will use forensics for the final confirmation.
Each set of remains will be identified. The bones reveal ethnicity, gender and age. The team already knows that Rev. Gloucester was 48 when he died, and, assuming Ann Gloucester was roughly her husband’s age, she would have been in her 70s when she died. Two sets of remains were found on the bottom of the vault, Mooney said, and they would be the two people who died first – Rev. Gloucester and Winrow. If Winrow and the pastor were the same age, the placement of Ann Gloucester would identify her husband – her casket would have been placed on top of his.
The Ohayons estimate that the work of finding, recovering and reburying the remains has added about five months and $15,000 to their project, but they have no regrets.
“We didn’t feel like it was right to just cover it up and move on,” Naomi Ohayon said. “We wanted to do something respectful.
Mooney praised the couple for their decision. “This is someone who deserves a place where people could go to his grave site.”
Two Churches, the Past and the Present
Reverend and Mrs. Gloucester – and almost certainly Mr. Winrow – will have a public, marked resting place.
Soon after he realized who was buried in front of the property, Isaac Ohayon visited the new Lombard Central Church in West Philadelphia.
He went early, hoping to talk to someone before services began, but things had already gotten started when he arrived. “The service was amazing, full of soul and music,” he said. The woman leading the service, Anna Grant, asked visitors to identify themselves, and Ohayon was welcomed.
During the service, Grant said, “I feel something happening, there is something that I feel right now.” Considering his mission was to tell church members that the remains of their founding pastor had been found, Ohayon was profoundly struck by Grant’s words.
Afterward, he approached Grant to tell her the news about Rev. Gloucester, and she called over Elder Cousins.
Cousins said that old Lombard Central still had no place to bury their first pastor. The Presbytery set out to find a proper burial site. After discussions with the present-day leadership of Lombard Central, the Black Caucus of the Presbytery of Philadelphia, and the National Black Caucus of the Presbyterian Church, the Presbytery contacted Third, Scots and Mariners Presbyterian Church, more commonly known as Old Pine Church.
Donna Irvin, an elder at Old Pine, said accepting the remains was an easy decision. The church has in the past accepted remains in need of a final resting place into their historic graveyard, she said, but this case goes beyond even that: The Gloucesters are part of Old Pine’s family.
The Presbyterian minister who brought Stephen’s father, John Gloucester, to Philadelphia, was pastor of Old Pine. “Archibald Alexander was the mentor of John Gloucester,” Irvin said. “Old Pine and First African Presbyterian Church have through the years celebrated their history together.”
Old Pine is also in the same neighborhood as the Lombard Street church. “We felt we could make them at home in our yard,” Irvin said. “This is where he should be.” Irvin had not heard about the discovery of a third set of remains, but said she could not imagine that John Winrow would be turned away from Old Pine.
The Gloucesters’ grave will be marked with a plaque commemorating Rev. Gloucester’s life. In coming weeks, they will be reburied with a full Christian service attended by members of both Lombard Central and Old Pine. That service will be private, but a public ceremony and commemoration of the Gloucesters will be held later this winter, Irvin said.
Old Pine’s churchyard is open daily until sundown. Congregant Ronn Shaffer has spent a lot of time documenting the lives of the people buried their, Irvin said, and he frequently takes visitors on tour. Soon, Stephen Gloucester will be part of that tour, Irvin said. “This is a chance to reclaim his story, as Old Pine has tried to do with many other people whose stories would have been lost,” she said.
“It means a lot,” said Lombard Central Presbyterian Elder Cousins, who plans to attend the service. “I knew that they were planted there at 9th and Lombard, and I never thought anything like this would come about.”
Cousins said it was very important to honor Stephen Gloucester. “That church was founded in 1844, and there was a lot going on back then,” he said.
“Gloucester was a great man – not just in being a pastor, but in other ways as well,” Cousins said. “All these many years have gone by, and a lot of people, even in the Presbyterian Church, even a lot of African Americans, don’t know too much about him. To have his remains found and replaced again, I think it’s a great thing.”
Gloucester’s Church Today
Lombard Central Presbyterian, the church that left its original home because it outgrew it, now has about 40 members, Cousins said.
It remains a vibrant place of worship today, but it has not always been easy. The church has not had a pastor of its own since 1995. “We’ve struggled ourselves to keep the church going,” Cousins said of the elders and members. Some of the elders became ordained to give sermons, he said. And the church has arrainged for a long stream of guest pastors.
“Thank God, in the last 12 years or so, the pulpit has never been vacant,” Cousins said.
But as the remains of Stephen Gloucester are prepared for burial in a place of honor, the congregation at the church he founded is focused on both the past and the future.
Anna Grant – the woman leading the service when Isaac Ohayon visited – has done most of the preaching at Lombard Central for four years, and all of it since September.
She grew up in Gloucester’s father’s church, First African Presbyterian, and is an ordained Baptist minister. But Rev. Grant is poised to become Lombard Central’s first pastor in more than a decade. The Philadelphia Presbytery is in the process of determining whether to accept her credentials or require her to take the Presbyterian ordination exam, she said.
Grant said while her church would have loved having their founder’s grave on site, Old Pine is really a better place. He will be among prominent Philadelphians – including William Hurry, who rang the Liberty Bell when the Declaration of Independence was signed, and Jarred Ingersoll, who signed the Constitution. At Old Pine, more people will get to learn who Gloucester was, she said.
Grant said she is filled with awe thinking about leading the church founded by a man like Gloucester – and she gets the chills when talking about his focus on education. “Just listening to his accomplishments really encourages me,” said the woman who taught English and reading for 36 years in Philadelphia’s public schools. “We’re going to start an after school program, and maybe even a school.”
Grant has been compiling a history of Lombard Central, and she hopes to create an exhibit. Harriet Tubman spoke at the Lombard Street location, she said, as did William Stills, considered by many to be the father of the Underground Railroad.
The reported rift that occurred between Gloucester and other anti-slavery activists does not trouble Grant, who includes Frederick Douglass among her heroes.
“He stood up for what he believed,” she said of Gloucester. “I admire him for being able to stand up and say that he could see these things becoming too political, too violent,” he said. “What it says to me is that he was not at all concerned about what people thought, but about what he thought was right. I think it took a lot of guts.”
Note: The biographical facts of Gloucester’s life were taken from The Black Abolitionist Papers, Vol. 3, The United States, 1830-1846. C. Peter Ripley, ed., pp. 198-200 and/or provided by archeologist Douglas Mooney, unless otherwise stated.
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0.32943665981292725... | 1 | The church with Rev. Gloucester’s burial marker. No one knows what has become of that.
By Kellie Patrick Gates
Born a slave in Tennessee, Stephen H. Gloucester spent his adult life in Philadelphia, fighting for the freedom, education and civil rights of African Americans in 19th Century America.
He ran a school for black children, assisted the Underground Railroad, founded at least two anti-slavery societies, and was one of the publishers of the Colored American, described by The Black Abolitionist Papers as perhaps the most important African American publication of its time.
Reverend Gloucester was already nationally known in 1844, when he founded Lombard Street Central Presbyterian Church. But nearly 160 years after his death, Gloucester’s grave lay unmarked and unknown to most in modern Philadelphia.
That is about to change.
This is the story of the husband-and-wife team of developers, two archaeologists and an anthropologist who found Gloucester’s remains in front of the white, Greek Revival church he founded, and the efforts they and a group of church leaders are taking to honor his memory and resurrect his legacy.
The Gloucester History
Stephen Gloucester was born in 1802, one of the four sons of John Gloucester, who was the first African American to become an ordained Presbyterian minister in the United States.
According to a brief biography posted on the website of the John Gloucester House – an outreach center operated by the Philadelphia Presbytery in Point Breeze – the elder Gloucester was purchased by a white Presbyterian minister named Gideon Blackburn, who saw in him potential for the ministry. He was ordained in Tennessee, but came to Philadelphia in 1807 at the request of Archibald Alexander, a Presbyterian minister and chairman of the Evangelical Society of Philadelphia.
John Gloucester founded The First African Presbyterian Church at Girard Avenue and 42nd Street, which had 123 members by 1811. He traveled as far as England to borrow money from friends – including Benjamin Rush – in hopes of buying his family’s freedom. When Stephen Gloucester was 12, his father purchased his freedom for $400, and he joined him in Philadelphia. (John Gloucester was also able to purchase the freedom of his wife and his other three sons, who also became ministers.)
In adulthood, Stephen Gloucester became an activist.
Between 1820 and 1840, Reverend Gloucester ran a school for black children and established a reading room for black adults. He was among the group of people primarily responsible for Underground Railroad activities in this city. He organized the Leavitt Anti-Slavery Society and encouraged black churches to start similar groups, and was one of eight black pastors who founded the American and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society.
In 1938, he became a publisher and proprietor of the Colored American. The publication advocated for abolition, educational improvements, and civil rights while rallying against prejudice and oppression.
In 1831, Gloucester married Anne Crusoe of Washington, D.C. and raised a family with her. Gloucester was a talented fundraiser who held fairs in Philadelphia and New York to raise money to pay off the Second African Presbyterian Church’s debts. The Gloucesters did not themselves become wealthy, however. Anne took in washing and Stephen sold used clothes to supplement their income.
When the pastor of Second African Presbyterian died, the congregation appointed Gloucester to take over. But the church became a victim of the prejudice and oppression that Gloucester fought.
A mob destroyed Second African Presbyterian in the 1842 race riots. The event profoundly changed Gloucester’s personality and activism in ways that led some abolitionists to condemn him.
After the church was destroyed, he feared for the safety of his family and other black people as a direct result of abolitionist activities.
According to the Black Abolitionist Papers, “he became cautious, defensive and accommodating. In soliciting funds to build a new church, he publicly disavowed his church’s involvement with abolitionism.” Gloucester did not change his anti-slavery stance, nor did he cease his work to help the black community. But he distanced himself from the abolitionist movement, and took on a less aggressive demeanor.
In 1844, Gloucester became the founding pastor at Lombard Street Central Presbyterian Church – a church that was formed after the congregation of Second Presbyterian split into two factions.
While in Britain in 1847, Gloucester spoke both to the British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society and the Free Church of Scotland, which, according to the Abolitionist Papers, was known to associate with slaveholders. He criticized the abolitionist movement as “violent, impolitic and detrimental to the anti-slavery cause,” thus enraging abolitionists at home and abroad.
Frederick Douglass is said to have called Gloucester “one of the vilest traitors to his race that ever lived.”
This schism with other activists led Gloucester to concentrate on his church, which moved into the white, Greek Revival-style building on the 800 block of Lombard upon its completion in 1848. The church eventually dropped the “street” in its name and became known as Lombard Central Presbyterian. In 1850 while on a church-related trip to Reading, Gloucester died of pneumonia. President Abraham Lincoln would not sign the Emancipation Proclamation for another 13 years.
Gloucester’s congregation buried him in a brick vault in the front of the building he had raised money to construct. There they placed a marble obelisk, inscribed:
Rev. Stephen Henry Gloucester
First Pastor of the
Lombard St. Central Presbyterian Church
Died May 21st, 1850
Erected by the Congregation and Citizens among whom he labored, as an expression of esteem and affection for him – a devoted and successful minister of Jesus Christ.
In 1880, Ann Gloucester died, and her remains were placed with her husband in the brick vault.
At some point since an 1895 photograph was taken, the large obelisk that marked the Gloucesters’ grave went missing.
In 1939, the congregation outgrew their original church, which is on the National Register of Historic Places, and moved to a historic former Quaker meeting house on Powelton Avenue in West Philadelphia.
Lombard Church Elder Jerry Cousins, 82, said he was not a member back then, but his late wife was. Cousins, who joined the church 10 years later, said the congregants knew their founding pastor was there. “They didn’t have a burial spot, so they just left the remains where they were,” he said.
For a time after the Lombard Church left, another church held services there. But developers Naomi Alter-Ohayon and Isaac Ohayon say the building had been vacant for at least 50 years when they bought it about four years ago.
The Ohayons had considered buying the former church more than a decade earlier, when it was up for auction. “I’ve always loved it since the first time I saw it,” Isaac Ohayon said. They offered $35,000. The couple was just starting their rehab and development business, Masada Custom Builders, and Naomi Ohayon said she was intimidated by the building. When someone else bid $45,000, they let it go.
But while the couple was gaining experience – including the renovation of their own home, which they had planned to sell but couldn’t part with – nothing ever happened with the building they were so drawn to. So four years ago, they bought it for $500,000 – a price which included rotting wood, a small flock of pigeons, and a tiny kitten who is now the Ohayon’s fat cat, Whiskers.
The couple is now in the process of converting the worn-out structure into a 10,000 square foot luxury home they hope to sell for $4.95 million. This past summer, while beginning the landscaping for the front yard, workers hit a piece of slate.
“We removed the slate, and we found a hole,” Isaac said. They also saw the domed brick vault. They called the Historical Commission, a group they were already working with to get assistance in accurately restoring the church’s façade, and learned that the Gloucesters had been buried there.
There is no law requiring the developers to move the remains. But the Ohayons said they did not feel right leaving anyone buried and forgotten beneath a front lawn. And the more they found out about Stephen Gloucester, the more intrigued they became.
At the Historical Commission’s suggestion, the Ohayons called The Philadelphia Presbytery and an archaeologist.
The Archaeology Team
Senior Archaeologist Douglas Mooney, Project Archaeologist, Kim Morrell and Forensic Anthropologist Thomas Crist, all with URS Corporation, Inc. of Fort Washington, spent the past week at and in the Gloucester’s vault.
Mooney did not at first expect to find the Gloucester’s remains in the vault. He knew Lombard Central had moved, and he thought there was a strong possibility that they had taken their pastor and his wife with them.
Mooney had heard second-hand that someone had broken into the grave in the past. When he began working at the site, he saw a jagged hole cut into the vault. “Someone had been in the vault before,” he said.
But everyone wanted to be certain, so they began removing the six feet of soil the vault contained.
Not only were human remains found, but there are three sets. The third is thought to be those of John Winrow, a member of the congregation who died in 1853 and requested to be interred in the vault, Mooney said.
On Friday, the archaeology team removed the remains from the vault as snow steadily fell.
“Snow is better than rain,” Crist said. “Rain is the enemy of archaeology, because all the dirt turns to mud, and nothing will go through the screen.”
Morrell – who has been involved with the re-interment of several thousand sets of remains – gingerly brushed away the last layers of dirt.
No caskets remained in the vault, she said. There were some small wooden fragments, but the rest of the wood had dissolved into “just something like a clay-like smear,” she said.
She handed Mooney some remnants that did survive: A handle, thought to be brass, and some ornamental elements made from a lead alloy. A few minutes later, her brushing revealed several white buttons.
“These would have been at the elbow,” she said.
Mooney said in an email Saturday morning that all evidence at the site backs up the documentary evidence that the vault contained the remains of the Gloucesters and Winrow. Now Crist, who works for URS on an as-needed basis but spends much of his time teaching at Utica College, will use forensics for the final confirmation.
Each set of remains will be identified. The bones reveal ethnicity, gender and age. The team already knows that Rev. Gloucester was 48 when he died, and, assuming Ann Gloucester was roughly her husband’s age, she would have been in her 70s when she died. Two sets of remains were found on the bottom of the vault, Mooney said, and they would be the two people who died first – Rev. Gloucester and Winrow. If Winrow and the pastor were the same age, the placement of Ann Gloucester would identify her husband – her casket would have been placed on top of his.
The Ohayons estimate that the work of finding, recovering and reburying the remains has added about five months and $15,000 to their project, but they have no regrets.
“We didn’t feel like it was right to just cover it up and move on,” Naomi Ohayon said. “We wanted to do something respectful.
Mooney praised the couple for their decision. “This is someone who deserves a place where people could go to his grave site.”
Two Churches, the Past and the Present
Reverend and Mrs. Gloucester – and almost certainly Mr. Winrow – will have a public, marked resting place.
Soon after he realized who was buried in front of the property, Isaac Ohayon visited the new Lombard Central Church in West Philadelphia.
He went early, hoping to talk to someone before services began, but things had already gotten started when he arrived. “The service was amazing, full of soul and music,” he said. The woman leading the service, Anna Grant, asked visitors to identify themselves, and Ohayon was welcomed.
During the service, Grant said, “I feel something happening, there is something that I feel right now.” Considering his mission was to tell church members that the remains of their founding pastor had been found, Ohayon was profoundly struck by Grant’s words.
Afterward, he approached Grant to tell her the news about Rev. Gloucester, and she called over Elder Cousins.
Cousins said that old Lombard Central still had no place to bury their first pastor. The Presbytery set out to find a proper burial site. After discussions with the present-day leadership of Lombard Central, the Black Caucus of the Presbytery of Philadelphia, and the National Black Caucus of the Presbyterian Church, the Presbytery contacted Third, Scots and Mariners Presbyterian Church, more commonly known as Old Pine Church.
Donna Irvin, an elder at Old Pine, said accepting the remains was an easy decision. The church has in the past accepted remains in need of a final resting place into their historic graveyard, she said, but this case goes beyond even that: The Gloucesters are part of Old Pine’s family.
The Presbyterian minister who brought Stephen’s father, John Gloucester, to Philadelphia, was pastor of Old Pine. “Archibald Alexander was the mentor of John Gloucester,” Irvin said. “Old Pine and First African Presbyterian Church have through the years celebrated their history together.”
Old Pine is also in the same neighborhood as the Lombard Street church. “We felt we could make them at home in our yard,” Irvin said. “This is where he should be.” Irvin had not heard about the discovery of a third set of remains, but said she could not imagine that John Winrow would be turned away from Old Pine.
The Gloucesters’ grave will be marked with a plaque commemorating Rev. Gloucester’s life. In coming weeks, they will be reburied with a full Christian service attended by members of both Lombard Central and Old Pine. That service will be private, but a public ceremony and commemoration of the Gloucesters will be held later this winter, Irvin said.
Old Pine’s churchyard is open daily until sundown. Congregant Ronn Shaffer has spent a lot of time documenting the lives of the people buried their, Irvin said, and he frequently takes visitors on tour. Soon, Stephen Gloucester will be part of that tour, Irvin said. “This is a chance to reclaim his story, as Old Pine has tried to do with many other people whose stories would have been lost,” she said.
“It means a lot,” said Lombard Central Presbyterian Elder Cousins, who plans to attend the service. “I knew that they were planted there at 9th and Lombard, and I never thought anything like this would come about.”
Cousins said it was very important to honor Stephen Gloucester. “That church was founded in 1844, and there was a lot going on back then,” he said.
“Gloucester was a great man – not just in being a pastor, but in other ways as well,” Cousins said. “All these many years have gone by, and a lot of people, even in the Presbyterian Church, even a lot of African Americans, don’t know too much about him. To have his remains found and replaced again, I think it’s a great thing.”
Gloucester’s Church Today
Lombard Central Presbyterian, the church that left its original home because it outgrew it, now has about 40 members, Cousins said.
It remains a vibrant place of worship today, but it has not always been easy. The church has not had a pastor of its own since 1995. “We’ve struggled ourselves to keep the church going,” Cousins said of the elders and members. Some of the elders became ordained to give sermons, he said. And the church has arrainged for a long stream of guest pastors.
“Thank God, in the last 12 years or so, the pulpit has never been vacant,” Cousins said.
But as the remains of Stephen Gloucester are prepared for burial in a place of honor, the congregation at the church he founded is focused on both the past and the future.
Anna Grant – the woman leading the service when Isaac Ohayon visited – has done most of the preaching at Lombard Central for four years, and all of it since September.
She grew up in Gloucester’s father’s church, First African Presbyterian, and is an ordained Baptist minister. But Rev. Grant is poised to become Lombard Central’s first pastor in more than a decade. The Philadelphia Presbytery is in the process of determining whether to accept her credentials or require her to take the Presbyterian ordination exam, she said.
Grant said while her church would have loved having their founder’s grave on site, Old Pine is really a better place. He will be among prominent Philadelphians – including William Hurry, who rang the Liberty Bell when the Declaration of Independence was signed, and Jarred Ingersoll, who signed the Constitution. At Old Pine, more people will get to learn who Gloucester was, she said.
Grant said she is filled with awe thinking about leading the church founded by a man like Gloucester – and she gets the chills when talking about his focus on education. “Just listening to his accomplishments really encourages me,” said the woman who taught English and reading for 36 years in Philadelphia’s public schools. “We’re going to start an after school program, and maybe even a school.”
Grant has been compiling a history of Lombard Central, and she hopes to create an exhibit. Harriet Tubman spoke at the Lombard Street location, she said, as did William Stills, considered by many to be the father of the Underground Railroad.
The reported rift that occurred between Gloucester and other anti-slavery activists does not trouble Grant, who includes Frederick Douglass among her heroes.
“He stood up for what he believed,” she said of Gloucester. “I admire him for being able to stand up and say that he could see these things becoming too political, too violent,” he said. “What it says to me is that he was not at all concerned about what people thought, but about what he thought was right. I think it took a lot of guts.”
Note: The biographical facts of Gloucester’s life were taken from The Black Abolitionist Papers, Vol. 3, The United States, 1830-1846. C. Peter Ripley, ed., pp. 198-200 and/or provided by archeologist Douglas Mooney, unless otherwise stated.
Contact the reporter at email@example.com | 4,032 | ENGLISH | 1 |
March 28, 2017
Women formed a central part of the abolitionist movement in the years that led up to the civil war and during war time. They participated in many varied ways, from writing and giving speeches to becoming conductors of the Underground Railroad and assisting union soldiers by organizing Sanitary Fairs around the country. There were others who participated in a more unconventional role that afforded them no agency. This is the story of one such woman, or rather, an enslaved girl of 9 years old, and her part in the abolitionist movement.
Plymouth Church in Brooklyn Heights and its Reverend Henry Ward Beecher would often use the enslaved as characters during sermons where he would impersonate an auctioneer and ask the congregation for offerings to purchase the enslaved persons freedom. His emotional and dramatic speeches would encourage the audience into tossing money and jewelry into collection plates; there were several girls and young women that were the subject of these “auctions."
The auction of most renown was that of Sally Maria Diggs, an enslaved 9 year old child who was also known as “Pink” or Pinky due to her fair complexion. Sally was born into slavery. Her mother and 2 brothers were sold by their owner to the state of Virginia and she and her grandmother were sold to a slave owner in Baltimore. Her grandmother was able to secure freedom for herself but not for Sally, so she enlisted the help of Reverend Beecher to secure her granddaughter's freedom. On February 6th, 1860 during an auction service at Plymouth Church led by Beecher, $1100 in money and jewelry was raised to buy Sally’s freedom. Reverend Beecher returned all the jewelry with the exception of a large fire opal ring. At the end of the auction he baptized Sally and gave her the name “Rose Ward” after Rose Terry, a poet who had put the ring in the collection plate, and Ward, his middle name. He placed the ring on Sally’s hand, saying, “With this ring I do wed thee to freedom."
This act and others like it moved Beecher’s congregation and gave them a glimpse of enslavement and the horrors of the slave auction. However to others it was viewed as typical theatrics.
After her auction, Sally Maria Diggs, now known as Rose Ward, slipped away into anonymity. She lived in Brooklyn with the family of another reverend for a short time and then returned to live with her grandmother in Washington DC. She was educated at the Howard University Normal School where she was rediscovered by the new pastor of Plymouth Church, Dr. James Stanley Durkee. She became a teacher and married a Washington lawyer named James Hunt, taking his name to become Rose Ward Hunt. She started her family and lived a quiet life. Dr. Durkee contacted and arranged to have Mrs. Hunt join Plymouth Church at its 80th anniversary celebration and commemorate the day that she was freed at auction. However an article in the May 11th 1927 Brooklyn Daily Eagle spoke to Mrs. Hunt’s reservations regarding reliving that moment and making the trip back to Plymouth Church.
The article stated “Today on the eve of her departure for Brooklyn to attend the 80th anniversary celebration of the church that took her out of bondage, she has gone into semi-retirement and is denying herself to all comers. Her husband, a gray-haired Negro lawyer, answers the doorbell and politely but firmly explains that his wife is giving no interviews on the 'Pinky' episode so long ago.” When pressed further about his wife’s upcoming visit to the church Mr. Hunt explained that his wife "had nothing to say about the trip” and added that she barely remembered the episode at the church, but had certain associations that kept it from fading from her mind. This spoke to the frame of mind of a 9 year old child being put in front of a packed crowd at Plymouth Church, and the uncertainty of her fate. Mr. Hunt did continue to state that there were “Lots of Mistakes” to the published reports of how “Pinky” was found but that he would not undertake to correct them. In the end the entire encounter was summed up in the most accurate way: “At the Hunt home the impression was gathered that these Negroes did not enjoy recalling that slave auction of 1860 at Plymouth Church. Hunt himself would discuss his wife’s part in it only with the greatest reluctance.” Mrs. Hunt did visit Plymouth Church in 1927 on the Church’s 80th Anniversary where she sat beside Rev. Durkee during the sermon. The Brooklyn Daily Eagle covered the story of her visit, her speech to the congregation and the thousands that turned out to see the infamous “Pinky.” It also featured the unfortunate headline “Former Slave girl greeted by thousands, regrets she did not 'make more' of her life."
Mrs. Hunt was described several times as being humble or trembling nervously, clearly overwhelmed by the amount of attention she received. She spoke of her recollection of the auction and the one thing that stood out in her memory. It was a story of a comb she wore in her hair that Rev. Beecher had her remove as he told her, “My child never wear anything in your hair other than what god put there.” According to Mrs. Hunt all other incidents in her story were repeated to her by others and felt like they were not her own recollections.
In the rest of her speech, Mrs. Hunt thanked the Plymouth Church and Reverend Beecher for their Christ-like work, love, understanding and compassion, and for their work with securing the freedom of the enslaved. She also thanked them for giving her “a good start to citizenship” and for the gift of education. She also spoke on the fact that her mother and siblings remained enslaved and were not seen by her again, and expressed her gratitude to the church that allowed her to escape the same fate. “I am glad of this opportunity to publicly acknowledge that I have always had a feeling of deep love and gratitude toward this church whose congregation did so much for me." These agents of the almighty snatched me from a fate which can only be imagined, never known, as my dear mother and brothers have not been heard of by any of our family since that separation 67 years ago.” She spoke to her optimism for the future and mentioned that she would probably not visit Plymouth Church or Brooklyn again. One year after her visit to Plymouth Church Mrs. Hunt passed away in Washington DC after a serious operation and a week of being ill.
She was commemorated in the form of a portrait of her as “Pinky the slave child” with Reverend Beecher that was painted by artist Henry Roseland. The funds for the portrait were secured by the "Negro Citizens of Brooklyn" and it was presented to the church in a special service. The Eagle’s subheadline described her as “Their Race’s Champion.”
The story of “Pinky” is not the typical take on a role played by a woman in the fight against abolition. She was not a willing participant or an adult at the time. As a child, she was put into a position that persuaded others to take note of the horrors of enslavement that encouraged them to react. Was this the best solution or way to persuasion? Absolutely not, but was it effective in getting people’s attention? Unfortunately it was. It remained vividly in the minds of those who witnessed it and became a part of Plymouth Church and Reverend Beecher's history.
There are so many more questions that can be raised about this episode in history. Mrs. Hunt and her part in Brooklyn’s abolition story is definitely one that deserves to be known and understood.
Get the latest updates from BPL and be the first to know about new programs, author talks, exciting events and opportunities to support your local library.Sign Up | <urn:uuid:ce7ecedd-c05e-432a-aacd-3169d24c8f66> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bklynlibrary.org/blog/2017/03/28/story-%E2%80%9Cpinky%E2%80%9D | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00164.warc.gz | en | 0.988011 | 1,643 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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0.03819131851... | 1 | March 28, 2017
Women formed a central part of the abolitionist movement in the years that led up to the civil war and during war time. They participated in many varied ways, from writing and giving speeches to becoming conductors of the Underground Railroad and assisting union soldiers by organizing Sanitary Fairs around the country. There were others who participated in a more unconventional role that afforded them no agency. This is the story of one such woman, or rather, an enslaved girl of 9 years old, and her part in the abolitionist movement.
Plymouth Church in Brooklyn Heights and its Reverend Henry Ward Beecher would often use the enslaved as characters during sermons where he would impersonate an auctioneer and ask the congregation for offerings to purchase the enslaved persons freedom. His emotional and dramatic speeches would encourage the audience into tossing money and jewelry into collection plates; there were several girls and young women that were the subject of these “auctions."
The auction of most renown was that of Sally Maria Diggs, an enslaved 9 year old child who was also known as “Pink” or Pinky due to her fair complexion. Sally was born into slavery. Her mother and 2 brothers were sold by their owner to the state of Virginia and she and her grandmother were sold to a slave owner in Baltimore. Her grandmother was able to secure freedom for herself but not for Sally, so she enlisted the help of Reverend Beecher to secure her granddaughter's freedom. On February 6th, 1860 during an auction service at Plymouth Church led by Beecher, $1100 in money and jewelry was raised to buy Sally’s freedom. Reverend Beecher returned all the jewelry with the exception of a large fire opal ring. At the end of the auction he baptized Sally and gave her the name “Rose Ward” after Rose Terry, a poet who had put the ring in the collection plate, and Ward, his middle name. He placed the ring on Sally’s hand, saying, “With this ring I do wed thee to freedom."
This act and others like it moved Beecher’s congregation and gave them a glimpse of enslavement and the horrors of the slave auction. However to others it was viewed as typical theatrics.
After her auction, Sally Maria Diggs, now known as Rose Ward, slipped away into anonymity. She lived in Brooklyn with the family of another reverend for a short time and then returned to live with her grandmother in Washington DC. She was educated at the Howard University Normal School where she was rediscovered by the new pastor of Plymouth Church, Dr. James Stanley Durkee. She became a teacher and married a Washington lawyer named James Hunt, taking his name to become Rose Ward Hunt. She started her family and lived a quiet life. Dr. Durkee contacted and arranged to have Mrs. Hunt join Plymouth Church at its 80th anniversary celebration and commemorate the day that she was freed at auction. However an article in the May 11th 1927 Brooklyn Daily Eagle spoke to Mrs. Hunt’s reservations regarding reliving that moment and making the trip back to Plymouth Church.
The article stated “Today on the eve of her departure for Brooklyn to attend the 80th anniversary celebration of the church that took her out of bondage, she has gone into semi-retirement and is denying herself to all comers. Her husband, a gray-haired Negro lawyer, answers the doorbell and politely but firmly explains that his wife is giving no interviews on the 'Pinky' episode so long ago.” When pressed further about his wife’s upcoming visit to the church Mr. Hunt explained that his wife "had nothing to say about the trip” and added that she barely remembered the episode at the church, but had certain associations that kept it from fading from her mind. This spoke to the frame of mind of a 9 year old child being put in front of a packed crowd at Plymouth Church, and the uncertainty of her fate. Mr. Hunt did continue to state that there were “Lots of Mistakes” to the published reports of how “Pinky” was found but that he would not undertake to correct them. In the end the entire encounter was summed up in the most accurate way: “At the Hunt home the impression was gathered that these Negroes did not enjoy recalling that slave auction of 1860 at Plymouth Church. Hunt himself would discuss his wife’s part in it only with the greatest reluctance.” Mrs. Hunt did visit Plymouth Church in 1927 on the Church’s 80th Anniversary where she sat beside Rev. Durkee during the sermon. The Brooklyn Daily Eagle covered the story of her visit, her speech to the congregation and the thousands that turned out to see the infamous “Pinky.” It also featured the unfortunate headline “Former Slave girl greeted by thousands, regrets she did not 'make more' of her life."
Mrs. Hunt was described several times as being humble or trembling nervously, clearly overwhelmed by the amount of attention she received. She spoke of her recollection of the auction and the one thing that stood out in her memory. It was a story of a comb she wore in her hair that Rev. Beecher had her remove as he told her, “My child never wear anything in your hair other than what god put there.” According to Mrs. Hunt all other incidents in her story were repeated to her by others and felt like they were not her own recollections.
In the rest of her speech, Mrs. Hunt thanked the Plymouth Church and Reverend Beecher for their Christ-like work, love, understanding and compassion, and for their work with securing the freedom of the enslaved. She also thanked them for giving her “a good start to citizenship” and for the gift of education. She also spoke on the fact that her mother and siblings remained enslaved and were not seen by her again, and expressed her gratitude to the church that allowed her to escape the same fate. “I am glad of this opportunity to publicly acknowledge that I have always had a feeling of deep love and gratitude toward this church whose congregation did so much for me." These agents of the almighty snatched me from a fate which can only be imagined, never known, as my dear mother and brothers have not been heard of by any of our family since that separation 67 years ago.” She spoke to her optimism for the future and mentioned that she would probably not visit Plymouth Church or Brooklyn again. One year after her visit to Plymouth Church Mrs. Hunt passed away in Washington DC after a serious operation and a week of being ill.
She was commemorated in the form of a portrait of her as “Pinky the slave child” with Reverend Beecher that was painted by artist Henry Roseland. The funds for the portrait were secured by the "Negro Citizens of Brooklyn" and it was presented to the church in a special service. The Eagle’s subheadline described her as “Their Race’s Champion.”
The story of “Pinky” is not the typical take on a role played by a woman in the fight against abolition. She was not a willing participant or an adult at the time. As a child, she was put into a position that persuaded others to take note of the horrors of enslavement that encouraged them to react. Was this the best solution or way to persuasion? Absolutely not, but was it effective in getting people’s attention? Unfortunately it was. It remained vividly in the minds of those who witnessed it and became a part of Plymouth Church and Reverend Beecher's history.
There are so many more questions that can be raised about this episode in history. Mrs. Hunt and her part in Brooklyn’s abolition story is definitely one that deserves to be known and understood.
Get the latest updates from BPL and be the first to know about new programs, author talks, exciting events and opportunities to support your local library.Sign Up | 1,611 | ENGLISH | 1 |
(Last Updated on : 06/10/2012)
The 10th Bengal Native Infantry was an infantry battalion of the British East India Company
that existed from the year 1823 to 1922. It was a part of the Bengal Native Infantry
under the Army of the Bengal province. The Bengal Army
was the military force of Bengal Presidency
and was amongst the 3 principal Presidency Armies in British India
. The army unit was also incorporated as a part of the Bengal Command. The 10th Bengal Native Infantry was also known as the 10th Jat Infantry and as the 10th Jats. King Edward VII acted as the Colonel-in-Chief of the battalion in the year 1904. The battalion was formed in the year 1823; and later in 1922 it was developed as the 3rd Battalion 9th Jats regiments.
History of 10th Bengal Native Infantry
The 10th Bengal Native Infantry was formed by the British East India Company as the 1st Battalion, 33rd Bengal Native Infantry in the year 1823. The army unit was re-named several times during its service in the Indian Army. It was designated as the 65th Bengal Native Infantry from 1824 to 1861; the 10th Bengal Native Infantry from 1861 to 1885; the 10th Bengal Infantry from the year 1885 to 1897; the 10th Jat Infantry from 1901 to 1903. The regiment was eventually titled as the 10th Jats regiment after the restructuring of the army in 1903.
Military Operations of 10th Bengal Native Infantry
The army unit served in the military campaign in China during the Second Opium War and later participated in the Third Anglo Burmese War. The 10th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry did not revolt against the British administration during the Sepoy Mutiny
in 1857. Later it fought in the Central India Campaign. Most of the regiments in the Army of Bengal Presidency had rebelled and accordingly the units of the armed force were dissolved. The regiment also fought in the First World War and was attached with the 55th Brigade, 18th Indian Division. The unit provided military service in the campaign at Mesopotamia.
After the culmination of the First World War, the British Government of India
re-organised and restructured the British army in India. The separate single battalion infantry regiments were merged together to develop regiments consisting of 4 to 6 battalions. As a result, the regiment was re-designated and was modified as the 3rd Battalion 9th Jats regiments.
Development of 10th Bengal Native Infantry
After the nation achieved independence from the rule of the British Empire in India
in the year 1947, the nation was divided into the Union of India
and the Dominion of Pakistan through the Partition of India
. The British Indian Army was divided amongst the 2 nations and the 10th Bengal Native Infantry was allocated to India.
Designations of 10th Bengal Native Infantry
The 19th Madras Native Infantry regiment comprised of many titles through out its service in the British Indian Army. These are mentioned as follows -
* 1st Battalion, 33rd Bengal Native Infantry - 1823
* 65th Bengal Native Infantry - 1824 to 1861
* 10th Bengal Native Infantry - 1861 to 1885
* 10th Bengal Infantry - 1885 to 1897
* 10th (Jat) Bengal Infantry - 1897 to 1901
* 10th Jat Infantry - 1901 to 1903
* 10th Jats in 1903
* 3rd Battalion 9th Jats in 1922
* Assigned to Indian Army in 1947 | <urn:uuid:802cd8b8-35f0-4875-9cb8-86a8e6e2eb76> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.indianetzone.com/63/10th_bengal_native_infantry.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00221.warc.gz | en | 0.980946 | 724 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.46784839034080... | 1 | (Last Updated on : 06/10/2012)
The 10th Bengal Native Infantry was an infantry battalion of the British East India Company
that existed from the year 1823 to 1922. It was a part of the Bengal Native Infantry
under the Army of the Bengal province. The Bengal Army
was the military force of Bengal Presidency
and was amongst the 3 principal Presidency Armies in British India
. The army unit was also incorporated as a part of the Bengal Command. The 10th Bengal Native Infantry was also known as the 10th Jat Infantry and as the 10th Jats. King Edward VII acted as the Colonel-in-Chief of the battalion in the year 1904. The battalion was formed in the year 1823; and later in 1922 it was developed as the 3rd Battalion 9th Jats regiments.
History of 10th Bengal Native Infantry
The 10th Bengal Native Infantry was formed by the British East India Company as the 1st Battalion, 33rd Bengal Native Infantry in the year 1823. The army unit was re-named several times during its service in the Indian Army. It was designated as the 65th Bengal Native Infantry from 1824 to 1861; the 10th Bengal Native Infantry from 1861 to 1885; the 10th Bengal Infantry from the year 1885 to 1897; the 10th Jat Infantry from 1901 to 1903. The regiment was eventually titled as the 10th Jats regiment after the restructuring of the army in 1903.
Military Operations of 10th Bengal Native Infantry
The army unit served in the military campaign in China during the Second Opium War and later participated in the Third Anglo Burmese War. The 10th Regiment of Bengal Native Infantry did not revolt against the British administration during the Sepoy Mutiny
in 1857. Later it fought in the Central India Campaign. Most of the regiments in the Army of Bengal Presidency had rebelled and accordingly the units of the armed force were dissolved. The regiment also fought in the First World War and was attached with the 55th Brigade, 18th Indian Division. The unit provided military service in the campaign at Mesopotamia.
After the culmination of the First World War, the British Government of India
re-organised and restructured the British army in India. The separate single battalion infantry regiments were merged together to develop regiments consisting of 4 to 6 battalions. As a result, the regiment was re-designated and was modified as the 3rd Battalion 9th Jats regiments.
Development of 10th Bengal Native Infantry
After the nation achieved independence from the rule of the British Empire in India
in the year 1947, the nation was divided into the Union of India
and the Dominion of Pakistan through the Partition of India
. The British Indian Army was divided amongst the 2 nations and the 10th Bengal Native Infantry was allocated to India.
Designations of 10th Bengal Native Infantry
The 19th Madras Native Infantry regiment comprised of many titles through out its service in the British Indian Army. These are mentioned as follows -
* 1st Battalion, 33rd Bengal Native Infantry - 1823
* 65th Bengal Native Infantry - 1824 to 1861
* 10th Bengal Native Infantry - 1861 to 1885
* 10th Bengal Infantry - 1885 to 1897
* 10th (Jat) Bengal Infantry - 1897 to 1901
* 10th Jat Infantry - 1901 to 1903
* 10th Jats in 1903
* 3rd Battalion 9th Jats in 1922
* Assigned to Indian Army in 1947 | 900 | ENGLISH | 1 |
We probably all know of Amelia Rose Earhart, the woman pilot. She is pretty famous and much written about her, and mystery still surrounds her. But, have you heard of Azellia White? I saw mention of her a while ago and wanted to know more about her. According to my sources she was the first African American woman to earn a pilots license in America. She was a true trailblazer, overcoming widespread perceptions at the time, that neither women nor African Americans were qualified to fly airplanes.
Azellia was born in Gonzales, Texas, on June 3, 2013. I was unable to find a lot about her, which intrigued me even more. I did find a record of her marriage to Hulon “Pappy” White in 1936. He was an airplane mechanic and was with the Tuskegee Airmen. The Tuskegee Airmen were a group of African-American military pilots who fought in World War II. They formed the 332nd Fighter Group and the 477th Bombardment Group of the United States Army Air Forces.
In 1941 Eleanor Roosevelt visited Tuskee, Alabama, where they were living. Roosevelt was very impressed with the Tuskgee Airmen and apparently encouraged her husband to let them fly in World War II.
The Tuskegee Airmen were the first African American soldiers to successfully complete their training and enter the Army Air Corps (Army Air Forces). Almost 1000 aviators were produced as America's first African American military pilots. The Tuskegee Airmen fought a two front war—one against the Axis powers and one against racial discrimination. By proving black men could fly and serve courageously in combat, the Tuskegee Airmen set the stage for the integration of the US military in 1948 and the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s. Among these, 355 served in active duty during World War Two as fighter pilots. Sixty-six Tuskegee Airmen died in combat. Overall, The Tuskegee Airmen destroyed 251 enemy airplanes and were awarded a total of 150 Distinguished Flying Crosses for their service.The rest is history. While there, on the base with her husband, Azellia began to train on a airplane under the instruction and supervision of several of the Airmen. She took to flying like an eagle to the sky—to her, flying the Taylorcraft airplane was easy earning her private pilot’s license on March 26, 1946.
When the War ended, the Whites moved to South Houston, to the Taylor-Stevenson Ranch. They founded the Sky Ranch Flying Service with fellow Airmen, Ben Stevenson and Elton “Ray” Thomas. Sky Ranch was an airport for Houston’s black community and provided charter flights and flying lessons. While Azellia was not an official owner she was quite well known and popular around the airport. Students often asked for her specifically. On occasion she played pranks on the students midair, with surprising stunts. This was a time when African Americans were still harassed and assaulted on a regular basis, and land travel exposed them to danger, she would often fly from town to town with her young niece to shop.
The company closed its doors in 1948 but the pioneering aspect of Sky Ranch made its mark on the community. Mrs. White continues to serve as an inspiration to aspiring aviators and the Aviation Science Lab at Houston’s Sterling High School is named in her honor. Principal Justin Fuentes called her "a powerful reminder to our students that they can be anything they want to be and achieve anything they want to achieve. No one can stop them.”
In April 2018 White was inducted into the Texas Aviation Hall of Fame. White received the Trailblazer Award from the Black Pilots of America for her “pioneering spirit in forging a path to the field of aviation.” | <urn:uuid:d2e81b84-beb1-4074-8648-36be0ec37ac3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.herstory-online.com/single-post/2019/12/26/A-Trailblazer-to-Remember | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00195.warc.gz | en | 0.982582 | 800 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.1559624373912811... | 2 | We probably all know of Amelia Rose Earhart, the woman pilot. She is pretty famous and much written about her, and mystery still surrounds her. But, have you heard of Azellia White? I saw mention of her a while ago and wanted to know more about her. According to my sources she was the first African American woman to earn a pilots license in America. She was a true trailblazer, overcoming widespread perceptions at the time, that neither women nor African Americans were qualified to fly airplanes.
Azellia was born in Gonzales, Texas, on June 3, 2013. I was unable to find a lot about her, which intrigued me even more. I did find a record of her marriage to Hulon “Pappy” White in 1936. He was an airplane mechanic and was with the Tuskegee Airmen. The Tuskegee Airmen were a group of African-American military pilots who fought in World War II. They formed the 332nd Fighter Group and the 477th Bombardment Group of the United States Army Air Forces.
In 1941 Eleanor Roosevelt visited Tuskee, Alabama, where they were living. Roosevelt was very impressed with the Tuskgee Airmen and apparently encouraged her husband to let them fly in World War II.
The Tuskegee Airmen were the first African American soldiers to successfully complete their training and enter the Army Air Corps (Army Air Forces). Almost 1000 aviators were produced as America's first African American military pilots. The Tuskegee Airmen fought a two front war—one against the Axis powers and one against racial discrimination. By proving black men could fly and serve courageously in combat, the Tuskegee Airmen set the stage for the integration of the US military in 1948 and the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s. Among these, 355 served in active duty during World War Two as fighter pilots. Sixty-six Tuskegee Airmen died in combat. Overall, The Tuskegee Airmen destroyed 251 enemy airplanes and were awarded a total of 150 Distinguished Flying Crosses for their service.The rest is history. While there, on the base with her husband, Azellia began to train on a airplane under the instruction and supervision of several of the Airmen. She took to flying like an eagle to the sky—to her, flying the Taylorcraft airplane was easy earning her private pilot’s license on March 26, 1946.
When the War ended, the Whites moved to South Houston, to the Taylor-Stevenson Ranch. They founded the Sky Ranch Flying Service with fellow Airmen, Ben Stevenson and Elton “Ray” Thomas. Sky Ranch was an airport for Houston’s black community and provided charter flights and flying lessons. While Azellia was not an official owner she was quite well known and popular around the airport. Students often asked for her specifically. On occasion she played pranks on the students midair, with surprising stunts. This was a time when African Americans were still harassed and assaulted on a regular basis, and land travel exposed them to danger, she would often fly from town to town with her young niece to shop.
The company closed its doors in 1948 but the pioneering aspect of Sky Ranch made its mark on the community. Mrs. White continues to serve as an inspiration to aspiring aviators and the Aviation Science Lab at Houston’s Sterling High School is named in her honor. Principal Justin Fuentes called her "a powerful reminder to our students that they can be anything they want to be and achieve anything they want to achieve. No one can stop them.”
In April 2018 White was inducted into the Texas Aviation Hall of Fame. White received the Trailblazer Award from the Black Pilots of America for her “pioneering spirit in forging a path to the field of aviation.” | 825 | ENGLISH | 1 |
An expedition by conservationists to look for Haiti frogs, in the deforested hills of Haiti, an area which suffered a terrible earthquake in 2010, has found frog species that have not been seen for 20 years.
In just over a week of searching in the remaining forests in Haiti, researchers found 25 of Haiti's 49 known frog species.
The hope is that this will focus attention on conserving the few percent that remain of the country's forest.
The expedition was not a total success however, with no sightings of the principal target - the La Selle grass frog, which was last seen 25 years ago and is listed as possibly extinct.
But among the species that were seen were five that were last recorded in 1991.
However, the intent of the conservationists involved is not merely to protect the amphibians.
The rediscovered Haiti frogs are being used to show what they still have in Haiti in terms of their wildlife; but ultimately it's the forest that needs to be preserved, because if they don't save that, they've got nothing to grow from.
The expedition to Haiti in October was run by Conservation International and the Amphibian Specialist Group of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
It was an adjunct to a larger project aiming to rediscover amphibian species thought to be extinct - a project that has already turned up a Mexican salamander not seen since its discovery in 1941, a frog from the Ivory Coast last observed in 1967, and another frog from Democratic Republic of Congo not seen since 1979.
Dec 08, 19 01:24 PM
axolotl are able to grow back fingers, toes and even whole limbs within a short space of time
Nov 27, 19 04:37 PM
the most poisonous frog of them all is the golden poison dart frog and is there a cure?
Nov 24, 19 09:46 AM
Discover how frogs have an amazing capacity to survive and thrive and their diverse habitats | <urn:uuid:f6750917-cc02-4da7-a1f4-d8d20175dc21> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.frog-garden.com/haiti-frogs.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00487.warc.gz | en | 0.980592 | 402 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.41119951009750366,... | 1 | An expedition by conservationists to look for Haiti frogs, in the deforested hills of Haiti, an area which suffered a terrible earthquake in 2010, has found frog species that have not been seen for 20 years.
In just over a week of searching in the remaining forests in Haiti, researchers found 25 of Haiti's 49 known frog species.
The hope is that this will focus attention on conserving the few percent that remain of the country's forest.
The expedition was not a total success however, with no sightings of the principal target - the La Selle grass frog, which was last seen 25 years ago and is listed as possibly extinct.
But among the species that were seen were five that were last recorded in 1991.
However, the intent of the conservationists involved is not merely to protect the amphibians.
The rediscovered Haiti frogs are being used to show what they still have in Haiti in terms of their wildlife; but ultimately it's the forest that needs to be preserved, because if they don't save that, they've got nothing to grow from.
The expedition to Haiti in October was run by Conservation International and the Amphibian Specialist Group of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN).
It was an adjunct to a larger project aiming to rediscover amphibian species thought to be extinct - a project that has already turned up a Mexican salamander not seen since its discovery in 1941, a frog from the Ivory Coast last observed in 1967, and another frog from Democratic Republic of Congo not seen since 1979.
Dec 08, 19 01:24 PM
axolotl are able to grow back fingers, toes and even whole limbs within a short space of time
Nov 27, 19 04:37 PM
the most poisonous frog of them all is the golden poison dart frog and is there a cure?
Nov 24, 19 09:46 AM
Discover how frogs have an amazing capacity to survive and thrive and their diverse habitats | 441 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Table of Contents
2. Early Life of Robert Walpole
3. Early political career
4. Rise to Power
5. Premiership under George I
6. Premiership under George II
7. End of an Era
“There never was a man, whose actions and character have been more earnestly and openly canvassed, than those of the present minister, who, having governed a learned and free nation for so long a time, amidst such mighty opposition, … ” (http://www.econlib.org/library/LFBooks/Hume/hmMPL47.html)
These words were written by David Hume in 1742 to describe one of the central figures of eighteen´s century Britain- Robert Walpole. Walpole is considered the first Prime Minister of Great Britain, although the position “Prime Minister” had no recognition in official use at the time. He has headed various government offices on his way to the top of Parliament until he reached it as First Lord of the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1721. Walpole dominated English politics from 1722-1742. His governance period was a powerful era in British history, an era of prosperity and peace. He deliberately cultivated a frank, hearty manner, but his political subtlety has scarcely been equaled. But who was this intelligent, zealous and energetic man? How was he able to reach the top of the Ministry and remain there for the longest spell in history? And what caused the downfall of a rather successful man?
These are the central questions covered in this paper. First part of it will be about the early life of Robert Walpole. Afterwards I will have a closer look inside his early political career and subsequently I want to focus on his rise to power. Third and fourth part of the paper I will develop his premiership under George I and George II. In the last part I want to have a look at the last years of premiership und simultaneously I will try to work out the reasons for his downfall.
2. Early Life of Robert Walpole
Robert Walpole was born in Houghton Hall in Norfolk on 26 August 1676 into a county family. His father, Colonel Robert Walpole, was a Whig politician who represented the borough of Castle Rising in the House of Commons. His mother, Mary Walpole (née Mary Burnwell); Robert was the fifth of seventeen children, eight of whom died during infancy. Later Walpole would hold the record amongst Prime Ministers for the greatest number of siblings. (http://www.spiritus-temporis.com/robert-walpole/early-life.html)
Robert Walpole was educated at Great Dunham, Norfolk and became a scholar at Eton College from 1690 to 1695. Subsequently he matriculated at King´s College in Cambridge in 1696. The death of his only remaining elder brother, Edward, changed the entire course of Robert´s life. In this time family estates were usually inherited by the first son. As the future head of the family he left the University of Cambridge in 1968, to help his father administer the family estate. (Hill 1989: 19) As the eldest son and heir to his father´s estate he abandoned his idea to become a clergyman. Instead he had to learn the arts of estate management and how to prepare for his new political life and seat in Parliament. Furthermore Colonel Walpole was anxious to arrange a profitable marriage for his heir. The choice fell upon Catherine Shorter of Bybrook, Kent, the daughter of a London merchant family. The couple married on July 30, 1700 in London. After his father’s death in the same year, he inherited the family estate and also the family parliamentary seat at Castle Rising, for which he was immediately elected. The marriage of Catherine and Robert was an unhappy marriage denoted by regular infidelity on Robert´s part and probably even on Catherine´s. (Pearce 2007:27) Catherine later gave birth to four sons and two daughters, Robert Walpole, 2nd Earl of Orford (1701-1751), Katherine Walpole (1703-1722), Horatio Walpole (1704-1704), Mary Walpole (1705-1732), The Hon. Sir Edward Walpole (1706-1784) and Horace Walpole, 4th Earl of Orford (1717-1797). Catherine died in 1737 and Walpole married his mistress Maria Skerritt in 1738. They had been openly together since 1724 and she had born him an illegitimate daughter, whom he had eventually ennobled as Lady Maria Walpole. Three month after the marriage of the couple, Maria died of a miscarriage. (http://wapedia.mobi/en/Robert_Walpole)
3. Early political career
Walpole's political career began in 1700 with the death of his father. He followed his father´s footsteps and won the general election in Castle Rising, the constituency once represented by Colonel Walpole, in January 1701. In the first election of Queen Anne´s reign, he left Castle Rising in 1702 and switched to the more important borough King´s Lynn, which would re-elect him at every subsequent general election until he was created Earl of Orford in February 1742. The representation of King´s Lynn was shared by Walpole and Charles Turner, nephew of the prosperous wine merchant Sir John Turner, who had received his knighthood by James II in 1689. In the same year Charles Turner married Walpole´s eldest sister Mary and became a lifelong friend to him. Besides Turner, Walpole already had a number of relations and friends in Parliament. An important ally was the young Viscount of Townshend, a former schoolfellow of Walpole, who acquired the county post of Lord Lieutenant of Norfolk. This important county post gave him a large measure of control in local appointments. Their political connection became a more personal alliance through the marriage of Townshend and Walpole´s sister Dorothy. (Hill 1989: 32)
Like his father, Robert Walpole was an eager member of the Whig Party and had close connections to Admiral Edward Russel, Earl of Orford. Orford was one of the four original members of the Junto. The Whig Junto was a group of leading Whigs who were seen to direct the management of the Whig party and often the government, during the reigns of William III and Anne. Through Orford, who recognized the young man´s “potential as a future leader of the party” (Hill 1989:32), Walpole had access to all important figures of the party: Charles Montagu, Earl of Halifax, Lord Somers, Lord Wharton and Charles Spencer, Earl of Sunderland.
In contrast to many MP´s, who only preferred to regard a seat for recognition of their family position, Walpole was soon known for his activity in the Commons. Within three days after election, he was serving on a committee and appeared pretty fast to be a noticeable speaker and teller. (Hill 1989:32) He soon became a member of the Kit-Cat Club, whose members included the four Juntos and other leading figures in the House of Lords. Furthermore, he took the first steps in the Lower House and passed through a bill for building a workhouse at King´s Lynn. In December 1702, “he moved unsuccessfully for the resumption of all Crown grants made by James II” (Black 2001:4) and in 1704, he opposed a bill against occasional conformity. Soon after, James Stanhope and Spencer Compton asked Walpole to come to the Commons for leadership. Meanwhile, the young Walpole had to organize their new life between London and Norfolk, whereby their London life was pompous and extravagant from the beginning. Their expensive lifestyle plunged them into debts very soon.
In 1705, Walpole was appointed a member of the Council of the Lord High Admiral, as a reward for his diligence and ability and as a product of his links with the Marlborough-Godolphin connection. The lost battle of Almanac brought a sudden turn in Walpole´s life. The Juntos claimed that the battle had been lost because of a ministerial mistake in form of the absence of thousands of British troops in Almanac. Therefore Queen Anne was forced to agree “to the removal of her favored minister” (Hill 1989:50) Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer. Although Queen Anne did not want to bring more Whigs into the ministry, she had to make an important exception: she had to fill the post of Secretary at War, which was left vacant by Henry St. John´s resignation. Because of his administrative skills and his loyalty to his responsibilities in office and to the cause of the party during the crisis, Walpole was promoted by Lord Godolphin (the Lord High Treasurer and leader of the Cabinet) to the position of Secretary at War in 1708. He became Marlborough´s political and administrative arm in England. While Marlborough handled Britain´s strategy in the War of the Spanish Succession, Walpole was responsible for army commissions. (Black 2001:4) For a short period of time in 1710, he also simultaneously held the post of Treasurer of the Navy. | <urn:uuid:8f3ee551-64d1-4a55-8561-ba44ccb7a1dc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://m.hausarbeiten.de/document/135275 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00529.warc.gz | en | 0.981392 | 1,923 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.140306308... | 1 | Table of Contents
2. Early Life of Robert Walpole
3. Early political career
4. Rise to Power
5. Premiership under George I
6. Premiership under George II
7. End of an Era
“There never was a man, whose actions and character have been more earnestly and openly canvassed, than those of the present minister, who, having governed a learned and free nation for so long a time, amidst such mighty opposition, … ” (http://www.econlib.org/library/LFBooks/Hume/hmMPL47.html)
These words were written by David Hume in 1742 to describe one of the central figures of eighteen´s century Britain- Robert Walpole. Walpole is considered the first Prime Minister of Great Britain, although the position “Prime Minister” had no recognition in official use at the time. He has headed various government offices on his way to the top of Parliament until he reached it as First Lord of the Treasury and Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1721. Walpole dominated English politics from 1722-1742. His governance period was a powerful era in British history, an era of prosperity and peace. He deliberately cultivated a frank, hearty manner, but his political subtlety has scarcely been equaled. But who was this intelligent, zealous and energetic man? How was he able to reach the top of the Ministry and remain there for the longest spell in history? And what caused the downfall of a rather successful man?
These are the central questions covered in this paper. First part of it will be about the early life of Robert Walpole. Afterwards I will have a closer look inside his early political career and subsequently I want to focus on his rise to power. Third and fourth part of the paper I will develop his premiership under George I and George II. In the last part I want to have a look at the last years of premiership und simultaneously I will try to work out the reasons for his downfall.
2. Early Life of Robert Walpole
Robert Walpole was born in Houghton Hall in Norfolk on 26 August 1676 into a county family. His father, Colonel Robert Walpole, was a Whig politician who represented the borough of Castle Rising in the House of Commons. His mother, Mary Walpole (née Mary Burnwell); Robert was the fifth of seventeen children, eight of whom died during infancy. Later Walpole would hold the record amongst Prime Ministers for the greatest number of siblings. (http://www.spiritus-temporis.com/robert-walpole/early-life.html)
Robert Walpole was educated at Great Dunham, Norfolk and became a scholar at Eton College from 1690 to 1695. Subsequently he matriculated at King´s College in Cambridge in 1696. The death of his only remaining elder brother, Edward, changed the entire course of Robert´s life. In this time family estates were usually inherited by the first son. As the future head of the family he left the University of Cambridge in 1968, to help his father administer the family estate. (Hill 1989: 19) As the eldest son and heir to his father´s estate he abandoned his idea to become a clergyman. Instead he had to learn the arts of estate management and how to prepare for his new political life and seat in Parliament. Furthermore Colonel Walpole was anxious to arrange a profitable marriage for his heir. The choice fell upon Catherine Shorter of Bybrook, Kent, the daughter of a London merchant family. The couple married on July 30, 1700 in London. After his father’s death in the same year, he inherited the family estate and also the family parliamentary seat at Castle Rising, for which he was immediately elected. The marriage of Catherine and Robert was an unhappy marriage denoted by regular infidelity on Robert´s part and probably even on Catherine´s. (Pearce 2007:27) Catherine later gave birth to four sons and two daughters, Robert Walpole, 2nd Earl of Orford (1701-1751), Katherine Walpole (1703-1722), Horatio Walpole (1704-1704), Mary Walpole (1705-1732), The Hon. Sir Edward Walpole (1706-1784) and Horace Walpole, 4th Earl of Orford (1717-1797). Catherine died in 1737 and Walpole married his mistress Maria Skerritt in 1738. They had been openly together since 1724 and she had born him an illegitimate daughter, whom he had eventually ennobled as Lady Maria Walpole. Three month after the marriage of the couple, Maria died of a miscarriage. (http://wapedia.mobi/en/Robert_Walpole)
3. Early political career
Walpole's political career began in 1700 with the death of his father. He followed his father´s footsteps and won the general election in Castle Rising, the constituency once represented by Colonel Walpole, in January 1701. In the first election of Queen Anne´s reign, he left Castle Rising in 1702 and switched to the more important borough King´s Lynn, which would re-elect him at every subsequent general election until he was created Earl of Orford in February 1742. The representation of King´s Lynn was shared by Walpole and Charles Turner, nephew of the prosperous wine merchant Sir John Turner, who had received his knighthood by James II in 1689. In the same year Charles Turner married Walpole´s eldest sister Mary and became a lifelong friend to him. Besides Turner, Walpole already had a number of relations and friends in Parliament. An important ally was the young Viscount of Townshend, a former schoolfellow of Walpole, who acquired the county post of Lord Lieutenant of Norfolk. This important county post gave him a large measure of control in local appointments. Their political connection became a more personal alliance through the marriage of Townshend and Walpole´s sister Dorothy. (Hill 1989: 32)
Like his father, Robert Walpole was an eager member of the Whig Party and had close connections to Admiral Edward Russel, Earl of Orford. Orford was one of the four original members of the Junto. The Whig Junto was a group of leading Whigs who were seen to direct the management of the Whig party and often the government, during the reigns of William III and Anne. Through Orford, who recognized the young man´s “potential as a future leader of the party” (Hill 1989:32), Walpole had access to all important figures of the party: Charles Montagu, Earl of Halifax, Lord Somers, Lord Wharton and Charles Spencer, Earl of Sunderland.
In contrast to many MP´s, who only preferred to regard a seat for recognition of their family position, Walpole was soon known for his activity in the Commons. Within three days after election, he was serving on a committee and appeared pretty fast to be a noticeable speaker and teller. (Hill 1989:32) He soon became a member of the Kit-Cat Club, whose members included the four Juntos and other leading figures in the House of Lords. Furthermore, he took the first steps in the Lower House and passed through a bill for building a workhouse at King´s Lynn. In December 1702, “he moved unsuccessfully for the resumption of all Crown grants made by James II” (Black 2001:4) and in 1704, he opposed a bill against occasional conformity. Soon after, James Stanhope and Spencer Compton asked Walpole to come to the Commons for leadership. Meanwhile, the young Walpole had to organize their new life between London and Norfolk, whereby their London life was pompous and extravagant from the beginning. Their expensive lifestyle plunged them into debts very soon.
In 1705, Walpole was appointed a member of the Council of the Lord High Admiral, as a reward for his diligence and ability and as a product of his links with the Marlborough-Godolphin connection. The lost battle of Almanac brought a sudden turn in Walpole´s life. The Juntos claimed that the battle had been lost because of a ministerial mistake in form of the absence of thousands of British troops in Almanac. Therefore Queen Anne was forced to agree “to the removal of her favored minister” (Hill 1989:50) Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer. Although Queen Anne did not want to bring more Whigs into the ministry, she had to make an important exception: she had to fill the post of Secretary at War, which was left vacant by Henry St. John´s resignation. Because of his administrative skills and his loyalty to his responsibilities in office and to the cause of the party during the crisis, Walpole was promoted by Lord Godolphin (the Lord High Treasurer and leader of the Cabinet) to the position of Secretary at War in 1708. He became Marlborough´s political and administrative arm in England. While Marlborough handled Britain´s strategy in the War of the Spanish Succession, Walpole was responsible for army commissions. (Black 2001:4) For a short period of time in 1710, he also simultaneously held the post of Treasurer of the Navy. | 2,020 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By the 1850s, adhesive postage stamps were available, and people no longer needed to go to the post office to mail letters. They could keep stamps at home and mail letters at their leisure. So the Post Office Department began to build and install mailboxes throughout U.S. cities.
Narrator: The first city mailboxes were small metal containers that held hardly any mail.
Postmasters complained that they had to be emptied several times a day.
So mailboxes were made bigger but mail volume got even bigger.
The boxes still had to be emptied up to three times a day.
The street corner mailbox became a fixture of inner-city mail transportation.
Wagon, car, truck, and even streetcar routes were organized around picking up
mail from city mailboxes in order to keep up with the increasing amount of mail deposited in them. | <urn:uuid:1407d04b-7766-4639-bb11-fda3dd97e065> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://postalmuseum.si.edu/museum-highlight/city-mailboxes | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00134.warc.gz | en | 0.986814 | 174 | 4.4375 | 4 | [
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-0.1636004745960... | 4 | By the 1850s, adhesive postage stamps were available, and people no longer needed to go to the post office to mail letters. They could keep stamps at home and mail letters at their leisure. So the Post Office Department began to build and install mailboxes throughout U.S. cities.
Narrator: The first city mailboxes were small metal containers that held hardly any mail.
Postmasters complained that they had to be emptied several times a day.
So mailboxes were made bigger but mail volume got even bigger.
The boxes still had to be emptied up to three times a day.
The street corner mailbox became a fixture of inner-city mail transportation.
Wagon, car, truck, and even streetcar routes were organized around picking up
mail from city mailboxes in order to keep up with the increasing amount of mail deposited in them. | 171 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Local newspapers splash advertisements of “President’s Day Sales!” and lots of find the day time off from work.
Presidents’ Day is actually meant (for some) to honor all of the American presidents, but most definitely George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. Based on the Gregorian or maybe “New Style” calendar which is most often used these days, George Washington was created on February twenty two, 1732. But according to the “Old or julian Style” calendar which was put to use in England until 1752, the birth date of his was February 11th. During the 1790s, Americans were split – several celebrated the birthday of his on February 11th and a few on February 22nd.
Challenging thing was that Lincoln’s birthday celebration fell on February 12th. Before 1968, having 2 presidential birthdays so close together did not appear to bother anyone.
But only some Americans were very pleased with the new law.Although Congress had developed a consistent federal holiday law, there wasn’t a consistent holiday name agreement among the separate states.In 1999, bills had been launched in both the U.S. | <urn:uuid:a84179cb-f648-41df-9513-a5b98ff6d8e3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://planetdetective.com/presidents-day-holiday/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00547.warc.gz | en | 0.987027 | 244 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.437292903661... | 2 | Local newspapers splash advertisements of “President’s Day Sales!” and lots of find the day time off from work.
Presidents’ Day is actually meant (for some) to honor all of the American presidents, but most definitely George Washington and Abraham Lincoln. Based on the Gregorian or maybe “New Style” calendar which is most often used these days, George Washington was created on February twenty two, 1732. But according to the “Old or julian Style” calendar which was put to use in England until 1752, the birth date of his was February 11th. During the 1790s, Americans were split – several celebrated the birthday of his on February 11th and a few on February 22nd.
Challenging thing was that Lincoln’s birthday celebration fell on February 12th. Before 1968, having 2 presidential birthdays so close together did not appear to bother anyone.
But only some Americans were very pleased with the new law.Although Congress had developed a consistent federal holiday law, there wasn’t a consistent holiday name agreement among the separate states.In 1999, bills had been launched in both the U.S. | 249 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This wooden figure was originally set in the port of each village to protect them from the harm caused by evil spirits (Iwis). According to the donor who acquired this item in 1931, the figure is called a kalipow, however, these protective carvings are better known as hentá-kói. This example was made by a tamiluanas or menluanas, a ritual specialist who communicated with the Iwis by means of a special ceremony. Spirits were believed to interact with people. It was evil spirits that were kept at a distance using these carved figures. They also assisted with healing and were placed outside the home of the sick to scare away those evil forces thought to be causing the sickness. This figure has a red face with an open mouth and a black conical hat that echoes the Portuguese soldiers who were the first Europeans to arrive on their shores. It also has a turtle-like shell upon its back. ‘Scare devils’ also appear in the form of men, women and animals. Observations made in 1903 stated that they were never worshipped or believed to be imbued with a spiritual power but were simply designed to act like farmer’s scare crows. It was with this fearsome and dread appearance that they would frighten away the spirits. Their effectiveness lay in the power of the ritual specialist. | <urn:uuid:a5cb10f0-5a3c-4450-8af4-efd759b16b4e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://rammworldcultures.org.uk/themes/discovering-worlds-pacific/collections-pacific/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00080.warc.gz | en | 0.990595 | 275 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.57094746828079... | 1 | This wooden figure was originally set in the port of each village to protect them from the harm caused by evil spirits (Iwis). According to the donor who acquired this item in 1931, the figure is called a kalipow, however, these protective carvings are better known as hentá-kói. This example was made by a tamiluanas or menluanas, a ritual specialist who communicated with the Iwis by means of a special ceremony. Spirits were believed to interact with people. It was evil spirits that were kept at a distance using these carved figures. They also assisted with healing and were placed outside the home of the sick to scare away those evil forces thought to be causing the sickness. This figure has a red face with an open mouth and a black conical hat that echoes the Portuguese soldiers who were the first Europeans to arrive on their shores. It also has a turtle-like shell upon its back. ‘Scare devils’ also appear in the form of men, women and animals. Observations made in 1903 stated that they were never worshipped or believed to be imbued with a spiritual power but were simply designed to act like farmer’s scare crows. It was with this fearsome and dread appearance that they would frighten away the spirits. Their effectiveness lay in the power of the ritual specialist. | 276 | ENGLISH | 1 |
OLD MAN AT THE BRIDGE
OLD MAN AT THE BRIDGE
Qs. 1. Read the extract given below and answer the questions that follow:
There was a pontoon bridge across the river and carts, trucks and men, women and children were crossing it ————. He was too tired to go any farther.
i) What is a pontoon bridge? Why are many people crossing the bridge?
Ans. A pontoon bridge is a bridge that is made of large hollow containers filled with air. Many people are crossing the bridge because the enemy (Fascists) were advancing towards the bridge over River Ebro. The people of San Carlos were removed from there to safer place, Barcelona.
ii) Where is the old man sitting? Unlike others, why doesn’t he move?
Ans. The old man is sitting by the side of the road at the pontoon bridge. He is seventy-six years old and had already walked 12 kilometers and is too tired to move any farther. For this reason he doesn’t move unlike the others.
iii) Who is the speaker in the above extract? Why is he there?
Ans. The speaker in the above extract is the narrator of the story who is a young soldier.
The speaker or the narrator of the story is on a mission to cross the bridge and find out how far the enemy had advanced.
iv) What is the first question that the narrator asks the old man? What does he answer? Why does the old man smile?
Ans. The first question that the narrator asks the old man is “Where do you come from?”
He answers, “From San Carlos”.
The old man smiles because the name of San Carlos his home town fills him with happiness and pride.
v) Why is the old man the last one to leave his town? Describe his physical appearance.
Ans. The old man’s age is seventy-six years. He is a loving human being, who is attached not only to his native town but also to the animals he was taking care of.
The old man’s age seventy-six. He is so old an that he cannot protect himself from becoming a war victim. He wears silver-rimmed spectacles and is sitting by the side of the road at the pontoon bridge.
Qs. 2. Read the extract given below and answer the questions that follow:
He did not look like a shepherd nor a herdsman and I looked at his black dusty clothes and his grey dusty face and his steel rimmed spectacles and said, “What animals were they?”
i) Who is referred to as ‘He’ in the extract above? In what condition is ‘he’?
Ans. The old man is referred to as ‘He’ in the above extract.
The old looks very tired. His clothes as well as his face is covered with dust. It seems he cannot protect himself from becoming a victim of the war.
ii) What all animals did he own? What kind of relationship did he share with them?
Ans. He owned three animals altogether. There were three goats, a cat and four pairs of pigeon.
He was very attached to these animals. He used to take care of them and very reluctant to leave them while leaving his native town. Even while sitting by the road side at the pontoon bridge he is seeing worrying about these animals.
iii) What did he do with the animals? What forced him to do so?
Ans. He had to leave the animals behind while leaving his hometown. He had left the cage of the pigeons open so they could fly out. The cat could take care of itself. But the goats would certainly become victims of war.
The artillery attack by the enemy (Fascists) forced the natives of San Carlos to leave their home town. Hence, the old man was also forced to leave his native town leaving his animals behind.
iv) Why doesn’t the old man cross the bridge and escape to a safer place?
Ans. The old man was of seventy-six years and had already walked twelve kilometers. Hence, he was too tired to walk any further. This is the reason why the old man doesn’t cross the bridge and escape to safer place. Rather he sits by the road side at the pontoon bridge.
v) What do the incidents in the story show about consequences of the war? How does war affect the old man and his animals in the story?
Ans. The story shows how innocent human beings and animals become victim of the war and suffer unnecessarily. Their lives become uncertain and they need to leave their native land to travel to some foreign land as refugees.
The war compelled the old man to leave his animals behind and travel for some unknown land. He had been taking care of these animals for a long time. Before leaving he left the cage of the pigeons open so they could fly away. He knew the cat could take care of itself. But he was worried about his two goats.
Qs. 3. Read the extract given below and answer the questions that follow:
“I am without politics,” he said ———————- “If you can make it, there are trucks up the road where it forks for Tortosa”
i) What does the old man mean when he states “I am without politics”? Why does he mention his age?
Ans. When the old man states, “I am without politics”, he means that he has no political views.
He mentions his age seventy-six to show how old he was and how difficult it was to leave his native land and animals at this age and walk twelve kilometres.
ii) Describe the old man’s appearance. What was he doing in San Carlos?
Ans. The old man was of seventy-six years. He looks tired. He wears a silver rimmed spectacle. He lived in San Carlos, which was his native land. There he took care of animals – a cat, two goats and four pair of pigeons.
iii) The narrator says “This is not a good place to stop.” Which place is he referring to? Why is it not advisable to halt there?
Ans. The narrator says, “This is not a good place to stop”. He is referring to the pontoon bridge beside which the old man was sitting. It is nit advisable to halt there because at any moment the enemy (Fascist) soldiers will approach, and the firing would start.
iv) What advice does the narrator give to the old man? How does the old man react to it?
Ans. The narrator advises the old man not to stay there for a long. He suggested the old man if he could make it to get into the trucks which he could get where the road forks for Tortosa.
v) Explain why the old man finally resigns to his fate. What is the old man’s fate symbolic of? Do you think the old man could have changed his fate? Give reasons to justify your answer.
Ans. The old man finally resigns to his fate because he has no other option. He was too old and tired to protect himself from becoming the victim of the war.
The old man’s fate symbolizes the defeat of liberal democracy in Spain. It symbolizes the helplessness faced by the victims of war.
No, I don’t think the old man could have changed his fate. This is because a war is declared by the administrators of the countries and the common people only become victims of the war. Only awareness against the devastation caused by a war can change the fate of common people like the old man of the story.
Qs. 4. Read the extract given below and answer the questions that follow:
He looked at me very blankly and tiredly, then
said, having to share his worry with someone,
——– Now what do you think about the others”?
i) Why does the old man look blank and tired? How can you say that the old man needed someone to talk to?
Ans. The old man was of seventy-six years. He walked almost twelve kilometres from San Carlos to
the pontoon bridge over the river Ebro. He had to leave his native town of San Carlos where he had been taking care of three animals – a cat, two goats and four pair of pigeons. He was worried thinking what would happen to these animals in the artillery attack. This made the old man look blank and tired.
The old man looked at the narrator blankly and tiredly and started telling him about the fate of his animals. This shows the old man needed someone to talk to.
ii) What is the cause of old man’s worry and guilt?
Ans. The old man had to leave his town San Carlos because of the artillery attack by the enemy. He used to take care of four pairs of pigeons, a cat and two goats whom he had to leave behind. This worried him and filled him with guilt thinking that if the humans were removed because of the artillery attack then how these animals could survive in the attack.
iii) Explain how the story brings out the conflict between man and his inner self.
Ans. In the story, we see an inner conflict that takes place between the old man and his inner self. The old man has to leave his native town San Carlos because of the fear of the artillery attack. He also has to leave behind the animals he is taking care of. This feels him with guilt. His conversation with the narrator shows his struggle with his inner self as he feels he has not done justice to the animals he was supposed to protect.
iv) The old man seems to have given up on his life. Do you agree? Why?
Ans. The old man seems to have given up on his life. Yes, I agree with the above statement. This is because the old man looked tired and exhausted and sat down by the side of the road. He took no initiative to cross pontoon bridge and get into a truck that would take him to Barcelona, knowing very well that the Fascists were advancing towards the river Ebro.
v) How does the narrator try to receive the old man of his worries? Does the prove successful? Support your answers with instance from the story.
Ans. The narrator converses with the old man to relieve him of his worries.
No, he doesn’t prove successful. He converses with the old man and tries to find about him and his life in San Carlos. The conversation between him and the old man shows he does not have a family to speak about. His family was the animals he used to take care of. His guilt conscious for having left his animals in the artillery attack left him mentally exhausted and dejected. He had submitted himself to fate since he showed no initiative in crossing the pontoon bridge a d getting into the truck to Barcelona.
Qs. 5. Read the extract given below and answer the questions that follow:
“I was taking care of animals,” he said dull but no
longer to me ————–. That and the fact that
cats know how to look after themselves was all the
good luck that old man would ever have.
i) Why does the narrator note that the old man spoke ‘dully’?
Ans. The narrator notes that the old man spoke ‘dully’ because he keeps on repeating to himself “I was taking care of animals”, “I was only taking care of animals”.
ii) What makes the narrator feel that “there was nothing to do about him”?
Ans. The narrator feels that “there was nothing to do about him” because the old man had no wish to save himself from the artillery attack of the Fascists and give himself protect by crossing the pontoon bridge and going to Barcelona. He had resigned to his fate and sat by the side of the road thinking only about the animals he took care of but had to leave behind.
iii) State how both the narrator and the old man are depicted as helpless by the end.
Ans. Both the narrator and the old man are depicted as helpless by the end. The old man had to leave his animals behind against his will because of the artillery attack. He had been taking care of these animals for a long time and was reluctant to leave them behind. But the enemy attack compelled him to do so and he felt helpless. The narrator was a young soldier whose duty was to keep an eye on the approaching of the enemy and to see that the war victims were safely send to the other side of the pontoon bridge. He tried to persuade the old man to cross the bridge but failed. He could only hope the grey overcast day would prevent the enemies from attacking. Here we see the narrator’s helplessness.
iv) What is “all the good luck that old man would ever have”?
Ans. The old man had to leave his animals whom he used to take care of behind against his will because of the artillery attack. He knew the cat would look after itself so there wasn’t anything to worry about it. He was so broken down at leaving his animals behind and to leave his native town for ever that he has lost his wish to leave the side of the road and move away to safety. Hence, there was little chance of him to be saved from the enemy attack. The grey overcast was the only relief the enemy planes were not up. Hence “all the good luck that old man could ever have” are the independent nature of the and the grey over cast.
v) The story is set on an Easter Sunday, which symbolically shows renewal and peace. How is it ironical with reference to the events in this story? State another example of irony of the story.
Ans. The story is set on an Easter Sunday, which symbolically shows renewal and peace. But it ironical with reference to the events in the story. This very day is selected for an artillery attack by the enemies which brings the natives of San Carlos to the verge of uncertainly and insecurity. For the old man it meant invite death since he did not cross the pontoon bridge.
Another instance of irony in the story is the old man’s worry about his animals rather than his own self. In fact, the animals had a better chance of survival than the old man. The cat could take care of itself and the doves were able to fly away since he had left the door of their cage open. But the old man was so exhausted walking twelve kilometres and so upset for leaving the animals behind that he was relucted to leave the road side and cross the pontoon bridge to get the truck for Barcelona. | <urn:uuid:a0f3f69d-136e-4c2e-a264-46b2510add31> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://niveducation.com/old-man-at-the-bridge/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00424.warc.gz | en | 0.987766 | 3,121 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.16607922... | 2 | OLD MAN AT THE BRIDGE
OLD MAN AT THE BRIDGE
Qs. 1. Read the extract given below and answer the questions that follow:
There was a pontoon bridge across the river and carts, trucks and men, women and children were crossing it ————. He was too tired to go any farther.
i) What is a pontoon bridge? Why are many people crossing the bridge?
Ans. A pontoon bridge is a bridge that is made of large hollow containers filled with air. Many people are crossing the bridge because the enemy (Fascists) were advancing towards the bridge over River Ebro. The people of San Carlos were removed from there to safer place, Barcelona.
ii) Where is the old man sitting? Unlike others, why doesn’t he move?
Ans. The old man is sitting by the side of the road at the pontoon bridge. He is seventy-six years old and had already walked 12 kilometers and is too tired to move any farther. For this reason he doesn’t move unlike the others.
iii) Who is the speaker in the above extract? Why is he there?
Ans. The speaker in the above extract is the narrator of the story who is a young soldier.
The speaker or the narrator of the story is on a mission to cross the bridge and find out how far the enemy had advanced.
iv) What is the first question that the narrator asks the old man? What does he answer? Why does the old man smile?
Ans. The first question that the narrator asks the old man is “Where do you come from?”
He answers, “From San Carlos”.
The old man smiles because the name of San Carlos his home town fills him with happiness and pride.
v) Why is the old man the last one to leave his town? Describe his physical appearance.
Ans. The old man’s age is seventy-six years. He is a loving human being, who is attached not only to his native town but also to the animals he was taking care of.
The old man’s age seventy-six. He is so old an that he cannot protect himself from becoming a war victim. He wears silver-rimmed spectacles and is sitting by the side of the road at the pontoon bridge.
Qs. 2. Read the extract given below and answer the questions that follow:
He did not look like a shepherd nor a herdsman and I looked at his black dusty clothes and his grey dusty face and his steel rimmed spectacles and said, “What animals were they?”
i) Who is referred to as ‘He’ in the extract above? In what condition is ‘he’?
Ans. The old man is referred to as ‘He’ in the above extract.
The old looks very tired. His clothes as well as his face is covered with dust. It seems he cannot protect himself from becoming a victim of the war.
ii) What all animals did he own? What kind of relationship did he share with them?
Ans. He owned three animals altogether. There were three goats, a cat and four pairs of pigeon.
He was very attached to these animals. He used to take care of them and very reluctant to leave them while leaving his native town. Even while sitting by the road side at the pontoon bridge he is seeing worrying about these animals.
iii) What did he do with the animals? What forced him to do so?
Ans. He had to leave the animals behind while leaving his hometown. He had left the cage of the pigeons open so they could fly out. The cat could take care of itself. But the goats would certainly become victims of war.
The artillery attack by the enemy (Fascists) forced the natives of San Carlos to leave their home town. Hence, the old man was also forced to leave his native town leaving his animals behind.
iv) Why doesn’t the old man cross the bridge and escape to a safer place?
Ans. The old man was of seventy-six years and had already walked twelve kilometers. Hence, he was too tired to walk any further. This is the reason why the old man doesn’t cross the bridge and escape to safer place. Rather he sits by the road side at the pontoon bridge.
v) What do the incidents in the story show about consequences of the war? How does war affect the old man and his animals in the story?
Ans. The story shows how innocent human beings and animals become victim of the war and suffer unnecessarily. Their lives become uncertain and they need to leave their native land to travel to some foreign land as refugees.
The war compelled the old man to leave his animals behind and travel for some unknown land. He had been taking care of these animals for a long time. Before leaving he left the cage of the pigeons open so they could fly away. He knew the cat could take care of itself. But he was worried about his two goats.
Qs. 3. Read the extract given below and answer the questions that follow:
“I am without politics,” he said ———————- “If you can make it, there are trucks up the road where it forks for Tortosa”
i) What does the old man mean when he states “I am without politics”? Why does he mention his age?
Ans. When the old man states, “I am without politics”, he means that he has no political views.
He mentions his age seventy-six to show how old he was and how difficult it was to leave his native land and animals at this age and walk twelve kilometres.
ii) Describe the old man’s appearance. What was he doing in San Carlos?
Ans. The old man was of seventy-six years. He looks tired. He wears a silver rimmed spectacle. He lived in San Carlos, which was his native land. There he took care of animals – a cat, two goats and four pair of pigeons.
iii) The narrator says “This is not a good place to stop.” Which place is he referring to? Why is it not advisable to halt there?
Ans. The narrator says, “This is not a good place to stop”. He is referring to the pontoon bridge beside which the old man was sitting. It is nit advisable to halt there because at any moment the enemy (Fascist) soldiers will approach, and the firing would start.
iv) What advice does the narrator give to the old man? How does the old man react to it?
Ans. The narrator advises the old man not to stay there for a long. He suggested the old man if he could make it to get into the trucks which he could get where the road forks for Tortosa.
v) Explain why the old man finally resigns to his fate. What is the old man’s fate symbolic of? Do you think the old man could have changed his fate? Give reasons to justify your answer.
Ans. The old man finally resigns to his fate because he has no other option. He was too old and tired to protect himself from becoming the victim of the war.
The old man’s fate symbolizes the defeat of liberal democracy in Spain. It symbolizes the helplessness faced by the victims of war.
No, I don’t think the old man could have changed his fate. This is because a war is declared by the administrators of the countries and the common people only become victims of the war. Only awareness against the devastation caused by a war can change the fate of common people like the old man of the story.
Qs. 4. Read the extract given below and answer the questions that follow:
He looked at me very blankly and tiredly, then
said, having to share his worry with someone,
——– Now what do you think about the others”?
i) Why does the old man look blank and tired? How can you say that the old man needed someone to talk to?
Ans. The old man was of seventy-six years. He walked almost twelve kilometres from San Carlos to
the pontoon bridge over the river Ebro. He had to leave his native town of San Carlos where he had been taking care of three animals – a cat, two goats and four pair of pigeons. He was worried thinking what would happen to these animals in the artillery attack. This made the old man look blank and tired.
The old man looked at the narrator blankly and tiredly and started telling him about the fate of his animals. This shows the old man needed someone to talk to.
ii) What is the cause of old man’s worry and guilt?
Ans. The old man had to leave his town San Carlos because of the artillery attack by the enemy. He used to take care of four pairs of pigeons, a cat and two goats whom he had to leave behind. This worried him and filled him with guilt thinking that if the humans were removed because of the artillery attack then how these animals could survive in the attack.
iii) Explain how the story brings out the conflict between man and his inner self.
Ans. In the story, we see an inner conflict that takes place between the old man and his inner self. The old man has to leave his native town San Carlos because of the fear of the artillery attack. He also has to leave behind the animals he is taking care of. This feels him with guilt. His conversation with the narrator shows his struggle with his inner self as he feels he has not done justice to the animals he was supposed to protect.
iv) The old man seems to have given up on his life. Do you agree? Why?
Ans. The old man seems to have given up on his life. Yes, I agree with the above statement. This is because the old man looked tired and exhausted and sat down by the side of the road. He took no initiative to cross pontoon bridge and get into a truck that would take him to Barcelona, knowing very well that the Fascists were advancing towards the river Ebro.
v) How does the narrator try to receive the old man of his worries? Does the prove successful? Support your answers with instance from the story.
Ans. The narrator converses with the old man to relieve him of his worries.
No, he doesn’t prove successful. He converses with the old man and tries to find about him and his life in San Carlos. The conversation between him and the old man shows he does not have a family to speak about. His family was the animals he used to take care of. His guilt conscious for having left his animals in the artillery attack left him mentally exhausted and dejected. He had submitted himself to fate since he showed no initiative in crossing the pontoon bridge a d getting into the truck to Barcelona.
Qs. 5. Read the extract given below and answer the questions that follow:
“I was taking care of animals,” he said dull but no
longer to me ————–. That and the fact that
cats know how to look after themselves was all the
good luck that old man would ever have.
i) Why does the narrator note that the old man spoke ‘dully’?
Ans. The narrator notes that the old man spoke ‘dully’ because he keeps on repeating to himself “I was taking care of animals”, “I was only taking care of animals”.
ii) What makes the narrator feel that “there was nothing to do about him”?
Ans. The narrator feels that “there was nothing to do about him” because the old man had no wish to save himself from the artillery attack of the Fascists and give himself protect by crossing the pontoon bridge and going to Barcelona. He had resigned to his fate and sat by the side of the road thinking only about the animals he took care of but had to leave behind.
iii) State how both the narrator and the old man are depicted as helpless by the end.
Ans. Both the narrator and the old man are depicted as helpless by the end. The old man had to leave his animals behind against his will because of the artillery attack. He had been taking care of these animals for a long time and was reluctant to leave them behind. But the enemy attack compelled him to do so and he felt helpless. The narrator was a young soldier whose duty was to keep an eye on the approaching of the enemy and to see that the war victims were safely send to the other side of the pontoon bridge. He tried to persuade the old man to cross the bridge but failed. He could only hope the grey overcast day would prevent the enemies from attacking. Here we see the narrator’s helplessness.
iv) What is “all the good luck that old man would ever have”?
Ans. The old man had to leave his animals whom he used to take care of behind against his will because of the artillery attack. He knew the cat would look after itself so there wasn’t anything to worry about it. He was so broken down at leaving his animals behind and to leave his native town for ever that he has lost his wish to leave the side of the road and move away to safety. Hence, there was little chance of him to be saved from the enemy attack. The grey overcast was the only relief the enemy planes were not up. Hence “all the good luck that old man could ever have” are the independent nature of the and the grey over cast.
v) The story is set on an Easter Sunday, which symbolically shows renewal and peace. How is it ironical with reference to the events in this story? State another example of irony of the story.
Ans. The story is set on an Easter Sunday, which symbolically shows renewal and peace. But it ironical with reference to the events in the story. This very day is selected for an artillery attack by the enemies which brings the natives of San Carlos to the verge of uncertainly and insecurity. For the old man it meant invite death since he did not cross the pontoon bridge.
Another instance of irony in the story is the old man’s worry about his animals rather than his own self. In fact, the animals had a better chance of survival than the old man. The cat could take care of itself and the doves were able to fly away since he had left the door of their cage open. But the old man was so exhausted walking twelve kilometres and so upset for leaving the animals behind that he was relucted to leave the road side and cross the pontoon bridge to get the truck for Barcelona. | 2,938 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This point was excavated to identify one of the rooms that had been best located in the geophysical surveys and that seemed to have been burned.
We also wanted to check for the presence of a street crossing the camp from north to south, providing access from one of the gates in the city wall to the interior of the settlement.
How was it built?
The room was built with walls of rammed earth on a socle of stone bound with mud, like the rest of the buildings from the Roman Republican Period.
The roof, supported on oak beams, was made with twigs and waterproofed with clay.
The room borders on the street to the west and has an opening on the southern side. The fact that the door opens to the south indicates that this room is part of a complex building.
What was its purpose?
The material recovered doesn’t indicate a specific use for the room, as there were work tools (a saw, a pair of loom weights, etc.) as well as ceramic recipients for domestic use.
Two amphorae have been located, one from the south of the Iberian Peninsula and the other from the Italian Peninsula, which speak for the transport of oil, wine or salted products (preserved fish).
One outstanding set consists of a krater, a recipient used for mixing water and wine, and several little drinking glasses. The krater was from Sicily and the glasses from modern-day Italy.
An Iberian ceramic playing counter was also recovered.
What happened to it?
The room was destroyed during the battle that brought an end to the life of the settlement in the mid-1st century. The evidence recovered at this point is:
- Burnt ceiling beams. They must have been moved around to retrieve material once the battle was over.
- Projectiles (sling-bullets, catapult-bolts and javelin tips) above the ruins. These could only have been fired from the exterior.
- Ceramics crushed in situ.
- Front part of a dog trapped under the ruins. The rear, being exposed to the elements, was eaten by carrion-feeders. | <urn:uuid:07f26177-ab57-4835-a72a-74bfcc188313> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.puigciutat.com/en/panel-3-puig-ciutat-a-multifunctional-room/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00044.warc.gz | en | 0.983716 | 450 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.60689723... | 3 | This point was excavated to identify one of the rooms that had been best located in the geophysical surveys and that seemed to have been burned.
We also wanted to check for the presence of a street crossing the camp from north to south, providing access from one of the gates in the city wall to the interior of the settlement.
How was it built?
The room was built with walls of rammed earth on a socle of stone bound with mud, like the rest of the buildings from the Roman Republican Period.
The roof, supported on oak beams, was made with twigs and waterproofed with clay.
The room borders on the street to the west and has an opening on the southern side. The fact that the door opens to the south indicates that this room is part of a complex building.
What was its purpose?
The material recovered doesn’t indicate a specific use for the room, as there were work tools (a saw, a pair of loom weights, etc.) as well as ceramic recipients for domestic use.
Two amphorae have been located, one from the south of the Iberian Peninsula and the other from the Italian Peninsula, which speak for the transport of oil, wine or salted products (preserved fish).
One outstanding set consists of a krater, a recipient used for mixing water and wine, and several little drinking glasses. The krater was from Sicily and the glasses from modern-day Italy.
An Iberian ceramic playing counter was also recovered.
What happened to it?
The room was destroyed during the battle that brought an end to the life of the settlement in the mid-1st century. The evidence recovered at this point is:
- Burnt ceiling beams. They must have been moved around to retrieve material once the battle was over.
- Projectiles (sling-bullets, catapult-bolts and javelin tips) above the ruins. These could only have been fired from the exterior.
- Ceramics crushed in situ.
- Front part of a dog trapped under the ruins. The rear, being exposed to the elements, was eaten by carrion-feeders. | 425 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Hoosier women aidedcivil War soldiers
Gov. Oliver P. Morton created the Indiana Sanitary Commission in 1862 as a way to ensure Indiana soldiers were taken care of during the Civil War. He made a plea for nurses, and women saw this as a way to "do their part" in the war effort and earn a decent wage to care for their families. Others saw this as a way to follow their husbands, sons and brothers to ensure they were cared for.
Nurse training schools had not been established by the time the Civil War broke out in 1861, so the care these women gave to wounded and dying soldiers consisted of cooking, laundry, writing letters, changing bandages and aiding in the general comfort of the soldiers.
Many combat physicians did not like the presence of women in the field; however, their dedication, the improved mental well being of the soldiers and improvement of the sanitary conditions in these facilities quelled their concerns.
Many women did not last long in the battlefields and hospitals. Injuries to limbs often turned gangrenous, and amputations were numerous because of a lack of medicine. Diseases were rampant. The stench, blood and cries of suffering were just too much for some who left their safe, quiet lives in Indiana.
Scores of women answered the call for nursing help, yet few were ever recognized. These women have been singled out for their brave acts:
Dr. Mary F. Thomas studied medicine in Wabash County and graduated from Penn's Medical College for Women in Philadelphia in 1854. Thomas practiced in Fort Wayne and Richmond. Thomas worked on the Sanitary Commission during the Civil War and carried medical supplies to the front by steamer. She also treated soldiers wounded in the battle of Vicksburg. Following the war she continued her work in the advancement of public health and women's suffrage. Thomas served as president of the Indiana Woman Suffrage Association and one term as president of the American Woman Suffrage Association. Per her request upon her death in 1888, she had four white suffragettes and two African-American women pallbearers.
In 1861, six months after the outbreak of the Civil War, Gov. Morton requested the help of the Sisters of the Holy Cross in South Bend to care for wounded Hoosier soldiers in Kentucky. Despite having no training as nurses, six sisters and Mother M. Angela began their journey south. On Christmas Eve 1862, three of the sisters boarded the Red Rover, the Navy's first hospital ship, caring for the wounded on both sides of the war. This would be the forerunner of the United States Navy Nurse Corps.
When Lovina McCarthy Streight's husband, Abel, became commander of the 51st Indiana Volunteer Infantry, she and the couple's 5-year-old son joined him. Streight made herself useful by nursing the wounded, eventually earning her the title "The Mother of the 51st." Confederate troops captured her three times, twice exchanging her for prisoners. The third time, she brandished a gun she had stashed inside her skirt. After her husband died in 1892, Streight first buried him in her front yard, to her neighbor's dismay. He was eventually moved to Crown Hill Cemetery. She joined him in 1910 and received full military honors, and her funeral was attended by 5,000, including 64 survivors of the 51st.
Eliza George of Fort Wayne was 55 when she asked for a nursing assignment from the Indiana Sanitary Commission in 1863. She was denied on the basis of age. Weeks later she found herself traveling mountain roads back and forth from the battlefields to Indiana for supplies. George worked on an ambulance train and in field hospitals cooking and caring for thousands of soldiers at a time. George traveled to Wilmington, N.C., at the end of the war to care for 11,000 Union soldiers who had been released from the Salisbury prison stockade.
Call Star producer Dawn Mitchell at (317) 444-6497. Follow her on Twitter: @dawn_mitchell61. | <urn:uuid:ea8a07df-67da-46cd-8bf9-f12bf76f5b37> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.indystar.com/story/news/history/retroindy/2015/03/23/hoosier-women-aidedcivil-war-soldiers/70321670/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00336.warc.gz | en | 0.9844 | 821 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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0.3036235868930816... | 1 | Hoosier women aidedcivil War soldiers
Gov. Oliver P. Morton created the Indiana Sanitary Commission in 1862 as a way to ensure Indiana soldiers were taken care of during the Civil War. He made a plea for nurses, and women saw this as a way to "do their part" in the war effort and earn a decent wage to care for their families. Others saw this as a way to follow their husbands, sons and brothers to ensure they were cared for.
Nurse training schools had not been established by the time the Civil War broke out in 1861, so the care these women gave to wounded and dying soldiers consisted of cooking, laundry, writing letters, changing bandages and aiding in the general comfort of the soldiers.
Many combat physicians did not like the presence of women in the field; however, their dedication, the improved mental well being of the soldiers and improvement of the sanitary conditions in these facilities quelled their concerns.
Many women did not last long in the battlefields and hospitals. Injuries to limbs often turned gangrenous, and amputations were numerous because of a lack of medicine. Diseases were rampant. The stench, blood and cries of suffering were just too much for some who left their safe, quiet lives in Indiana.
Scores of women answered the call for nursing help, yet few were ever recognized. These women have been singled out for their brave acts:
Dr. Mary F. Thomas studied medicine in Wabash County and graduated from Penn's Medical College for Women in Philadelphia in 1854. Thomas practiced in Fort Wayne and Richmond. Thomas worked on the Sanitary Commission during the Civil War and carried medical supplies to the front by steamer. She also treated soldiers wounded in the battle of Vicksburg. Following the war she continued her work in the advancement of public health and women's suffrage. Thomas served as president of the Indiana Woman Suffrage Association and one term as president of the American Woman Suffrage Association. Per her request upon her death in 1888, she had four white suffragettes and two African-American women pallbearers.
In 1861, six months after the outbreak of the Civil War, Gov. Morton requested the help of the Sisters of the Holy Cross in South Bend to care for wounded Hoosier soldiers in Kentucky. Despite having no training as nurses, six sisters and Mother M. Angela began their journey south. On Christmas Eve 1862, three of the sisters boarded the Red Rover, the Navy's first hospital ship, caring for the wounded on both sides of the war. This would be the forerunner of the United States Navy Nurse Corps.
When Lovina McCarthy Streight's husband, Abel, became commander of the 51st Indiana Volunteer Infantry, she and the couple's 5-year-old son joined him. Streight made herself useful by nursing the wounded, eventually earning her the title "The Mother of the 51st." Confederate troops captured her three times, twice exchanging her for prisoners. The third time, she brandished a gun she had stashed inside her skirt. After her husband died in 1892, Streight first buried him in her front yard, to her neighbor's dismay. He was eventually moved to Crown Hill Cemetery. She joined him in 1910 and received full military honors, and her funeral was attended by 5,000, including 64 survivors of the 51st.
Eliza George of Fort Wayne was 55 when she asked for a nursing assignment from the Indiana Sanitary Commission in 1863. She was denied on the basis of age. Weeks later she found herself traveling mountain roads back and forth from the battlefields to Indiana for supplies. George worked on an ambulance train and in field hospitals cooking and caring for thousands of soldiers at a time. George traveled to Wilmington, N.C., at the end of the war to care for 11,000 Union soldiers who had been released from the Salisbury prison stockade.
Call Star producer Dawn Mitchell at (317) 444-6497. Follow her on Twitter: @dawn_mitchell61. | 867 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Conflict is a struggle between opposing forces. There can be multiple conflicts in a story. This is the case in Of Mice and Men. In chapters three and four, there are man vs. man, man vs. self, and man vs. society conflicts. As George and Lennie interact with the workers on the ranch, sometimes conflicts arise between them.
Man vs. man is a type of conflict in which two or more characters are pitted against each other. Candy, an old man on the ranch, has a conflict with Carlson in chapter three. Candy’s friend and long-time companion is his old dog. He’s had him ever since he was a pup. Carlson tells Candy that his dog is too old and in constant pain. He says the dog isn’t doing any good to itself or anyone else. Carlson suggests that Candy should shoot his dog and take one of Slim’s new pups. After some debate, Candy unwillingly decides to let Carlson shoot and bury his dog. On page 47, Candy finally gives in and says, “Awright—take ‘im.” Later on, the men hear the shot from Carlson’s gun.
The major man vs. man conflict in chapters three and four is Lennie vs. Curley. After Curley and Slim walked in arguing about Curley’s wife, Curley saw Lennie daydreaming about his farm and thought Lennie was giggling at him. Curley got agitated and punched Lennie. Lennie became scared and tried to block Curley’s attacks but he continuously hit Lennie. When George yelled at Lennie to fight back, Lennie grabbed Curley’s hand and crushed it. On page 64, George yelled over and over again at Lennie to let go of Curley’s hand. When he finally did, the men discovered that every bone in his hand must have been broken. On page 44, Slim convinced Curley to stay quiet and tell everyone that he got his hand caught in a machine instead of maintaining that Lennie crushed his hand. This way, Curley’s father wouldn’t fire George and Lennie.
Man vs. self is a type of conflict wherein a character internally struggles with himself. George used to play jokes on Lennie because he knew that Lennie was “too dumb” to take care of himself. On page 40, George tells Slim about how he used to, “have a hell of a lot of fun with ‘im.” Eventually, George stopped doing this. One day, some men were standing near the Sacramento River. George told Lennie to jump in and he did, even though Lennie didn’t know how to swim. George and the men were able to pull him out... | <urn:uuid:799cc66d-33f8-4157-97bd-6831e67b46ea> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/conflicts-in-of-mice-and-men | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00312.warc.gz | en | 0.981669 | 583 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.3422138690948... | 1 | Conflict is a struggle between opposing forces. There can be multiple conflicts in a story. This is the case in Of Mice and Men. In chapters three and four, there are man vs. man, man vs. self, and man vs. society conflicts. As George and Lennie interact with the workers on the ranch, sometimes conflicts arise between them.
Man vs. man is a type of conflict in which two or more characters are pitted against each other. Candy, an old man on the ranch, has a conflict with Carlson in chapter three. Candy’s friend and long-time companion is his old dog. He’s had him ever since he was a pup. Carlson tells Candy that his dog is too old and in constant pain. He says the dog isn’t doing any good to itself or anyone else. Carlson suggests that Candy should shoot his dog and take one of Slim’s new pups. After some debate, Candy unwillingly decides to let Carlson shoot and bury his dog. On page 47, Candy finally gives in and says, “Awright—take ‘im.” Later on, the men hear the shot from Carlson’s gun.
The major man vs. man conflict in chapters three and four is Lennie vs. Curley. After Curley and Slim walked in arguing about Curley’s wife, Curley saw Lennie daydreaming about his farm and thought Lennie was giggling at him. Curley got agitated and punched Lennie. Lennie became scared and tried to block Curley’s attacks but he continuously hit Lennie. When George yelled at Lennie to fight back, Lennie grabbed Curley’s hand and crushed it. On page 64, George yelled over and over again at Lennie to let go of Curley’s hand. When he finally did, the men discovered that every bone in his hand must have been broken. On page 44, Slim convinced Curley to stay quiet and tell everyone that he got his hand caught in a machine instead of maintaining that Lennie crushed his hand. This way, Curley’s father wouldn’t fire George and Lennie.
Man vs. self is a type of conflict wherein a character internally struggles with himself. George used to play jokes on Lennie because he knew that Lennie was “too dumb” to take care of himself. On page 40, George tells Slim about how he used to, “have a hell of a lot of fun with ‘im.” Eventually, George stopped doing this. One day, some men were standing near the Sacramento River. George told Lennie to jump in and he did, even though Lennie didn’t know how to swim. George and the men were able to pull him out... | 552 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Activities to Facilitate Development for 0- to 6-month-old Babies
Though it may seem like all your newborn baby does during the day is eat and sleep, she is learning a lot too. Every new sight and sound stimulates her development, and she is learning to communicate her needs. She is learning to trust a caring adult to comfort her and take care of her. You can do many activities with your infant in the first six months of life that will help her develop and learn 2.
From the very beginning, infants need to spend some awake time on their tummies. Although for sleeping babies should always be put down on their backs, they also need to develop the muscles in their neck and shoulders to be able to hold their heads up. By the time he is 3 months old, your baby should be lifting his head and chest while on his stomach, according to the American Academy of Pediatrics. To encourage him to lift his head, prop a brightly colored board book, a black and white toy or an unbreakable mirror in front of him to give him something to look at. Around 4 months of age, your baby will have better hand-eye coordination and will want to reach out for objects that interest him. Hold his favorite toys close. You could also place toys that make noise near his feet so he will be encouraged to practice kicking. Usually by 6 months old, babies are ready to sit with support, so let him practice sitting by propping him on his hands. Just make sure you put some soft pillows around him for when he loses his balance and tips over.
Although you won't hear your baby's first words for a while, she is developing language skills from birth 2. When you talk and sing to her, she learns to locate the source of the sound and begins to recognize it as one that is comfortable and caring. Between 1 and 2 months, your baby will begin to respond to your voice with her own noises -- mostly oohs and aahs -- so make her own sounds back to her and you will be teaching her about the back-and-forth flow of communication. Read books and nursery rhymes to your infant often so she can hear the patterns of language. By 6 months, you may begin to hear a few babbling sounds, like "ma," "da" or "ba." Encourage those attempts at language by responding enthusiastically and acting like you understand her. "Did you say 'ba?' Oh, do you want your bottle?"
At birth, infants can begin to recognize faces and objects of different colors and sizes. In the first month or two, your baby will respond positively when he sees you approaching or hears your voice in a room of others. By 4 months old, he will begin exploring most objects with his mouth, because this is how he learns about them. Make sure that objects your baby will be handling are large enough that he will not swallow or choke on them. At 6 months, your infant will begin to enjoy peek-a-boo games, as he begins to learn that things he can't see are still there, a skill called object permanence. To help develop this concept, partially hide toys under a blanket and see if he can find them.
Your love and caring is the most important thing for your newborn baby as she learns to feel secure and trust that you are there to meet her needs. Hold her and massage her to help develop a bond with skin-to-skin contact. Smile at her often and watch for her to return that smile at around 2 months old. Begin a bedtime routine that includes a bath, reading stories, singing songs and going to sleep in a crib. This will help your baby know what to expect each night and make falling asleep on her own easier. By 4 months old, babies enjoy looking at their own image in a mirror, so put an unbreakable mirror in her crib or where she plays so she can practice looking at and talking to her reflection. Once babies have reached 6 months of age, they are often extremely interested in watching what is going on around them and the people around them. She will reach for you as a way to interact, so respond with happiness and play simple social games like pat-a-cake or peek-a-boo, or tickle her playfully.
- Jupiterimages/Comstock/Getty Images | <urn:uuid:a89020c2-f71e-43a5-9bc0-2c38c703b393> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://howtoadult.com/activities-facilitate-development-0-6monthold-babies-1168.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00507.warc.gz | en | 0.980531 | 891 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.47752428... | 5 | Activities to Facilitate Development for 0- to 6-month-old Babies
Though it may seem like all your newborn baby does during the day is eat and sleep, she is learning a lot too. Every new sight and sound stimulates her development, and she is learning to communicate her needs. She is learning to trust a caring adult to comfort her and take care of her. You can do many activities with your infant in the first six months of life that will help her develop and learn 2.
From the very beginning, infants need to spend some awake time on their tummies. Although for sleeping babies should always be put down on their backs, they also need to develop the muscles in their neck and shoulders to be able to hold their heads up. By the time he is 3 months old, your baby should be lifting his head and chest while on his stomach, according to the American Academy of Pediatrics. To encourage him to lift his head, prop a brightly colored board book, a black and white toy or an unbreakable mirror in front of him to give him something to look at. Around 4 months of age, your baby will have better hand-eye coordination and will want to reach out for objects that interest him. Hold his favorite toys close. You could also place toys that make noise near his feet so he will be encouraged to practice kicking. Usually by 6 months old, babies are ready to sit with support, so let him practice sitting by propping him on his hands. Just make sure you put some soft pillows around him for when he loses his balance and tips over.
Although you won't hear your baby's first words for a while, she is developing language skills from birth 2. When you talk and sing to her, she learns to locate the source of the sound and begins to recognize it as one that is comfortable and caring. Between 1 and 2 months, your baby will begin to respond to your voice with her own noises -- mostly oohs and aahs -- so make her own sounds back to her and you will be teaching her about the back-and-forth flow of communication. Read books and nursery rhymes to your infant often so she can hear the patterns of language. By 6 months, you may begin to hear a few babbling sounds, like "ma," "da" or "ba." Encourage those attempts at language by responding enthusiastically and acting like you understand her. "Did you say 'ba?' Oh, do you want your bottle?"
At birth, infants can begin to recognize faces and objects of different colors and sizes. In the first month or two, your baby will respond positively when he sees you approaching or hears your voice in a room of others. By 4 months old, he will begin exploring most objects with his mouth, because this is how he learns about them. Make sure that objects your baby will be handling are large enough that he will not swallow or choke on them. At 6 months, your infant will begin to enjoy peek-a-boo games, as he begins to learn that things he can't see are still there, a skill called object permanence. To help develop this concept, partially hide toys under a blanket and see if he can find them.
Your love and caring is the most important thing for your newborn baby as she learns to feel secure and trust that you are there to meet her needs. Hold her and massage her to help develop a bond with skin-to-skin contact. Smile at her often and watch for her to return that smile at around 2 months old. Begin a bedtime routine that includes a bath, reading stories, singing songs and going to sleep in a crib. This will help your baby know what to expect each night and make falling asleep on her own easier. By 4 months old, babies enjoy looking at their own image in a mirror, so put an unbreakable mirror in her crib or where she plays so she can practice looking at and talking to her reflection. Once babies have reached 6 months of age, they are often extremely interested in watching what is going on around them and the people around them. She will reach for you as a way to interact, so respond with happiness and play simple social games like pat-a-cake or peek-a-boo, or tickle her playfully.
- Jupiterimages/Comstock/Getty Images | 887 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Visit Website Did you know? Indian removal took place in the Northern states as well.
HarkinsChoctaw chief The Choctaw nation occupied large portions of what are now the U. The removals were only agreed to after a provision in the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek allowed some Choctaw to remain.
Georgia History About North Georgia. Articles about North Georgia history and the state in general. This section is currently being developed. For more information on Georgia History. A Brief History of the Trail of Tears. Migration from the original Cherokee Nation began in the early ’s as Cherokees, wary of white encroachment, moved west and settled in other areas of the country. The Trail of Tears [Gloria Jahoda] on skybox2008.com *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. Insightful, rarely told history of Indian courage in the face of White expansionism in the 19th century. Truth-telling tale of the ruthless brutality that forced the Native American .
The chief of the Choctaw tribe, George W. Harkinswrote to the citizens of the United States before the removals were to commence: It is with considerable diffidence that I attempt to address the American people, knowing and feeling sensibly my incompetency; and believing that your highly and well improved minds would not be well entertained by the address of a Choctaw.
But having determined to emigrate west of the Mississippi river this fall, I have thought proper in bidding you farewell to make a few remarks expressive of my views, and the feelings that actuate me on the subject of our removal We as Choctaws rather chose to suffer and be free, than live under the degrading influence of laws, which our voice could not be heard in their formation.
Gaines decided to remove Choctaws in three phases starting in and ending in The first was to begin on November 1, with groups meeting at Memphis and Vicksburg. A harsh winter would batter the emigrants with flash floods, sleet, and snow.
Initially the Choctaws were to be transported by wagon but floods halted them. With food running out, the residents of Vicksburg and Memphis were concerned. Five steamboats the Walter Scott, the Brandywine, the Reindeer, the Talma, and the Cleopatra would ferry Choctaws to their river-based destinations.
There the temperature stayed below freezing for almost a week with the rivers clogged with ice, so there could be no travel for weeks.
Food rationing consisted of a handful of boiled corn, one turnip, and two cups of heated water per day. Forty government wagons were sent to Arkansas Post to transport them to Little Rock.
When they reached Little Rock, a Choctaw chief referred to their trek as a "trail of tears and death". Alexis de TocquevilleFrench political thinker and historian Alexis de Tocquevillethe French philosopher, witnessed the Choctaw removals while in Memphis, Tennessee in The Indians were tranquil, but sombre and taciturn.
There was one who could speak English and of whom I asked why the Chactas were leaving their country. Approximately 5,—6, Choctaws remained in Mississippi in after the initial removal efforts. The Choctaws "have had our habitations torn down and burned, our fences destroyed, cattle turned into our fields and we ourselves have been scourged, manacled, fettered and otherwise personally abused, until by such treatment some of our best men have died".
The Choctaws were the first to sign a removal treaty presented by the federal government. President Andrew Jackson wanted strong negotiations with the Choctaws in Mississippi, and the Choctaws seemed much more cooperative than Andrew Jackson had imagined.
When commissioners and Choctaws came to negotiation agreements it was said the United States would bear the expense of moving their homes and that they had to be removed within two and a half years of the signed treaty.
Seminole Wars The U. The treaty negotiated called for the Seminoles to move west, if the land were found to be suitable. They were to be settled on the Creek reservation and become part of the Creek tribe, who considered them deserters; some of the Seminoles had been derived from Creek bands but also from other tribes.
Those among the tribe who once were members of Creek bands did not wish to move west to where they were certain that they would meet death for leaving the main band of Creek Indians. The delegation of seven chiefs who were to inspect the new reservation did not leave Florida until October After touring the area for several months and conferring with the Creeks who had already settled there, the seven chiefs signed a statement on March 28, that the new land was acceptable.
Upon their return to Florida, however, most of the chiefs renounced the statement, claiming that they had not signed it, or that they had been forced to sign it, and in any case, that they did not have the power to decide for all the tribes and bands that resided on the reservation.The Trail of Tears was a series of forced relocations of Native American peoples from their ancestral homelands in the Southeastern United States, to areas to the west (usually west of the Mississippi River) that had been designated as Indian Territory.
The Choctaw Trail of Tears was the relocation of the Choctaw Nation from their country referred to now as the Deep South (Alabama, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana) to lands west of the Mississippi River in Indian Territory in the s.
A Choctaw miko (chief) was quoted by the Arkansas Gazette that the removal was a "trail of tears and death." After removal the Choctaws became three. A Brief History of the Trail of Tears. Migration from the original Cherokee Nation began in the early ’s as Cherokees, wary of white encroachment, moved west and settled in other areas of the country.
The Trail of Tears was a series of forced relocations of Native American peoples from their ancestral homelands in the Southeastern United States, to areas to the west (usually west of the Mississippi River) that had been designated as Indian skybox2008.com forced relocations were carried out by government authorities following the passage of the Indian Removal Act in Introduction.
In this lesson, student groups will design and create a poster containing facts about the Trail of Tears as well as a collage and concluding statement expressing the group’s feelings about the event.
Georgia History About North Georgia. Articles about North Georgia history and the state in general. This section is currently being developed.
For more information on Georgia History. | <urn:uuid:e58d1c6d-c9fc-41fd-9342-6950b39bd78e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://rusadanykekeqap.skybox2008.com/account-of-the-trail-of-tears-40406tz.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00303.warc.gz | en | 0.980514 | 1,371 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.2639120519161224... | 1 | Visit Website Did you know? Indian removal took place in the Northern states as well.
HarkinsChoctaw chief The Choctaw nation occupied large portions of what are now the U. The removals were only agreed to after a provision in the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek allowed some Choctaw to remain.
Georgia History About North Georgia. Articles about North Georgia history and the state in general. This section is currently being developed. For more information on Georgia History. A Brief History of the Trail of Tears. Migration from the original Cherokee Nation began in the early ’s as Cherokees, wary of white encroachment, moved west and settled in other areas of the country. The Trail of Tears [Gloria Jahoda] on skybox2008.com *FREE* shipping on qualifying offers. Insightful, rarely told history of Indian courage in the face of White expansionism in the 19th century. Truth-telling tale of the ruthless brutality that forced the Native American .
The chief of the Choctaw tribe, George W. Harkinswrote to the citizens of the United States before the removals were to commence: It is with considerable diffidence that I attempt to address the American people, knowing and feeling sensibly my incompetency; and believing that your highly and well improved minds would not be well entertained by the address of a Choctaw.
But having determined to emigrate west of the Mississippi river this fall, I have thought proper in bidding you farewell to make a few remarks expressive of my views, and the feelings that actuate me on the subject of our removal We as Choctaws rather chose to suffer and be free, than live under the degrading influence of laws, which our voice could not be heard in their formation.
Gaines decided to remove Choctaws in three phases starting in and ending in The first was to begin on November 1, with groups meeting at Memphis and Vicksburg. A harsh winter would batter the emigrants with flash floods, sleet, and snow.
Initially the Choctaws were to be transported by wagon but floods halted them. With food running out, the residents of Vicksburg and Memphis were concerned. Five steamboats the Walter Scott, the Brandywine, the Reindeer, the Talma, and the Cleopatra would ferry Choctaws to their river-based destinations.
There the temperature stayed below freezing for almost a week with the rivers clogged with ice, so there could be no travel for weeks.
Food rationing consisted of a handful of boiled corn, one turnip, and two cups of heated water per day. Forty government wagons were sent to Arkansas Post to transport them to Little Rock.
When they reached Little Rock, a Choctaw chief referred to their trek as a "trail of tears and death". Alexis de TocquevilleFrench political thinker and historian Alexis de Tocquevillethe French philosopher, witnessed the Choctaw removals while in Memphis, Tennessee in The Indians were tranquil, but sombre and taciturn.
There was one who could speak English and of whom I asked why the Chactas were leaving their country. Approximately 5,—6, Choctaws remained in Mississippi in after the initial removal efforts. The Choctaws "have had our habitations torn down and burned, our fences destroyed, cattle turned into our fields and we ourselves have been scourged, manacled, fettered and otherwise personally abused, until by such treatment some of our best men have died".
The Choctaws were the first to sign a removal treaty presented by the federal government. President Andrew Jackson wanted strong negotiations with the Choctaws in Mississippi, and the Choctaws seemed much more cooperative than Andrew Jackson had imagined.
When commissioners and Choctaws came to negotiation agreements it was said the United States would bear the expense of moving their homes and that they had to be removed within two and a half years of the signed treaty.
Seminole Wars The U. The treaty negotiated called for the Seminoles to move west, if the land were found to be suitable. They were to be settled on the Creek reservation and become part of the Creek tribe, who considered them deserters; some of the Seminoles had been derived from Creek bands but also from other tribes.
Those among the tribe who once were members of Creek bands did not wish to move west to where they were certain that they would meet death for leaving the main band of Creek Indians. The delegation of seven chiefs who were to inspect the new reservation did not leave Florida until October After touring the area for several months and conferring with the Creeks who had already settled there, the seven chiefs signed a statement on March 28, that the new land was acceptable.
Upon their return to Florida, however, most of the chiefs renounced the statement, claiming that they had not signed it, or that they had been forced to sign it, and in any case, that they did not have the power to decide for all the tribes and bands that resided on the reservation.The Trail of Tears was a series of forced relocations of Native American peoples from their ancestral homelands in the Southeastern United States, to areas to the west (usually west of the Mississippi River) that had been designated as Indian Territory.
The Choctaw Trail of Tears was the relocation of the Choctaw Nation from their country referred to now as the Deep South (Alabama, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Louisiana) to lands west of the Mississippi River in Indian Territory in the s.
A Choctaw miko (chief) was quoted by the Arkansas Gazette that the removal was a "trail of tears and death." After removal the Choctaws became three. A Brief History of the Trail of Tears. Migration from the original Cherokee Nation began in the early ’s as Cherokees, wary of white encroachment, moved west and settled in other areas of the country.
The Trail of Tears was a series of forced relocations of Native American peoples from their ancestral homelands in the Southeastern United States, to areas to the west (usually west of the Mississippi River) that had been designated as Indian skybox2008.com forced relocations were carried out by government authorities following the passage of the Indian Removal Act in Introduction.
In this lesson, student groups will design and create a poster containing facts about the Trail of Tears as well as a collage and concluding statement expressing the group’s feelings about the event.
Georgia History About North Georgia. Articles about North Georgia history and the state in general. This section is currently being developed.
For more information on Georgia History. | 1,352 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The most comprehensive record of early Japan that remains was written by the Chinese some time before A.D. 300. It portrays the Japanese as law-abiding people, fond of drink, concerned with divination and ritual purity, familiar with agriculture (including wet-rice cultivation), expert at fishing and weaving, and living in a society where social differences were expressed through the use of tattooing or other bodily markings. Among the early rulers of Japan some were women, the most famous of whom is Himiko of Yamatai. Current mythology reconstructs the first Japanese state as created around a "divine" emperor, a direct descendant of the sun goddess Amatarasu, in about 660 B.C. , in what is now known as the Kinki region. Historical records dating to about the fifth century A.D. can be accepted as reasonably reliable. Early historical society was tribal in organization, divided into a large number of family groupings established as agricultural, craft, and ritual-specialist communities, some of which were exceedingly wealthy. In the early seventh century Chinese-style centralized bureaucratic rule was adopted; later, with the Taika reform in the mid-seventh century, many more Chinese institutions were embraced, followed by the building of the Chinese-style capital city of Nara in the eighth century. Although all authority theoretically was concentrated in the hands of the emperor, throughout Japanese history until the late nineteenth century, in contrast to China, emperors were usually dominated by a succession of court families and military rulers.
After the transfer in A.D. 794 of the capital to Heian-kyo, later to become Kyōto, a period of artistic development took place until the early twelfth century. During this period contacts with China were disrupted, allowing Japan to develop its own distinctive cultural forms. The world's first novel, The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu, was written at this time together with other major literary works; Buddhism not only was consolidated as a religion but also became a political force to reckon with. A succession of civil dictators, all members of the Fujiwara family, manipulated successive emperors in order to control the country. Under them taxation of peasants became oppressive, but at the same time the state entered into opulent decline, leading to an eventual loss of power over the outlying regions. Competing dominant families, notably the Minamoto and the Taira, who had been thrust temporarily into the background by the Fujiwara, returned to Kyōto to impose military control there. The Taira ruled for thirty years but eventually succumbed to Minamoto Yoritomo, who ousted them and took firm control of Japan. Yoritomo went on to establish a military government in Kamakura in eastern Honshū and persuaded the emperor to grant him the hereditary title of shogun; thus began an era of military rule that lasted for seven centuries. It was at Kamakura that the samurai code of discipline and chivalry was conceived and developed, while the imperial household remained in Kyōto, producing a succession of puppet emperors.
The groundwork for feudalism, built on the ruins of the centralized Chinese-style bureaucratic state, was laid down during the Kamakura shogunate. On the whole, the lot of the Japanese peasants was better than that of European serfs in that they often retained some rights over land and largely were protected from crippling taxes. During the fourteenth century there was a short-lived restoration of imperial rule, followed by a new military government established by the Ashikaga family in Kyōto, which lasted for two centuries. This was a time of prosperity and the full flowering of Bushidō (the way of the warrior), including the aesthetic and religious expression of this discipline. The Portuguese Jesuit Francis Xavier first arrived in Kyushu during the sixteenth century, followed by other Christian missionaries and then traders. Toward the end of the century a plague of civil wars broke out in Japan, which continued until order finally was restored by the military leader Hideyoshi Toyotomi in 1590. The pacification and unification of the country was completed by the first of the Tokugawa shoguns, Ieyasu, who then moved the seat of the shogunate to Edo, now Tokyo. As part of the process of consolidation, the shogunate virtually isolated Japan from the outside world, a situation that lasted for more than 265 years. Ieyasu and his son persecuted foreign missionaries and Japanese who had converted to Christianity. All contact with foreigners was restricted to the island of Deshima off the coast of Nagasaki.
Japanese feudalism reached a final, centralized stage under the Tokugawas, and neo-Confucianism, with its hierarchical ordering of society, was made a central part of the ideology. Strict class divisions were enforced between samurai, peasants, merchants, and artisans. Respect and obedience were the code of the day. During this period literacy and numeracy became widespread, and the foundations for a modern society were well established. A self-conscious cultivation of indigenous Japanese traditions, including Shinto, took hold among certain samurai, who would become politically active in the eventual restoration of the emperor. At the same time Japan came increasingly under pressure to open its shores to the outside world, and the resulting internal turbulence led to the collapse of the shogunate. This was followed by the Meiji Restoration of 1868, in which the emperor once again gained full sovereignty and set up the imperial capital in the city that was known from then on as Tokyo.
During the Meiji era a modern nation-state was firmly consolidated, a constitution was promulgated, a central government was established, the Tokugawa class system was abolished, a national system of education was put in place, a modern legal code was adopted, and a formidable military and industrial machine was assembled. The entire country threw itself into the process of modernization, for which purpose European—and, to a much lesser extent, American—models were initially emulated. Japan's victories in both the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 and the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 and its annexation of Korea in 1910 established Japan as a world power. Its place in the modern world order was further consolidated at the end of World War I, which Japan had entered on Britain's side under the provision of the Anglo-Japan Alliance of 1902. During the 1920s the worldwide recession affected the Japanese economy, most particularly because of its great dependence on foreign trade. By 1925 most small industries had been crushed by the monopolies of the giant corporations headed by extremely wealthy and powerful families. Faltering confidence in the government was reinforced by the exposure of a number of scandals. The military, which was suspicious of both the giant corporations and politicians, seized the moment and thus helped propel Japan toward World War II, although undoubtedly the freezing of Japanese assets by the United States and the embargo placed by the Americans on oil shipments to Japan triggered an already inflammatory situation.
The Japanese finally surrendered after two atomic bombs had been dropped, one on Hiroshima and another on Nagasaki. During the American occupation, which lasted from 1945 to 1951, Shintō was abolished as a state religion; elections, in which women could vote for the first time, were held; new political parties were established; and a new constitution was formulated. Under Prime Minister Shigeru Yoshida the country made formidable strides towards democratic self-government. Japan soon entered a phase of rapid economic growth, which has since been transformed into a low-growth economy geared to "internationalization." Today the Japanese are trying to integrate economic success with what they describe as a "humanistic" and more "spiritually" oriented life-style. | <urn:uuid:ad111208-92ae-4736-90f3-42af2970bab2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.everyculture.com/East-Southeast-Asia/Japanese-History-and-Cultural-Relations.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00534.warc.gz | en | 0.980085 | 1,574 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.706838965... | 2 | The most comprehensive record of early Japan that remains was written by the Chinese some time before A.D. 300. It portrays the Japanese as law-abiding people, fond of drink, concerned with divination and ritual purity, familiar with agriculture (including wet-rice cultivation), expert at fishing and weaving, and living in a society where social differences were expressed through the use of tattooing or other bodily markings. Among the early rulers of Japan some were women, the most famous of whom is Himiko of Yamatai. Current mythology reconstructs the first Japanese state as created around a "divine" emperor, a direct descendant of the sun goddess Amatarasu, in about 660 B.C. , in what is now known as the Kinki region. Historical records dating to about the fifth century A.D. can be accepted as reasonably reliable. Early historical society was tribal in organization, divided into a large number of family groupings established as agricultural, craft, and ritual-specialist communities, some of which were exceedingly wealthy. In the early seventh century Chinese-style centralized bureaucratic rule was adopted; later, with the Taika reform in the mid-seventh century, many more Chinese institutions were embraced, followed by the building of the Chinese-style capital city of Nara in the eighth century. Although all authority theoretically was concentrated in the hands of the emperor, throughout Japanese history until the late nineteenth century, in contrast to China, emperors were usually dominated by a succession of court families and military rulers.
After the transfer in A.D. 794 of the capital to Heian-kyo, later to become Kyōto, a period of artistic development took place until the early twelfth century. During this period contacts with China were disrupted, allowing Japan to develop its own distinctive cultural forms. The world's first novel, The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu, was written at this time together with other major literary works; Buddhism not only was consolidated as a religion but also became a political force to reckon with. A succession of civil dictators, all members of the Fujiwara family, manipulated successive emperors in order to control the country. Under them taxation of peasants became oppressive, but at the same time the state entered into opulent decline, leading to an eventual loss of power over the outlying regions. Competing dominant families, notably the Minamoto and the Taira, who had been thrust temporarily into the background by the Fujiwara, returned to Kyōto to impose military control there. The Taira ruled for thirty years but eventually succumbed to Minamoto Yoritomo, who ousted them and took firm control of Japan. Yoritomo went on to establish a military government in Kamakura in eastern Honshū and persuaded the emperor to grant him the hereditary title of shogun; thus began an era of military rule that lasted for seven centuries. It was at Kamakura that the samurai code of discipline and chivalry was conceived and developed, while the imperial household remained in Kyōto, producing a succession of puppet emperors.
The groundwork for feudalism, built on the ruins of the centralized Chinese-style bureaucratic state, was laid down during the Kamakura shogunate. On the whole, the lot of the Japanese peasants was better than that of European serfs in that they often retained some rights over land and largely were protected from crippling taxes. During the fourteenth century there was a short-lived restoration of imperial rule, followed by a new military government established by the Ashikaga family in Kyōto, which lasted for two centuries. This was a time of prosperity and the full flowering of Bushidō (the way of the warrior), including the aesthetic and religious expression of this discipline. The Portuguese Jesuit Francis Xavier first arrived in Kyushu during the sixteenth century, followed by other Christian missionaries and then traders. Toward the end of the century a plague of civil wars broke out in Japan, which continued until order finally was restored by the military leader Hideyoshi Toyotomi in 1590. The pacification and unification of the country was completed by the first of the Tokugawa shoguns, Ieyasu, who then moved the seat of the shogunate to Edo, now Tokyo. As part of the process of consolidation, the shogunate virtually isolated Japan from the outside world, a situation that lasted for more than 265 years. Ieyasu and his son persecuted foreign missionaries and Japanese who had converted to Christianity. All contact with foreigners was restricted to the island of Deshima off the coast of Nagasaki.
Japanese feudalism reached a final, centralized stage under the Tokugawas, and neo-Confucianism, with its hierarchical ordering of society, was made a central part of the ideology. Strict class divisions were enforced between samurai, peasants, merchants, and artisans. Respect and obedience were the code of the day. During this period literacy and numeracy became widespread, and the foundations for a modern society were well established. A self-conscious cultivation of indigenous Japanese traditions, including Shinto, took hold among certain samurai, who would become politically active in the eventual restoration of the emperor. At the same time Japan came increasingly under pressure to open its shores to the outside world, and the resulting internal turbulence led to the collapse of the shogunate. This was followed by the Meiji Restoration of 1868, in which the emperor once again gained full sovereignty and set up the imperial capital in the city that was known from then on as Tokyo.
During the Meiji era a modern nation-state was firmly consolidated, a constitution was promulgated, a central government was established, the Tokugawa class system was abolished, a national system of education was put in place, a modern legal code was adopted, and a formidable military and industrial machine was assembled. The entire country threw itself into the process of modernization, for which purpose European—and, to a much lesser extent, American—models were initially emulated. Japan's victories in both the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 and the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 and its annexation of Korea in 1910 established Japan as a world power. Its place in the modern world order was further consolidated at the end of World War I, which Japan had entered on Britain's side under the provision of the Anglo-Japan Alliance of 1902. During the 1920s the worldwide recession affected the Japanese economy, most particularly because of its great dependence on foreign trade. By 1925 most small industries had been crushed by the monopolies of the giant corporations headed by extremely wealthy and powerful families. Faltering confidence in the government was reinforced by the exposure of a number of scandals. The military, which was suspicious of both the giant corporations and politicians, seized the moment and thus helped propel Japan toward World War II, although undoubtedly the freezing of Japanese assets by the United States and the embargo placed by the Americans on oil shipments to Japan triggered an already inflammatory situation.
The Japanese finally surrendered after two atomic bombs had been dropped, one on Hiroshima and another on Nagasaki. During the American occupation, which lasted from 1945 to 1951, Shintō was abolished as a state religion; elections, in which women could vote for the first time, were held; new political parties were established; and a new constitution was formulated. Under Prime Minister Shigeru Yoshida the country made formidable strides towards democratic self-government. Japan soon entered a phase of rapid economic growth, which has since been transformed into a low-growth economy geared to "internationalization." Today the Japanese are trying to integrate economic success with what they describe as a "humanistic" and more "spiritually" oriented life-style. | 1,623 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A village is a clustered human settlement or community, larger than a hamlet but smaller than a town, with a population ranging from a few hundred to a few thousand. Though villages are often located in rural areas, the term urban village is also applied to certain urban neighborhoods. Villages are normally permanent, with fixed dwellings; however, transient villages can occur. Further, the dwellings of a village are fairly close to one another, not scattered broadly over the landscape, as a dispersed settlement.In the past, villages were a usual form of community for societies that practice subsistence agriculture, and also for some non-agricultural societies. In Great Britain, a hamlet earned the right to be called a village when it built a church. In many cultures, towns and cities were few, with only a small proportion of the population living in them. The Industrial Revolution attracted people in larger numbers to work in mills and factories; the concentration of people caused many villages to grow into towns and cities. This also enabled specialization of labor and crafts, and development of many trades. The trend of urbanization continues, though not always in connection with industrialization. Although many patterns of village life have existed, the typical village was small, consisting of perhaps 5 to 30 families.
Copyright 2020 puzzlefactory.pl. All rights reserved. | <urn:uuid:347fd968-d7e9-4d4a-a3f5-5bab3c7b8453> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://puzzlefactory.pl/en/tags/village | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00555.warc.gz | en | 0.982939 | 266 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.08731320500... | 2 | A village is a clustered human settlement or community, larger than a hamlet but smaller than a town, with a population ranging from a few hundred to a few thousand. Though villages are often located in rural areas, the term urban village is also applied to certain urban neighborhoods. Villages are normally permanent, with fixed dwellings; however, transient villages can occur. Further, the dwellings of a village are fairly close to one another, not scattered broadly over the landscape, as a dispersed settlement.In the past, villages were a usual form of community for societies that practice subsistence agriculture, and also for some non-agricultural societies. In Great Britain, a hamlet earned the right to be called a village when it built a church. In many cultures, towns and cities were few, with only a small proportion of the population living in them. The Industrial Revolution attracted people in larger numbers to work in mills and factories; the concentration of people caused many villages to grow into towns and cities. This also enabled specialization of labor and crafts, and development of many trades. The trend of urbanization continues, though not always in connection with industrialization. Although many patterns of village life have existed, the typical village was small, consisting of perhaps 5 to 30 families.
Copyright 2020 puzzlefactory.pl. All rights reserved. | 271 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A BRIEF HISTORY OF LEWES, EAST SUSSEX
By Tim Lambert
Lewes began as a Saxon village. The Saxons invaded East Sussex in the 5th century. Lewes was probably founded in the 6th century. (The name Lewes is probably derived from a Saxon word, 'hluews' which meant slopes or hills). Later the Saxons made Lewes a town. In the late 9th century King Alfred made a network of fortified settlements across his kingdom called burhs.
By the early 10th century Lewes was made a burh. In the event of a Danish attack all the men in the area would gather in Lewes to fight. Saxon Lewes was protected by a ditch and an earth rampart probably with a wooden stockade on top. (In the Middle Ages stone walls were erected around the town).
However Saxon Lewes was more than a fortress. It was also a busy little town. Lewes had weekly markets. In the 10th century it also had 2 mints, showing it was a place of some importance. However to us Lewes would seem tiny. At the time of the Norman Conquest in 1066 Lewes probably had less than 2,000 inhabitants. Nevertheless by Medieval standards Lewes was a fair sized town.
The Normans built a castle to guard Lewes. At first it was made of wood but later it was rebuilt in stone. The Normans also founded the priory (small abbey) of St Pancras in Lewes.
In the 13th century Franciscan friars arrived in Lewes. Friars were like monks but instead of withdrawing from the world they went out to preach. Franciscan friars were called grey friars because of the colour of their costumes.
In 1148 King Stephen granted Lewes a charter (a document granting the townspeople certain rights). In the Middle Ages Lewes was a busy little river port. Grain and wool from Sussex were exported from there.
In 1264 the Battle of Lewes was fought between King Henry III and some rebellious barons led by Simon de Montfort. The barons won a decisive victory and the king was captured.
In 1512 a Free Grammar School was founded in Lewes. However in 1537 Henry VIII dissolved the Priory. Later Caen stone from its buildings were used to make Southover Grange. In 1540 Henry gave Anne of Cleves House to his wife after their divorce. (Although Anne never actually lived there).
Like all towns in those days Lewes suffered from outbreaks of plague. It struck in 1538. Furthermore during the reign of Mary 1553-1558 17 Protestants from Sussex were martyred in Lewes.
In the 18th century Lewes was a busy little port and the principal town of Sussex.
The famous radical, Tom Paine, lived in Lewes from 1768 to 1774. He worked as an excise man but was sacked after writing an article arguing that excise men should be better paid!.
The famous paleontologist Gideon Mantell was born in Lewes.
At the beginning of the 19th century Lewes a fair sized town. It grew rapidly in the early 19th century. However in the late 19th century growth slowed and Lewes became less important.
During the 19th century there were a number of improvements to Lewes. In 1806 an Act of Parliament formed a body of men called Improvement Commissioners with powers to pave, clean and light the streets of Lewes. The town gained gas light in 1822. Lewes gained an electricity supply in 1901.
However in 1836 8 people were killed by a snow avalanche in Lewes.
The railway reached Lewes in 1846. The railway meant the end of Lewes as a port as it was now easier to transport goods by train than by water.
Lewes was made a borough in 1881. A new Town Hall was built in 1893. Victoria Hospital was built in 1910. In 1920 Wynne Baxter gave the Pells to the town of Lewes.
By 1901 Lewes was a prosperous market town with a population of 11,000. by 1951 the population was 13,000. Today Lewes remains an attractive market town.
A new Magistrates Court was built in 1986. The Thebes Gallery opened in Lewes in 2000. Today the population of Lewes in 16,000.
A timeline of Lewes
A brief history of Brighton
A brief history of Eastbourne
A brief history of Hastings
A brief history of Tunbridge
A brief history of Dover | <urn:uuid:ea013bdc-274b-4fc6-a721-c964ebc958d3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://localhistories.org/lewes.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00190.warc.gz | en | 0.985123 | 950 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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-0.0056826267... | 1 | A BRIEF HISTORY OF LEWES, EAST SUSSEX
By Tim Lambert
Lewes began as a Saxon village. The Saxons invaded East Sussex in the 5th century. Lewes was probably founded in the 6th century. (The name Lewes is probably derived from a Saxon word, 'hluews' which meant slopes or hills). Later the Saxons made Lewes a town. In the late 9th century King Alfred made a network of fortified settlements across his kingdom called burhs.
By the early 10th century Lewes was made a burh. In the event of a Danish attack all the men in the area would gather in Lewes to fight. Saxon Lewes was protected by a ditch and an earth rampart probably with a wooden stockade on top. (In the Middle Ages stone walls were erected around the town).
However Saxon Lewes was more than a fortress. It was also a busy little town. Lewes had weekly markets. In the 10th century it also had 2 mints, showing it was a place of some importance. However to us Lewes would seem tiny. At the time of the Norman Conquest in 1066 Lewes probably had less than 2,000 inhabitants. Nevertheless by Medieval standards Lewes was a fair sized town.
The Normans built a castle to guard Lewes. At first it was made of wood but later it was rebuilt in stone. The Normans also founded the priory (small abbey) of St Pancras in Lewes.
In the 13th century Franciscan friars arrived in Lewes. Friars were like monks but instead of withdrawing from the world they went out to preach. Franciscan friars were called grey friars because of the colour of their costumes.
In 1148 King Stephen granted Lewes a charter (a document granting the townspeople certain rights). In the Middle Ages Lewes was a busy little river port. Grain and wool from Sussex were exported from there.
In 1264 the Battle of Lewes was fought between King Henry III and some rebellious barons led by Simon de Montfort. The barons won a decisive victory and the king was captured.
In 1512 a Free Grammar School was founded in Lewes. However in 1537 Henry VIII dissolved the Priory. Later Caen stone from its buildings were used to make Southover Grange. In 1540 Henry gave Anne of Cleves House to his wife after their divorce. (Although Anne never actually lived there).
Like all towns in those days Lewes suffered from outbreaks of plague. It struck in 1538. Furthermore during the reign of Mary 1553-1558 17 Protestants from Sussex were martyred in Lewes.
In the 18th century Lewes was a busy little port and the principal town of Sussex.
The famous radical, Tom Paine, lived in Lewes from 1768 to 1774. He worked as an excise man but was sacked after writing an article arguing that excise men should be better paid!.
The famous paleontologist Gideon Mantell was born in Lewes.
At the beginning of the 19th century Lewes a fair sized town. It grew rapidly in the early 19th century. However in the late 19th century growth slowed and Lewes became less important.
During the 19th century there were a number of improvements to Lewes. In 1806 an Act of Parliament formed a body of men called Improvement Commissioners with powers to pave, clean and light the streets of Lewes. The town gained gas light in 1822. Lewes gained an electricity supply in 1901.
However in 1836 8 people were killed by a snow avalanche in Lewes.
The railway reached Lewes in 1846. The railway meant the end of Lewes as a port as it was now easier to transport goods by train than by water.
Lewes was made a borough in 1881. A new Town Hall was built in 1893. Victoria Hospital was built in 1910. In 1920 Wynne Baxter gave the Pells to the town of Lewes.
By 1901 Lewes was a prosperous market town with a population of 11,000. by 1951 the population was 13,000. Today Lewes remains an attractive market town.
A new Magistrates Court was built in 1986. The Thebes Gallery opened in Lewes in 2000. Today the population of Lewes in 16,000.
A timeline of Lewes
A brief history of Brighton
A brief history of Eastbourne
A brief history of Hastings
A brief history of Tunbridge
A brief history of Dover | 1,051 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Final Paper: Drama of Ancient Greece
The Greek dramatists have bequeathed immensely to the current mode of modern Western literature. Shakespeare and his contemporaries revered them for their distinct and explicit language, their dramatic scenes, and their extravagant processions. The language of their stories has connoted itself into both, the Western dialect and Western literature in general.
The establishment of Ancient Greek culture that has left the most immutable impression on our current world is the myth. The many mortal heroes who are seen throughout the extensive deployment of myths are accompanied by the ostentatious and mighty immortals, led by Zeus in the palace on Mount Olympus. Their structural case is not restricted to storytelling. Most of Greek comedy and tragedy is contingent on a working knowledge of all of the following ancient myths.
Aeolus was the keeper and god of the winds. After Zeus triumphed over the Titans, who were an earlier race of gods, he assigned his brothers, sisters, and relatives tasks in the realm of Mount Olympus. The winds needed to be contained and looked after, so that they wouldnt destroy the earth. Hera put forward Aeolus, because she was impressed with his steadfast nature. Aeolus was sent to an island named Aeolia, beneath which ran four deep passages in which the north, south, east, and west winds were locked up, to escape only when Aeolus or another god deemed it necessary.
Aphrodite, who is one of the best-known goddesses in our modern culture, was the goddess of love. Born of the foam of the sea, she came to symbolize passion and lust. She is a primary model of the anthropoid temperament of the Olympian gods, being inclined to fits of pride and temper and drawn to trouble making. Although given in marriage to Hephaestus by Zeus, she was well known for her liaisons with other gods and even mortals. Her son, Eros, inherited both, her mischievous nature and her iconography.
Apollo was the god of light, the intellect, the arts, and healing. He was the son of Zeus and the Titan, Leto. Also heralded as Phoebus, Apollo signifies light, order, and the sun. The most beautiful of all the gods, Apollo represents the more rational side of both the universe and man. His oracle at Delphi, on Mount Parnassus, was revered throughout the mortal world as a vessel of Apollos predictions for the future. Mortals sought the oracle from vast distances to discover the will of the gods.
Ares/Mars was the god of war, and the son of Zeus and Hera. He loved to fight, and to cause torment and battle, although he lost his courage immediately after he himself was wounded. Followed by Panic, Terror, and Trembling, and accompanied by his sister, Eris, and her son, Strife, everywhere Ares walked he brought death and violence.
Artemis, who was the twin sister to Apollo and goddess of the hunt and unmarried women, had vowed to remain chaste. Attended by her hunting hounds and nymphs, Artemis ranged throughout the mortal forests, hunting with her silver bow. Any mortal man who saw her bathing, or in any way harassed her, met with a horrible fate. She changed one man into a stag and set his own pack of hunting hounds on him. Like the moon she was always related to, though, Artemis had two sides. She was gentle and protective towards women and their young children.
Athene was the goddess of wisdom, laws, and jurisprudence, arts and crafts, culture, and learning. She was said to have sprung fully-grown and fully armored from Zeuss head, who was complaining of a headache and asked Hephaestus to split his skull. In all of the myths but one Athene has no mother. In the Homeric Hymn-28, however, Athene is described as the daughter of Metis, a titan. Metis was renowned for her wisdom and cleverness, and she was fated to have two children: first a girl and later a boy. The boy was destined to someday overthrow his father. When Zeus heard of this he flew into a rage and consumed the pregnant Metis. He later developed a headache, and here the divergence among the myths merges. Athene was by all accounts Zeuss favorite child, and in many ways she was the most powerful god on Mount Olympus. Athene had many facets. She was her fathers child in bravery, protecting heroes in battle and just causes in war. But she was her mothers child in her just, compassionate behavior. She is the patron of the city of Athens, her gift of the olive tree defeating Poseidons gift in their conquest for the city. Athene is a virgin goddess, but unlike Artemis, she is equally compassionate towards men and women, and her favorite mortal was a man, Odysseus, whose cunning appealed to her. In one story Athene, unlike the other gods, acknowledges her mistakes. She accidentally killed her dearest friend, the mortal Palas, when she was new to the world, misjudging her own strength. From then on she placed his name before hers, making Pallas Athene her proper name, and her friend and terrible act a part of her forever.
Circe was an enchantress encountered by Odysseus in Book X of The Odyssey. She amuses herself by turning the reconnaissance messengers, sent by the tactical Odysseus into pigs. Hermes saves Odysseus himself from succumbing to this fate by apprising him of the situation, giving him both, a magic flower to resist Circes magic and the warning not to go to her bed without first exacting a binding promise to ensure his safety. The now benevolent sorceress thus entertains Odysseus for a year. When Odysseus decides that he feels homesick again, Circe sends him to the realm of the dead to question the seer, Teiresias, telling him that he is fated to wander many strange paths before he can return to Ithaca.
Demeter, goddess of the harvest, was Zeuss sister. She was responsible for bringing crops to fruition, wild and cultivated. If she did not give her blessing to the earth, famine and starvation would follow. Her daughter, Persephone, was kidnapped by Hades, god of the underworld, to be his queen. Demeter was so stricken that she disguised herself as an old woman, and wandered the earth crying and seeking her lost daughter. The god of the sun, Helios, tells her at last where her daughter is and she becomes coldly furious. She refused to heal the barren earth, and Zeus, knowing that if his sister was not given aid the mortal world would perish, sent Hermes to bargain with Hades for the return of the sunny Persephone. Hades slyly told Persephone that was free to go, and he gave her a handful of pomegranate seeds to eat if she got hungry along the way. She ate four and was bound to spend four months of the year with Hades in his dark kingdom. During that period Demeter was so sorrowful that the earth became cold and bare, the ground froze despite the light from the sun, and nothing grew.
Eros/Cupid, the god of love and passion, was said in the later myths to be the son of Aphrodite. In some of the earliest myths, however, he was considered to be the very first god, the son of Darkness or Chaos, who brought light and order, and therefore life, through love. This idealistic and all-powerful view of love is far from the erotic version associated with Eros in later myths. Portrayed as the conceited and spoiled young son of Aphrodite, he used his magical bow and arrows to cause mortals and immortals to fall hopelessly in love. Although he obeyed his mother, he shot most of his arrows for his own personal entertainment.
Hades, god of the undead and king of the underworld, was Zeuss brother. He rarely leaves his silent, gray palaces underground to visit the brightness of Mount Olympus. Hades is also the god of wealth, for he owns all of the precious gems and minerals that lie below the earth.
Helios, the god of the sun, drove his fiery horses and golden chariot across the sky each day, bringing day, heat, and light. Although his own origins were obscure, there was one myth that concerned his son by the mortal Clymene, the boy Phaeton. Granted one wish, he chose to drive the chariot. Phaethon set fire to the earth in his dipping and diving until Zeus was forced to throw a thunderbolt at him to cease the destruction. Eventually the earth recovered, and Helios, deeply saddened by his sons actions, returned to his daily task.
Hephaestus was the god of fire, craftsmen, the protector of blacksmiths, and the son of Zeus and Hera. He walked with a limp because Zeus threw him over the palace wall when he sided with Hera in an argument. He fell for an entire day and was nursed by the sea goddess until he could return. The only ugly god, Hephaestus was loved by both, gods and mortals because he was a pacifist and kind-hearted. A skilled craftsman, he made the furniture and weaponry to arm and adorn Mount Olympus.
Hestia was Zeuss sister. She was the goddess of the hearth and home, and the third virgin goddess. Her sole task at Mount Olympus was to keep the fire burning brightly in the palace hearth.
Both sister and wife to Zeus, Hera/Juno is the goddess of marriage and the protector of women. She initially refused to become Zeuss wife, knowing his reputation of philandering. But Zeus transformed himself into a shivering little bird and created an enormous thunderstorm, so that Hera took pity on him and took him into her arms. However, Zeus continued to woo women incessantly, making Hera furious with jealousy. The myths are full of tales depicting Zeuss infidelity and Heras ensuing rage.
Hermes, the messenger of the gods, was the son of Zeus and a demigoddess named Maia. A mischievous trickster, Hermes was also the god of thieves, travelers, shepherds, and merchants. With his winged cap and sandals, Hermes could travel back and forth from the ends of the earth in a blink of an eye. His more serious duty was that of escorting the newly dead to the underworld. Hermes has two famous sons, Pan, the god of shepherds, and Hermaphroditus, the son of Aphrodite and Hermes. Hermaphroditus possessed his fathers handsome virility and his mothers beautiful face. In some stories it is said that the nymph Salmacis, upon falling in love with Hermaphroditus, prayed to be joined with him forever. Her prayers were granted and their two bodies were physically united, thus making the first hermaphrodite.
The Moira were the three sisters of Fate. They were the children of Zeus and the titan Themis. Clotho, whose name meant spinner, created the thread of life, signifying the birth of a mortal being. Lachesis, whose name meant apportioner, measured the thread. And Atropos, whose name meant inflexible, cut the thread, ending the life span of a mortal being. Not even the gods had control over the Fates, who were in some earlier myths born of Necessity, greater and more ancient than even the immortals.
Persephone was the daughter of Demeter, and a child of sun and laughter.
Poseidon/Neptune was the god of the sea and he yielded enormous power. Zeuss brother, Poseidon lived in a palace beneath the ocean. When he struck the sea with his trident storms of gigantic magnitudes were born, and his golden chariot was able to quiet the waves. If he plunged his trident into the ocean floor, earthquakes rolled out from the epicenter of his rage. His wife, the sea nymph Amphitrite, and his son, Triton, lived with him in his underworld kingdom. Triton was half man, half fish, and rode a sea monster with his conch shell horn. Athene was often pitted against Poseidon in the myths, the ultimate wisdom versus the ultimate chaos.
Prometheus and his brother, Epimetheus, whose name meant forethought and afterthought, were two titans whose aid enabled Zeus to win his battle against Cronos and the other Titans. They were given the task of creating the men and animals. Epimetheus decided that he would create the animals, while Prometheus set about making the first man. Epimetheus, however, gave to his creations all of the useful and beautiful attributes that Prometheus would have liked to have given to man. But all of the swiftness, cunning, courage, claws, wings, and strength, the very finest gifts were already given. Prometheus was determined to find a great gift for man that was better than the other gifts that Zeus had allotted. When Prometheus was chosen by Zeus to determine the means by which men should give sacrifice to the gods, he dissected an ox and covered the better parts with the skin and stomach, to make them appear poor. He created a second offering, this one consisting of bones, offal, and the less desirable parts, but covering the pile with fat. Zeus realized that Prometheus was trying to trick him, but he chose the poorer portion anyway. Zeus retaliated by taking away from the men the fire that they needed to cook the fine meats, which they withheld from the gods. Athene took pity on the cunning and inventive titan and showed him how he could steal the fire back for mankind, the perfect gift to make up for his brothers mistake. When Zeus found out he created Pandora, whom he sent to earth to marry Epimethus and release all of the evils into the world. Zeus then punished Prometheus by changing him to a rock, where by day an eagle ate his liver and at night his flesh grew again so that another day of torture would ensue. He later relented, allowing Hercules to kill the eagle, thus ending the torture.
Zeus/Jove was the god of thunder and lightening, and the king of the gods. He was the son of the Titan queen and king, Rhea and Cronos. His grandmother, Mother Earth/Gaea first bore the Cyclopes, and then the Titans, to her consort Father Heaven. Father Heaven thought that the Cyclopes were ugly as well as fearsome, and he trapped them under the earth. Gaea was greatly angered by this, and she sent the Titans to slay Father Heaven and to bring back her children. Cronos, the strongest of the Titans, wounded Father Heaven badly, enabling the Cyclopes to escape. The Titans made Cronos the leader, and Rhea, his sister, became his wife and queen. With his power came corruption, and Cronos imprisoned the Cyclopes once again. Gaea was even angrier than before, but she hid it this time, for she knew that Rheas child would grow up to overthrow his father.
Cronos, however, also knew of this prophecy. He swallowed his children as soon as they were born to prevent them from reaching adulthood and gaining enough power to defeat him. Rhea was in despair as Cronos swallowed her first five children, Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, and Poseidon. She plotted to save her sixth child from Cronos. She gave the infant Zeus to Gaea to hide and protect, and offered to Cronos a stone wrapped in a blanket to swallow. Zeus grew strong on the isle of Crete, where he drank milk and honey, and was raised by kind nymphs and protected by armed guards. His mother, Rhea, visited him often and told him of the cruelty of his father, and why he must be hidden from him. If the baby Zeus cried too loudly the guards would beat on their shields to drown out the noise, so that Cronos would not hear the babys powerful wails and realize that he had been fooled. When Cronos did finally discover the trick, Zeus changed into a serpent and Cronos searched for the child in vain. Zeus bided his time as his hatred of his father grew, and he vowed to rescue his brothers and sisters.
When Zeus was of age he disguised himself as a menial serving man in Cronoss great palace. Rhea mixed a potent poison that Zeus served to Cronos. The drink caused Cronos to vomit, first the stone, and then each of the children that he had swallowed. Zeuss brothers and sisters vowed their endless loyalty to him and for ten long years they waged war against the Titans. Gaea finally told Zeus that the secret to his victory was to release the Cyclopes because they would fight for him and help to overthrow the ancient race of gods. After Zeus did this the Cyclopes displayed their gratitude by giving Zeus the thunderbolts, Poseidon the trident, and Hades the magic helmet of darkness. The three hundred handed Cyclopes heaved boulders at the stronghold of Cronos and the three brothers made use of their gifts in order to win the battle. All of the Titans, excluding Prometheus and Epimetheus, who had aided them, were punished. Gaea then gave birth to the horrible monster Typhon, who possessed hundreds of heads and fire spouting eyes. Zeus defeated it with his thunderbolts.
Zeus and his two brothers then drew lots to see which one of them would become the ruler of the new gods because they wanted to avoid becoming evil and corrupt like their father. Zeus won the sky, becoming king of heaven and ruler of the gods. Hades won the underworld and all of its riches, and Poseidon won the sea.
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0.39708822965... | 1 | Final Paper: Drama of Ancient Greece
The Greek dramatists have bequeathed immensely to the current mode of modern Western literature. Shakespeare and his contemporaries revered them for their distinct and explicit language, their dramatic scenes, and their extravagant processions. The language of their stories has connoted itself into both, the Western dialect and Western literature in general.
The establishment of Ancient Greek culture that has left the most immutable impression on our current world is the myth. The many mortal heroes who are seen throughout the extensive deployment of myths are accompanied by the ostentatious and mighty immortals, led by Zeus in the palace on Mount Olympus. Their structural case is not restricted to storytelling. Most of Greek comedy and tragedy is contingent on a working knowledge of all of the following ancient myths.
Aeolus was the keeper and god of the winds. After Zeus triumphed over the Titans, who were an earlier race of gods, he assigned his brothers, sisters, and relatives tasks in the realm of Mount Olympus. The winds needed to be contained and looked after, so that they wouldnt destroy the earth. Hera put forward Aeolus, because she was impressed with his steadfast nature. Aeolus was sent to an island named Aeolia, beneath which ran four deep passages in which the north, south, east, and west winds were locked up, to escape only when Aeolus or another god deemed it necessary.
Aphrodite, who is one of the best-known goddesses in our modern culture, was the goddess of love. Born of the foam of the sea, she came to symbolize passion and lust. She is a primary model of the anthropoid temperament of the Olympian gods, being inclined to fits of pride and temper and drawn to trouble making. Although given in marriage to Hephaestus by Zeus, she was well known for her liaisons with other gods and even mortals. Her son, Eros, inherited both, her mischievous nature and her iconography.
Apollo was the god of light, the intellect, the arts, and healing. He was the son of Zeus and the Titan, Leto. Also heralded as Phoebus, Apollo signifies light, order, and the sun. The most beautiful of all the gods, Apollo represents the more rational side of both the universe and man. His oracle at Delphi, on Mount Parnassus, was revered throughout the mortal world as a vessel of Apollos predictions for the future. Mortals sought the oracle from vast distances to discover the will of the gods.
Ares/Mars was the god of war, and the son of Zeus and Hera. He loved to fight, and to cause torment and battle, although he lost his courage immediately after he himself was wounded. Followed by Panic, Terror, and Trembling, and accompanied by his sister, Eris, and her son, Strife, everywhere Ares walked he brought death and violence.
Artemis, who was the twin sister to Apollo and goddess of the hunt and unmarried women, had vowed to remain chaste. Attended by her hunting hounds and nymphs, Artemis ranged throughout the mortal forests, hunting with her silver bow. Any mortal man who saw her bathing, or in any way harassed her, met with a horrible fate. She changed one man into a stag and set his own pack of hunting hounds on him. Like the moon she was always related to, though, Artemis had two sides. She was gentle and protective towards women and their young children.
Athene was the goddess of wisdom, laws, and jurisprudence, arts and crafts, culture, and learning. She was said to have sprung fully-grown and fully armored from Zeuss head, who was complaining of a headache and asked Hephaestus to split his skull. In all of the myths but one Athene has no mother. In the Homeric Hymn-28, however, Athene is described as the daughter of Metis, a titan. Metis was renowned for her wisdom and cleverness, and she was fated to have two children: first a girl and later a boy. The boy was destined to someday overthrow his father. When Zeus heard of this he flew into a rage and consumed the pregnant Metis. He later developed a headache, and here the divergence among the myths merges. Athene was by all accounts Zeuss favorite child, and in many ways she was the most powerful god on Mount Olympus. Athene had many facets. She was her fathers child in bravery, protecting heroes in battle and just causes in war. But she was her mothers child in her just, compassionate behavior. She is the patron of the city of Athens, her gift of the olive tree defeating Poseidons gift in their conquest for the city. Athene is a virgin goddess, but unlike Artemis, she is equally compassionate towards men and women, and her favorite mortal was a man, Odysseus, whose cunning appealed to her. In one story Athene, unlike the other gods, acknowledges her mistakes. She accidentally killed her dearest friend, the mortal Palas, when she was new to the world, misjudging her own strength. From then on she placed his name before hers, making Pallas Athene her proper name, and her friend and terrible act a part of her forever.
Circe was an enchantress encountered by Odysseus in Book X of The Odyssey. She amuses herself by turning the reconnaissance messengers, sent by the tactical Odysseus into pigs. Hermes saves Odysseus himself from succumbing to this fate by apprising him of the situation, giving him both, a magic flower to resist Circes magic and the warning not to go to her bed without first exacting a binding promise to ensure his safety. The now benevolent sorceress thus entertains Odysseus for a year. When Odysseus decides that he feels homesick again, Circe sends him to the realm of the dead to question the seer, Teiresias, telling him that he is fated to wander many strange paths before he can return to Ithaca.
Demeter, goddess of the harvest, was Zeuss sister. She was responsible for bringing crops to fruition, wild and cultivated. If she did not give her blessing to the earth, famine and starvation would follow. Her daughter, Persephone, was kidnapped by Hades, god of the underworld, to be his queen. Demeter was so stricken that she disguised herself as an old woman, and wandered the earth crying and seeking her lost daughter. The god of the sun, Helios, tells her at last where her daughter is and she becomes coldly furious. She refused to heal the barren earth, and Zeus, knowing that if his sister was not given aid the mortal world would perish, sent Hermes to bargain with Hades for the return of the sunny Persephone. Hades slyly told Persephone that was free to go, and he gave her a handful of pomegranate seeds to eat if she got hungry along the way. She ate four and was bound to spend four months of the year with Hades in his dark kingdom. During that period Demeter was so sorrowful that the earth became cold and bare, the ground froze despite the light from the sun, and nothing grew.
Eros/Cupid, the god of love and passion, was said in the later myths to be the son of Aphrodite. In some of the earliest myths, however, he was considered to be the very first god, the son of Darkness or Chaos, who brought light and order, and therefore life, through love. This idealistic and all-powerful view of love is far from the erotic version associated with Eros in later myths. Portrayed as the conceited and spoiled young son of Aphrodite, he used his magical bow and arrows to cause mortals and immortals to fall hopelessly in love. Although he obeyed his mother, he shot most of his arrows for his own personal entertainment.
Hades, god of the undead and king of the underworld, was Zeuss brother. He rarely leaves his silent, gray palaces underground to visit the brightness of Mount Olympus. Hades is also the god of wealth, for he owns all of the precious gems and minerals that lie below the earth.
Helios, the god of the sun, drove his fiery horses and golden chariot across the sky each day, bringing day, heat, and light. Although his own origins were obscure, there was one myth that concerned his son by the mortal Clymene, the boy Phaeton. Granted one wish, he chose to drive the chariot. Phaethon set fire to the earth in his dipping and diving until Zeus was forced to throw a thunderbolt at him to cease the destruction. Eventually the earth recovered, and Helios, deeply saddened by his sons actions, returned to his daily task.
Hephaestus was the god of fire, craftsmen, the protector of blacksmiths, and the son of Zeus and Hera. He walked with a limp because Zeus threw him over the palace wall when he sided with Hera in an argument. He fell for an entire day and was nursed by the sea goddess until he could return. The only ugly god, Hephaestus was loved by both, gods and mortals because he was a pacifist and kind-hearted. A skilled craftsman, he made the furniture and weaponry to arm and adorn Mount Olympus.
Hestia was Zeuss sister. She was the goddess of the hearth and home, and the third virgin goddess. Her sole task at Mount Olympus was to keep the fire burning brightly in the palace hearth.
Both sister and wife to Zeus, Hera/Juno is the goddess of marriage and the protector of women. She initially refused to become Zeuss wife, knowing his reputation of philandering. But Zeus transformed himself into a shivering little bird and created an enormous thunderstorm, so that Hera took pity on him and took him into her arms. However, Zeus continued to woo women incessantly, making Hera furious with jealousy. The myths are full of tales depicting Zeuss infidelity and Heras ensuing rage.
Hermes, the messenger of the gods, was the son of Zeus and a demigoddess named Maia. A mischievous trickster, Hermes was also the god of thieves, travelers, shepherds, and merchants. With his winged cap and sandals, Hermes could travel back and forth from the ends of the earth in a blink of an eye. His more serious duty was that of escorting the newly dead to the underworld. Hermes has two famous sons, Pan, the god of shepherds, and Hermaphroditus, the son of Aphrodite and Hermes. Hermaphroditus possessed his fathers handsome virility and his mothers beautiful face. In some stories it is said that the nymph Salmacis, upon falling in love with Hermaphroditus, prayed to be joined with him forever. Her prayers were granted and their two bodies were physically united, thus making the first hermaphrodite.
The Moira were the three sisters of Fate. They were the children of Zeus and the titan Themis. Clotho, whose name meant spinner, created the thread of life, signifying the birth of a mortal being. Lachesis, whose name meant apportioner, measured the thread. And Atropos, whose name meant inflexible, cut the thread, ending the life span of a mortal being. Not even the gods had control over the Fates, who were in some earlier myths born of Necessity, greater and more ancient than even the immortals.
Persephone was the daughter of Demeter, and a child of sun and laughter.
Poseidon/Neptune was the god of the sea and he yielded enormous power. Zeuss brother, Poseidon lived in a palace beneath the ocean. When he struck the sea with his trident storms of gigantic magnitudes were born, and his golden chariot was able to quiet the waves. If he plunged his trident into the ocean floor, earthquakes rolled out from the epicenter of his rage. His wife, the sea nymph Amphitrite, and his son, Triton, lived with him in his underworld kingdom. Triton was half man, half fish, and rode a sea monster with his conch shell horn. Athene was often pitted against Poseidon in the myths, the ultimate wisdom versus the ultimate chaos.
Prometheus and his brother, Epimetheus, whose name meant forethought and afterthought, were two titans whose aid enabled Zeus to win his battle against Cronos and the other Titans. They were given the task of creating the men and animals. Epimetheus decided that he would create the animals, while Prometheus set about making the first man. Epimetheus, however, gave to his creations all of the useful and beautiful attributes that Prometheus would have liked to have given to man. But all of the swiftness, cunning, courage, claws, wings, and strength, the very finest gifts were already given. Prometheus was determined to find a great gift for man that was better than the other gifts that Zeus had allotted. When Prometheus was chosen by Zeus to determine the means by which men should give sacrifice to the gods, he dissected an ox and covered the better parts with the skin and stomach, to make them appear poor. He created a second offering, this one consisting of bones, offal, and the less desirable parts, but covering the pile with fat. Zeus realized that Prometheus was trying to trick him, but he chose the poorer portion anyway. Zeus retaliated by taking away from the men the fire that they needed to cook the fine meats, which they withheld from the gods. Athene took pity on the cunning and inventive titan and showed him how he could steal the fire back for mankind, the perfect gift to make up for his brothers mistake. When Zeus found out he created Pandora, whom he sent to earth to marry Epimethus and release all of the evils into the world. Zeus then punished Prometheus by changing him to a rock, where by day an eagle ate his liver and at night his flesh grew again so that another day of torture would ensue. He later relented, allowing Hercules to kill the eagle, thus ending the torture.
Zeus/Jove was the god of thunder and lightening, and the king of the gods. He was the son of the Titan queen and king, Rhea and Cronos. His grandmother, Mother Earth/Gaea first bore the Cyclopes, and then the Titans, to her consort Father Heaven. Father Heaven thought that the Cyclopes were ugly as well as fearsome, and he trapped them under the earth. Gaea was greatly angered by this, and she sent the Titans to slay Father Heaven and to bring back her children. Cronos, the strongest of the Titans, wounded Father Heaven badly, enabling the Cyclopes to escape. The Titans made Cronos the leader, and Rhea, his sister, became his wife and queen. With his power came corruption, and Cronos imprisoned the Cyclopes once again. Gaea was even angrier than before, but she hid it this time, for she knew that Rheas child would grow up to overthrow his father.
Cronos, however, also knew of this prophecy. He swallowed his children as soon as they were born to prevent them from reaching adulthood and gaining enough power to defeat him. Rhea was in despair as Cronos swallowed her first five children, Hestia, Demeter, Hera, Hades, and Poseidon. She plotted to save her sixth child from Cronos. She gave the infant Zeus to Gaea to hide and protect, and offered to Cronos a stone wrapped in a blanket to swallow. Zeus grew strong on the isle of Crete, where he drank milk and honey, and was raised by kind nymphs and protected by armed guards. His mother, Rhea, visited him often and told him of the cruelty of his father, and why he must be hidden from him. If the baby Zeus cried too loudly the guards would beat on their shields to drown out the noise, so that Cronos would not hear the babys powerful wails and realize that he had been fooled. When Cronos did finally discover the trick, Zeus changed into a serpent and Cronos searched for the child in vain. Zeus bided his time as his hatred of his father grew, and he vowed to rescue his brothers and sisters.
When Zeus was of age he disguised himself as a menial serving man in Cronoss great palace. Rhea mixed a potent poison that Zeus served to Cronos. The drink caused Cronos to vomit, first the stone, and then each of the children that he had swallowed. Zeuss brothers and sisters vowed their endless loyalty to him and for ten long years they waged war against the Titans. Gaea finally told Zeus that the secret to his victory was to release the Cyclopes because they would fight for him and help to overthrow the ancient race of gods. After Zeus did this the Cyclopes displayed their gratitude by giving Zeus the thunderbolts, Poseidon the trident, and Hades the magic helmet of darkness. The three hundred handed Cyclopes heaved boulders at the stronghold of Cronos and the three brothers made use of their gifts in order to win the battle. All of the Titans, excluding Prometheus and Epimetheus, who had aided them, were punished. Gaea then gave birth to the horrible monster Typhon, who possessed hundreds of heads and fire spouting eyes. Zeus defeated it with his thunderbolts.
Zeus and his two brothers then drew lots to see which one of them would become the ruler of the new gods because they wanted to avoid becoming evil and corrupt like their father. Zeus won the sky, becoming king of heaven and ruler of the gods. Hades won the underworld and all of its riches, and Poseidon won the sea.
Throughout the ancient Greek myths the connotation of the gods as a younger race pervades. They are portrayed almost as new as the human beings who worship them. The myths also indicate that there are older forces in the earth that even the gods of Mount Olympus do not understand. | 3,776 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Students at the OJCS are continuing their journey through time, and our next stop is Ancient Greece. Grade 2 learned about what life was like in ancient Greece and some of the things that were created during that time period such as Philosophy, and the Olympics.
We spoke about how the Ancient Greeks did not believe in one God. They believed in many gods and goddesses, each being responsible for specific things. Among them were: Zeus god of the sky, Athena goddess of wisdom, Hades god of the underworld and more.
For our art project, we focused on Poseidon god of the sea. Poseidon is the brother of Zeus and Hades. His main symbol is the trident, a three-pronged spear. Poseidon was the protector of those who travelled the sea. He could make the water calm and create islands for lost travellers. When angry, he caused shipwrecks and earthquakes. Poseidon was also known as the father of horses and had a special connection with them.
Our artwork began with drawing Poseidon in oil pastel. Then we painted over everything with liquid watercolour creating a watercolour resist technique making Poseidon appear to be underwater. Finally students chose painted paper and collaged sea plants and creatures into their masterpieces. The results were fantastic! | <urn:uuid:5a5653a3-4b3a-4900-8a23-3b8f942eb4aa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://ojcsart.edublogs.org/2019/11/22/poseidon-mixed-media-collage/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00167.warc.gz | en | 0.98064 | 261 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.235461875... | 2 | Students at the OJCS are continuing their journey through time, and our next stop is Ancient Greece. Grade 2 learned about what life was like in ancient Greece and some of the things that were created during that time period such as Philosophy, and the Olympics.
We spoke about how the Ancient Greeks did not believe in one God. They believed in many gods and goddesses, each being responsible for specific things. Among them were: Zeus god of the sky, Athena goddess of wisdom, Hades god of the underworld and more.
For our art project, we focused on Poseidon god of the sea. Poseidon is the brother of Zeus and Hades. His main symbol is the trident, a three-pronged spear. Poseidon was the protector of those who travelled the sea. He could make the water calm and create islands for lost travellers. When angry, he caused shipwrecks and earthquakes. Poseidon was also known as the father of horses and had a special connection with them.
Our artwork began with drawing Poseidon in oil pastel. Then we painted over everything with liquid watercolour creating a watercolour resist technique making Poseidon appear to be underwater. Finally students chose painted paper and collaged sea plants and creatures into their masterpieces. The results were fantastic! | 260 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There are no second thoughts that the deadly Alexander Hamilton duel with Aaron Burr is hands down the most notorious and talk about duel in the history of United States.
The duel between the treasury secretary and Vide President to the State was the talk of the town for many decades to come and is still the case.
Aaron Burr and Alexander Hamilton duel took place on a late summer afternoon on July 11 in the year of 1804 and resulted in the death of Alexander Hamilton the next day as he had gotten severely injured during the fight. Both Hamilton and Burr had been rivals for many years, and thus this led to many speculations about what happened, why it happened and how it happened.
There were many reasons, on a part of both men that were credited to this duel that took the life of Hamilton.
But as it is said, everything that is heard is not to be believed.
This article will offer you a complete insight into an account of the incident. You will understand then what led to this incident and what followed.
Why Is The Alexander Hamilton Duel So Famous?
The duel between Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr is famous for many reasons:
1. It was melodramatic; it was historic for the American history, and it was deadly.
2. It took the life of Alexander Hamilton at a young age, just mid-way of his career. Since this duel has been talked about a lot in history, this makes it very falsely reported as well.
3. There have been many discussions about what led two politically powerful, educated and accomplished men fight crazily in a middle of town. It is weird that though duels were very famous in America at that time and prior to that particular era, only the duel between Hamilton and Burr made it down into several pages of history.
4. The result of this duel was kind at all. Hamilton died in a case of clear murder and Burr fled, destroying his political career and reputation that had taken him years to build.
When Did The Alexander Hamilton Duel Happen?
The Alexander Hamilton duel took place on a lazy summer afternoon of July in the year 1804. This was when both men had agreed to meet to clear out their political differences but things did not go as planned or intended.
Both men were armed, and both took out their pistols.
Though Alexander Hamilton was the Secretary of treasury and Burr was the Vice President of America, yet Hamilton always had a more important and valued political position in comparison to the latter. Hamilton was favored over Burr by Jefferson who the President of United States at the time and this angered Burr.
More so, Burr was defeated by the father-in-law of Hamilton in the re-elections for the seat of the senator. Burr led to believe that Hamilton was the one who turned everyone against him. He had always blamed Hamilton to turn the cards on him, ever since their early law practicing days.
These were the core reasons that led to the both men engage in a deadly duel in July of 1804. What came out of the duel is secret to nobody.
Alexander Hamilton death was the unfortunate outcome of this event.
Reason Behind Alexander Hamilton Duels With Aaron Burr
There is not one, but two possible reasons behind the Alexander Hamilton duel with Aaron Burr.
The two possible reasons for the duel include the re-elections that left Burr defeated and the second reason was the insult Burr suffered on a professional level.
Aaron Burr blamed everything on Hamilton and wanted to get some answers. Hamilton, on the other hand, felt that Burr was acting very stupidly and cowardly. Burr was unable to digest his failure and wanted to blame it on someone else.
The rivalry between Aaron Burr and Alexander Hamilton had always persisted ever since their early law days. This rivalry grew for fifteen years and turned into the political rivalry.
Burr ran for the presidency and lost to Jefferson.
He stood for elections against General Phillips Schuyler, who was the father-n-law of Hamilton and lost again.
Burr blamed all this on Hamilton’s interference.
Moreover, Hamilton had passed some insulting remarks about Burr publically which were printed in the newspaper. Burr confronted Hamilton with proof of the newspaper clippings. Hamilton’s resistance and arrogance despite Burr’s attempts to learn out things with him further angered Burr.
The last blow was when despite his efforts, Burr lost the public elections to General Phillip. General was family to Hamilton and Burr was sure that Hamilton had interfered and caused damage to his reputation. Burr was unable to cope with this damage to his reputation and resulted in public humiliation.
These are a few reasons that are viewed as an underlying cause for Aaron Burr and Alexander Hamilton duel.
Motive Of Aaron Burr
Even in the modern world today, whenever there is a fight or case of murder, one of the basic things that are talked about and brought into focus is the motive of the murderer.
Although Aaron Burr did not intentionally kill Hamilton, he is still the man who murdered a political hero. Burr had to face the resulting consequences as well.
So what was the motive of Aaron Burr that drove him into doing something so crazy? Did he really want to kill his opponent?
The answer might surprise you.
The answer is no; he did not intend to kill Alexander Hamilton.
Political and professional rivalry though was great between the two famous men, but it had never reached a point where either one would have wanted to kill the other one.
Historians have discussed the possibility of the fact that if only Hamilton had actually sat down to discuss and clear out his difference with Burr, this deadly duel might never have happened at all.
But then Alas, what is destined to happen can never be reversed.
The motive of Burr throughout the series of event that led to this duel was only to confront Hamilton to clear out the doubts he had in his mind.
Was he blaming Hamilton for his failures and the damage his reputation was suffering?
He had through many sources found out that Alexander Hamilton was involved in defaming him and cutting off his links which would help him to go forward in his political career. He had proof that not only was Hamilton meddling with the political decisions that were being taken but was also publically trashing the reputation of Burr. Aaron Burr believed that Hamilton was only acting on enmity that had brewed between both men ever since their early professional days when they practiced law in New York.
However since things turned out to be rather unfortunate and Hamilton died, people were quick to dub Burr as the villain and the ‘bad guy’ whereas reality could be entirely different if things were seen from a broader perspective.
Consequences Burr Had To Face Post-Duel
The duel between Aaron Burr and Alexander Hamilton was deadly and a much unfortunate event of life. It resulted in the untimely and early death of Hamilton at the hands of Burr.
This is a life event which is always mentioned in the Alexander Hamilton biography, but there are many who also question the life and circumstances of Burr post the duel.
Aaron Burr always had a controversial life, and it became even more so after he was accused of murdering the treasury secretary or America. The last straw to his reputation was when Burr decided to flee rather than stay and take responsibility for his action. As Vice President of America, he did not even try to clear the dust off his actions.
His political came to an end with the death of Hamilton in 1804.
Aaron Burr was found in Mexico sometimes later with a group of men. The government officials immediately assumed that he was plotting another ‘murderous act’ and Burr was charged with the trial.
To escape the increasing pressure of acquisitions, blames and his dreadful fate, Burr decided to leave the country for good.
He went to Europe for in 1807, three years after the death of Hamilton and remained in Europe for almost 6 years.
This was the punishment he had decided for himself.
During his stay in Europe, he remarried, but the marriage did not last for long. Saddened by the twists and turns of his life, Burr gave up on the self-exile he had chosen for himself and returned to his own country; America.
This time around he did not try his luck with politics (much to his despair) and began formally practicing law once more time. The difference was simple; this time, he was solely dedicated to law.
Unluckily, his reputation had been badly damaged up to this point which brought him very little success in law.
Thirty-two years after the Alexander Hamilton duel and after over three decades full of struggles, ill-fate, controversies, and hardships, Aaron Burr died on in September of 1836. | <urn:uuid:7726fd6a-6a96-40e2-a8de-8f32100ba7c0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.blogarama.com/global-affairs-blogs/552190-alexander-hamilton-blog/8036116-secret-history-aaron-burr-duel | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00322.warc.gz | en | 0.991681 | 1,788 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.5051971673965454,... | 1 | There are no second thoughts that the deadly Alexander Hamilton duel with Aaron Burr is hands down the most notorious and talk about duel in the history of United States.
The duel between the treasury secretary and Vide President to the State was the talk of the town for many decades to come and is still the case.
Aaron Burr and Alexander Hamilton duel took place on a late summer afternoon on July 11 in the year of 1804 and resulted in the death of Alexander Hamilton the next day as he had gotten severely injured during the fight. Both Hamilton and Burr had been rivals for many years, and thus this led to many speculations about what happened, why it happened and how it happened.
There were many reasons, on a part of both men that were credited to this duel that took the life of Hamilton.
But as it is said, everything that is heard is not to be believed.
This article will offer you a complete insight into an account of the incident. You will understand then what led to this incident and what followed.
Why Is The Alexander Hamilton Duel So Famous?
The duel between Alexander Hamilton and Aaron Burr is famous for many reasons:
1. It was melodramatic; it was historic for the American history, and it was deadly.
2. It took the life of Alexander Hamilton at a young age, just mid-way of his career. Since this duel has been talked about a lot in history, this makes it very falsely reported as well.
3. There have been many discussions about what led two politically powerful, educated and accomplished men fight crazily in a middle of town. It is weird that though duels were very famous in America at that time and prior to that particular era, only the duel between Hamilton and Burr made it down into several pages of history.
4. The result of this duel was kind at all. Hamilton died in a case of clear murder and Burr fled, destroying his political career and reputation that had taken him years to build.
When Did The Alexander Hamilton Duel Happen?
The Alexander Hamilton duel took place on a lazy summer afternoon of July in the year 1804. This was when both men had agreed to meet to clear out their political differences but things did not go as planned or intended.
Both men were armed, and both took out their pistols.
Though Alexander Hamilton was the Secretary of treasury and Burr was the Vice President of America, yet Hamilton always had a more important and valued political position in comparison to the latter. Hamilton was favored over Burr by Jefferson who the President of United States at the time and this angered Burr.
More so, Burr was defeated by the father-in-law of Hamilton in the re-elections for the seat of the senator. Burr led to believe that Hamilton was the one who turned everyone against him. He had always blamed Hamilton to turn the cards on him, ever since their early law practicing days.
These were the core reasons that led to the both men engage in a deadly duel in July of 1804. What came out of the duel is secret to nobody.
Alexander Hamilton death was the unfortunate outcome of this event.
Reason Behind Alexander Hamilton Duels With Aaron Burr
There is not one, but two possible reasons behind the Alexander Hamilton duel with Aaron Burr.
The two possible reasons for the duel include the re-elections that left Burr defeated and the second reason was the insult Burr suffered on a professional level.
Aaron Burr blamed everything on Hamilton and wanted to get some answers. Hamilton, on the other hand, felt that Burr was acting very stupidly and cowardly. Burr was unable to digest his failure and wanted to blame it on someone else.
The rivalry between Aaron Burr and Alexander Hamilton had always persisted ever since their early law days. This rivalry grew for fifteen years and turned into the political rivalry.
Burr ran for the presidency and lost to Jefferson.
He stood for elections against General Phillips Schuyler, who was the father-n-law of Hamilton and lost again.
Burr blamed all this on Hamilton’s interference.
Moreover, Hamilton had passed some insulting remarks about Burr publically which were printed in the newspaper. Burr confronted Hamilton with proof of the newspaper clippings. Hamilton’s resistance and arrogance despite Burr’s attempts to learn out things with him further angered Burr.
The last blow was when despite his efforts, Burr lost the public elections to General Phillip. General was family to Hamilton and Burr was sure that Hamilton had interfered and caused damage to his reputation. Burr was unable to cope with this damage to his reputation and resulted in public humiliation.
These are a few reasons that are viewed as an underlying cause for Aaron Burr and Alexander Hamilton duel.
Motive Of Aaron Burr
Even in the modern world today, whenever there is a fight or case of murder, one of the basic things that are talked about and brought into focus is the motive of the murderer.
Although Aaron Burr did not intentionally kill Hamilton, he is still the man who murdered a political hero. Burr had to face the resulting consequences as well.
So what was the motive of Aaron Burr that drove him into doing something so crazy? Did he really want to kill his opponent?
The answer might surprise you.
The answer is no; he did not intend to kill Alexander Hamilton.
Political and professional rivalry though was great between the two famous men, but it had never reached a point where either one would have wanted to kill the other one.
Historians have discussed the possibility of the fact that if only Hamilton had actually sat down to discuss and clear out his difference with Burr, this deadly duel might never have happened at all.
But then Alas, what is destined to happen can never be reversed.
The motive of Burr throughout the series of event that led to this duel was only to confront Hamilton to clear out the doubts he had in his mind.
Was he blaming Hamilton for his failures and the damage his reputation was suffering?
He had through many sources found out that Alexander Hamilton was involved in defaming him and cutting off his links which would help him to go forward in his political career. He had proof that not only was Hamilton meddling with the political decisions that were being taken but was also publically trashing the reputation of Burr. Aaron Burr believed that Hamilton was only acting on enmity that had brewed between both men ever since their early professional days when they practiced law in New York.
However since things turned out to be rather unfortunate and Hamilton died, people were quick to dub Burr as the villain and the ‘bad guy’ whereas reality could be entirely different if things were seen from a broader perspective.
Consequences Burr Had To Face Post-Duel
The duel between Aaron Burr and Alexander Hamilton was deadly and a much unfortunate event of life. It resulted in the untimely and early death of Hamilton at the hands of Burr.
This is a life event which is always mentioned in the Alexander Hamilton biography, but there are many who also question the life and circumstances of Burr post the duel.
Aaron Burr always had a controversial life, and it became even more so after he was accused of murdering the treasury secretary or America. The last straw to his reputation was when Burr decided to flee rather than stay and take responsibility for his action. As Vice President of America, he did not even try to clear the dust off his actions.
His political came to an end with the death of Hamilton in 1804.
Aaron Burr was found in Mexico sometimes later with a group of men. The government officials immediately assumed that he was plotting another ‘murderous act’ and Burr was charged with the trial.
To escape the increasing pressure of acquisitions, blames and his dreadful fate, Burr decided to leave the country for good.
He went to Europe for in 1807, three years after the death of Hamilton and remained in Europe for almost 6 years.
This was the punishment he had decided for himself.
During his stay in Europe, he remarried, but the marriage did not last for long. Saddened by the twists and turns of his life, Burr gave up on the self-exile he had chosen for himself and returned to his own country; America.
This time around he did not try his luck with politics (much to his despair) and began formally practicing law once more time. The difference was simple; this time, he was solely dedicated to law.
Unluckily, his reputation had been badly damaged up to this point which brought him very little success in law.
Thirty-two years after the Alexander Hamilton duel and after over three decades full of struggles, ill-fate, controversies, and hardships, Aaron Burr died on in September of 1836. | 1,736 | ENGLISH | 1 |
2. Life and Thought
2.1 Martin Luther King, Jr
2.2 Malcolm X
3. Non-violence and Self-defence
3.1 Martin Luther King, Jr
3.2 Malcolm X
4.1 Martin Luther King, Jr
4.2 Malcolm X
5 The Role of the Media
5.1. Martin Luther King, Jr
5.2 Malcolm X
Malcolm X and Martin Luther King, Jr. are two of the most important leaders in the black freedom movement of the 1950s and 1960s. Their contributions are highly valued until today, although people’s opinions on the two leaders vary: some support the one and disapprove of the other. Furthermore, during their lifetime and even after their death, both were perceived as having followed two different ideologies. Their differing opinions on violence and non-violence, integration and separatism were regarded as preventing the two from moving closer to each other. Therefore, people regarded and portrayed them as adversaries since their images arouse controversial feelings, admiration and disapproval, among black and white people. On the bright side, Martin Luther King, Jr. the well-educated, peaceful promoter of love and hope in contradistinction to Malcolm X, on the dark side, the autodidact, radical Black Muslim extremist. Apparently this seemed to be the two poles in public imagination which the American mass media had contributed to. Where might these different images come from, are they justified and what impact did the media play in the process of creating these public images? In order to address these questions, this work is going to examine the two men’s life, thought, and work in more detail. Chapter 2 is going to focus on their upbringing, family life and ideology. Their opinions on violence and non-violence as a means of achieving one’s aims will be explored in chapter 3. Chapter 4 is devoted to their shifts towards new directions and breaks with former positions. The role and influence of the media in shaping the image and perception of Malcolm X and Martin Luther King, Jr. will be examined in chapter 5. The aim of this work is to investigate if there were differences between Malcolm X and Martin Luther King, Jr. that would justify the portrayal as adversaries or if these differences were merely due to the influence of the media and it’s depiction of the two men.
2. Life and Thought
The work will begin by examining the life and thought of Martin Luther King, Jr. and Malcolm X. This includes the origin, upbringing, education and religion as well as the ideology they followed and represented. These incidents and factors will be explored in order to find out what might have had an impact on the two men with regard to their later life.
2.1 Martin Luther King, Jr.
It is quite easy for me to think of the universe as basically friendly mainly because of my uplifting hereditary and environmental circumstances. It is quite easy for me to lean more toward optimism than pessimism about human nature mainly because of my childhood experiences. (qtd. Cone 23)
This quote hints at the reasons for Martin Luther King’s optimistic view on society rooted in his upbringing which will be examined in more detail in the following paragraphs. Martin Luther King, Jr. was born into a black middle-class family in Atlanta, Georgia, on January 15th, 1929 (Cone 20). He was the first son and second child born to Reverend Martin Luther King, Senior and his wife. Both, his father and grandfather were prominent and well respected Baptist preachers in Atlanta who served as powerful examples for Martin Luther King, Jr. (Cone 22). Although Lenwood G. Davis, Professor of history at Winston-Salem State University, North Carolina, describes Atlanta as a city “different from most southern cities” with a number of Negroes who were respected by whites and vice versa, segregation and racism were prevalent nevertheless (11). Little Martin was totally unaware of the “race problem” until the age of six when a father of his friend told him, he could not play with his white son anymore because he was “colored” (Cone 23). This encounter Martin King never forgot and when speaking about this incident later, he said, he had been shocked and “determined to hate every white person” (King, Stride Toward Freedom 18). His parents tried to assure him of his worth and encouraged him not to feel inferior towards white people: “You are as good as anyone else, and don’t you forget it.” (Bennett 19). After trying to calm King, they reminded him of the Christian values they had taught him. Still Martin King could not understand how he was supposed to love people who hated him and said: “This was a great question in my mind for a number of years.” (King, Stride Toward Freedom 18-9). Furthermore, growing up in Atlanta during the 1930s and 1940s made Martin King face several restrictions, such as not being allowed to use the swimming pool or attending the socalled “white schools” due to his segregated environment. In earlier days, racial segregation had had a negative impact on his attitude toward white people. When he encountered white people working for an abolition of racism, however, it diminished his resentment.
The wholesome relations we had in this group convinced me that we have many white persons as allies, particularly among the younger generation [...] I had been ready to resent the whole white race, but as I got to see more whites, my resentment softened and a spirit of cooperation took its place. (Oates 20) Martin King felt a certain kind of bitterness and anger towards white people after having encountered racism, but these feelings vanished due to his parents’ encouragement and King’s discovery of white people speaking out for equality between blacks and whites. Especially when entering College Martin King came into contact with the white students “through working in interracial organizations” and that was the time when he began to conquer his “anti-white feeling” (Cone 26). Therefore, Martin Luther King, Jr. did not always have an attitude of solidarity towards white people, contrary to his common reputation. Church had always played an important role in King’s life. At the age of five he joined
Ebenezer church which Cone described as “the second home” and “a place where blacks could be free of white folks, [...] free of everything that demeaned and humiliated them” (25).
King encountered the spirituality of the black church which became a “sustaining force of his life” (Cone 25). In summer 1947, Martin Luther King, Jr. felt an inner urge calling him to serve humanity and therefore decided to enter the ministry which seemed to be the most appropriate vocation for King in his fight for an integration of Negroes into society (Cone 27). After finishing his studies at Morehouse College, he managed to gain a scholarship and started his studies of Theology, in June 1948, at Crozer Seminar in Chester, Pennsylvania (Waldschmidt-Nelson 47). Apart from several racial incidents, King had to cope with, he became quite popular in the Crozer community and was “elected president of the student body” (Cone 27). The social and intellectual environment at Crozer and the surrounding area reinforced King’s optimism that intelligent blacks and whites could work together in order to eliminate racism and achieve an integration of blacks into society (King, Stride toward Freedom 91). Furthermore, in several classes King heard about Mahatma Gandhi’s successful nonviolent movement in India which deeply moved him, although this issue remained academic until the Montgomery bus boycott (Cone 28-9).
His social and academic success at Crozer, which he finished as top of the form, affected his belief and life (Waldschmidt-Nelson 48). Martin King gained acceptance among white people through his educational success which contributed to the integrationist view his father had set an example of. The foundation of this ideology is the belief in whites changing their view about blacks and being willing to accept them as equal citizens if blacks prove successful in education, morality, and business (Cone 31). Martin King who inherited this tradition of leadership was convinced if other Negroes were given the opportunities for a similar social and educational development they could bring about a change (Cone 21). Martin Luther King’s childhood was affected by racism, but through experiences of white support and his belief in integrationism, he adopted a friendly attitude towards whites and appreciated their contribution.
2.2 Malcolm X
People are always speculating - why am I as I am? To understand that of any person, his whole life, from birth, must be reviewed. All our experiences fuse into our personality. Everything that ever happened to us is an ingredient I think that an objective reader may see how in the society to which I was exposed as a black youth here in America, for me to wind up in a prison was really just about inevitable. (Haley, Malcolm X 150)
This excerpt points at the importance of examining the upbringing of people in relation to their actions and positions in life and work. Malcolm X’s life, in contrast, was not as privileged as King’s in terms of family life, social environment and education for example. While King’s origin lies in the southern middle class, Malcolm Little was born into a rather poor northern black family in Omaha, Nebraska, on 19 May 1925 ( Haley, Malcolm X 1). Malcolm X’s father was a Baptist preacher like King’s and involved in the struggle for justice as well, although, the former was not as influential as King Senior. As Martin had been affected by the integrationist activity of his father, Malcolm was influenced by the nationalist work of his (Haley, Malcolm X 1, 6).
There are major differences in the two men’s experiences during childhood. According to Cone, King’s life only represented the bright American side of the African-American life, “the Dream”, while Malcolm X’s rather represented the dark African side which he called the “nightmare” in his autobiography (Cone 42; Haley, Malcolm X 3, 37). Malcolm X referring to his life as a “nightmare” can be ascribed to several incidents. In 1925, when Malcolm’s mother was pregnant, the Little family was terrorized by the Ku Klux Klan, because of his father being a follower of Marcus Garvey, an organizer of the Universal Negro Improvement, and a member of the “Back to Africa Movement” who “did not hide his sentiments” (Boesak 13-4). After they had moved to Michigan, little Malcolm endured the burning of his house by a “white hate group, called the Black Legionnaires” in Lansing, 1929 which is described by Malcolm X as his “earliest vivid memory” and another nightmare (Cone 42; Haley, Malcolm X 3). “The white police and firemen came and stood around watching as the house burned down to the ground” ( Haley, Malcolm X 3). Malcolm X had difficulties to cope with these experiences of white brutality and racism. In addition to the violence exerted on his family by other groups, Malcolm X had to cope with violence at home. During Malcolm X’s upbringing he constantly had to bear the domestic violence of his mother and father (Cone 43). This might also have been a factor shaping Malcolm X’s character.
Furthermore, his father’s death had severe consequences for the Little Family.
Henceforth they were dependent on public relief and, in addition, Mrs Little had to cope with humiliating implications that she was mentally incompetent to care for her children. Malcolm was only twelve years old, when his mother suffered from a mental breakdown and the family was divided, turning the eight children into “state children” (Cone 44). Witnessing the brutality befalling his family affected Malcolm X’s opinion on America’s society and their attitude towards black people. Malcolm X accused the American system of having destroyed his family and being responsible for his family’s disintegration.
I truly believe that if ever a state agency destroyed a family, it destroyed ours. [. . .] I knew I wouldn’t be back to see my mother again because it could make me a very vicious and dangerous person - knowing how they had looked at us as numbers and as a case in their book, not as human beings. [. . .] Hence I have no mercy or compassion in me for a society that will crush people, and then penalize them for not being able to stand up under the weight. (Haley, Malcolm X 22)
- Quote paper
- Anonymous, 2013, Martin Luther King and Malcolm X. Differences and the Role of the Media, Munich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/312913 | <urn:uuid:c1d12c02-ce8a-4953-b1d1-35857f24fe5a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.grin.com/document/312913 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00198.warc.gz | en | 0.980759 | 2,698 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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-0.066817879676... | 2 | 2. Life and Thought
2.1 Martin Luther King, Jr
2.2 Malcolm X
3. Non-violence and Self-defence
3.1 Martin Luther King, Jr
3.2 Malcolm X
4.1 Martin Luther King, Jr
4.2 Malcolm X
5 The Role of the Media
5.1. Martin Luther King, Jr
5.2 Malcolm X
Malcolm X and Martin Luther King, Jr. are two of the most important leaders in the black freedom movement of the 1950s and 1960s. Their contributions are highly valued until today, although people’s opinions on the two leaders vary: some support the one and disapprove of the other. Furthermore, during their lifetime and even after their death, both were perceived as having followed two different ideologies. Their differing opinions on violence and non-violence, integration and separatism were regarded as preventing the two from moving closer to each other. Therefore, people regarded and portrayed them as adversaries since their images arouse controversial feelings, admiration and disapproval, among black and white people. On the bright side, Martin Luther King, Jr. the well-educated, peaceful promoter of love and hope in contradistinction to Malcolm X, on the dark side, the autodidact, radical Black Muslim extremist. Apparently this seemed to be the two poles in public imagination which the American mass media had contributed to. Where might these different images come from, are they justified and what impact did the media play in the process of creating these public images? In order to address these questions, this work is going to examine the two men’s life, thought, and work in more detail. Chapter 2 is going to focus on their upbringing, family life and ideology. Their opinions on violence and non-violence as a means of achieving one’s aims will be explored in chapter 3. Chapter 4 is devoted to their shifts towards new directions and breaks with former positions. The role and influence of the media in shaping the image and perception of Malcolm X and Martin Luther King, Jr. will be examined in chapter 5. The aim of this work is to investigate if there were differences between Malcolm X and Martin Luther King, Jr. that would justify the portrayal as adversaries or if these differences were merely due to the influence of the media and it’s depiction of the two men.
2. Life and Thought
The work will begin by examining the life and thought of Martin Luther King, Jr. and Malcolm X. This includes the origin, upbringing, education and religion as well as the ideology they followed and represented. These incidents and factors will be explored in order to find out what might have had an impact on the two men with regard to their later life.
2.1 Martin Luther King, Jr.
It is quite easy for me to think of the universe as basically friendly mainly because of my uplifting hereditary and environmental circumstances. It is quite easy for me to lean more toward optimism than pessimism about human nature mainly because of my childhood experiences. (qtd. Cone 23)
This quote hints at the reasons for Martin Luther King’s optimistic view on society rooted in his upbringing which will be examined in more detail in the following paragraphs. Martin Luther King, Jr. was born into a black middle-class family in Atlanta, Georgia, on January 15th, 1929 (Cone 20). He was the first son and second child born to Reverend Martin Luther King, Senior and his wife. Both, his father and grandfather were prominent and well respected Baptist preachers in Atlanta who served as powerful examples for Martin Luther King, Jr. (Cone 22). Although Lenwood G. Davis, Professor of history at Winston-Salem State University, North Carolina, describes Atlanta as a city “different from most southern cities” with a number of Negroes who were respected by whites and vice versa, segregation and racism were prevalent nevertheless (11). Little Martin was totally unaware of the “race problem” until the age of six when a father of his friend told him, he could not play with his white son anymore because he was “colored” (Cone 23). This encounter Martin King never forgot and when speaking about this incident later, he said, he had been shocked and “determined to hate every white person” (King, Stride Toward Freedom 18). His parents tried to assure him of his worth and encouraged him not to feel inferior towards white people: “You are as good as anyone else, and don’t you forget it.” (Bennett 19). After trying to calm King, they reminded him of the Christian values they had taught him. Still Martin King could not understand how he was supposed to love people who hated him and said: “This was a great question in my mind for a number of years.” (King, Stride Toward Freedom 18-9). Furthermore, growing up in Atlanta during the 1930s and 1940s made Martin King face several restrictions, such as not being allowed to use the swimming pool or attending the socalled “white schools” due to his segregated environment. In earlier days, racial segregation had had a negative impact on his attitude toward white people. When he encountered white people working for an abolition of racism, however, it diminished his resentment.
The wholesome relations we had in this group convinced me that we have many white persons as allies, particularly among the younger generation [...] I had been ready to resent the whole white race, but as I got to see more whites, my resentment softened and a spirit of cooperation took its place. (Oates 20) Martin King felt a certain kind of bitterness and anger towards white people after having encountered racism, but these feelings vanished due to his parents’ encouragement and King’s discovery of white people speaking out for equality between blacks and whites. Especially when entering College Martin King came into contact with the white students “through working in interracial organizations” and that was the time when he began to conquer his “anti-white feeling” (Cone 26). Therefore, Martin Luther King, Jr. did not always have an attitude of solidarity towards white people, contrary to his common reputation. Church had always played an important role in King’s life. At the age of five he joined
Ebenezer church which Cone described as “the second home” and “a place where blacks could be free of white folks, [...] free of everything that demeaned and humiliated them” (25).
King encountered the spirituality of the black church which became a “sustaining force of his life” (Cone 25). In summer 1947, Martin Luther King, Jr. felt an inner urge calling him to serve humanity and therefore decided to enter the ministry which seemed to be the most appropriate vocation for King in his fight for an integration of Negroes into society (Cone 27). After finishing his studies at Morehouse College, he managed to gain a scholarship and started his studies of Theology, in June 1948, at Crozer Seminar in Chester, Pennsylvania (Waldschmidt-Nelson 47). Apart from several racial incidents, King had to cope with, he became quite popular in the Crozer community and was “elected president of the student body” (Cone 27). The social and intellectual environment at Crozer and the surrounding area reinforced King’s optimism that intelligent blacks and whites could work together in order to eliminate racism and achieve an integration of blacks into society (King, Stride toward Freedom 91). Furthermore, in several classes King heard about Mahatma Gandhi’s successful nonviolent movement in India which deeply moved him, although this issue remained academic until the Montgomery bus boycott (Cone 28-9).
His social and academic success at Crozer, which he finished as top of the form, affected his belief and life (Waldschmidt-Nelson 48). Martin King gained acceptance among white people through his educational success which contributed to the integrationist view his father had set an example of. The foundation of this ideology is the belief in whites changing their view about blacks and being willing to accept them as equal citizens if blacks prove successful in education, morality, and business (Cone 31). Martin King who inherited this tradition of leadership was convinced if other Negroes were given the opportunities for a similar social and educational development they could bring about a change (Cone 21). Martin Luther King’s childhood was affected by racism, but through experiences of white support and his belief in integrationism, he adopted a friendly attitude towards whites and appreciated their contribution.
2.2 Malcolm X
People are always speculating - why am I as I am? To understand that of any person, his whole life, from birth, must be reviewed. All our experiences fuse into our personality. Everything that ever happened to us is an ingredient I think that an objective reader may see how in the society to which I was exposed as a black youth here in America, for me to wind up in a prison was really just about inevitable. (Haley, Malcolm X 150)
This excerpt points at the importance of examining the upbringing of people in relation to their actions and positions in life and work. Malcolm X’s life, in contrast, was not as privileged as King’s in terms of family life, social environment and education for example. While King’s origin lies in the southern middle class, Malcolm Little was born into a rather poor northern black family in Omaha, Nebraska, on 19 May 1925 ( Haley, Malcolm X 1). Malcolm X’s father was a Baptist preacher like King’s and involved in the struggle for justice as well, although, the former was not as influential as King Senior. As Martin had been affected by the integrationist activity of his father, Malcolm was influenced by the nationalist work of his (Haley, Malcolm X 1, 6).
There are major differences in the two men’s experiences during childhood. According to Cone, King’s life only represented the bright American side of the African-American life, “the Dream”, while Malcolm X’s rather represented the dark African side which he called the “nightmare” in his autobiography (Cone 42; Haley, Malcolm X 3, 37). Malcolm X referring to his life as a “nightmare” can be ascribed to several incidents. In 1925, when Malcolm’s mother was pregnant, the Little family was terrorized by the Ku Klux Klan, because of his father being a follower of Marcus Garvey, an organizer of the Universal Negro Improvement, and a member of the “Back to Africa Movement” who “did not hide his sentiments” (Boesak 13-4). After they had moved to Michigan, little Malcolm endured the burning of his house by a “white hate group, called the Black Legionnaires” in Lansing, 1929 which is described by Malcolm X as his “earliest vivid memory” and another nightmare (Cone 42; Haley, Malcolm X 3). “The white police and firemen came and stood around watching as the house burned down to the ground” ( Haley, Malcolm X 3). Malcolm X had difficulties to cope with these experiences of white brutality and racism. In addition to the violence exerted on his family by other groups, Malcolm X had to cope with violence at home. During Malcolm X’s upbringing he constantly had to bear the domestic violence of his mother and father (Cone 43). This might also have been a factor shaping Malcolm X’s character.
Furthermore, his father’s death had severe consequences for the Little Family.
Henceforth they were dependent on public relief and, in addition, Mrs Little had to cope with humiliating implications that she was mentally incompetent to care for her children. Malcolm was only twelve years old, when his mother suffered from a mental breakdown and the family was divided, turning the eight children into “state children” (Cone 44). Witnessing the brutality befalling his family affected Malcolm X’s opinion on America’s society and their attitude towards black people. Malcolm X accused the American system of having destroyed his family and being responsible for his family’s disintegration.
I truly believe that if ever a state agency destroyed a family, it destroyed ours. [. . .] I knew I wouldn’t be back to see my mother again because it could make me a very vicious and dangerous person - knowing how they had looked at us as numbers and as a case in their book, not as human beings. [. . .] Hence I have no mercy or compassion in me for a society that will crush people, and then penalize them for not being able to stand up under the weight. (Haley, Malcolm X 22)
- Quote paper
- Anonymous, 2013, Martin Luther King and Malcolm X. Differences and the Role of the Media, Munich, GRIN Verlag, https://www.grin.com/document/312913 | 2,688 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Plays in ancient Greece were part of religious festivals. Nearly every city had a theatre. The theatres in Greece had no roofs. The audience sat on tiered stone which meant that they had an excellent view and could hear the actors well too. The actors performed in an open area called the orchestra. The skene was a building behind the orchestra where the actors could change costumes.
Two types of Greek plays
There were two major types of Greek plays. There was tragedy which came from the word tragos meaning goat. Actors who performed a tragedy wore goat skins and danced like goats. The other type of play was comedy.
Theatres in Greece were large and could often hold more than 10,000 people.
Plays in Athens were performed in honour of the god Dionysus. The actors who performed the plays were men. It was necessary for them to play female parts too so they wore female costumes. To make the actors look taller they wore wooden boots with tall heels called cothurnus.
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0.3434949219... | 3 | Plays in ancient Greece were part of religious festivals. Nearly every city had a theatre. The theatres in Greece had no roofs. The audience sat on tiered stone which meant that they had an excellent view and could hear the actors well too. The actors performed in an open area called the orchestra. The skene was a building behind the orchestra where the actors could change costumes.
Two types of Greek plays
There were two major types of Greek plays. There was tragedy which came from the word tragos meaning goat. Actors who performed a tragedy wore goat skins and danced like goats. The other type of play was comedy.
Theatres in Greece were large and could often hold more than 10,000 people.
Plays in Athens were performed in honour of the god Dionysus. The actors who performed the plays were men. It was necessary for them to play female parts too so they wore female costumes. To make the actors look taller they wore wooden boots with tall heels called cothurnus.
The masks that the actors wore had large holes for the mouth and the eyes. This is so their voices could be amplified around the theatre. If actors were performing in comedies they wore bright colours and if actors were performing in tragedies they wore dark colours. | 258 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Slavery in the United States Black slaves played a major, though unwilling and generally unrewarded, role in laying the economic foundations of the United States—especially in the South.
George Washington complained in that one of his runaway slaves was aided by "a society of Quakers, formed for such purposes.
Their influence may have been part of the reason Pennsylvania, where many Quakers lived, was the first state to ban slavery. Two Quakers, Levi Coffin and his wife Catherine, are believed to have aided over 3, slaves to escape over a period of years.
For this reason, Levi is sometimes called the president of the Underground Railroad. In keeping with that name for the system, homes and businesses that harbored runaways were known as "stations" or "depots" and were run by "stationmasters. Once the fugitives reached safe havens—or at least relatively safe ones—in the far northern areas of the United States, they would be given assistance finding lodging and work.
Many went on to Canada, where they could not legally be retrieved by their owners. A trip on the Underground Railroad was fraught with danger. The slave or slaves had to make a getaway from their owners, usually by night.
Conductors On The Railroad Sometimes a "conductor" pretending to be a slave would go to a plantation to guide the fugitives on their way. Among the best known "conductors" is Harriet Tubman, a former slave who returned to slave states 19 times and brought more than slaves to freedom—using her shotgun to threaten death to any who lost heart and wanted to turn back.
Operators of the Underground Railroad faced their own dangers. If someone living in the North was convicted of helping fugitives to escape he or she could be fined hundreds or even thousands of dollars, a tremendous amount for the time; however, in areas where abolitionism was strong, the "secret" railroad operated quite openly.
Myers became the most important leader of the Underground Railroad in the Albany area. In other eras of American history, the term "vigilance committee" often refers to citizens groups who took the law into their own hands, trying and lynching people accused of crimes, if no local authority existed or if they believed that authority was corrupt or insufficient.
Being caught in a slave state while aiding runaways was much more dangerous than in the North; punishments included prison, whipping, or even hanging—assuming that the accused made it to court alive instead of perishing at the hands of an outraged mob. White men caught helping slaves to escape received harsher punishments than white women, but both could expect jail time at the very least.
The harshest punishments—dozens of lashes with a whip, burning or hanging—were reserved for any blacks caught in the act of aiding fugitives. A damper was thrown, however, when Southern states began seceding in Decemberfollowing the election of Abraham Lincoln to the presidency.
Even some outspoken abolitionist newspaper cautioned against giving the remaining Southern states reason to secede. She escaped from her owner near Wheeling in the Virginia panhandle now the northern panhandle of West Virginia and made her way to Cleveland in far northern Ohio, where abolitionists helped her secure lodging and employment as a domestic servant.
A Grand Jubilee in her honor was held in Cleveland on May 6, Slavery in the United States.
Black slaves played a major, though unwilling and generally unrewarded, role in laying the economic foundations of the United States—especially in the ashio-midori.com also played a leading role in the development of Southern speech, folklore, music, dancing, and food, blending the cultural traits of their African homelands with those of Europe.
Harriet Tubman (born Araminta Ross, c. – March 10, ) was an American abolitionist and political activist. Born into slavery, Tubman escaped and subsequently made some thirteen missions to rescue approximately seventy enslaved people, family and friends, using the network of antislavery activists and safe houses known as the Underground Railroad.
Floyd County, Indiana, and its county seat, New Albany, are located directly across the Ohio River from Louisville, Kentucky. Louisville was a major slave-trade center, and Indiana was a free state.
The Civil War And Reconstruction - The Civil war and Reconstruction, both had profound effects on america in various political, economic, and social ways. both of these periods in time had different effects depending on the area which can be divided as the North and the South.
The Underground Railroad and the abolition movement itself were perhaps the first instances in American history of a genuinely interracial coalition, and the role of the Quakers in its success.
The Underground Railroad was a network of secret routes and safe houses established in the United States during the early to midth century, and used by African-American slaves to escape into free states and Canada with the aid of abolitionists and allies who were sympathetic to their cause.
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0.1288610100746154... | 2 | Slavery in the United States Black slaves played a major, though unwilling and generally unrewarded, role in laying the economic foundations of the United States—especially in the South.
George Washington complained in that one of his runaway slaves was aided by "a society of Quakers, formed for such purposes.
Their influence may have been part of the reason Pennsylvania, where many Quakers lived, was the first state to ban slavery. Two Quakers, Levi Coffin and his wife Catherine, are believed to have aided over 3, slaves to escape over a period of years.
For this reason, Levi is sometimes called the president of the Underground Railroad. In keeping with that name for the system, homes and businesses that harbored runaways were known as "stations" or "depots" and were run by "stationmasters. Once the fugitives reached safe havens—or at least relatively safe ones—in the far northern areas of the United States, they would be given assistance finding lodging and work.
Many went on to Canada, where they could not legally be retrieved by their owners. A trip on the Underground Railroad was fraught with danger. The slave or slaves had to make a getaway from their owners, usually by night.
Conductors On The Railroad Sometimes a "conductor" pretending to be a slave would go to a plantation to guide the fugitives on their way. Among the best known "conductors" is Harriet Tubman, a former slave who returned to slave states 19 times and brought more than slaves to freedom—using her shotgun to threaten death to any who lost heart and wanted to turn back.
Operators of the Underground Railroad faced their own dangers. If someone living in the North was convicted of helping fugitives to escape he or she could be fined hundreds or even thousands of dollars, a tremendous amount for the time; however, in areas where abolitionism was strong, the "secret" railroad operated quite openly.
Myers became the most important leader of the Underground Railroad in the Albany area. In other eras of American history, the term "vigilance committee" often refers to citizens groups who took the law into their own hands, trying and lynching people accused of crimes, if no local authority existed or if they believed that authority was corrupt or insufficient.
Being caught in a slave state while aiding runaways was much more dangerous than in the North; punishments included prison, whipping, or even hanging—assuming that the accused made it to court alive instead of perishing at the hands of an outraged mob. White men caught helping slaves to escape received harsher punishments than white women, but both could expect jail time at the very least.
The harshest punishments—dozens of lashes with a whip, burning or hanging—were reserved for any blacks caught in the act of aiding fugitives. A damper was thrown, however, when Southern states began seceding in Decemberfollowing the election of Abraham Lincoln to the presidency.
Even some outspoken abolitionist newspaper cautioned against giving the remaining Southern states reason to secede. She escaped from her owner near Wheeling in the Virginia panhandle now the northern panhandle of West Virginia and made her way to Cleveland in far northern Ohio, where abolitionists helped her secure lodging and employment as a domestic servant.
A Grand Jubilee in her honor was held in Cleveland on May 6, Slavery in the United States.
Black slaves played a major, though unwilling and generally unrewarded, role in laying the economic foundations of the United States—especially in the ashio-midori.com also played a leading role in the development of Southern speech, folklore, music, dancing, and food, blending the cultural traits of their African homelands with those of Europe.
Harriet Tubman (born Araminta Ross, c. – March 10, ) was an American abolitionist and political activist. Born into slavery, Tubman escaped and subsequently made some thirteen missions to rescue approximately seventy enslaved people, family and friends, using the network of antislavery activists and safe houses known as the Underground Railroad.
Floyd County, Indiana, and its county seat, New Albany, are located directly across the Ohio River from Louisville, Kentucky. Louisville was a major slave-trade center, and Indiana was a free state.
The Civil War And Reconstruction - The Civil war and Reconstruction, both had profound effects on america in various political, economic, and social ways. both of these periods in time had different effects depending on the area which can be divided as the North and the South.
The Underground Railroad and the abolition movement itself were perhaps the first instances in American history of a genuinely interracial coalition, and the role of the Quakers in its success.
The Underground Railroad was a network of secret routes and safe houses established in the United States during the early to midth century, and used by African-American slaves to escape into free states and Canada with the aid of abolitionists and allies who were sympathetic to their cause.
The term is also applied to the abolitionists, both black and white, free and enslaved, who aided the. | 1,026 | ENGLISH | 1 |
born Isabella ("Bell") Baumfree; c. 1797 – November 26, 1883)Sojourner Truth was an African-American abolitionistand women's rights activist. Truth was born into slavery in Swartekill, Ulster County, New York, but escaped with her infant daughter to freedom in 1826. After going to court to recover her son, in 1828 she became the first black woman to win such a case against a white man.
She gave herself the name Sojourner Truth in 1843. Her best-known speech was delivered extemporaneously, in 1851, at the Ohio Women's Rights Convention in Akron, Ohio. The speech became widely known during the Civil War by the title "Ain't I a Woman?," a variation of the original speech re-written by someone else using a stereotypical Southern dialect; whereas Sojourner Truth was from New York and grew up speaking Dutch as her first language. During the Civil War, Truth helped recruit black troops for the Union Army; after the war, she tried unsuccessfully to secure land grants from the federal government for former slaves. | <urn:uuid:af40b9a7-1c69-4a41-9900-05b80d8ff77a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.themediaprince.com/single-post/2016/02/10/BLACK-HISTORY-ACKNOWLEDGEMENT-Sojourner-Truth | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00053.warc.gz | en | 0.981649 | 232 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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-0.033573... | 4 | born Isabella ("Bell") Baumfree; c. 1797 – November 26, 1883)Sojourner Truth was an African-American abolitionistand women's rights activist. Truth was born into slavery in Swartekill, Ulster County, New York, but escaped with her infant daughter to freedom in 1826. After going to court to recover her son, in 1828 she became the first black woman to win such a case against a white man.
She gave herself the name Sojourner Truth in 1843. Her best-known speech was delivered extemporaneously, in 1851, at the Ohio Women's Rights Convention in Akron, Ohio. The speech became widely known during the Civil War by the title "Ain't I a Woman?," a variation of the original speech re-written by someone else using a stereotypical Southern dialect; whereas Sojourner Truth was from New York and grew up speaking Dutch as her first language. During the Civil War, Truth helped recruit black troops for the Union Army; after the war, she tried unsuccessfully to secure land grants from the federal government for former slaves. | 245 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Capital of Indiana Territory was moved from Vincennes to Corydon. Harrison County had just completed a new stone courthouse; this building was offered and accepted for the use of the territorial offices. Shortly after the moving of the capital, Thomas Posey was appointed Governor of the territory. Because of Governor Posey’s delicate health, he did not reside in Corydon but spent most of his time in Jeffersonville where he could be near a doctor.
Delegates (43) from 13 counties met in Corydon to draw up the first constitution for the new State of Indiana. Because of the extreme hot weather, some of the sessions were held under a large elm tree about one block northwest of the capitol building. Near this tree was a fine spring that furnished drinking water and proved an excellent place to cool the jugs of brandy.
The delegates chosen for the convention at Corydon were some of the wealthiest and most prominent men of the territory. Most had been educated in good schools of the east and had migrated westward to make their homes. Not one of the delegates was a native of Indiana.
The constitution was completed and the convention adjourned.
An election was conducted in the territory for state officers; in this election, Jonathan Jennings was elected first governor.
The General Assembly, consisting of ten senators and twenty-nine representatives met at Corydon. The legislature chose Robert A. New, Secretary of State; William H. Lilly, Auditor; and Daniel C. Lane, Treasurer.
Indiana became a state and Corydon officially became the capital. At the time Indiana was admitted as a state, Corydon was a small frontier village with mostly log houses and a few stone and brick buildings.
President James Monroe, accompanied by General Andrew Jackson, visited Governor Jennings in Corydon. The year before, President Monroe had appointed Governor Jennings to be Indian Commissioner, and this visit was made to discuss the Indian situation, which was then a perplexing question in Indiana. On the morning when the President and the General left Corydon, Governor Jennings, General John Tipton and others accompanied them to the Ohio River ferry-boat that carried them across to Louisville.
William Hendricks was elected Governor of Indiana. The stone statehouse did not furnish enough room for all the officers. Rooms were rented elsewhere. The state auditor and the state treasurer occupied a brick building which is standing today. The State’s money was kept in strong boxes in the cellar of this building.
Corydon was selected as a temporary capital, the treaties with the Indians in 1818 made the northern part of the state a safe place in which to live. A committee was appointed to locate a new capital near the center of the state – this group chose the present site of Indianapolis. State Treasurer, Samuel Merrill, was engaged by the legislature to move the State’s belongings to Indianapolis. He sold off the furniture that could not be moved advantageously and packed the books and records in boxes. The journey was made in wagons. In January 1825, Indianapolis officially became the second state capital of Indiana.
Copyright 2020 Town of Corydon.
All rights reserved. | <urn:uuid:34df3b6e-0172-4f74-83d2-5b296daf2ad2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://townofcorydon.com/town-history | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00414.warc.gz | en | 0.981395 | 641 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.64061927795... | 8 | The Capital of Indiana Territory was moved from Vincennes to Corydon. Harrison County had just completed a new stone courthouse; this building was offered and accepted for the use of the territorial offices. Shortly after the moving of the capital, Thomas Posey was appointed Governor of the territory. Because of Governor Posey’s delicate health, he did not reside in Corydon but spent most of his time in Jeffersonville where he could be near a doctor.
Delegates (43) from 13 counties met in Corydon to draw up the first constitution for the new State of Indiana. Because of the extreme hot weather, some of the sessions were held under a large elm tree about one block northwest of the capitol building. Near this tree was a fine spring that furnished drinking water and proved an excellent place to cool the jugs of brandy.
The delegates chosen for the convention at Corydon were some of the wealthiest and most prominent men of the territory. Most had been educated in good schools of the east and had migrated westward to make their homes. Not one of the delegates was a native of Indiana.
The constitution was completed and the convention adjourned.
An election was conducted in the territory for state officers; in this election, Jonathan Jennings was elected first governor.
The General Assembly, consisting of ten senators and twenty-nine representatives met at Corydon. The legislature chose Robert A. New, Secretary of State; William H. Lilly, Auditor; and Daniel C. Lane, Treasurer.
Indiana became a state and Corydon officially became the capital. At the time Indiana was admitted as a state, Corydon was a small frontier village with mostly log houses and a few stone and brick buildings.
President James Monroe, accompanied by General Andrew Jackson, visited Governor Jennings in Corydon. The year before, President Monroe had appointed Governor Jennings to be Indian Commissioner, and this visit was made to discuss the Indian situation, which was then a perplexing question in Indiana. On the morning when the President and the General left Corydon, Governor Jennings, General John Tipton and others accompanied them to the Ohio River ferry-boat that carried them across to Louisville.
William Hendricks was elected Governor of Indiana. The stone statehouse did not furnish enough room for all the officers. Rooms were rented elsewhere. The state auditor and the state treasurer occupied a brick building which is standing today. The State’s money was kept in strong boxes in the cellar of this building.
Corydon was selected as a temporary capital, the treaties with the Indians in 1818 made the northern part of the state a safe place in which to live. A committee was appointed to locate a new capital near the center of the state – this group chose the present site of Indianapolis. State Treasurer, Samuel Merrill, was engaged by the legislature to move the State’s belongings to Indianapolis. He sold off the furniture that could not be moved advantageously and packed the books and records in boxes. The journey was made in wagons. In January 1825, Indianapolis officially became the second state capital of Indiana.
Copyright 2020 Town of Corydon.
All rights reserved. | 637 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Beloved clocks originated in the Black Forest in Germany
Have you ever been in a house and seen a beautifully carved cuckoo clock, and then all of a sudden heard it chiming? Well, it’s a pretty common situation nowadays.
But did you ever wonder when and how those clocks first started?
It is generally regarded that cuckoo clocks as we know them today started in the Black Forest Region in Germany. More specifically, they were created around 1630 in the village of Triberg. The most-popular type of cuckoo clock was first designed in 1738 by Franz Ketterer. He was inspired by the local church organs, and his new system included small bellows and whistles that imitated a cuckoo’s call. His first model was an elaborately decorated painted wooden clock. The cuckoo was located behind a small door.
In traditional cuckoo clocks, the “coo coo” sound is derived from a system of bellows pushing air through two wooden whistles to recreate the distinctive two-note call of the common cuckoo. The gears of these traditional cuckoo clocks are regulated by a pendulum and system of two or three weights, traditionally shaped like pinecones that steadily drop over a period of one day or eight days, depending on the model of the clock. One weight, along with the pendulum, is dedicated to keeping the clock gears running while the other weight controls the avian automoton. Clocks that play music in addition to chirping will have a third weight.
The “railway house” cuckoo clock was made to look like a typical Black Forest structure with its pointed rood and square shape. The front of the clock would often be decorated with hand carved ivy leaves, flowers, or other wildlife scenes and the cuckoo bird would be hidden behind a trap door at the top, only to peek out at the top of the hour. It was meant to mimic the railway houses that stood at each German railway stop.
The cuckoo clock gained incredible popularity within Germany, enough for many people in the Black Forest to try their hand at clock making. During those long winter months, the farms would be snowed-in and the people had time to create finely hand-crafted clocks of many styles with rich and various carvings. People would even compete against each other for the best clock. Each of them would try to create more unique and detailed cuckoo clock than their neighbor’s clock. Clock-peddlers began traveling to different areas of Germany, as well as to France and elsewhere to sell their clocks. The cuckoo’s call became well-known throughout Europe, and actually was made the same way it is today, nearly 300 years later. Similar to church-organs, the sound was made by two bellows sending air through pipes.
By 1808, there were already a few hundred clockmakers and clock-peddlers in the districts of Triberg and Neustadt. When Soring came around, they would take their cuckoo clocks to town and display them. They would sell their clocks to admirers.
The fame of the Black Forest for making cuckoo clocks has spread worldwide. In fact, the most valuable Black Forest clock is the “world-time-clock”, which was made in 1787, and is located today in the German clock museum in Furtwangen. Besides the cuckoo clocks, many other types of clocks were made in the Black Forest, from little models with spring movements, up to large clocks for the towers of churches.
Typically, the casing of a cuckoo clock is traditional and is usually in the shape of a rustic birdhouse or a chalet. Many of the clocks are decorated with animals, plants, leaves, and depict hunting scenes. Some are ornamented with typical Black Forest scenes, such as dancing couples in traditional dress moving to music, as well as a rotating mill wheel, or even a farmer chopping wood. A cuckoo bird often appears through a small trap door when the clock is striking, and then goes behind the door after the striking stops. Many of the clocks are run by weights, often in the shape of pinecones, underneath the clock. They needed to be pulled up once a day, or a week, or longer, depending on the model. Recently, battery powered cuckoo clocks have been developed, but do not have the same bellows and striking that have been associated with the clocks for 300 years.
In recent years, quartz battery-powered clocks have been made. As on the mechanical counterparts, the cuckoo bird emerges from its enclosure and moves up and down, but on the quartz timepieces it also flaps its wings and opens his beak while it sings. Instead of the call being reproduced by the traditional bellows, is a digital recording of a cuckoo calling in the wild. In musical quartz clocks, the hourly chime is followed by the replay of one of twelve popular melodies (one for each hour). Some musical quartz clocks also reproduce many of the popular automata found on mechanical musical clocks, such as beer drinkers, jumping deer, and even angry wives beating lazy husbands.
All modern and post 1930 genuine “traditional style” clocks featuring bird on the top have the bird facing right. It is a rarity to have the bird facing left.
The cuckoo clock has survived to this day. It is still greatly in demand, and is a hand-carved work of art that can be treasured for decades. Today, the “railway house” cuckoo clock is the most popular Black Forest cuckoo clock being made today.
Collectors still cherish cuckoo clocks as well. Clocks are often auctioned, and prices can really run the gamut. For example, a 19th century Black Forest wall clock with a cuckoo door went for $750, while another carved wood cuckoo mantle clock from the early 20th century sold for $2500 at auction in 2014. Often, the taller the clock the pricier they are. For example, a large wall 40 inch fully-carved clock depicting a deer family went for $3500. Sometimes clocks are bought for the beauty and ornateness of the clock itself, rather than for the clock’s mechanism. As an example, in 2006 an elaborately carved antique walnut cuckoo clock with carving of birds and deer was auctioned. However, some pieces were missing, and the clock that was offered did not have any weights. Nonetheless, the clock was auctioned for $5,000.
Here are a few more recent auction results. A Monumental Black Forest Carved Cuckoo Clock sold for $4,000 in a 2014 Cowan’s Auction. This clock is a Black Forest wall clock, ornately carved case, framed with vining oak leaves and acorns, having an eagle crest on it, and revealing a cuckoo bird and a male figure. Another Monumental antique carved Black Forest cuckoo clock, depicting a rabbit, pheasant, rifles, and a large stag head sold for $5,000. An 1863 Beha #09 Shelf Cuckoo Clock with carved gothic steeple style case with spiral turned columns was sold in a recent 2014 auction for $9,500. This clock was sold in excellent condition.
Cuckoo clocks are indeed cherished by many, due in fact for a few reasons. They not only are nostalgic, but also the product is very well-made. They remind people of how ornate and exquisite many items of the past were. Unfortunately many items are not built with the same craftsmanship today. That is why cuckoo clocks will continue to be a favorite around the world of collectors and non-collectors alike. They combine the best of the past with the necessities of today.
Jeff Figler has authored more than 700 published articles about collecting. He is a certified professional appraiser and one of the world’s leading experts on collectibles. His latest book, “The Picker’s Pocket Guide to Baseball Memorabilia” has been #1 on Amazon. He can be reached at email@example.com. | <urn:uuid:4df6c64c-19b0-4bb9-be8c-dbeb63a53c36> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.collectorsjournal.com/columns/cuckoo-clocks/article_342fe6f4-2596-11ea-ace5-cfa63adaf254.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00520.warc.gz | en | 0.980556 | 1,721 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.130236029624... | 1 | Beloved clocks originated in the Black Forest in Germany
Have you ever been in a house and seen a beautifully carved cuckoo clock, and then all of a sudden heard it chiming? Well, it’s a pretty common situation nowadays.
But did you ever wonder when and how those clocks first started?
It is generally regarded that cuckoo clocks as we know them today started in the Black Forest Region in Germany. More specifically, they were created around 1630 in the village of Triberg. The most-popular type of cuckoo clock was first designed in 1738 by Franz Ketterer. He was inspired by the local church organs, and his new system included small bellows and whistles that imitated a cuckoo’s call. His first model was an elaborately decorated painted wooden clock. The cuckoo was located behind a small door.
In traditional cuckoo clocks, the “coo coo” sound is derived from a system of bellows pushing air through two wooden whistles to recreate the distinctive two-note call of the common cuckoo. The gears of these traditional cuckoo clocks are regulated by a pendulum and system of two or three weights, traditionally shaped like pinecones that steadily drop over a period of one day or eight days, depending on the model of the clock. One weight, along with the pendulum, is dedicated to keeping the clock gears running while the other weight controls the avian automoton. Clocks that play music in addition to chirping will have a third weight.
The “railway house” cuckoo clock was made to look like a typical Black Forest structure with its pointed rood and square shape. The front of the clock would often be decorated with hand carved ivy leaves, flowers, or other wildlife scenes and the cuckoo bird would be hidden behind a trap door at the top, only to peek out at the top of the hour. It was meant to mimic the railway houses that stood at each German railway stop.
The cuckoo clock gained incredible popularity within Germany, enough for many people in the Black Forest to try their hand at clock making. During those long winter months, the farms would be snowed-in and the people had time to create finely hand-crafted clocks of many styles with rich and various carvings. People would even compete against each other for the best clock. Each of them would try to create more unique and detailed cuckoo clock than their neighbor’s clock. Clock-peddlers began traveling to different areas of Germany, as well as to France and elsewhere to sell their clocks. The cuckoo’s call became well-known throughout Europe, and actually was made the same way it is today, nearly 300 years later. Similar to church-organs, the sound was made by two bellows sending air through pipes.
By 1808, there were already a few hundred clockmakers and clock-peddlers in the districts of Triberg and Neustadt. When Soring came around, they would take their cuckoo clocks to town and display them. They would sell their clocks to admirers.
The fame of the Black Forest for making cuckoo clocks has spread worldwide. In fact, the most valuable Black Forest clock is the “world-time-clock”, which was made in 1787, and is located today in the German clock museum in Furtwangen. Besides the cuckoo clocks, many other types of clocks were made in the Black Forest, from little models with spring movements, up to large clocks for the towers of churches.
Typically, the casing of a cuckoo clock is traditional and is usually in the shape of a rustic birdhouse or a chalet. Many of the clocks are decorated with animals, plants, leaves, and depict hunting scenes. Some are ornamented with typical Black Forest scenes, such as dancing couples in traditional dress moving to music, as well as a rotating mill wheel, or even a farmer chopping wood. A cuckoo bird often appears through a small trap door when the clock is striking, and then goes behind the door after the striking stops. Many of the clocks are run by weights, often in the shape of pinecones, underneath the clock. They needed to be pulled up once a day, or a week, or longer, depending on the model. Recently, battery powered cuckoo clocks have been developed, but do not have the same bellows and striking that have been associated with the clocks for 300 years.
In recent years, quartz battery-powered clocks have been made. As on the mechanical counterparts, the cuckoo bird emerges from its enclosure and moves up and down, but on the quartz timepieces it also flaps its wings and opens his beak while it sings. Instead of the call being reproduced by the traditional bellows, is a digital recording of a cuckoo calling in the wild. In musical quartz clocks, the hourly chime is followed by the replay of one of twelve popular melodies (one for each hour). Some musical quartz clocks also reproduce many of the popular automata found on mechanical musical clocks, such as beer drinkers, jumping deer, and even angry wives beating lazy husbands.
All modern and post 1930 genuine “traditional style” clocks featuring bird on the top have the bird facing right. It is a rarity to have the bird facing left.
The cuckoo clock has survived to this day. It is still greatly in demand, and is a hand-carved work of art that can be treasured for decades. Today, the “railway house” cuckoo clock is the most popular Black Forest cuckoo clock being made today.
Collectors still cherish cuckoo clocks as well. Clocks are often auctioned, and prices can really run the gamut. For example, a 19th century Black Forest wall clock with a cuckoo door went for $750, while another carved wood cuckoo mantle clock from the early 20th century sold for $2500 at auction in 2014. Often, the taller the clock the pricier they are. For example, a large wall 40 inch fully-carved clock depicting a deer family went for $3500. Sometimes clocks are bought for the beauty and ornateness of the clock itself, rather than for the clock’s mechanism. As an example, in 2006 an elaborately carved antique walnut cuckoo clock with carving of birds and deer was auctioned. However, some pieces were missing, and the clock that was offered did not have any weights. Nonetheless, the clock was auctioned for $5,000.
Here are a few more recent auction results. A Monumental Black Forest Carved Cuckoo Clock sold for $4,000 in a 2014 Cowan’s Auction. This clock is a Black Forest wall clock, ornately carved case, framed with vining oak leaves and acorns, having an eagle crest on it, and revealing a cuckoo bird and a male figure. Another Monumental antique carved Black Forest cuckoo clock, depicting a rabbit, pheasant, rifles, and a large stag head sold for $5,000. An 1863 Beha #09 Shelf Cuckoo Clock with carved gothic steeple style case with spiral turned columns was sold in a recent 2014 auction for $9,500. This clock was sold in excellent condition.
Cuckoo clocks are indeed cherished by many, due in fact for a few reasons. They not only are nostalgic, but also the product is very well-made. They remind people of how ornate and exquisite many items of the past were. Unfortunately many items are not built with the same craftsmanship today. That is why cuckoo clocks will continue to be a favorite around the world of collectors and non-collectors alike. They combine the best of the past with the necessities of today.
Jeff Figler has authored more than 700 published articles about collecting. He is a certified professional appraiser and one of the world’s leading experts on collectibles. His latest book, “The Picker’s Pocket Guide to Baseball Memorabilia” has been #1 on Amazon. He can be reached at email@example.com. | 1,693 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the previous chapter we looked at the effects of mercury as the metal, as its vapour, and as its inorganic compounds. However, its most insidious form is organic mercury, better known as organo-mercury, which is a technical term meaning that one or two carbon atoms are bonded directly to the metal, as in methyl mercury chloride or dimethyl mercury. As we shall see, methyl mercury is worryingly mobile in its ability to circulate through the environment, move up food chains, and even to travel unchecked around the human body. (A methyl group consists of a single carbon atom and three hydrogens: CH3.)
The first recorded deaths from dimethyl mercury occurred in London in 1865. In January of that year, two laboratory assistants at the Royal Institution, in the laboratory of Professor Edward Frankland, were reacting sodium-mercury amalgam with methyl iodide with the objective of making dimethyl mercury. They were completely unaware of the dangers it posed. One of the men, a 30-year-old German, Dr Ulrich, was admitted to St Bartholomew's Hospital on 3 February and died ten days later, the other man, 23-year-old Mr T. Sloper, was admitted on 25 March but survived a year before expiring. These deaths were used as an excuse to attack the eminent Frankland in the press but it eventually transpired that the assistants had been working under the supervision of a Professor William Odling. Moreover, Ulrich had told a friend that his exposure had been an accident, caused by his breaking a sealed tube of dimethyl mercury and spilling the contents, with the result that he and Sloper had inhaled a lot of the vapour while clearing up the mess.
Not that this accident prevented others using dimethyl mercury as a possible medical treatment and in 1887 a series of tests began in which injections of it were tried as a cure for syphilis. The dosage was 1 ml of a 1% solution, but no patient received more than two injections because the experiment was stopped when tests on dogs showed how dangerous the substance was.
More recently, dimethyl mercury accidentally caused the death of a woman chemist, Karen Wetterhahn, who was a professor at Dartmouth College, New Hampshire. She died on 8 June 1997 aged 49. She had used dimethyl mercury when analysing compounds by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) - see Glossary. She was studying the way in which mercury ions interact with the proteins that repair DNA and had made up a solution of two materials that she was about to study using NMR. She had taken the usual precautions of wearing safety glasses and latex gloves, and handling her materials in a fume hood. However, on that fateful day of 14 August 1996, as she removed some dimethyl mercury from its vial with a pipette, drops of the liquid fell on to one of her gloves. Wetterman did not immediately remove the glove, thinking that it would protect her, but dimethyl mercury penetrates rapidly through latex and it then went through her skin.*
It was only in January 1997 that the first symptoms of mercury poisoning began to appear: tingling sensations in her fingers and toes, slurred speech, unsteady gait, and visual disturbances. Mercury poisoning was diagnosed on 28 January and blood analysis showed a level of 4 mg/litre, which is more than 50 times the toxic threshold. Two weeks later she slipped into a coma from which she never recovered. Analysis of her hair showed that her body had absorbed the methyl mercury in August. Why it takes so long to exert its toxic effect is still not known, but the body can only excrete about 1% a day of its methyl mercury burden and this is not fast enough to stop its insidious action.
* Ideally when handling dimethyl mercury a researcher should wear heavy-duty protective gloves over an inner latex pair.
Methyl mercury is particularly dangerous because it attaches itself to the sulphur atom of a cysteine amino acid and the molecule then appears to be indistinguishable from another amino acid, methionine, at least as far as gaining access to cells of the body which mistake it for the methionine they need. This deceit by mercury enables it to move freely throughout the body and even to cross the blood-brain barrier and that of the placenta. Once inside the brain, the methyl group may be removed from the mercury atom, thereby converting the mercury to inorganic mercury, but there is no mechanism by which this can then be transported out of the brain. When methyl mercury gets into the brain of a baby or a child, it stops cell division and blocks microtubule formation leading to permanent brain damage.
Although methyl mercury is dangerous, there are other organic groups that can be attached to mercury, such as the ethyl group which has two carbon atoms, and while they may be much less dangerous they can still kill. Such compounds began to be produced by the chemical industry in the 1920s for use as antiseptics, seed disinfectants, fungicides, and weed-killers. By the 1960s more than 150 proprietary products were on sale, based on ethyl or phenyl* mercury compounds. They were manufactured as antimicrobial agents, chiefly to control the spread of fungal disease in plants, and were thought to be much safer than methyl mercury compounds which were rarely used. One of the most effective seed dressings was Ceresan, which was a 2% solution of ethyl mercury chloride. It prevented all kinds of fungal diseases that could blight a crop and destroy a farmer's livelihood, and all over the world the treated seeds were eagerly bought because crop yields were greatly improved by their use. Wheat, barley, oats, and corn that are grown from treated seeds absorb very little of this mercury.
Sadly this form of crop protection led to several mass poisonings in developing countries when villagers made bread from the treated grain. In Iraq in 1956 and 1960 it found its way on to the open market and was used to make flour causing many people to be taken ill. A more serious outbreak occurred there in January and February of 1971 when more than 6500 people needed hospital treatment and 460 people died. Similar, but smaller, outbreaks of
* The phenyl group is the name given to a benzene ring when it is bonded to something else.
poisoning occurred in Pakistan and Guatemala. As long ago as 1942, two secretaries employed at a warehouse in Calgary, Canada, died because a consignment of 20 000 pounds (9000 kg) of diethyl mercury was stored near the desks where they worked. They died from mercury poisoning even though they never actually handled the material. The fumes from the drums were responsible, and later tests showed that the concentration of mercury in the air was almost 3 mg/m3. Warnings had already been issued about the dangers of such organo-mercury compounds, but they had been ignored.
Those warnings came in 1940 as a result of what had happened to a bright 16-year-old English boy Arthur H (the medical records do not reveal his surname) who had done well at the technical school he attended, and who got his first job with a company that made mercury seed dressings. Within five weeks of starting work he began to notice his fingers and toes were numb, and as the weeks went by Arthur became clumsy in his movements and unsteady on his feet. His personality changed so that he became confrontational and abusive, and his handwriting degenerated into a scrawl. Mercury poisoning was diagnosed and he was hospitalized, but doctors watched helplessly as he deteriorated, until he spent all his time lying listlessly in bed, unable to speak and barely able to eat. Eventually Arthur began to improve, but it was six months before he could walk again and nine months before he could communicate with people. Two years later he had recovered sufficiently to walk upstairs unaided, but his speech was still hesitant and his writing a mere scrawl. Fifteen years later he was still having trouble, being unsteady in his movements and with a tremor in hands, and this was still the case 25 years later. He never held a full-time job again.
Organo-mercury compounds work their malevolent way through the body only slowly and this was clearly demonstrated in April 1954, when a nurseryman used ethyl mercury phosphate to treat tomato plants that had become infested with stem rot fungus. His first symptoms only appeared the following December and consisted of headache and vomiting, progressing to a numbness in his limbs by the following May as his condition progressively deteriorated. He died in July 1955.
Was this article helpful?
Are Constant Headaches Making Your Life Stressful? Discover Proven Methods For Eliminating Even The Most Powerful Of Headaches, It’s Easier Than You Think… Stop Chronic Migraine Pain and Tension Headaches From Destroying Your Life… Proven steps anyone can take to overcome even the worst chronic head pain… | <urn:uuid:dd20cd7f-d43f-4f76-98ba-d03acd60fb49> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.flandershealth.us/lead-poisoning/organomercury.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00527.warc.gz | en | 0.986094 | 1,834 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.21919053792... | 1 | In the previous chapter we looked at the effects of mercury as the metal, as its vapour, and as its inorganic compounds. However, its most insidious form is organic mercury, better known as organo-mercury, which is a technical term meaning that one or two carbon atoms are bonded directly to the metal, as in methyl mercury chloride or dimethyl mercury. As we shall see, methyl mercury is worryingly mobile in its ability to circulate through the environment, move up food chains, and even to travel unchecked around the human body. (A methyl group consists of a single carbon atom and three hydrogens: CH3.)
The first recorded deaths from dimethyl mercury occurred in London in 1865. In January of that year, two laboratory assistants at the Royal Institution, in the laboratory of Professor Edward Frankland, were reacting sodium-mercury amalgam with methyl iodide with the objective of making dimethyl mercury. They were completely unaware of the dangers it posed. One of the men, a 30-year-old German, Dr Ulrich, was admitted to St Bartholomew's Hospital on 3 February and died ten days later, the other man, 23-year-old Mr T. Sloper, was admitted on 25 March but survived a year before expiring. These deaths were used as an excuse to attack the eminent Frankland in the press but it eventually transpired that the assistants had been working under the supervision of a Professor William Odling. Moreover, Ulrich had told a friend that his exposure had been an accident, caused by his breaking a sealed tube of dimethyl mercury and spilling the contents, with the result that he and Sloper had inhaled a lot of the vapour while clearing up the mess.
Not that this accident prevented others using dimethyl mercury as a possible medical treatment and in 1887 a series of tests began in which injections of it were tried as a cure for syphilis. The dosage was 1 ml of a 1% solution, but no patient received more than two injections because the experiment was stopped when tests on dogs showed how dangerous the substance was.
More recently, dimethyl mercury accidentally caused the death of a woman chemist, Karen Wetterhahn, who was a professor at Dartmouth College, New Hampshire. She died on 8 June 1997 aged 49. She had used dimethyl mercury when analysing compounds by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) - see Glossary. She was studying the way in which mercury ions interact with the proteins that repair DNA and had made up a solution of two materials that she was about to study using NMR. She had taken the usual precautions of wearing safety glasses and latex gloves, and handling her materials in a fume hood. However, on that fateful day of 14 August 1996, as she removed some dimethyl mercury from its vial with a pipette, drops of the liquid fell on to one of her gloves. Wetterman did not immediately remove the glove, thinking that it would protect her, but dimethyl mercury penetrates rapidly through latex and it then went through her skin.*
It was only in January 1997 that the first symptoms of mercury poisoning began to appear: tingling sensations in her fingers and toes, slurred speech, unsteady gait, and visual disturbances. Mercury poisoning was diagnosed on 28 January and blood analysis showed a level of 4 mg/litre, which is more than 50 times the toxic threshold. Two weeks later she slipped into a coma from which she never recovered. Analysis of her hair showed that her body had absorbed the methyl mercury in August. Why it takes so long to exert its toxic effect is still not known, but the body can only excrete about 1% a day of its methyl mercury burden and this is not fast enough to stop its insidious action.
* Ideally when handling dimethyl mercury a researcher should wear heavy-duty protective gloves over an inner latex pair.
Methyl mercury is particularly dangerous because it attaches itself to the sulphur atom of a cysteine amino acid and the molecule then appears to be indistinguishable from another amino acid, methionine, at least as far as gaining access to cells of the body which mistake it for the methionine they need. This deceit by mercury enables it to move freely throughout the body and even to cross the blood-brain barrier and that of the placenta. Once inside the brain, the methyl group may be removed from the mercury atom, thereby converting the mercury to inorganic mercury, but there is no mechanism by which this can then be transported out of the brain. When methyl mercury gets into the brain of a baby or a child, it stops cell division and blocks microtubule formation leading to permanent brain damage.
Although methyl mercury is dangerous, there are other organic groups that can be attached to mercury, such as the ethyl group which has two carbon atoms, and while they may be much less dangerous they can still kill. Such compounds began to be produced by the chemical industry in the 1920s for use as antiseptics, seed disinfectants, fungicides, and weed-killers. By the 1960s more than 150 proprietary products were on sale, based on ethyl or phenyl* mercury compounds. They were manufactured as antimicrobial agents, chiefly to control the spread of fungal disease in plants, and were thought to be much safer than methyl mercury compounds which were rarely used. One of the most effective seed dressings was Ceresan, which was a 2% solution of ethyl mercury chloride. It prevented all kinds of fungal diseases that could blight a crop and destroy a farmer's livelihood, and all over the world the treated seeds were eagerly bought because crop yields were greatly improved by their use. Wheat, barley, oats, and corn that are grown from treated seeds absorb very little of this mercury.
Sadly this form of crop protection led to several mass poisonings in developing countries when villagers made bread from the treated grain. In Iraq in 1956 and 1960 it found its way on to the open market and was used to make flour causing many people to be taken ill. A more serious outbreak occurred there in January and February of 1971 when more than 6500 people needed hospital treatment and 460 people died. Similar, but smaller, outbreaks of
* The phenyl group is the name given to a benzene ring when it is bonded to something else.
poisoning occurred in Pakistan and Guatemala. As long ago as 1942, two secretaries employed at a warehouse in Calgary, Canada, died because a consignment of 20 000 pounds (9000 kg) of diethyl mercury was stored near the desks where they worked. They died from mercury poisoning even though they never actually handled the material. The fumes from the drums were responsible, and later tests showed that the concentration of mercury in the air was almost 3 mg/m3. Warnings had already been issued about the dangers of such organo-mercury compounds, but they had been ignored.
Those warnings came in 1940 as a result of what had happened to a bright 16-year-old English boy Arthur H (the medical records do not reveal his surname) who had done well at the technical school he attended, and who got his first job with a company that made mercury seed dressings. Within five weeks of starting work he began to notice his fingers and toes were numb, and as the weeks went by Arthur became clumsy in his movements and unsteady on his feet. His personality changed so that he became confrontational and abusive, and his handwriting degenerated into a scrawl. Mercury poisoning was diagnosed and he was hospitalized, but doctors watched helplessly as he deteriorated, until he spent all his time lying listlessly in bed, unable to speak and barely able to eat. Eventually Arthur began to improve, but it was six months before he could walk again and nine months before he could communicate with people. Two years later he had recovered sufficiently to walk upstairs unaided, but his speech was still hesitant and his writing a mere scrawl. Fifteen years later he was still having trouble, being unsteady in his movements and with a tremor in hands, and this was still the case 25 years later. He never held a full-time job again.
Organo-mercury compounds work their malevolent way through the body only slowly and this was clearly demonstrated in April 1954, when a nurseryman used ethyl mercury phosphate to treat tomato plants that had become infested with stem rot fungus. His first symptoms only appeared the following December and consisted of headache and vomiting, progressing to a numbness in his limbs by the following May as his condition progressively deteriorated. He died in July 1955.
Was this article helpful?
Are Constant Headaches Making Your Life Stressful? Discover Proven Methods For Eliminating Even The Most Powerful Of Headaches, It’s Easier Than You Think… Stop Chronic Migraine Pain and Tension Headaches From Destroying Your Life… Proven steps anyone can take to overcome even the worst chronic head pain… | 1,916 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By 1864, the major battles of the Civil War were taking place away from Fairfax County and raids by the Confederate ranger, Col. John S. Mosby, were also on the decline. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant came east to assume command of all Union armies, including the Army of the Potomac, and pursued a more aggressive campaign to end the war. The surrender of Gen. Robert E. Lee at Appomattox on April 9, 1865, and the assassination of Abraham Lincoln days later on April 15, plunged both sides of the conflict into deep mourning.
Now that the war over, county residents faced the daunting task of rebuilding their farms, businesses and lives. Some areas in the county appeared untouched, but many others were stripped bare, with dwellings, fences and trees burned as fuel over the course of the war and farms picked clean by marauding troops.
Although a number of the returning soldiers, especially on the Confederate side, drowned their sorrows in a proliferation of saloons widely criticized by ministers at the time, many others worked alongside former slaves to rebuild roads, bridges and rail lines. County officials had to search for missing records that had been moved from the courthouse during the war. Farmers began to cultivate the land again and businesses restocked their shelves. To do so, most needed loans, particularly from Northern merchants who were willing to extend credit to former customers. Fairfax farmers also took advantage of good prices on horses and other supplies that the army no longer needed.
Throughout the spring and summer, returning Rebels took the amnesty oath, swearing that they would “faithfully support, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States.” However, many of the old guard wanted to regain control of local government and return to the old ways. Conversely, former slaves were eager to expand on their new freedom. And then there were the Northerners who had moved south and tended to be more egalitarian. They did not want a return to the South’s old hierarchical social structure, instead pushing for a public education system, more equitable distribution of land and equal civil rights for all men.
The result was considerable tension between those who longed for the old days and those who wanted progress. This was seen particularly in the former slaves who were not inclined to vote according to their former masters’ wishes, which brought about a backlash with the Ku Klux Klan setting up Fairfax County, causing problems for both blacks and whites.
Although the war was not officially over, in March 1865 some Northern immigrants who wanted to help blacks in the transition from slavery to freedom met in Alexandria to establish the Freedmen’s Relief Association. Several Fairfax men, including the Sully Quakers, Alexander Haight and his brother-in-law James Barlow, were members. In August 1865, the Freedmen’s Bureau opened offices in Fairfax with George Armes as the agent charged to protect the former slaves “from oppression and imposition” and to encourage them to “industry and economy.” His duty was to ensure that they were fairly paid for their work, in addition to caring for any destitute freedmen, helping blacks secure homes and providing schools for black children.
One of Armes’ first duties was to take a census of the black population in the county. In the fall of 1865, he reported 2,941 blacks living in Fairfax County with about 30 each at Lewinsville and Fairfax Station and approximately 130 at Fairfax Courthouse with the remainder scattered throughout the county. Many found work and sharecropping became widespread. By 1870, approximately 120 blacks, at least nine of which were female, owned land in the county. Jackson Hampton was reported to be the most prosperous black in the county with land valued at $24,000.
There were eight black schools in Fairfax County by December 1866. Most were supported and staffed by the Friends’ Aid Society of Philadelphia. By March 1867, 440 black adults and children were attending school, albeit in poorly built and furnished facilities.
In January 1870, Virginia was finally readmitted to the Union. In that year, there were 94 milling and manufacturing establishments in the county; however, agriculture was the primary occupation. Though 29th in the state in population, Fairfax County was the largest milk producer and the cash value of its farms was sixth highest in Virginia.
By 1870, Fairfax County had substantially recovered from the Civil War. The population grew to 12,952, a 9 percent increase over 1860. A new town, Clifton, had been established in 1868 and other towns, among them Thornton, the site of present-day Reston, were attracting Northerners.
Much progress had been made but some were still inclined to longingly look back on the old way of life, while others were impatient that the future as they imagined it, was not happening as quickly as they wanted.
Source: Fairfax County Virginia, a History (1978) | <urn:uuid:28cdb052-8de9-4b07-9800-88f202167f5c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.fxva.com/275/history-essays/the-end-of-civil-war/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00512.warc.gz | en | 0.987567 | 1,011 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
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0.49926692247390747,... | 2 | By 1864, the major battles of the Civil War were taking place away from Fairfax County and raids by the Confederate ranger, Col. John S. Mosby, were also on the decline. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant came east to assume command of all Union armies, including the Army of the Potomac, and pursued a more aggressive campaign to end the war. The surrender of Gen. Robert E. Lee at Appomattox on April 9, 1865, and the assassination of Abraham Lincoln days later on April 15, plunged both sides of the conflict into deep mourning.
Now that the war over, county residents faced the daunting task of rebuilding their farms, businesses and lives. Some areas in the county appeared untouched, but many others were stripped bare, with dwellings, fences and trees burned as fuel over the course of the war and farms picked clean by marauding troops.
Although a number of the returning soldiers, especially on the Confederate side, drowned their sorrows in a proliferation of saloons widely criticized by ministers at the time, many others worked alongside former slaves to rebuild roads, bridges and rail lines. County officials had to search for missing records that had been moved from the courthouse during the war. Farmers began to cultivate the land again and businesses restocked their shelves. To do so, most needed loans, particularly from Northern merchants who were willing to extend credit to former customers. Fairfax farmers also took advantage of good prices on horses and other supplies that the army no longer needed.
Throughout the spring and summer, returning Rebels took the amnesty oath, swearing that they would “faithfully support, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States.” However, many of the old guard wanted to regain control of local government and return to the old ways. Conversely, former slaves were eager to expand on their new freedom. And then there were the Northerners who had moved south and tended to be more egalitarian. They did not want a return to the South’s old hierarchical social structure, instead pushing for a public education system, more equitable distribution of land and equal civil rights for all men.
The result was considerable tension between those who longed for the old days and those who wanted progress. This was seen particularly in the former slaves who were not inclined to vote according to their former masters’ wishes, which brought about a backlash with the Ku Klux Klan setting up Fairfax County, causing problems for both blacks and whites.
Although the war was not officially over, in March 1865 some Northern immigrants who wanted to help blacks in the transition from slavery to freedom met in Alexandria to establish the Freedmen’s Relief Association. Several Fairfax men, including the Sully Quakers, Alexander Haight and his brother-in-law James Barlow, were members. In August 1865, the Freedmen’s Bureau opened offices in Fairfax with George Armes as the agent charged to protect the former slaves “from oppression and imposition” and to encourage them to “industry and economy.” His duty was to ensure that they were fairly paid for their work, in addition to caring for any destitute freedmen, helping blacks secure homes and providing schools for black children.
One of Armes’ first duties was to take a census of the black population in the county. In the fall of 1865, he reported 2,941 blacks living in Fairfax County with about 30 each at Lewinsville and Fairfax Station and approximately 130 at Fairfax Courthouse with the remainder scattered throughout the county. Many found work and sharecropping became widespread. By 1870, approximately 120 blacks, at least nine of which were female, owned land in the county. Jackson Hampton was reported to be the most prosperous black in the county with land valued at $24,000.
There were eight black schools in Fairfax County by December 1866. Most were supported and staffed by the Friends’ Aid Society of Philadelphia. By March 1867, 440 black adults and children were attending school, albeit in poorly built and furnished facilities.
In January 1870, Virginia was finally readmitted to the Union. In that year, there were 94 milling and manufacturing establishments in the county; however, agriculture was the primary occupation. Though 29th in the state in population, Fairfax County was the largest milk producer and the cash value of its farms was sixth highest in Virginia.
By 1870, Fairfax County had substantially recovered from the Civil War. The population grew to 12,952, a 9 percent increase over 1860. A new town, Clifton, had been established in 1868 and other towns, among them Thornton, the site of present-day Reston, were attracting Northerners.
Much progress had been made but some were still inclined to longingly look back on the old way of life, while others were impatient that the future as they imagined it, was not happening as quickly as they wanted.
Source: Fairfax County Virginia, a History (1978) | 1,058 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Original Article: http://inservice.ascd.org/the-power-of-positive-routines/
I think this is a good thing. As long as our routines are healthy and productive, they can be a great asset. Having predictable rhythms and routines allows us to focus our energy on the harder and more complex tasks of the day.
Our students also develop routines, which can either help or hinder their learning. I recently visited a couple of 5th grade classes. I watched a group of students enter one room for science class. They came into the room quietly and immediately sat down at their seats. They took out their science books and journals, made sure they had pencils, and started chatting pleasantly with their classmates as the teacher got ready for her lesson. Forty-five minutes later, I saw this same class head into a different room for their math lesson. They burst through the door, pushing, shoving, and talking loudly. They dropped books on the floor, wandered the room, and had to be reminded multiple times to get out their math materials. In each room, these students had a routine that they followed. And in each room, this was a direct result of the time the teacher had taken to directly teach students expected behaviors and then follow through to enforce those expectations.
One of the most important things we can do for our students is help them establish positive routines so that their “autopilot” is respectful of themselves and others, allows them to feel safe and supported, and helps them be ready for learning throughout the day. In my article in the April 2011 edition of Educational Leadership, “The Leap into 4th Grade,” I describe a process for teaching routines to students called interactive modeling.
What routines do you teach to your students? How do you help students set positive and productive rhythms and routines in your classroom? | <urn:uuid:7a24cdfa-7bc1-4ff5-ae70-94e3df62eacb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.leadinggreatlearning.com/the-power-of-positive-routines/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00238.warc.gz | en | 0.980318 | 383 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.366015642881... | 2 | Original Article: http://inservice.ascd.org/the-power-of-positive-routines/
I think this is a good thing. As long as our routines are healthy and productive, they can be a great asset. Having predictable rhythms and routines allows us to focus our energy on the harder and more complex tasks of the day.
Our students also develop routines, which can either help or hinder their learning. I recently visited a couple of 5th grade classes. I watched a group of students enter one room for science class. They came into the room quietly and immediately sat down at their seats. They took out their science books and journals, made sure they had pencils, and started chatting pleasantly with their classmates as the teacher got ready for her lesson. Forty-five minutes later, I saw this same class head into a different room for their math lesson. They burst through the door, pushing, shoving, and talking loudly. They dropped books on the floor, wandered the room, and had to be reminded multiple times to get out their math materials. In each room, these students had a routine that they followed. And in each room, this was a direct result of the time the teacher had taken to directly teach students expected behaviors and then follow through to enforce those expectations.
One of the most important things we can do for our students is help them establish positive routines so that their “autopilot” is respectful of themselves and others, allows them to feel safe and supported, and helps them be ready for learning throughout the day. In my article in the April 2011 edition of Educational Leadership, “The Leap into 4th Grade,” I describe a process for teaching routines to students called interactive modeling.
What routines do you teach to your students? How do you help students set positive and productive rhythms and routines in your classroom? | 368 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The origins of 16th century witchcraft were changing social, economic and religious conditions in Europe and America. The desire to find a scapegoat for the change resulted in a genocide known as the Burning Times that lasted more than a century.
Witches were accused of casting spells on unfortunate victims and were often sentenced to death by hanging, drowning or by being burned to death.
History of The persecution of people practicing witchcraft in the 16th century began in England in 1589. However, the country's concern with witchcraft had been growing throughout the century, largely in response to the current social, economic and religious conditions in the country. Although people accused of practicing witchcraft had been
…show more content…
Methods of execution for the crime of witchcraft were mainly burning at the stake and hanging. Torture was often used to gain a confession from the accused. In many cases, the "Malleus Maleficarum" was used in the 17th-century witch-hunts to help magistrates identify, interrogate and condemn people accused of witchcraft, despite the book being banned by the Catholic church in 1490.
Time Frame In 1641, English law made witchcraft a capital crime. In 1682, Temperance Lloyd was executed, the last person to be executed for witchcraft in England. The executions didn't end there, however. The hysteria moved to a new location in the New World colonies. In 1692, witchcraft accusations reached feverish heights in Salem.
Effects The effects of witchcraft in the 17th century and the fear and hysteria it caused may never be completely known. It is estimated that from 1500 to 1660, Europe executed between 50,000 to 80,000 suspected witches. During the Salem trials alone, 19 people were hanged and one was pressed to death, while a total of 140 people were accused. In 1957, Massachusetts formally apologized for the trials that took place in Salem.
Misconceptions Witches have often been depicted as haggard old women with green skin and scraggly hair. One might wonder where this misconception came from. Consider the fact that the people who were accused of witchcraft spent a long period of time incarcerated in less than ideal | <urn:uuid:fb3b9c4d-4a1d-428e-ad63-58dfdb79a30b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.cram.com/essay/Witchcraft-In-The-16Th-Century/PKUPBMMYEJ2Z | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00125.warc.gz | en | 0.983055 | 440 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.1634606271982... | 1 | The origins of 16th century witchcraft were changing social, economic and religious conditions in Europe and America. The desire to find a scapegoat for the change resulted in a genocide known as the Burning Times that lasted more than a century.
Witches were accused of casting spells on unfortunate victims and were often sentenced to death by hanging, drowning or by being burned to death.
History of The persecution of people practicing witchcraft in the 16th century began in England in 1589. However, the country's concern with witchcraft had been growing throughout the century, largely in response to the current social, economic and religious conditions in the country. Although people accused of practicing witchcraft had been
…show more content…
Methods of execution for the crime of witchcraft were mainly burning at the stake and hanging. Torture was often used to gain a confession from the accused. In many cases, the "Malleus Maleficarum" was used in the 17th-century witch-hunts to help magistrates identify, interrogate and condemn people accused of witchcraft, despite the book being banned by the Catholic church in 1490.
Time Frame In 1641, English law made witchcraft a capital crime. In 1682, Temperance Lloyd was executed, the last person to be executed for witchcraft in England. The executions didn't end there, however. The hysteria moved to a new location in the New World colonies. In 1692, witchcraft accusations reached feverish heights in Salem.
Effects The effects of witchcraft in the 17th century and the fear and hysteria it caused may never be completely known. It is estimated that from 1500 to 1660, Europe executed between 50,000 to 80,000 suspected witches. During the Salem trials alone, 19 people were hanged and one was pressed to death, while a total of 140 people were accused. In 1957, Massachusetts formally apologized for the trials that took place in Salem.
Misconceptions Witches have often been depicted as haggard old women with green skin and scraggly hair. One might wonder where this misconception came from. Consider the fact that the people who were accused of witchcraft spent a long period of time incarcerated in less than ideal | 492 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Communication within Families
Three 17 year old high school students are planning on going to an 8pm movie together on a Friday night.
Sally has no curfew, so she didn’t think going to the movies would be a problem. Sally asked her mother on Tuesday if she could go and her mother said “yes.” When Friday arrived, her mother told Sally that she couldn’t go to the movies anymore, it was too late for her to go out, and she needed to stay home. Her mother then left to go to the bar, and Sally was left to feed and care for her younger brother.
Mary asked her father if she could go to the movies. He responded that as her curfew was 9pm she was not allowed to go to the movies. Mary did not want to question her father’s decision, so she kept quiet, even though it was the weekend, and she had no responsibilities on Saturday morning. Mary asked her mother if she would try to talk to her father to convince him to lift the curfew for one night, but her mother refused to do so.
Sam asked his parents if he could go to the movies. His parents stated that while normally his curfew was 9pm, it was a weekend night and he had no plans early in the morning on Saturday. Sam’s parents decided that as long as his homework and chores were finished, he could have an extension on his curfew for the evening, and could go to the movies. On Friday afternoon, Sam completed his homework and chores, and left to see the movie, with the promise to call his parents if the movie got out later than 10pm.
Respond to the following using the information from the text and lectures:
- Identify which boundary is best described by each family in the scenario above.
- Identify which boundary inadequacies are present in each family, if applicable.
- Explain how each boundary and boundary inadequacy manifests itself.
- What behaviors contribute to the development and maintenance of each of these boundaries?
- Which of these teens are at risk for future substance abuse and why?
- What can parents do to avoid or change any maladaptive boundary patterns in their families?
Create a PowerPoint presentation of five to seven slides, with detailed speaker notes to present to a parent organization | <urn:uuid:2e59574b-bd06-40c1-a494-c8c87bcec4c3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://medicpapers.com/what-can-parents-do-to-avoid-or-change-any-maladaptive-boundary-patterns-in-their-families/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00031.warc.gz | en | 0.990791 | 476 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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Three 17 year old high school students are planning on going to an 8pm movie together on a Friday night.
Sally has no curfew, so she didn’t think going to the movies would be a problem. Sally asked her mother on Tuesday if she could go and her mother said “yes.” When Friday arrived, her mother told Sally that she couldn’t go to the movies anymore, it was too late for her to go out, and she needed to stay home. Her mother then left to go to the bar, and Sally was left to feed and care for her younger brother.
Mary asked her father if she could go to the movies. He responded that as her curfew was 9pm she was not allowed to go to the movies. Mary did not want to question her father’s decision, so she kept quiet, even though it was the weekend, and she had no responsibilities on Saturday morning. Mary asked her mother if she would try to talk to her father to convince him to lift the curfew for one night, but her mother refused to do so.
Sam asked his parents if he could go to the movies. His parents stated that while normally his curfew was 9pm, it was a weekend night and he had no plans early in the morning on Saturday. Sam’s parents decided that as long as his homework and chores were finished, he could have an extension on his curfew for the evening, and could go to the movies. On Friday afternoon, Sam completed his homework and chores, and left to see the movie, with the promise to call his parents if the movie got out later than 10pm.
Respond to the following using the information from the text and lectures:
- Identify which boundary is best described by each family in the scenario above.
- Identify which boundary inadequacies are present in each family, if applicable.
- Explain how each boundary and boundary inadequacy manifests itself.
- What behaviors contribute to the development and maintenance of each of these boundaries?
- Which of these teens are at risk for future substance abuse and why?
- What can parents do to avoid or change any maladaptive boundary patterns in their families?
Create a PowerPoint presentation of five to seven slides, with detailed speaker notes to present to a parent organization | 463 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What are some details in "Father Malloy"?
"Father Malloy" is one of the few poems in Spoon River Anthology that is not narrated in the first person by its central character. As a result, the use of detail by the poem's unnamed narrator becomes crucial in establishing who Father Malloy was in life.
One significant detail is that Father Malloy is not buried in the cemetery on the hill with most of Spoon River's residents, but rather at a Catholic cemetery, indicating a religious divide between himself and the predominantly Protestant community. The fact that he is referred to as "Father Malloy," as well as the references to St. Peter at the end of the poem, confirms this, establishing an apparent conflict between himself and many of his fellow citizens.
However, Father Malloy's...
(The entire section contains 390 words.)
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | <urn:uuid:3b5b070a-3c00-4c57-9e5e-136fbca10d0f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-some-details-father-malloy-1156356?en_action=hh-question_click&en_label=topics_related_hh_questions&en_category=internal_campaign | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00219.warc.gz | en | 0.982278 | 181 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.0446066372096... | 1 | What are some details in "Father Malloy"?
"Father Malloy" is one of the few poems in Spoon River Anthology that is not narrated in the first person by its central character. As a result, the use of detail by the poem's unnamed narrator becomes crucial in establishing who Father Malloy was in life.
One significant detail is that Father Malloy is not buried in the cemetery on the hill with most of Spoon River's residents, but rather at a Catholic cemetery, indicating a religious divide between himself and the predominantly Protestant community. The fact that he is referred to as "Father Malloy," as well as the references to St. Peter at the end of the poem, confirms this, establishing an apparent conflict between himself and many of his fellow citizens.
However, Father Malloy's...
(The entire section contains 390 words.)
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | 179 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Louis Jolliet and Father Marquette arrived in Illinois in 1673 as explorers for the French empire. They claimed the region for France and it remained a French territory until 1763, when it passed to the British. The area was then ceded to the United States in 1783 and became part of the Northwest Territory acquisition.
The word Illinois comes from the prevailing Native American tribal group living in the area, called the Illiniwek Confederation. Known as the Illini, they were later replaced in Illinois by the Pottawatomie, Miami, Sauk, and other tribes by the time of its acceptance into the US.
Illinois lays claim to being the home state of our 16th, and one of our finest, presidents Abraham Lincoln. Born in Kentucky and reared in Kentucky and Indiana, Lincoln spent many of his adult years working in Illinois, eventually as a lawyer and politician.
It was Abraham Lincoln’s job in history to preside over the Union during the Civil War. Illinois remained with the Northern states during this “war between brothers”. At the time of the Civil War, the Republican party had been formed in 1854 around the idea of supporting our government as a Republic, the way that it was founded. Republicans also were anti-slavery and rallied around the election of Abraham Lincoln as President with strong Republican roots in Illinois.
Illinois became the 21st state of the Union of the United States of American on December 3, 1818. | <urn:uuid:e8dbe278-0761-4467-8612-9563567f9199> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.vintage-american.com/state-history/history-of-illinois/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00380.warc.gz | en | 0.983255 | 305 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.39977803826... | 3 | Louis Jolliet and Father Marquette arrived in Illinois in 1673 as explorers for the French empire. They claimed the region for France and it remained a French territory until 1763, when it passed to the British. The area was then ceded to the United States in 1783 and became part of the Northwest Territory acquisition.
The word Illinois comes from the prevailing Native American tribal group living in the area, called the Illiniwek Confederation. Known as the Illini, they were later replaced in Illinois by the Pottawatomie, Miami, Sauk, and other tribes by the time of its acceptance into the US.
Illinois lays claim to being the home state of our 16th, and one of our finest, presidents Abraham Lincoln. Born in Kentucky and reared in Kentucky and Indiana, Lincoln spent many of his adult years working in Illinois, eventually as a lawyer and politician.
It was Abraham Lincoln’s job in history to preside over the Union during the Civil War. Illinois remained with the Northern states during this “war between brothers”. At the time of the Civil War, the Republican party had been formed in 1854 around the idea of supporting our government as a Republic, the way that it was founded. Republicans also were anti-slavery and rallied around the election of Abraham Lincoln as President with strong Republican roots in Illinois.
Illinois became the 21st state of the Union of the United States of American on December 3, 1818. | 317 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What’s for Lunch?
Ever wonder what your food taste like? That was the question our kinders had to answer for last week’s science activity. Since we are doing science, “yummy” is not an acceptable answer. What we want is for the kids to learn to describe the taste of their food using our four basic kinds of flavors i.e. sweet, sour, salty and bitter.
Most importantly, we wanted the kids to learn how to describe what happens when the food enters their mouth and how does their brain recognize which taste it is. Further, we also wanted the kids to learn which parts of their tongue work to signal their brain if the food they are eating are sweet, sour, salty or bitter.
The science activity was extended during lunch time. What seems to be an ordinary lunch can be a good source of a fun learning science activity as the kids started to sort the flavors of their food in their obento. One kid said, “Oh! My chicken is salty!” Then another kid asked, “How about broccoli, what does it taste like?” | <urn:uuid:3584a6ad-e9e0-4d5b-8d74-68f862c143cc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://starsfamily.jp/post-7238/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00545.warc.gz | en | 0.98015 | 232 | 4 | 4 | [
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-0.025981560349... | 5 | What’s for Lunch?
Ever wonder what your food taste like? That was the question our kinders had to answer for last week’s science activity. Since we are doing science, “yummy” is not an acceptable answer. What we want is for the kids to learn to describe the taste of their food using our four basic kinds of flavors i.e. sweet, sour, salty and bitter.
Most importantly, we wanted the kids to learn how to describe what happens when the food enters their mouth and how does their brain recognize which taste it is. Further, we also wanted the kids to learn which parts of their tongue work to signal their brain if the food they are eating are sweet, sour, salty or bitter.
The science activity was extended during lunch time. What seems to be an ordinary lunch can be a good source of a fun learning science activity as the kids started to sort the flavors of their food in their obento. One kid said, “Oh! My chicken is salty!” Then another kid asked, “How about broccoli, what does it taste like?” | 216 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Native Americans are the people who were displaced from their homeland in the 15th century. Most of the natives were Indians and after intermarrying with the Americans their offspring were called Amerindians. During that time there were three types of civilizations that is; Aztec, Inca, and Maya. The Native Americans were isolated by the Spanish and were even harshly treated to an extent that they thought that the Spanish people were their gods. Due to the isolation, the natives begun to develop their own technology which consisted of mathematics and making of calendars. The Native Americans were not able to share their technology with other people unlike the Americans who shared their technology with the Arabs and the Chinese people. The American natives were in two groups; one in the Caribbean islands and the other in the Mesoamerica (LaRosa and Mejía 69).
First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service
- Your research paper is written by a PhD professor
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The houses made by natives in the Caribbean islands were considered friendly and green because they were made by hand and they constituted of things that nature could offer. These houses were; straw bell dwellings, adobe and the long houses. The roofs were covered by either animal skin or grass. Their city had very few houses nd their villages had about 15 houses. Unlike the others, natives from Mesoamerica concentrated on building Aztec temples which contained idols made from iron. Their cities were filled with stone built houses which had even balconies, swimming pools and had flat roofs. They also used pipes to bring water to their homes and also made strong weapons from iron (Staller and Carrasco 38).
The natives from the Caribbean islands had no idea of the existence of iron. They used copper and stone to make their tools and gold to decorate their bodies. They also practiced economical activities like farming, fishing and pastoralism. The other practiced stone carving, iron smelting and production of cotton. The natives in Caribbean island only leaved a simple life while the others from Mesoamerica struggled to develop their culture in different designs and fashion. Natives from the Caribbean islands were the ones involved in domesticating animals like; dogs, camels, donkey and even cows. American native believed in myths and used to pray before any construction and they later asked for blessings after building. The natives had constructed different structures designed to give the last respect when one died, when a child was boorn and others for dancing ceremonies.
Due to the sufferings that they went through in the hands of the Spanish after migrating to America, the native used to be hostile and full of anger. Even though they were not as warlike as the Americans they still had the confidence to fight back whenever they were mistreated. For example, their was a time that they forced to give out their belonging including the food they had kept in their galleries to settlers in Jamestown, they fought back by attacking them, beating them up, and taking their belongings with them (Carl 15). Even though the natives had different interest and cultural practices there didn’t exist animosity between them. They both lived peacefully and supported one another when challenge faced them. There were disagreements between them like no and then but it didn’t reach the point of planning battles or killing one another.
The American natives faced many challenges especially from the Spanish people but they didn’t gave up they still stayed together and faced the problems together. Currently you can differentiate Americans and the natives. The American constitution has favored both the American and its immigrants.
Most popular orders | <urn:uuid:09129520-1550-4179-aba5-a5a9b93264ef> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essaysexperts.com/essays/sociology/hist-2111.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00268.warc.gz | en | 0.990444 | 755 | 3.984375 | 4 | [
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0.1477718651... | 1 | Native Americans are the people who were displaced from their homeland in the 15th century. Most of the natives were Indians and after intermarrying with the Americans their offspring were called Amerindians. During that time there were three types of civilizations that is; Aztec, Inca, and Maya. The Native Americans were isolated by the Spanish and were even harshly treated to an extent that they thought that the Spanish people were their gods. Due to the isolation, the natives begun to develop their own technology which consisted of mathematics and making of calendars. The Native Americans were not able to share their technology with other people unlike the Americans who shared their technology with the Arabs and the Chinese people. The American natives were in two groups; one in the Caribbean islands and the other in the Mesoamerica (LaRosa and Mejía 69).
First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service
- Your research paper is written by a PhD professor
- Your requirements and targets are always met
- You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment
- You get a chance to become an excellent student!
The houses made by natives in the Caribbean islands were considered friendly and green because they were made by hand and they constituted of things that nature could offer. These houses were; straw bell dwellings, adobe and the long houses. The roofs were covered by either animal skin or grass. Their city had very few houses nd their villages had about 15 houses. Unlike the others, natives from Mesoamerica concentrated on building Aztec temples which contained idols made from iron. Their cities were filled with stone built houses which had even balconies, swimming pools and had flat roofs. They also used pipes to bring water to their homes and also made strong weapons from iron (Staller and Carrasco 38).
The natives from the Caribbean islands had no idea of the existence of iron. They used copper and stone to make their tools and gold to decorate their bodies. They also practiced economical activities like farming, fishing and pastoralism. The other practiced stone carving, iron smelting and production of cotton. The natives in Caribbean island only leaved a simple life while the others from Mesoamerica struggled to develop their culture in different designs and fashion. Natives from the Caribbean islands were the ones involved in domesticating animals like; dogs, camels, donkey and even cows. American native believed in myths and used to pray before any construction and they later asked for blessings after building. The natives had constructed different structures designed to give the last respect when one died, when a child was boorn and others for dancing ceremonies.
Due to the sufferings that they went through in the hands of the Spanish after migrating to America, the native used to be hostile and full of anger. Even though they were not as warlike as the Americans they still had the confidence to fight back whenever they were mistreated. For example, their was a time that they forced to give out their belonging including the food they had kept in their galleries to settlers in Jamestown, they fought back by attacking them, beating them up, and taking their belongings with them (Carl 15). Even though the natives had different interest and cultural practices there didn’t exist animosity between them. They both lived peacefully and supported one another when challenge faced them. There were disagreements between them like no and then but it didn’t reach the point of planning battles or killing one another.
The American natives faced many challenges especially from the Spanish people but they didn’t gave up they still stayed together and faced the problems together. Currently you can differentiate Americans and the natives. The American constitution has favored both the American and its immigrants.
Most popular orders | 750 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Motorised taxis appeared in New Zealand towns from about 1905, and were common by 1912. Taxi stands developed in the streets, and there were special telephones on poles for summoning taxis. As with hansom cabs, they were regulated by local authorities.
T for taxi
Because people often hailed private cars thinking they were taxis, Auckland City Council decided in 1915 to mark taxis by putting the letter ‘T’ in red on their number plates, in front of the black registered number that all cars had.
Taxi drivers’ wages were set by the Arbitration Court from 1926. But their earnings fell dramatically during the economic depression of the 1930s, partly because drivers signed private ‘hirer agreements’ designed by taxi owners to undercut the pay rates and conditions set by the court.
A 1936 commission of inquiry found ‘cut-throat competition’ had lowered fares as well as wages. It commented that ‘[a]n orgy of fare-cutting, unfair practices, tampering with vehicles, fake telephone calls, touting, misleading advertising and practices of a more sinister nature are indulged in with the result that ... chaos was generally rampant from one end of New Zealand to the other’.1 The government moved to limit the number of taxis.
Prospective drivers had to prove that there was a demand for their service and that it would not adversely affect existing drivers – who had a right to object, and invariably did. Licences were effectively bought and sold, with substantial goodwill payments by those who wanted to get into the industry.
Wartime taxi use
The Second World War boosted taxi use as petrol rationing put private vehicles off the road and overcrowded trams and buses. American servicemen, prepared to pay for long trips back to base, were good customers. Drivers were in demand, as many were away at the war. After the war, returned servicemen were given priority in the line-up for taxi licences.
Women worked as taxi drivers during the war, but later many companies refused to employ women. They were forbidden to drive at night by regulation, until the mid-1970s.
The name game
In the days of radio telephones taxi drivers were renowned for slangy place-names. To Wellington drivers Oriental Bay was China Bay; Hopper St was Kangaroo Alley; and the Wallace Street entrance of Wellington Polytechnic was Polly Wally.
1950s and 1960s
In the early 1950s, two-way radio allowed companies to contact their drivers while out on the road, increasing the number of jobs to which they had access.
Widespread public dissatisfaction with the quality of New Zealand’s taxi service sparked another commission of inquiry in 1961. The previous year the Commissioner of Transport had called the taxi industry ‘a discourteous and often unreliable service’.2 Under the Transport Act 1962 the government took control of both licensing and fare-setting. Drivers had to belong to an approved taxi organisation.
The continuing tight control on taxi numbers meant there were not enough taxis in peak times, when people often had to queue for cabs and share rides – but there was often not enough work for drivers at off-peak times.
Share and share alike
Before the taxi industry was deregulated in 1989, it was common to share taxis at peak times because there weren’t enough available. ‘If a driver got a fare to a certain place, he’d ask if they minded sharing, and then ask if there was anyone else going there. You’d give them both a discount,’3 says George Tyler, who managed a Wellington taxi firm in the 1950s and 1960s.
George Tyler, who was manager of Wellington’s Black, White and Grey Taxis in the 1950s and 1960s, and later headed the Taxi Federation, remembers: ‘When the pubs closed at six o’clock there was a massive rush. There might be a hundred people waiting for a taxi on Dixon Street. But at half-past six the town was dead. People would come out later to go to the pictures and go home again. From Friday night through to the early hours of Sunday you might hardly go to bed because the work was there.’4
The extension of bar closing times – to 10 o’clock in 1967, and later still in 1989 – increased the use of taxis at night. Drink-driving laws and random breath tests added an incentive to take a taxi. Increasing air travel meant more daytime work for taxi drivers in centres with airports. | <urn:uuid:c2c00e6d-ee06-4533-986a-dd7116189b3a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://teara.govt.nz/en/taxis-and-cabs/page-2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00042.warc.gz | en | 0.986937 | 934 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.523843646049499... | 9 | Motorised taxis appeared in New Zealand towns from about 1905, and were common by 1912. Taxi stands developed in the streets, and there were special telephones on poles for summoning taxis. As with hansom cabs, they were regulated by local authorities.
T for taxi
Because people often hailed private cars thinking they were taxis, Auckland City Council decided in 1915 to mark taxis by putting the letter ‘T’ in red on their number plates, in front of the black registered number that all cars had.
Taxi drivers’ wages were set by the Arbitration Court from 1926. But their earnings fell dramatically during the economic depression of the 1930s, partly because drivers signed private ‘hirer agreements’ designed by taxi owners to undercut the pay rates and conditions set by the court.
A 1936 commission of inquiry found ‘cut-throat competition’ had lowered fares as well as wages. It commented that ‘[a]n orgy of fare-cutting, unfair practices, tampering with vehicles, fake telephone calls, touting, misleading advertising and practices of a more sinister nature are indulged in with the result that ... chaos was generally rampant from one end of New Zealand to the other’.1 The government moved to limit the number of taxis.
Prospective drivers had to prove that there was a demand for their service and that it would not adversely affect existing drivers – who had a right to object, and invariably did. Licences were effectively bought and sold, with substantial goodwill payments by those who wanted to get into the industry.
Wartime taxi use
The Second World War boosted taxi use as petrol rationing put private vehicles off the road and overcrowded trams and buses. American servicemen, prepared to pay for long trips back to base, were good customers. Drivers were in demand, as many were away at the war. After the war, returned servicemen were given priority in the line-up for taxi licences.
Women worked as taxi drivers during the war, but later many companies refused to employ women. They were forbidden to drive at night by regulation, until the mid-1970s.
The name game
In the days of radio telephones taxi drivers were renowned for slangy place-names. To Wellington drivers Oriental Bay was China Bay; Hopper St was Kangaroo Alley; and the Wallace Street entrance of Wellington Polytechnic was Polly Wally.
1950s and 1960s
In the early 1950s, two-way radio allowed companies to contact their drivers while out on the road, increasing the number of jobs to which they had access.
Widespread public dissatisfaction with the quality of New Zealand’s taxi service sparked another commission of inquiry in 1961. The previous year the Commissioner of Transport had called the taxi industry ‘a discourteous and often unreliable service’.2 Under the Transport Act 1962 the government took control of both licensing and fare-setting. Drivers had to belong to an approved taxi organisation.
The continuing tight control on taxi numbers meant there were not enough taxis in peak times, when people often had to queue for cabs and share rides – but there was often not enough work for drivers at off-peak times.
Share and share alike
Before the taxi industry was deregulated in 1989, it was common to share taxis at peak times because there weren’t enough available. ‘If a driver got a fare to a certain place, he’d ask if they minded sharing, and then ask if there was anyone else going there. You’d give them both a discount,’3 says George Tyler, who managed a Wellington taxi firm in the 1950s and 1960s.
George Tyler, who was manager of Wellington’s Black, White and Grey Taxis in the 1950s and 1960s, and later headed the Taxi Federation, remembers: ‘When the pubs closed at six o’clock there was a massive rush. There might be a hundred people waiting for a taxi on Dixon Street. But at half-past six the town was dead. People would come out later to go to the pictures and go home again. From Friday night through to the early hours of Sunday you might hardly go to bed because the work was there.’4
The extension of bar closing times – to 10 o’clock in 1967, and later still in 1989 – increased the use of taxis at night. Drink-driving laws and random breath tests added an incentive to take a taxi. Increasing air travel meant more daytime work for taxi drivers in centres with airports. | 965 | ENGLISH | 1 |
5. Background and Initial Formation
The New kingdom was an exhilarating time in Egyptian history, and a time when Egypt's pharaohs reigned amidst splendor and power. The 18th Dynasty opened with a continuing liberation war led by Ahmose I against the Hyksos invaders that had occupied northern Egypt. In the preceding dynasty Ahmose I's brother, Kamose, had started the war to free Egypt from the Hyksos. Pharaoh Ahmose I intensified the war, taking back town after town occupied by the enemy invaders from the north. In time, these invaders were totally expelled from the country. After the Hyksos' removal, a day dawned when Egypt ruled in the world like never before, heralding in a second Egyptian Golden Age. Marriages between neighboring nations became common as well, these being means to seal peace pacts and treaties.
4. Rise To Power And Accomplishments
The 18th Dynasty pharaohs ruled for 250 years, often doing so with an iron hand. At the same time, Egypt was increasing trade with other nations to refill its war-depleted treasuries. Ahmose I reigned for 25 years, followed by his son, Amenhotep I, who ruled for 21 years. Twelve more pharaohs reigned in the 18th Dynasty that brought a new power and strategy for Egypt in international relations. The government was restructured to have only officials that were appointed on merit as well. Thutmose I annexed Nubia, and later Hatshepsut and Thutmose III made Egypt's military an even greater force to reckon with than ever before. Amenhotep III supported the arts, Akhenaton and Nefertiti introduced the "one god" religion, and Tutankhamun led a legendary life, ruling with his Royal Wife and Queen Ankhesenamun beside him.
3. Challenges and Controversies
The 19th Dynasty lasted for 110 years, and was a time of plenty and opulence in Egypt, though such affluence had began during the 18th Dynasty. Pharaoh Seti I built a grand temple in Abydosm and many older temples and monuments were rebuilt and restored to honor Egypt's glorious past. Seti I was followed to the throne by his son, Rameses II, who brought the rival Hittites (from modern day Tuerkey and Syria) to their knees. Rameses II reigned for 66 years, and had one of the longest reigns in Egyptian history. He was known for his wars with the Hittites and the Libyans, who had become powerful nations and a threat to his rule. Most notably of all, he built enormous monuments to commemorate himself for ages.
2. Decline and Demise
The 20th Dynasty was marked with glorious triumphs, but was also the start of the decline of the New Kingdom. Pharaoh Setnakht ruled for only a little more than two years, but in that short time established an atmosphere of peace in Egypt. He was followed by his son, Rameses III, who, like his namesake, went on a warring campaign to destroy foreign threats to Egypt. He eventually defeated the Sea Peoples (raiders from the Aegean Sea), who had been on the march to conquer neighboring nations. Numerous among his successors, from Rameses IV through Rameses XI, were each named after him. However, after internal government failures occurred, the start of decline of the New kingdom could not be halted as the Egyptian economy suffered.
1. Historical Significance and Legacy
After the decline and death of Rameses XI, the New Kingdom faltered and a new pharaoh took over the reigns of power. Smendes proclaimed himself pharaoh, and ruled for 26 years. Afterwards, Egypt was thrown into chaos again, and the kingdom was divided into several fiefdoms, each ruled by their own minor rulers, and even the high priests at Thebes were crowned as kings. The fall of the New Kingdom was a result of inefficient rules by ineffective pharaohs during the 20th Dynasty. Although the advent of the dynasty was a propitious one, its end was a chaotic implosion. The whole span of the New Kingdom left a legacy of power and then decline that included wars, treaties, opulence, prosperity, and the unique rule of three queens. In short, the New Kingdom was characteristic of the many great rises and falls that embodied much of ancient Egyptian history.
When Was the New Kingdom Period in Egyptian History?
The New Kingdom Period in Egyptian History lasted between the 16th century BCE and the 11th century BCE.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | <urn:uuid:f9606a40-79ed-4d2e-a7e0-ecd4a27474dd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-new-kingdom-dynasties-of-ancient-egypt.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00409.warc.gz | en | 0.981883 | 987 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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0.13074740767... | 1 | 5. Background and Initial Formation
The New kingdom was an exhilarating time in Egyptian history, and a time when Egypt's pharaohs reigned amidst splendor and power. The 18th Dynasty opened with a continuing liberation war led by Ahmose I against the Hyksos invaders that had occupied northern Egypt. In the preceding dynasty Ahmose I's brother, Kamose, had started the war to free Egypt from the Hyksos. Pharaoh Ahmose I intensified the war, taking back town after town occupied by the enemy invaders from the north. In time, these invaders were totally expelled from the country. After the Hyksos' removal, a day dawned when Egypt ruled in the world like never before, heralding in a second Egyptian Golden Age. Marriages between neighboring nations became common as well, these being means to seal peace pacts and treaties.
4. Rise To Power And Accomplishments
The 18th Dynasty pharaohs ruled for 250 years, often doing so with an iron hand. At the same time, Egypt was increasing trade with other nations to refill its war-depleted treasuries. Ahmose I reigned for 25 years, followed by his son, Amenhotep I, who ruled for 21 years. Twelve more pharaohs reigned in the 18th Dynasty that brought a new power and strategy for Egypt in international relations. The government was restructured to have only officials that were appointed on merit as well. Thutmose I annexed Nubia, and later Hatshepsut and Thutmose III made Egypt's military an even greater force to reckon with than ever before. Amenhotep III supported the arts, Akhenaton and Nefertiti introduced the "one god" religion, and Tutankhamun led a legendary life, ruling with his Royal Wife and Queen Ankhesenamun beside him.
3. Challenges and Controversies
The 19th Dynasty lasted for 110 years, and was a time of plenty and opulence in Egypt, though such affluence had began during the 18th Dynasty. Pharaoh Seti I built a grand temple in Abydosm and many older temples and monuments were rebuilt and restored to honor Egypt's glorious past. Seti I was followed to the throne by his son, Rameses II, who brought the rival Hittites (from modern day Tuerkey and Syria) to their knees. Rameses II reigned for 66 years, and had one of the longest reigns in Egyptian history. He was known for his wars with the Hittites and the Libyans, who had become powerful nations and a threat to his rule. Most notably of all, he built enormous monuments to commemorate himself for ages.
2. Decline and Demise
The 20th Dynasty was marked with glorious triumphs, but was also the start of the decline of the New Kingdom. Pharaoh Setnakht ruled for only a little more than two years, but in that short time established an atmosphere of peace in Egypt. He was followed by his son, Rameses III, who, like his namesake, went on a warring campaign to destroy foreign threats to Egypt. He eventually defeated the Sea Peoples (raiders from the Aegean Sea), who had been on the march to conquer neighboring nations. Numerous among his successors, from Rameses IV through Rameses XI, were each named after him. However, after internal government failures occurred, the start of decline of the New kingdom could not be halted as the Egyptian economy suffered.
1. Historical Significance and Legacy
After the decline and death of Rameses XI, the New Kingdom faltered and a new pharaoh took over the reigns of power. Smendes proclaimed himself pharaoh, and ruled for 26 years. Afterwards, Egypt was thrown into chaos again, and the kingdom was divided into several fiefdoms, each ruled by their own minor rulers, and even the high priests at Thebes were crowned as kings. The fall of the New Kingdom was a result of inefficient rules by ineffective pharaohs during the 20th Dynasty. Although the advent of the dynasty was a propitious one, its end was a chaotic implosion. The whole span of the New Kingdom left a legacy of power and then decline that included wars, treaties, opulence, prosperity, and the unique rule of three queens. In short, the New Kingdom was characteristic of the many great rises and falls that embodied much of ancient Egyptian history.
When Was the New Kingdom Period in Egyptian History?
The New Kingdom Period in Egyptian History lasted between the 16th century BCE and the 11th century BCE.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 1,013 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Roman Civilization started in the Italy, south of Europe. It is believed that Etruscans, a tribe from Asia Minor had settled down in the western part of Italy. It is said that Romus and Romulus had built the city of Rome in 753 BC. From 753 to 509 BC, Rome was controlled by a monarch. After that, it became a republic. Roman society was divided into two groups- Patricians and Plebeians. They Patricians enjoyed political, social and economic privileges, but the Plebeians were exploited by the Patricians. After 200 years of continuous struggle, Plebeians forced Patricians to surrender and Law of Twelve Tables was enforced. This guaranteed the right to equality. After that, the roman supremacy spread all over Italy and there was political unity in the country.
A war broke between Rome and Carthage, a kingdom in the northern part of Africa and it lasted for a century from 264 BC to 164 BC. There were three different wars which were known as the Punic Wars. The second was known as the Hannibal war. After Rome destroyed Carthage, they had absolute lordship over the Mediterranean region.
Rome was a rich country then. The life of people became luxurious. With the extension of the empire, social inequality also increased due to which peace and order could not be maintained.
After the civil wars, the dictators came into power. Pompey, Julius Caesar and Crassus were the main dictators. After the death of Crassus, there was a rivalry between Julius Caesar and Pompey. Julius Caesar defeated Pompey and became a permanent dictator. Julius Caesar built the Roman Empire by conquering almost all the countries of Europe. Besides, he issued a calendar. Due to all these reasons, he is called a great man.
In 43 BC, he was murdered by rivals. As a result, a civil war began and the civil war lasted for 14 months. Augustus Caesar came to power and he became the first emperor of Rome after it became an empire. He ruled for 17 years from 31 BC to 14 BC. His reign is known as the Golden Age of Rome. He expanded his empire and strengthened his army. The Roman empire came to an end in 500 AD after the country was invaded by the German tribe called Huns and the Turkish tribe called Turks.
The struggle and war between and patrician and the Plebeians ultimately ended by the empowerment of the Plebeians, and with a consensus and unity and whole Roman Empire flourished with a flower. So they attacked and captured Italy. Before the tried to attack over Sicily cartage disagree with the intention of Rome which led them to a serious of War which was even called 'the prime war'. This war was fought for three times.
The powerful Romans appeared to be over the Carthaginians. The Carthaginians were defeated and as a result they were made slaves too. A powerful northern African state had to decline along with the victory of Rome which gave rise to the great ruler Julius Caesar.
Different political development had given to Julius Caesar. But soon his rule was called the dictatorial rule and made him dead. Then a passage for the rise of Augustus Caesar was paved on. He had taken on the right of ruling over Rome. The number of remarkable works was executed by him during his ruling tenure 44 years. The judicial system was reformed right and capable persons were held for administrative work. For the decentralization of work, the municipality and provinces were made autonomous. The Roman city was made rich in art, culture and architecture. People were given the chances in the form of development and others. The status of law the made stronger with introducing and developing three types of law the civil law, law of people and the Natural law. All these things have made his rule and a golden age. Despite many challenges, he ordered something.
The country Rome has been greatly changed now. It faced with so many up and downs when it was in the process of getting strong. It has faced the war with cartage named as 'The Punic Wars.' Even though, a gradual change was made with the contribution of Julius Caesar. He unified a vast territory and made the Roman Empire. After his murder, his nephew called Augustus Caesar became the ruler who brought a great realm of physical, legal, administrative development. Rome was strengthened by a rich change in art, literature, culture and architecture. Peace and prosperity were brought in the country. A great strong foundation of law was made so as to give justice and order, rule and order, rule and law in the country. In such an ancient age, the pioneer ship led by him made is period a golden age. This was certainly a positive message to the rest of the world.
The country Rome got a great identity later. The same Rome was transformed into a developed from which, a pride of whole Europe today is known as Italy. The ancient civilization of Greek left so many impacts in the sector of science, Philosophy, democracy, Literature etc. Rome couldn't be left unaffected by such great impression. Anciently, Roman society had clearly been divided into two groups or races called the patricians and the Plebeians. The society had been dominated by the patricians over the plebeians. The politicians were privileged, whatever rule they made used to become a way to dominate the plebeians. They had approach to the state affairs and became a tool to exploit over the plebeians. The extreme exploitation made the plebeians rise against the patricians which brought conflict between two races. The Plebeians struggled for their rights and the patricians were ultimately compelled to share the social-political rights called 'Twelve Tables.' This led to the nation unity and overall development of Rome. On the other hand, the ancient Rome hadn't got the remarkable economic condition. It spent a lot of money during its Punic wars which were fought for the three times. When Julius Caesar came to power, he extended a large territory in Rome. After his death there was a short term anarchy but again the reign period Augustus Caesar brought a remarkable change in all the sectors the models of Julius Caesar, who had improved agriculture, reduction of taxes, action against the corrupt officials, improvement of the coinage system etc. In the economic sector, Augustus Caesar further accelerated the economic development by developing the bridge, roads, public buildings, theaters etc. With the state of peace, he developed, there was stability which disturbed nothing at all for the development of the country. As a part of economic development, trade sector was promoted. People got the good atmosphere to promote their economic activities.
Roman society was divided into______.
None of these
Ruler and Plebeians
Patricians and Plebeians
Patricians and Workers
Julius Caesar is called a great man because ______.
he became the first emperor of Rome
he built the Roman Empire by conquering almost all the countries of Europe
he expanded his empire and strengthened his army
all of the answers are correct
______ was the head of the family in Roman Civilization.
Both father and mother
None of these
The roman civilization developed on ______.
Who were Plebeians?
People with no status
army of Rome
What happened between Patricians and Plebeians?
A civil war broke out and plebeians who were large in number killed all the patricians
Plebeians were forever as low class citizen
After 200 yrs of struggle, a Law stated both to as equal | <urn:uuid:a4db1f94-b47b-406f-a7b8-432c3d3a340f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://kullabs.com/classes/subjects/units/lessons/notes/note-detail/311 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00051.warc.gz | en | 0.988342 | 1,539 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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0.36398780345916... | 1 | The Roman Civilization started in the Italy, south of Europe. It is believed that Etruscans, a tribe from Asia Minor had settled down in the western part of Italy. It is said that Romus and Romulus had built the city of Rome in 753 BC. From 753 to 509 BC, Rome was controlled by a monarch. After that, it became a republic. Roman society was divided into two groups- Patricians and Plebeians. They Patricians enjoyed political, social and economic privileges, but the Plebeians were exploited by the Patricians. After 200 years of continuous struggle, Plebeians forced Patricians to surrender and Law of Twelve Tables was enforced. This guaranteed the right to equality. After that, the roman supremacy spread all over Italy and there was political unity in the country.
A war broke between Rome and Carthage, a kingdom in the northern part of Africa and it lasted for a century from 264 BC to 164 BC. There were three different wars which were known as the Punic Wars. The second was known as the Hannibal war. After Rome destroyed Carthage, they had absolute lordship over the Mediterranean region.
Rome was a rich country then. The life of people became luxurious. With the extension of the empire, social inequality also increased due to which peace and order could not be maintained.
After the civil wars, the dictators came into power. Pompey, Julius Caesar and Crassus were the main dictators. After the death of Crassus, there was a rivalry between Julius Caesar and Pompey. Julius Caesar defeated Pompey and became a permanent dictator. Julius Caesar built the Roman Empire by conquering almost all the countries of Europe. Besides, he issued a calendar. Due to all these reasons, he is called a great man.
In 43 BC, he was murdered by rivals. As a result, a civil war began and the civil war lasted for 14 months. Augustus Caesar came to power and he became the first emperor of Rome after it became an empire. He ruled for 17 years from 31 BC to 14 BC. His reign is known as the Golden Age of Rome. He expanded his empire and strengthened his army. The Roman empire came to an end in 500 AD after the country was invaded by the German tribe called Huns and the Turkish tribe called Turks.
The struggle and war between and patrician and the Plebeians ultimately ended by the empowerment of the Plebeians, and with a consensus and unity and whole Roman Empire flourished with a flower. So they attacked and captured Italy. Before the tried to attack over Sicily cartage disagree with the intention of Rome which led them to a serious of War which was even called 'the prime war'. This war was fought for three times.
The powerful Romans appeared to be over the Carthaginians. The Carthaginians were defeated and as a result they were made slaves too. A powerful northern African state had to decline along with the victory of Rome which gave rise to the great ruler Julius Caesar.
Different political development had given to Julius Caesar. But soon his rule was called the dictatorial rule and made him dead. Then a passage for the rise of Augustus Caesar was paved on. He had taken on the right of ruling over Rome. The number of remarkable works was executed by him during his ruling tenure 44 years. The judicial system was reformed right and capable persons were held for administrative work. For the decentralization of work, the municipality and provinces were made autonomous. The Roman city was made rich in art, culture and architecture. People were given the chances in the form of development and others. The status of law the made stronger with introducing and developing three types of law the civil law, law of people and the Natural law. All these things have made his rule and a golden age. Despite many challenges, he ordered something.
The country Rome has been greatly changed now. It faced with so many up and downs when it was in the process of getting strong. It has faced the war with cartage named as 'The Punic Wars.' Even though, a gradual change was made with the contribution of Julius Caesar. He unified a vast territory and made the Roman Empire. After his murder, his nephew called Augustus Caesar became the ruler who brought a great realm of physical, legal, administrative development. Rome was strengthened by a rich change in art, literature, culture and architecture. Peace and prosperity were brought in the country. A great strong foundation of law was made so as to give justice and order, rule and order, rule and law in the country. In such an ancient age, the pioneer ship led by him made is period a golden age. This was certainly a positive message to the rest of the world.
The country Rome got a great identity later. The same Rome was transformed into a developed from which, a pride of whole Europe today is known as Italy. The ancient civilization of Greek left so many impacts in the sector of science, Philosophy, democracy, Literature etc. Rome couldn't be left unaffected by such great impression. Anciently, Roman society had clearly been divided into two groups or races called the patricians and the Plebeians. The society had been dominated by the patricians over the plebeians. The politicians were privileged, whatever rule they made used to become a way to dominate the plebeians. They had approach to the state affairs and became a tool to exploit over the plebeians. The extreme exploitation made the plebeians rise against the patricians which brought conflict between two races. The Plebeians struggled for their rights and the patricians were ultimately compelled to share the social-political rights called 'Twelve Tables.' This led to the nation unity and overall development of Rome. On the other hand, the ancient Rome hadn't got the remarkable economic condition. It spent a lot of money during its Punic wars which were fought for the three times. When Julius Caesar came to power, he extended a large territory in Rome. After his death there was a short term anarchy but again the reign period Augustus Caesar brought a remarkable change in all the sectors the models of Julius Caesar, who had improved agriculture, reduction of taxes, action against the corrupt officials, improvement of the coinage system etc. In the economic sector, Augustus Caesar further accelerated the economic development by developing the bridge, roads, public buildings, theaters etc. With the state of peace, he developed, there was stability which disturbed nothing at all for the development of the country. As a part of economic development, trade sector was promoted. People got the good atmosphere to promote their economic activities.
Roman society was divided into______.
None of these
Ruler and Plebeians
Patricians and Plebeians
Patricians and Workers
Julius Caesar is called a great man because ______.
he became the first emperor of Rome
he built the Roman Empire by conquering almost all the countries of Europe
he expanded his empire and strengthened his army
all of the answers are correct
______ was the head of the family in Roman Civilization.
Both father and mother
None of these
The roman civilization developed on ______.
Who were Plebeians?
People with no status
army of Rome
What happened between Patricians and Plebeians?
A civil war broke out and plebeians who were large in number killed all the patricians
Plebeians were forever as low class citizen
After 200 yrs of struggle, a Law stated both to as equal | 1,572 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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