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7061857	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Dick%20%28scientist%29	Thomas Dick (scientist)	Selected works Among his works may be mentioned: The Christian Philosopher, or the Connection of Science with Religion, Glasgow: William Collins; London: Whittaker & Co; (1823). His first popular work, from which he was sometimes known as "the Christian Philosopher". The Philosophy of a Future State, Glasgow, 1829, in which he developed a Christian theology compatible with the empirical science of Francis Bacon who advocated "a progressive and continuously increasing mastery over nature through the systematic and uninterrupted pursuit of knowledge." The Mental Illumination and Moral Improvement of Mankind, New York: 1836, developing a train of thought familiar to the writer during his upwards of twenty-six years, and partially indicated in several contributions to periodical literature. Celestial scenery; or, The wonders of the planetary system displayed; illustrating the perfections of deity and a plurality of worlds, New York, Harper & brothers, 1838. The Sidereal Heavens, and other subjects connected with Astronomy, London: 1840 and 1850, New York: 1844 (with portrait of author), presenting arguments for the plurality of worlds. The Practical Astronomer, London: 1845, giving plain descriptions and instructions for the use of astronomical instruments; besides several small volumes published by the Religious Tract Society on the Telescope and Microscope, The Atmosphere and Atmospheric Phenomena, and The Solar System.	2.0625
7061908	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy%20Bowlegs%20III	Billy Bowlegs III	Billy Bowlegs III, Billy Fewell, aka Cofehapkee (c. 1862–1965), was a Seminole historian of mixed Indigenous American and African American descent from Florida. Early life and education According to an interview with Bowlegs, he was born along the Arbuckle Creek where it meets Lake Istokpoga. He was named Billie Fewell at birth, and was also known by his Seminole name, Cofehapkee. He was the son of an Indigenous Seminole father and a Black Seminole mother. His maternal grandmother, an African-American slave woman named Nagey Nancy, was taken captive by Seminole warriors during the Second Seminole War and adopted into the tribe. He was a member of the Snake Clan. His mother, Old Nancy, was killed in 1889, along with several other members of the Snake Clan, by his uncle, Jim Jumper, in the Jim Jumper massacre. Bowlegs lived on the Brighton Seminole Indian Reservation after it was established, near Lake Okeechobee in present-day Glades County. Career As an adult, he renamed himself after Billy Bowlegs (Holata Micco), a prominent Seminole chief during the Seminole Wars. A Black Indian, Bowlegs became an elder in the tribe. He learned and taught much about the tribe's history. In the late 1800s, Bowlegs was one of the few Seminoles in Florida who knew how to write and speak English, and he often traded with White Floridians. Bowlegs would marry a Seminole woman named Lucy, the grandniece of Chief Chipco. Bowlegs befriended James Mallory and Minnie Moore Willson, who moved to Florida in the early 1880s. They became advocates for the Seminole. The couple described him in their book, The Seminole of Florida, 1896. He wanted to improve their understanding of the tribe's culture. The Willsons helped gain approval in 1913 by the Florida state legislature for a reservation for the Seminole in the Everglades. They testified on the Seminole's behalf to the federal government in hearings in 1917. In the mid-1950s, he performed traditional dances at the Florida Folk Festival in Union County, on the Suwannee River.	2.671875
7062014	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob%20Wrey%20Mould	Jacob Wrey Mould	Jacob Wrey Mould (7 August 1825 – 14 June 1886) was a British architect, illustrator, linguist and musician, noted for his contributions to the design and construction of New York City's Central Park. He was "instrumental" in bringing the British High Victorian style of architecture to the United States, and was a founding member of the American Institute of Architects. Biography Born in Chislehurst, Kent in 1825, Mould attended King's College School in 1842. For two years, he studied the Alhambra in Spain under Owen Jones, the "master of polychromy," with whom he later co-designed the "Turkish Chamber" of Buckingham Palace. Mould's subsequent designs were often influenced by his appreciation of the Moorish style of architecture. Mould designed decorations for The Great Exhibition in London in 1851. He moved to the United States in 1852, and worked on the Crystal Palace Exhibition in Manhattan. He was invited by Moses H. Grinnell in 1853 to design and build Unitarian Church of All Souls, and then was brought in on early plans for the great urban park in the heart of the city, Central Park. Working closely with creators Calvert Vaux and Frederick Law Olmsted, he designed many of the park's notable landmarks, including the "graceful" and "richly decorated" old Bandstand, Belvedere Castle, a great number of bridges, and the carvings on the Bethesda Terrace. Though described as eccentric and ill-mannered, Mould was hired full-time as an assistant city architect in 1857, and from 1870 to 1871 was architect-in-chief for the Department of Public Works. In the 1860s, he had also built two notable country houses on Long Island on Hempstead Bay, both of which were lavish and ornate buildings for rich clients from New York. Mould also collaborated with Vaux on the design of the original Metropolitan Museum of Art and the American Museum of Natural History, and designed the fountain at City Hall Park (1871).	2.5
7062056	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cave%20Kids	Cave Kids	Cave Kids (also known as Cave Kids Adventures or Cave Kids: Pebbles & Bamm-Bamm) is an American animated preschool television series produced by Hanna-Barbera Cartoons and a spin-off of The Flintstones. The show was syndicated to public television stations by Warner Bros. Television from September 29 to November 17, 1996, with reruns available until 1999. The show also aired rerun on Boomerang and MeTV Toons. Premise The series follows the adventures of Pebbles Flintstone and Bamm-Bamm Rubble as prehistoric pre-schoolers with Dino, the Flintstone family's pet dinosaur, as their babysitter. While Pebbles and Bamm-Bamm speak in baby-talk gibberish to adults, they could communicate normally with each other, a la Rugrats (another show that Bamm-Bamm's voice actresses, Cavanaugh and Daily worked on). Unlike the original 1960s Flintstones series and its spin-off incarnations featuring the kids and their parents in slapstick comedy adventures, this show focused more on educational values and lessons for children, with each episode also concluding with a music video relating to the episode's theme using often-altered footage from the episode. Another thing worth noting is that Pebbles, Bamm-Bamm and Dino were the only established characters to appear in the show and everyone else was completely absent. An earlier Cave Kids effort was published by Golden Press, both as a Little Golden Books in 1963, and also as a Gold Key Comics series spanning 16 issues from 1963 through 1967. Voice cast Aria Noelle Curzon as Pebbles Flintstone Taylor Gunther as Baby Pebbles Christine Cavanaugh as Bamm-Bamm Rubble (singing voice provided by E.G. Daily) Frank Welker as Dino Episodes Merchandising Album A sing-along album, Cave Kids Sing-Along, was released on cassette tape and CD by Kid Rhino on February 4, 1997. The album featured seven songs performed by Pebbles and Bamm-Bamm, including five from the series. The package also contained a full-color booklet with lyrics to all the songs.	2.25
7062064	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brunot%20Island	Brunot Island	Brunot Island (also spelled Brunot's Island) is a island in the Ohio River. It is officially part of the Marshall-Shadeland neighborhood of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States. It was named for Dr. Felix Brunot who settled the island with his extended family in the late 1700s. The family entertained the Lewis and Clark Expedition on the island in August 1803. The island is home to the Brunot Island Generating Station, a 315 MW fossil fuel power plant. The Ohio Connecting Railroad Bridge crosses the Ohio River at the island. The island does not otherwise connect to the land, and all vehicular traffic must use a ferry to access the island. The employees of the power plant use a pedestrian walkway on the railroad bridge to go to work. The walkway is not accessible to the public. From 1903 to 1914, the island was the home of Brunots Island Race Track. Brunot Island Generating Station Type: Fossil fuel; oil and natural gas Net capacity: 315 MW (megawatts) Began operation: 1972 Current owner: NRG Energy Plants Three oil-fired simple cycle peaking power plants Total generating capacity: 53 MW One natural-gas-fired combined cycle power plant Total generating capacity: 262 MW	2.546875
7062107	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20Carolina%20Highway%2028	North Carolina Highway 28	NC 28 overlaps with two state scenic byways: the Waterfall Byway, between Highlands and Franklin, and the Indian Lake Scenic Byway, between Almond and Deals Gap. NC 28 also overlaps parts of the Mountain Waters Scenic Byway, a National Forest Scenic Byway, that traverses through the Nantahala National Forest. History Established in 1938 as the third and current NC 28, it traversed from Georgia to Highlands, where it duplexed with US 64 to Franklin. Continuing northeast from Franklin, it replaced NC 286 to end at US 19, in Lauada. In 1940, NC 28 was extended northeast along US 19 through Bryson City and Ela, then replaced part of NC 107, ending in Cherokee. In 1947, NC 28 was truncated back to its former northern terminus; its former routing to Cherokee becoming US 19A. In 1954, NC 28 was extended southwest along US 19 to Almond and then northwest along new primary routing to Fontana, then replaced NC 288 to its current northern terminus at Deals Gap. In 1974, NC 28 was adjusted to one-way streets in downtown Franklin, in concurrency with US 441 Bus, via Main Street and Palmer Street. The first NC 28 was an original state highway that traversed from NC 10, in Andrews, through Franklin, Highlands, Rosman, Brevard and Hendersonville, to NC 20, in Bat Cave. In 1923, NC 28 was rerouted west of Franklin on new primary routing to Elf and Hayesville, then replacing NC 109 from Hayesville to NC 10, in Murphy. In 1929, NC 28 was extended west from Murphy along new primary routing to the Tennessee state line. In 1932, NC 28 was extended northeast along new primary routing from Bat Cave to Old Fort, where it overlapped with US 70 to Marion; going north from Marion, in concurrency with US 221, it traversed through Linville, Boone and Jefferson (replacing NC 691 in the process) to US 21/NC 26, in Twin Oaks, reaching its high point at long. Also in 1932, US 64 was assigned along NC 28 from the Tennessee state line to Old Fort. In 1934, all of NC 28 was decommissioned in favor of US 64 and US 221.	2.015625
7062107	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20Carolina%20Highway%2028	North Carolina Highway 28	NC 288 was originally to be rebuilt along the north shore of Fontana Lake by the National Park Service, an agreement that was made between the county, state, and federal government. Construction of New Fontana Road (SR 1364) was completed in 1958, connecting Bryson City to the border of the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. From 1960-1970, was built within the park, which was called Lakeview Drive; ending just west of a tunnel, that went through aptly named Tunnel Ridge. Since then, questions about the cost of building the highway and the environmental impact of the road had stopped all further construction. Known unofficially as "the Road to Nowhere," it provides access to various hiking trails within the National Park. After being in limbo for forty years, it was finally resolved in February 2010 when the U.S. Department of Interior signed a settlement agreement paying Swain County $52 million instead of building the highway. As of September 2017, only $12.8 million of that has been paid. Four million additional dollars were released by Interior Secretary Ryan Zinke, and the final installment of $35.2 million was paid on June 29, 2018. However, under a 2010 agreement, the money was deposited with the state treasurer's office. Swain County can spend only the interest the money earns. Major intersections	2.203125
7062219	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Lougou	Battle of Lougou	The French Voulet–Chanoine Mission, led by the captains Paul Voulet and Julien Chanoine, had been dispatched in 1898 to Africa by the French government with the mission to conquer the territories between the Niger River and Lake Chad and join in uniting French territories in West Africa. After leaving French Sudan in January 1899, they ruthlessly subjugated the native peoples, meeting little resistance. One of the few to resist was the sorcerer queen Sarraounia, ruler of the Azna, a pagan people in a long Islamized region. Determined to bar the expedition's road, Sarraounia wrote to Voulet a provocative letter full of insults; the French took up the challenge, and on 15 April left the camp, marching towards the villages of Lougou and Tougana, where Sarraounia had concentrated her forces. The day after, at 6:00, started what Lt. Paul Joalland called "one of the hottest moments of the campaign". The French found the enemy assembled on the field, while women and children had already retired themselves in a small thick and almost impenetrable bush where the Azna defended themselves when facing a superior enemy. After the Azna had started to disperse under the French gunfire, their lines broke when hit by three grapeshot balls; the Azna then retreated in the bush, where the thick foliage partly protected the natives from the gunfire. The French felt that if left there, the Azna may attack them at night; so it was decided to assault the bush, but being careful to leave a way of escape for the Azna open, so to avoid a too deadly confrontation that could cost too much blood. The French met a strong resistance, killing two riflemen and wounding four, but were at the end successful and forced the Azna to escape. The battle had protracted itself till 13:00, and among the French tirailleurs four were killed and six wounded, with 7,000 cartridges consumed.	2.40625
7062233	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tres%20de%20Febrero%20Partido	Tres de Febrero Partido	Around the same time, the Lacroze brothers introduced a rural tram system, which became electric in 1908. This tramway started from the intersection of Medrano and Corrientes streets and extended to the village of San Martín. Alongside the low property costs in the area, the tramway significantly stimulated demographic settlement. Until the late 1800s, the only railroad station in the partido was Caseros Station, around which administrative offices, homes, and shops of zonal importance were established. Starting in the early 1900s, new railroad stations were created, leading to the development of other primarily residential areas such as Santos Lugares (1906), Ciudadela (1910), and Sáenz Peña (1910). In June 1920, the Argentine Red Cross established its Santos Lugares branch at 3670 Severino Langeri Street, providing relief and assistance to the immediate community of Santos Lugares and the entire partido. This institution became renowned for its distinguished doctors, such as Cerazo, Carbone, and Canepa. Until the 1930s, the development of settlements was primarily driven by the expansion of the railroad service and passenger transport, including the introduction of buses (el colectivo) in Buenos Aires in 1930. As these transport services penetrated Greater Buenos Aires, industrial settlements and housing developments began to emerge in areas remote from or between railroad stations. The urbanization of the partido was completed between 1970 and 1972 with the fragmentation and subdivision of vacant areas to the northwest, including Loma Hermosa, El Libertador, Churruca, Remedios de Escalada and Once de Septiembre. Additionally, the influence of military settlements, such as Campo de Mayo and Ciudadela from 1901 and the opening of the Colegio Militar de la Nación in 1937, which now comprise 12% of the partido's area, played a significant role in the stages of settlement.	2.53125
7062239	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-%C3%89tienne%20Dominique%20Esquirol	Jean-Étienne Dominique Esquirol	Jean-Étienne Dominique Esquirol (3 February 1772 – 12 December 1840) was a French psychiatrist. Early life and education Born and raised in Toulouse, Esquirol completed his education at Montpellier. He came to Paris in 1799 where he worked at the Salpêtrière Hospital and became a favorite student of Philippe Pinel. To enable Esquirol to take up the intensive study of insanity in an appropriate setting, Pinel reportedly put up the security for the house and garden on Rue de Buffon where Esquirol established a maison de santé or private asylum in 1801 or 1802. Esquirol's maison was quite successful, being ranked, in 1810, as one of the three best such institutions in Paris. In 1805 he published his thesis The passions considered as causes, symptoms and means of cure in cases of insanity. Esquirol, like Pinel, believed that the origin of mental illness could be found in the passions of the soul and was convinced that madness does not fully and irremediably affect a patient's reason. Career Esquirol was made médecin ordinaire at the Salpêtrière in 1811, following the death of Jean-Baptiste Pussin, Pinel's trusted concierge. Pinel chose Esquirol because he was, as Pinel put it, "a physician... devoted exclusively to the study of insanity," arguing that with his many years of maison de santé experience he was the only man suited for the job. Esquirol saw the question of madness as institutional and national. This was especially true for the poor where he saw the state, with the help of doctors, playing an important role. He also saw an important role for doctors in caring for people accused of crimes who were declared not responsible by reason of insanity. In public controversies over this question he promoted the usefulness of the diagnosis of monomania. By taking such an active role in these public matters, his fame eclipsed that of his teacher Pinel.	2.25
7062239	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-%C3%89tienne%20Dominique%20Esquirol	Jean-Étienne Dominique Esquirol	In 1817, under the restored Bourbon monarchy, Esquirol initiated a course in maladies mentales in the makeshift quarters of the Salpêtrière dining hall. This was perhaps the first formal teaching of psychiatry in France. It was in 1817 that he coined the word hallucination. At this time he was neither a professor at the Paris faculty or the chief physician at a Paris hospital, but merely a médecin ordinaire. Nonetheless he was reported to have been one of the clinical instructors to whose hospital visits "students flock with a kind of frenzy." He had many very distinguished students. In 1810, 1814 and 1817 Esquirol, at his own expense, had toured facilities for lunatics throughout France. In 1818 following these trips he wrote a short memoir presented to the minister of the interior and a more detailed description of his findings published in the Dictionnaire des sciences médicales. These articles described, in precise and frightening terms, the conditions in which the insane lived throughout France. They demonstrate that the reforms undertaken in Paris had not penetrated the provinces. Together these two articles constituted a program of reform directed both at the government and the medical profession. This program consisted of four points: First, that insanity should be treated in special hospitals by physicians with special training. Second, that reform involved exporting the advances made in Paris to the provinces. Third, that "a lunatic hospital is an instrument of cure". By this he meant that the physical structure of new psychiatric hospitals must be designed to support the practice of the new specialty. Fourth, Esquirol insisted on the definitive medicalization of the care of the insane. "The physician must be, in some matter, the vital principal of a lunatic hospital. It is he who should set everything in motion… The physician should be invested with an authority from which no one is exempt."	2.078125
7062261	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binkie%20Beaumont	Binkie Beaumont	Early years Throughout his life Beaumont was evasive about his background, given, as one biographer wrote, "to disseminating fanciful accounts of his origins". It was not until a 1989 biography by Richard Huggett that the facts became widely known. He was born Hughes Griffiths Morgan, in Hampstead, London, the son of Morgan Morgan, a barrister, and his wife Mary Frances, née Brewer. Morgan divorced his wife for adultery when the boy was two. Mary Morgan then married the co-respondent, William Sugden Beaumont, a Cardiff timber merchant, whom the young Beaumont was brought up believing to be his real father. The boy was formally known as Hugh, but was generally called "Binkie". The origin of his nickname is uncertain; John Elsom in a 1991 book Cold War Theatre suggests that "Binkie" was Cardiff slang for a black child or a ragamuffin. William Beaumont died while Binkie was still a boy. Mary Beaumont then let rooms to a lodger, Major Harry Woodcock, a former Army Entertainments Officer and latterly general manager of the Cardiff Playhouse. At the age of fifteen Beaumont left Penarth Grammar School and became a box-office assistant at the Playhouse; he was appointed assistant manager of the Prince of Wales Theatre in Cardiff a year later. He was subsequently business manager for Aubrey Smith's touring company and then of the Barnes Theatre in London for the producer Philip Ridgeway. The Barnes Theatre was famous for its productions of Chekhov and the other Russian classics, often directed by Theodore Komisarjevsky. During Beaumont's time with the company five of its productions transferred to the West End, giving him valuable managerial experience in five West End theatres. During his time with Ridgeway, Beaumont met John Gielgud for the first time.	2.328125
7062276	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel%20Rosenthal	Samuel Rosenthal	Samuel Rosenthal (7 September 1837 – 12 September 1902) was a Polish-born French chess player. Chess historian Edward Winter wrote, "He dedicated his life to chess-playing, touring, writing, teaching and analysing. Despite only occasional participation in first-class events, he scored victories over all the leading masters of the time (Anderssen, Blackburne, Chigorin, Mackenzie, Mason, Paulsen, Steinitz and Zukertort). He also acquired world renown as an unassuming showman who gave large simultaneous displays and blindfold séances, invariably producing a cluster of glittering moves." Rosenthal became a law student and moved from Warsaw to Paris, during the Polish revolution in 1864, after the failure of the January Uprising. He settled in Paris as a chess professional and writer. In 1864, he lost a match to Ignatz von Kolisch (+1−7=0) in Paris. Rosenthal won the Café de la Régence championship in 1865, 1866, and 1867 in Paris, and became the strongest French chess player. In 1867, he came ninth in the Paris tournament (von Kolisch won), and lost a match to Gustav Neumann (+0−5=6) in Paris. In 1869, he lost two matches to Neumann (+1−3=1) and (+2−4=1). In July 1870, he tied for 8–9th places in Baden-Baden. The event was won by Adolf Anderssen. Because of the Franco Prussian War in 1870–71, Rosenthal moved to London. In 1870–71, he won a match against John Wisker (+3−2=4). In July–August 1873, Rosenthal took fourth place, behind Wilhelm Steinitz, Joseph Henry Blackburne, and Anderssen, in Vienna. In 1878, he tied for 7–8th in Paris (Johannes Zukertort and Szymon Winawer won). In 1880, he won in Paris the first unofficial French Chess Championship (ahead of Albert Clerc and Jules Arnous de Rivière). In 1880, he lost a match against Zukertort (+1−7=11) in London. In 1883, he took 8th in London (Zukertort won). His results were affected by his journalistic activities and bad health.	2.390625
7062291	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric%20Strauss	Eric Strauss	Eric G. Strauss is a President's Professor at Loyola Marymount University (LMU) in Los Angeles, California. He is a member of the Biology Department at the Frank R. Seaver College of Science and Engineering and director of the Ballona Discovery Park. Founder of the Center for Urban Resilience (CURes), Strauss aims to create synergistic research and teaching opportunities within LMU as a resource to both government and neighborhoods throughout the greater Los Angeles area. Strauss is the Founding Editor of a web-based peer-reviewed journal, Cities and the Environment, which is funded in part by the USDA Forest Service and The LMU Library. Strauss has served as the former director of the Environmental Studies Program at Boston College for over 15 years. With research specialties in animal behavior, urban ecosystem dynamics and science education, he has extended the model for faculty activities by helping to co-found the Urban Ecology Institute in Boston, which provides educational, research and restoration programs to underserved neighborhoods and their residents. He holds a PhD from Tufts University and is best known for his work with coyotes and his interests in Lyme disease. Strauss is also an expert on the success of the piping plover population of Cape Cod, MA.	2.125
7062295	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberystwith%20and%20Welsh%20Coast%20Railway	Aberystwith and Welsh Coast Railway	Striking westward and crossing very difficult terrain, the Newtown and Machynlleth Railway was opened on 31 December 1862. Although Machynlleth was an important market town, its promoters were considering an extension to Aberystwyth and the Cardigan Bay coast. Due to a shortage of subscription money from general investors, the Newtown and Machynlleth Railway was in the hands of a successful partnership of railway contractors, David Davies and Thomas Savin, who put up most of the construction money and took paid-up shares as the majority of their payment. These men shared the idea of continuing to the coast, but Savin's ambitious vision of a huge investment in developing the coastal district was considered by Davies to be over-reaching, and the partnership was dissolved on 30 January 1861. The Newtown and Machynlleth Railway had preliminary designs made for a coastal line, to be known as the Machynlleth, Aberystwyth and Towyn Railway. At about the same time, the Llanidloes and Newtown Railway and the Oswestry and Newtown Railway (the latter still under construction), working together, had a scheme prepared for a coastal line from Aberystwyth to Pwllheli, with several branches. Davies supported the Towyn scheme, while Savin favoured the line to Pwllheli. Moreover, there was no talk of the Pwllheli line continuing to Porth Dinllaen, on the north side of the Lleyn Peninsula. Porth Dinllaen was a natural harbour on the north side of the Lleyn Peninsula, that had been proposed as a packet station for the Irish mail service. At that time, Holyhead had been selected in preference, but Porth Dinllaen still had supporters for development as a ferry port.	2.40625
7062295	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberystwith%20and%20Welsh%20Coast%20Railway	Aberystwith and Welsh Coast Railway	The contractor Thomas Savin was undertaking all the remaining construction work for the A&WCR section of the Cambrian Railways, as well as working the traffic. He had accepted company shares as the major part of the payment for his construction work, and he was directly financing company outlays from his own resources. By 5 February 1866 he was effectively bankrupt, putting the Cambrian Railways into difficulty. On 10 May 1866, the financial house of Overend, Gurney and Company failed, plunging money markets throughout the United Kingdom into turmoil and making railway investments hazardous for the public. Many investors were unwilling or unable to respond to calls on shareholdings, and borrowing became very difficult. For some years the company was in serious financial difficulty, and at length mortgage holders sued in the Court of Chancery. The company's Deputy Chairman, Captain R. D. Pryce, was appointed as receiver; the actions were stayed after two months, at the end of 1867. In fact, the company as a whole was in serious financial difficulty, with huge obligations and almost no profitable business activity. The Cambrian Railways Finance Act 1868 (31 & 32 Vict. c. clxxvii), was passed on 31 July 1868 and authorised a financial reconstruction, as well as preventing for a period the activation of claims against the company; this averted an immediate disaster but did not abate the problem. Barmouth Bridge was first tested in July 1866 by a steam engine, though service did not start until 3 June 1867, and then only of horse-drawn carriages. Steam trains did not use it regularly until the opening of the entire coast line four months later, when on 10 October 1867 the line was opened through to Pwllheli. The 113-span viaduct, constructed on over 500 timber piles, was driven into a stand, with a drawbridge at the northern end. Meanwhile, on 14 August 1867, the "deviation" line from Dovey Junction to Aberdovey was opened.	2.296875
7062356	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anomalous%20diffusion	Anomalous diffusion	In 1926, using weather balloons, Lewis Fry Richardson demonstrated that the atmosphere exhibits super-diffusion. In a bounded system, the mixing length (which determines the scale of dominant mixing motions) is given by the Von Kármán constant according to the equation , where is the mixing length, is the Von Kármán constant, and is the distance to the nearest boundary. Because the scale of motions in the atmosphere is not limited, as in rivers or the subsurface, a plume continues to experience larger mixing motions as it increases in size, which also increases its diffusivity, resulting in super-diffusion. Models of anomalous diffusion The types of anomalous diffusion given above allows one to measure the type, but how does anomalous diffusion arise? There are many possible ways to mathematically define a stochastic process which then has the right kind of power law. Some models are given here. These are long range correlations between the signals continuous-time random walks (CTRW) and fractional Brownian motion (fBm), and diffusion in disordered media. Currently the most studied types of anomalous diffusion processes are those involving the following Generalizations of Brownian motion, such as the fractional Brownian motion and scaled Brownian motion Diffusion in fractals and percolation in porous media Continuous time random walks These processes have growing interest in cell biophysics where the mechanism behind anomalous diffusion has direct physiological importance. Of particular interest, works by the groups of Eli Barkai, Maria Garcia Parajo, Joseph Klafter, Diego Krapf, and Ralf Metzler have shown that the motion of molecules in live cells often show a type of anomalous diffusion that breaks the ergodic hypothesis. This type of motion require novel formalisms for the underlying statistical physics because approaches using microcanonical ensemble and Wiener–Khinchin theorem break down.	2.15625
7062377	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath%20of%20World%20War%20II	Aftermath of World War II	The aftermath of World War II saw the rise of two global superpowers, the United States (U.S.) and the Soviet Union (USSR). The aftermath of World War II was also defined by the rising threat of nuclear warfare, the creation and implementation of the United Nations as an intergovernmental organization, and the decolonization of Asia, Oceania, South America and Africa by European and East Asian powers, most notably by the United Kingdom, France, and Japan. Once allies during World War II, the U.S. and the USSR became competitors on the world stage and engaged in the Cold War, so called because it never resulted in overt, declared total war between the two powers. It was instead characterized by espionage, political subversion and proxy wars. Western Europe was rebuilt through the American Marshall Plan, whereas Central and Eastern Europe fell under the Soviet sphere of influence and eventually behind an "Iron Curtain". Europe was divided into a U.S.-led Western Bloc and a USSR-led Eastern Bloc. Internationally, alliances with the two blocs gradually shifted, with some nations trying to stay out of the Cold War through the Non-Aligned Movement. The Cold War also saw a nuclear arms race between the two superpowers, and part of the reason that the Cold War never became a "hot" war was that the Soviet Union and the United States had nuclear deterrents against each other, leading to a mutually assured destruction standoff.	2.859375
7062377	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath%20of%20World%20War%20II	Aftermath of World War II	As a consequence of the war, the Allies created the United Nations, an organization for international cooperation and diplomacy, similar to the League of Nations. Members of the United Nations agreed to outlaw wars of aggression in an attempt to avoid a third world war. The devastated great powers of Western Europe formed the European Coal and Steel Community, which later evolved into the European Economic Community and ultimately into the current European Union. This effort primarily began as an attempt to avoid another war between Germany and France through economic cooperation and integration, and a common market for important natural resources. The end of the war opened the way for decolonization, as independence was granted to India and Pakistan (from the United Kingdom), Indonesia (from the Netherlands), the Philippines (from the U.S.), as well as Israel and several Arab nations from specific Mandates granted to European states by the now defunct League of Nations. Independence for the nations of Sub-Saharan Africa came in the 1960s. The aftermath of World War II saw the rise of communist influence in East Asia with the founding of the People's Republic of China after the Chinese Communist Party emerged victorious from the Chinese Civil War in 1949, as well as with the Korean War leading to the division of the Korean Peninsula between the communist North and the Western-aligned South. Immediate effects of World War II At the end of the war in Europe, tens of millions of people had been killed and even more were displaced, European economies had collapsed, and much of Europe's industrial infrastructure had been destroyed. In response, in 1947 U.S. Secretary of State George Marshall devised the "European Recovery Program", which became known as the Marshall Plan. Under the plan, from 1948–1952 the United States government allocated US$13 billion (US$ in dollars) for the reconstruction of affected countries in Western Europe. United Kingdom	2.875
7062377	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath%20of%20World%20War%20II	Aftermath of World War II	The Soviet Union suffered enormous losses in the war against Germany. The Soviet population decreased by about 27 million during the war; of these, 8.7 million were combat deaths. The 19 million non-combat deaths had a variety of causes: starvation in the siege of Leningrad; conditions in German prisons and concentration camps; mass shootings of civilians; harsh labour in German industry; famine and disease; conditions in Soviet camps; and service in German or German-controlled military units fighting the Soviet Union. Soviet ex-POWs and civilians repatriated from abroad were suspected of having been Nazi collaborators, and 226,127 of them were sent to forced labour camps after scrutiny by Soviet intelligence, NKVD. Many ex-POWs and young civilians were also conscripted to serve in the Red Army. Others worked in labour battalions to rebuild infrastructure destroyed during the war. The economy had been devastated. Roughly a quarter of the Soviet Union's capital resources were destroyed, and industrial and agricultural output in 1945 fell far short of pre-war levels. To help rebuild the country, the Soviet government obtained limited credits from Britain and Sweden; it refused assistance offered by the United States under the Marshall Plan. Instead, the Soviet Union coerced Soviet-occupied Central and Eastern Europe to supply machinery and raw materials. Germany and former Nazi satellites made reparations to the Soviet Union. The reconstruction programme emphasized heavy industry to the detriment of agriculture and consumer goods. By 1953, steel production was twice its 1940 level, but the production of many consumer goods and foodstuffs was lower than it had been in the late 1920s.	2.90625
7062377	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath%20of%20World%20War%20II	Aftermath of World War II	The immediate post-war period in Europe was dominated by the Soviet Union annexing, or converting into Soviet Socialist Republics, all the countries invaded and annexed by the Red Army driving the Germans out of central and eastern Europe. New satellite states were set up by the Soviets in Poland, Bulgaria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Albania, and East Germany; the last of these was created from the Soviet zone of occupation in Germany. Yugoslavia emerged as an independent Communist state allied but not aligned with the Soviet Union, owing to the independent nature of the military victory of the Partisans of Josip Broz Tito during World War II in Yugoslavia. The Allies established the Far Eastern Commission and Allied Council for Japan to administer their occupation of that country while the establishment Allied Control Council, administered occupied Germany. Following the Potsdam Conference agreements, the Soviet Union occupied and subsequently annexed the strategic island of Sakhalin. Germany In the east, the Sudetenland reverted to Czechoslovakia following the European Advisory Commission's decision to delimit German territory to be the territory it held on 31 December 1937. Close to one-quarter of pre-war (1937) Nazi Germany was de facto annexed by the Allies; roughly 10 million Germans were either expelled from this territory or not permitted to return to it if they had fled during the war. The remainder of Germany was partitioned into four zones of occupation, coordinated by the Allied Control Council. The Saar was detached and put into economic union with France in 1947. In 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany was created out of the Western zones. The Soviet zone became the German Democratic Republic.	3
7062377	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath%20of%20World%20War%20II	Aftermath of World War II	US policy in post-war Germany from April 1945 until July 1947 had been that no help should be given to the Germans in rebuilding their nation, save for the minimum required to mitigate starvation. The Allies' immediate post-war "industrial disarmament" plan for Germany had been to destroy Germany's capability to wage war by complete or partial de-industrialization. The first industrial plan for Germany signed in 1946, required the destruction of 1,500 manufacturing plants to lower German heavy industry output to roughly 50% of its 1938 level. The dismantling of the West German industry ended in 1951. By 1950, equipment had been removed from 706 manufacturing plants, and steel production capacity had been reduced by 6.7 million tons. After lobbying by the Joint Chiefs of Staff and Generals Lucius D. Clay and George Marshall, the Truman administration accepted that economic recovery in Europe could not go forward without the reconstruction of the German industrial base on which it had previously been dependent. In July 1947, President Truman rescinded on "national security grounds" the directive that had ordered the U.S. occupation forces to "take no steps looking toward the economic rehabilitation of Germany." A new directive recognized that "[a]n orderly, prosperous Europe requires the economic contributions of a stable and productive Germany." From mid-1946 onwards Germany received U.S. government aid through the GARIOA programme. From 1948 onwards West Germany also became a minor beneficiary of the Marshall Plan. Volunteer organizations had initially been forbidden to send food, but in early 1946 the Council of Relief Agencies Licensed to Operate in Germany was founded. The prohibition against sending CARE Packages to individuals in Germany was rescinded on 5 June 1946.	2.46875
7062377	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath%20of%20World%20War%20II	Aftermath of World War II	The 1947, Treaty of Peace with Italy spelled the end of the Italian colonial empire, along with other border revisions, like the transfer of the Italian Islands of the Aegean to the Kingdom of Greece and the transfer to France of Briga and Tenda, as well than to minor revisions of the Franco-Italian border. Moreover, under the Treaty of Peace with Italy, Istria, Kvarner, most of the Julian March as well as the Dalmatian city of Zara was annexed by Yugoslavia causing the Istrian–Dalmatian exodus, which led to the emigration of between 230,000 and 350,000 of local ethnic Italians (Istrian Italians and Dalmatian Italians), the others being ethnic Slovenians, ethnic Croatians, and ethnic Istro-Romanians, choosing to maintain Italian citizenship, towards Italy, and in smaller numbers, towards the Americas, Australia and South Africa. The 1947 Treaty of Peace compelled Italy to pay $360 million (US dollars at 1938 prices) in war reparations: $125 million to Yugoslavia, $105 million to Greece, $100 million to the Soviet Union, $25 million to Ethiopia and $5 million to Albania. In 1954 the Free Territory of Trieste, an independent territory between northern Italy and Yugoslavia under direct responsibility of the United Nations Security Council, was divided between the two states, Italy and Yugoslavia. The Italian border that applies today has existed since 1975, when Trieste was formally re-annexed to Italy after the Treaty of Osimo. In 1950, Italian Somaliland was made a United Nations Trust Territory under Italian administration until 1 July 1960. Austria The Federal State of Austria had been annexed by Germany in 1938 (Anschluss, this union was banned by the Treaty of Versailles). Austria (called Ostmark by the Germans) was separated from Germany and divided into four zones of occupation. With the Austrian State Treaty, these zones reunited in 1955 to become the Republic of Austria. Japan	2.953125
7062377	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath%20of%20World%20War%20II	Aftermath of World War II	Following the war, the Allies rescinded Japanese Empire pre-war annexations such as Manchuria, and Korea became militarily occupied by the United States in the south and by the Soviet Union in the north. The Philippines and Guam were returned to the United States. Burma, Malaya, and Singapore were returned to Britain and Indochina back to France. The Dutch East Indies was to be handed back to the Dutch but was resisted leading to the Indonesian war for independence. At the Yalta Conference, U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt had secretly traded the Japanese Kurils and south Sakhalin to the Soviet Union in return for Soviet entry into the war with Japan. The Soviet Union annexed the Kuril Islands, provoking the Kuril Islands dispute, which is ongoing, as Russia continues to occupy the islands. Hundreds of thousands of Japanese were forced to relocate to the Japanese main islands. Okinawa became a main U.S. staging point. The U.S. covered large areas of it with military bases and continued to occupy it until 1972, years after the end of the occupation of the main islands. The bases remain. To skirt the Geneva Convention, the Allies classified many Japanese soldiers as Japanese Surrendered Personnel (JSP) instead of POWs and used them as forced labour until 1947. The UK, France, and the Netherlands used JSP to support their military operations in the region after World War II. General Douglas MacArthur established the International Military Tribunal for the Far East. The Allies collected reparations from Japan.	2.734375
7062377	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath%20of%20World%20War%20II	Aftermath of World War II	In 1940 the Soviet Union invaded and annexed the neutral Baltic states, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. In June 1941, the Soviet governments of the Baltic states carried out mass deportations of "enemies of the people"; as a result, many treated the invading Nazis as liberators when they invaded only a week later. The Atlantic Charter promised self-determination to people deprived of it during the war. The British Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, argued for a weaker interpretation of the Charter to permit the Soviet Union to continue to control the Baltic states. In March 1944 the US accepted Churchill's view that the Atlantic Charter did not apply to the Baltic states. With the return of Soviet troops at the end of the war, the Forest Brothers mounted a guerrilla war. This continued until the mid-1950s. The Philippines An estimated one million military and civilian Filipinos were killed from all causes; of these 131,028 were listed as killed in seventy-two war crime events. According to a United States analysis released years after the war, U.S. casualties were 10,380 dead and 36,550 wounded; Japanese dead were 255,795. Population displacement As a result of the new borders drawn by the victorious nations, large populations suddenly found themselves in hostile territory. The Soviet Union took over areas formerly controlled by Germany, Finland, Poland, and Japan. Poland lost the Kresy region (about half of its pre-war territory) and received most of Germany east of the Oder–Neisse line, including the industrial regions of Silesia. The German state of the Saar was temporarily a protectorate of France but later returned to German administration. As set forth at Potsdam, approximately 12 million people were expelled from Germany, including seven million from Germany proper, and three million from the Sudetenland.	2.65625
7062377	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath%20of%20World%20War%20II	Aftermath of World War II	Rapes also occurred under other Allied forces in Europe, though the majority were committed by Soviet troops. In a letter to the editor of Time published in September 1945, a United States Army sergeant wrote, "Our own Army and the British Army along with ours have done their share of looting and raping ... This offensive attitude among our troops is not at all general, but the percentage is large enough to have given our Army a pretty black name, and we too are considered an army of rapists." Robert Lilly's analysis of military records led him to conclude about 14,000 rapes occurred in Britain, France, and Germany at the hands of U.S. soldiers between 1942 and 1945. Lilly assumed that only 5% of rapes by American soldiers were reported, making 17,000 GI rapes a possibility, while analysts estimate that 50% of (ordinary peacetime) rapes are reported. Supporting Lilly's lower figure is the "crucial difference" that for World War II military rapes "it was the commanding officer, not the victim, who brought charges". According to German historian Miriam Gebhardt, as many as 190,000 women were raped by U.S. soldiers in Germany. German soldiers left many war children behind in nations such as France and Denmark, which were occupied for an extended period. After the war, the children and their mothers often suffered recriminations. In Norway, the "Tyskerunger" (German-kids) suffered greatly. During the Italian campaign, the Goumiers, French Moroccan colonial troops attached to the French Expeditionary Forces, have been accused of committing rape and murder against the Italian peasant communities, mostly targeting civilian women and girls, as well as a few men and boys. In Italy the victims of these acts were described as Marocchinate meaning literally "Moroccaned" (or people who have been subjected to acts committed by Moroccans). According to Italian victims associations, a total of more than 7,000 civilians, including children, were raped by Goumiers. In Japan	2.59375
7062377	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath%20of%20World%20War%20II	Aftermath of World War II	In the first few weeks of the American military occupation of Japan, rape and other violent crime was widespread in naval ports like Yokohama and Yokosuka but declined shortly afterward. There were 1,336 reported rapes during the first 10 days of the occupation of Kanagawa prefecture. Historian Toshiyuki Tanaka relates that in Yokohama, the capital of the prefecture, there were 119 known rapes in September 1945. Historians Eiji Takemae and Robert Ricketts state that "When U.S. paratroopers landed in Sapporo, an orgy of looting, sexual violence, and drunken brawling ensued. Gang rapes and other sex atrocities were not infrequent" and some of the rape victims committed suicide. General Robert L. Eichelberger, the commander of the U.S. Eighth Army, recorded that in the one instance when the Japanese formed a self-help vigilante guard to protect women from off-duty GIs, the Eighth Army ordered armored vehicles in the battle array into the streets and arrested the leaders, and the leaders received long prison terms. According to Takemae and Ricketts, members of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force (BCOF) were also involved in rapes: Rape committed by U.S. soldiers occupying Okinawa was also a notable phenomenon. Okinawan historian Oshiro Masayasu (former director of the Okinawa Prefectural Historical Archives) writes: According to Toshiyuki Tanaka, 76 cases of rape or rape-murder were reported during the first five years of the American occupation of Okinawa. However, he claims this is probably not the true figure, as most cases were unreported. Comfort women for Japanese soldiers	2.21875
7062377	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath%20of%20World%20War%20II	Aftermath of World War II	During World War II the Japanese military established brothels filled with "comfort women", a euphemism for the 200,000 girls and women who were forced into sexual slavery for Japanese soldiers. In Confucian nations like Korea and China, where premarital sex is considered shameful, the subject of the "comfort women" was ignored for decades after 1945 as the victims were considered pariahs. Dutch comfort women brought a successful case before the Batavia Military Tribunal in 1948. Post-war tensions Europe The alliance between the Western Allies and the Soviet Union began to deteriorate even before the war was over, when Stalin, Roosevelt, and Churchill exchanged a heated correspondence over whether the Polish government-in-exile, backed by Roosevelt and Churchill, or the Provisional Government, backed by Stalin, should be recognised. Stalin won. Many allied leaders felt that war between the United States and the Soviet Union was likely. On 19 May 1945, the American Under-Secretary of State Joseph Grew went so far as to say that it was inevitable. On 5 March 1946, in his "Sinews of Peace" (Iron Curtain) speech at Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri, Winston Churchill said "a shadow" had fallen over Europe. He described Stalin as having dropped an "Iron Curtain" between East and West. Stalin responded by charging that co-existence between communist countries and the West was impossible. In mid-1948 the Soviet Union imposed a blockade on the Western zone of occupation in Berlin.	2.5
7062377	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath%20of%20World%20War%20II	Aftermath of World War II	Due to the rising tension in Europe and concerns over further Soviet expansion, American planners came up with a contingency plan code-named Operation Dropshot in 1949. It considered possible nuclear and conventional war with the Soviet Union and its allies to counter a Soviet takeover of Western Europe, the Near East, and parts of Eastern Asia that they anticipated would begin around 1957. In response, the U.S. would saturate the Soviet Union with atomic and high-explosive bombs, and then invade and occupy the country. In later years, to reduce military expenditures while countering Soviet conventional strength, President Dwight Eisenhower would adopt a strategy of massive retaliation, relying on the threat of a U.S. nuclear strike to prevent non-nuclear incursions by the Soviet Union in Europe and elsewhere. The approach entailed a major buildup of U.S. nuclear forces and a corresponding reduction in America's non-nuclear ground and naval strength. The Soviet Union viewed these developments as "atomic blackmail". In Greece, civil war broke out in 1946 between Anglo-American-supported royalist forces and communist-led forces, with the royalist forces emerging as the victors. The U.S. launched a massive programme of military and economic aid to Greece and to neighbouring Turkey, arising from a fear that the Soviet Union stood on the verge of breaking through the NATO defence line to the oil-rich Middle East. On 12 March 1947, to gain Congressional support for the aid, President Truman described the aid as promoting democracy in defence of the "Free World", a principle that became known as the Truman Doctrine.	2.5625
7062377	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath%20of%20World%20War%20II	Aftermath of World War II	The U.S. sought to promote an economically strong and politically united Western Europe to counter the threat posed by the Soviet Union. This was done openly using tools such as the European Recovery Program, which encouraged European economic integration. The International Authority for the Ruhr, designed to keep German industry down and controlled, evolved into the European Coal and Steel Community, a founding pillar of the European Union. The United States also worked covertly to promote European integration, for example using the American Committee on United Europe to funnel funds to European federalist movements. To ensure that Western Europe could withstand the Soviet military threat, the Western European Union was founded in 1948 and NATO in 1949. The first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, famously stated the organisation's goal was "to keep the Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down". However, without the manpower and industrial output of West Germany no conventional defence of Western Europe had any hope of succeeding. To remedy this, in 1950 the US sought to promote the European Defence Community, which would have included a rearmed West Germany. The attempt was dashed when the French Parliament rejected it. On 9 May 1955, West Germany was instead admitted to NATO; the immediate result was the creation of the Warsaw Pact five days later. The Cold War also saw the creation of propaganda and espionage organisations such as Radio Free Europe, the Information Research Department, the Gehlen Organization, the Central Intelligence Agency, the Special Activities Division, and the Ministry for State Security, as well as the radicalization and proliferation of numerous far-left and far-right terrorist organizations in Western European countries (Italy, France, West Germany, Belgium, Francoist Spain, and the Netherlands), with spillovers in Northern and Southeastern Europe. Asia	2.359375
7062377	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath%20of%20World%20War%20II	Aftermath of World War II	In Asia, the surrender of Japanese forces was complicated by the split between East and West as well as by the movement toward national self-determination in European colonial territories. India Decisions to decolonize British India led to an agreement to partition the country along religious lines into two independent dominions: India and Pakistan. The partition resulted in communal violence and massive displacements of the population. It is often described as the largest mass human migration and one of the largest refugee crises in history. China As agreed to at the Yalta Conference, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan. Soviet forces invaded Manchuria which led to the collapse of the Manchukuo and expulsion of all Japanese settlers from the puppet state. The Soviet Union dismantled the industrial base in Manchuria that the Japanese had built up and it subsequently became a base for the Communist Chinese forces due to the area being under Soviet occupation. Following the end of the war, the Kuomintang (KMT) party (led by generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek) and the Communist Chinese forces resumed fighting each other, which they had temporarily suspended in order to fight Japan. The fight against the Japanese occupiers had strengthened popular support among the Chinese people for the Communist forces while it weakened the KMT, which depleted its strength fighting them. Full-scale war between the KMT and CCF broke out in June 1946. Despite U.S. support for the Kuomintang, Communist forces ultimately prevailed and they established the People's Republic of China (PRC) on the mainland. The KMT forces retreated to the island of Taiwan in 1949 where they established the Republic of China (ROC). With the Communist victory in the civil war, the Soviet Union gave up its claim to military bases in China that were given to it by its Western Allies at the end of World War II.	2.984375
7062377	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath%20of%20World%20War%20II	Aftermath of World War II	During WWII, the Vichy French aligned colonial authorities cooperated with the Japanese invaders. The communist-controlled common front Viet Minh (supported by the Allies) was formed among the Vietnamese in the colony in 1941 to fight for the independence of Vietnam, against both the Japanese and prewar French powers. After the Vietnamese Famine of 1945 support for the Viet Minh was bolstered as the front launched a rebellion, sacking rice warehouses and urging the Vietnamese to refuse to pay taxes. Because the French colonial authorities started to hold secret talks with the Free French, the Japanese interned them 9 March 1945. When Japan surrendered in August, this created a power vacuum, and the Viet Minh took power in the August Revolution, declaring the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV). However, the Allies (including the USSR) all agreed that the area belonged to the French. Chinese forces moved in from the north and British from the south (as the French were unable to do so immediately themselves) and then handed power to the French, a process completed by March 1946. Attempts to integrate the Democratic Republic of Vietnam with French rule failed and the Viet Minh launched their rebellion against the French rule starting the First Indochina War that same year (the Viet Minh organized common fronts to fight the French in Laos and Cambodia). In March 1949, France recognized Vietnam's independence within the French Union and gradually gave it autonomy to counter communists in international context of decolonization.	2.90625
7062377	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath%20of%20World%20War%20II	Aftermath of World War II	British covert operations in the Baltic States, which began in 1944 against the Nazis, escalated following the war. In Operation Jungle, the Secret Intelligence Service (known as MI6) recruited and trained Estonians, Latvians, and Lithuanians for the clandestine work in the Baltic states between 1948 and 1955. Leaders of the operation included Alfons Rebane, Stasys Žymantas, and Rūdolfs Silarājs. The agents were transported under the cover of the "British Baltic Fishery Protection Service". They launched from British-occupied Germany, using a converted World War II E-boat captained and crewed by former members of the wartime German navy. British intelligence also trained and infiltrated anti-communist agents into Soviet Union from across the Finnish border, with orders to assassinate Soviet officials. In the end, counter-intelligence supplied to the KGB by Kim Philby allowed the KGB to penetrate and ultimately gain control of MI6's entire intelligence network in the Baltic states. Vietnam and the Middle East would later damage the reputation gained by the U.S. during its successes in Europe. The KGB believed that the Third World rather than Europe was the arena in which it could win the Cold War. Moscow would in later years fuel an arms buildup in Africa. In later years, African countries used as proxies in the Cold War would often become "failed states" of their own. In 2014, The New York Times reported that "In the decades after World War II, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and other United States agencies employed at least a thousand Nazis as Cold War spies and informants and, as recently as the 1990s, concealed the government's ties to some still living in America, newly disclosed records and interviews show." According to Timothy Naftali, "The CIA's central concern [in recruiting former Nazi collaborators] was not so much the extent of the criminal's guilt as the likelihood that the agent's criminal past could remain a secret." Recruitment of former enemy scientists	2.46875
7062377	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath%20of%20World%20War%20II	Aftermath of World War II	When the divisions of postwar Europe began to emerge, the war crimes programmes and denazification policies of Britain and the United States were relaxed in favour of recruiting German scientists, especially nuclear and long-range rocket scientists. Many of these, prior to their capture, had worked on developing the German V-2 long-range rocket at the Baltic coast German Army Research Center Peenemünde. Western Allied occupation force officers in Germany were ordered to refuse to cooperate with the Soviets in sharing captured wartime secret weapons, the recovery for which, specifically in regards to advanced German aviation technology and personnel, the British had sent the Fedden Mission into Germany to contact its aviation technology centers and key personnel, paralleled by the United States with its own Operation Lusty aviation technology personnel and knowledge recovery program. In Operation Paperclip, beginning in 1945, the United States imported 1,600 German scientists and technicians, as part of the intellectual reparations owed to the U.S. and the UK, including about $10 billion (US$ billion in dollars) in patents and industrial processes. In late 1945, three German rocket-scientist groups arrived in the U.S. for duty at Fort Bliss, Texas, and at White Sands Proving Grounds, New Mexico, as "War Department Special Employees". The wartime activities of some Operation Paperclip scientists would later be investigated. Arthur Rudolph left the United States in 1984, in order to not be prosecuted. Similarly, Georg Rickhey, who came to the United States under Operation Paperclip in 1946, was returned to Germany to stand trial at the Mittelbau-Dora war crimes trial in 1947. Following his acquittal, he returned to the United States in 1948 and eventually became a U.S. citizen.	2.59375
7062377	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath%20of%20World%20War%20II	Aftermath of World War II	The Soviets began Operation Osoaviakhim in 1946. NKVD and Soviet army units effectively deported thousands of military-related technical specialists from the Soviet occupation zone of post-war Germany to the Soviet Union. The Soviets used 92 trains to transport the specialists and their families, an estimated 10,000–15,000 people. Much related equipment was also moved, the aim being to virtually transplant research and production centres, such as the relocated V-2 rocket centre at Mittelwerk Nordhausen, from Germany to the Soviet Union. Among the people moved were Helmut Gröttrup and about two hundred scientists and technicians from Mittelwerk. Personnel were also taken from AEG, BMW's Stassfurt jet propulsion group, IG Farben's Leuna chemical works, Junkers, Schott AG, Siebel, Telefunken, and Carl Zeiss AG. The operation was commanded by NKVD deputy Colonel General Serov, outside the control of the local Soviet Military Administration. The major reason for the operation was the Soviet fear of being condemned for noncompliance with Allied Control Council agreements on the liquidation of German military installations. Some Western observers thought Operation Osoaviakhim was a retaliation for the failure of the Socialist Unity Party in elections, though Osoaviakhim was clearly planned before that. Demise of the League of Nations and the founding of the United Nations As a general consequence of the war and in an effort to maintain international peace, the Allies formed the United Nations (UN), which officially came into existence on 24 October 1945. The UN replaced the defunct League of Nations (LN) as an intergovernmental organization. The LN was formally dissolved on 20 April 1946 but had in practice ceased to function in 1939, being unable to stop the outbreak of World War II. The UN inherited some of the bodies of the LN, such as the International Labour Organization.	2.46875
7062377	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aftermath%20of%20World%20War%20II	Aftermath of World War II	League of Nations mandate, mostly territories that had changed hands in World War I, became United Nations trust territories. South West Africa, an exception, was still governed under terms of the original mandate. As the successor body to the League, the UN still assumed a supervisory role over the territory. The Free City of Danzig, a semi-autonomous City-state that was partly overseen by the League, became part of Poland. The UN adopted The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, "as a common standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations." The Soviet Union abstained from voting on adoption of the declaration. The U.S. did not ratify the social and economic rights sections. The five major Allied powers were given permanent membership in the United Nations Security Council. The permanent members can veto any United Nations Security Council resolution, the only UN decisions that are binding according to international law. The five powers at the time of founding were: the United States of America, the United Kingdom, France, the Soviet Union and the Republic of China. The Republic of China lost the Chinese Civil War and retreated to the island of Taiwan by 1950 but continued to be a permanent member of the Council even though the de facto state in control of mainland China was the People's Republic of China (PRC). This was changed in 1971 when the PRC was given the permanent membership previously held by the Republic of China. Russia inherited the permanent membership of the Soviet Union in 1991 after the dissolution of that state. Unresolved conflicts Japanese holdouts persisted on various islands in the Pacific Theatre until at least 1974. Although all hostilities are now resolved, a peace treaty has never been signed between Japan and Russia due to the Kuril Islands dispute. Economic aftermath	2.90625
7062385	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangmere	Tangmere	Tangmere is a village, civil parish, and electoral ward in the Chichester District of West Sussex, England. Located three miles (5 km) north east of Chichester, it is twinned with Hermanville-sur-Mer in Lower Normandy, France. The parish has a land area of 467.3 hectares (1,154 acres). In the 2001 census 2,462 people lived in 963 households, of whom 1,233 were economically active. At the 2011 Census the population was 2,625. History The Saxon village lies a mile south of the Roman road of Stane Street, linking Londinium with Noviomagus Reginorum, now known as Chichester. In 677 the controversial Bishop of York Wilfrid (later Saint Wilfrid) came to Selsey and converted the South Saxons to Christianity. In 680 a charter, possibly by the king, states: “I Caedwalla... have granted his brethren serving God at the church of St Andrew... the land of 10 hides which is called Tangmere”. A hide equated to 120 acres (49 hectares). The Domesday Book of 1086 records that Tangmere had a population of around 120, with the stone church of St Andrew built after the Norman conquest. Originally built of timber, the Saxon church was replaced in 1100 by a stone and timber building. Difficult to date precisely, the building incorporates scavenged and reused stone, including pre-Christian carved figures and Roman bricks, while the size of the yew tree by the present door suggests an ancient sacred site. The church was added to in both the 12th century and in the Victorian era. In 1341 King Edward II granted the new Archbishop of Canterbury the right to hold a fair at Tangmere on St Andrew's Day. The event is still held by the church every autumn, resulting in the source of the church's name. The Manor of Tangmere was owned by the Archbishop of Canterbury until 1542, when Henry VIII claimed possession. It later passed to Cardinal Archbishop Pole and then to the crown again, being granted by Elizabeth I to Richard Baker and then Sir Richard Sackville, a cousin of her mother Anne Boleyn.	1.960938
7062385	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangmere	Tangmere	The first and worst enemy raid on the station came on 16 August 1940, when 100 Junkers Stuka dive bombers caused extensive damage to buildings and aircraft on the ground. Fourteen service people and six civilians were killed. Throughout the war the station was also a secret base for the Special Operations Executive (SOE), who flew agents in and out of occupied France to strengthen the Resistance. The SOE used Tangmere Cottage, opposite the main entrance to the airfield. Today the cottage sports a commemorative blue plaque to its former secret life. As the RAF turned from defence to attack, the legendary Group Captain Douglas Bader – the legless fighter ace – commanded the Tangmere wing of Fighter Command. Today he is commemorated in the Bader Arms public house in the village, now converted to a Co-op grocery store. Many of those killed at the base, from both sides during the war, are buried in the cemetery of St Andrew's Church, tended to by the Commonwealth War Graves Commission After the war the RAF High Speed Flight was based at Tangmere and in September 1946 a world air speed record of was set by Group Captain Edward Mortlock Donaldson in a Gloster Meteor. During September 1953 Squadron Leader Neville Duke flew a Hawker Hunter at ; the 50th anniversary of this event was commemorated in 2003. The station finally closed on 16 October 1970, when a single Spitfire flew over the airfield as the RAF ensign was lowered for the last time. Recent history Following the closure of the RAF station some of the land around the runways was returned to farming. Tangmere Airfield Nurseries have built huge glasshouses for the cultivation of peppers and aubergines. Until 1983, of barracks, admin blocks and repair workshops remained derelict until bought by Seawards Properties Ltd. Housing soon spread around the airfield, and much RAF building was demolished and officers' houses retained as homes. However, some original RAF buildings remain, including the control tower and one of the 'H-Block' accommodation buildings.	2.125
7062418	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Errol%20%C3%89tienne	Errol Étienne	While he worked in numerous mediums, his work as a water colorist was considered world-class. During the last 20 years of his life, his technique never varied. Subject matter was drawn primarily from his visual interpretation of nature (fish, flowers and panoramas) using bold colors. Watercolors were created exclusively on two papers: Arches moldmade in France and Khadi handmade in India. He believed those two papers best displayed the positive optimism of his subject matter. He would initially draw his subject with one of two instruments: a Mout Blanc pen given to him by his father as a teenager or a common wide pencil employed in the construction industry. Once subject matter was drawn he would hand mix the colors he thought appropriate for an individual work. The technique that made his work most distinctive was the exclusive use of hand made Windsor Newton squirrel hair brushes which he would curl at the end to create different size strokes with the same brush. He also believed that a single stroke of color was the truest reflection of the artist. None of his watercolors have the overlapping use of color. He coined the phrase "singlelapping" to describe his unique technique. While impossible to estimate precisely, by the artists own estimate he created over 8,000 works of original art.	2.53125
7062430	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/122%20mm%20howitzer%20M1909/37	122 mm howitzer M1909/37	122 mm howitzer M1909/37 () was a Soviet 121.92 mm (4.8 inch) howitzer, a modernization of World War I era 122 mm howitzer M1909. The gun saw combat in the German-Soviet War. Development and production history The gun resulted from a modernization of the Russian 122 mm howitzer M1909, initially developed by Krupp. The M1909 was employed by the Imperial Russian Army during World War I and remained in service after the revolution. From late 1920s the RKKA sought to upgrade its First World War-era artillery pieces. The modernization of the M1909, handled by Perm Plant in 1937, included: Lengthened chamber New sights Strengthened carriage The resulting gun was adopted as 122-mm howitzer M1909/37. About 800-900 old M1909 guns were upgraded to the M1909/37 standard. The M1909/37 was a typical short-barrel howitzer, intended mostly for shooting with elevations from +20° to +43°. Shell could be fired with six propellant loads (no. 1 to 5 and full). The gun had horizontal sliding breechblock, hydraulic recoil buffer and spring-driven recuperator. The carriage was of single trail type with unsprung wooden wheels and limited traverse. Organization and employment	2.1875
7062441	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crnojevi%C4%87%20printing%20house	Crnojević printing house	The Crnojević printing house () or Cetinje printing house (), was the first printing house in Southeastern Europe; the facility operated between 1493 and 1496 in Cetinje, Zeta (modern Montenegro). It was founded by Đurađ Crnojević, the ruler of Zeta between 1490 and 1496. The printing press was operated by Serbian Orthodox monks at the supervision of Hieromonk Makarije. Five Orthodox liturgical books were printed in this printshop: Oktoih Prvoglasnik, Oktoih Petoglasnik, Psaltir, Trebnik (Molitvenik) and Cvetni Triod. Octoechos of the First Tone (Oktoih prvoglasnik) is the first book printed in the Cyrillic script among the South Slavs. It was finished on 4 January 1494. There are 108 copies of this book existing. It contains 270 leaves sized 29 x 21,6 cm. It is characterized by high quality and clean two-coloured printing, red and black, with nicely shaped letters. It is decorated with headpieces and initials printed from woodcuts in the spirit of the Renaissance with traces of old manuscript traditions. Octoechos of the Fifth Tone (Oktoih petoglasnik) represents the first illustrated South Slavic incunabulum. It is preserved in fragments, the longest one containing 37 leaves. It has six woodcut illustrations, made by an artist who managed to put rather complex compositions with many characters on a relatively small space. Psalter with Additions (Psaltir s posledovanjem) was printed in 1495. It is not only of liturgical and conventional but also historical and literary significance. It is decorated with three headpieces and 27 initials repeated for 221 time. There are 36 complete and partial copies preserved. The National Library of Montenegro "Đurđe Crnojević" published 650 facsimiles of the psalter in 1986.	2.40625
7062443	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil%20burner	Oil burner	An oil burner is a heating device which burns #1, #2 and #6 heating oils, diesel fuel or other similar fuels. In the United States, ultra low sulfur #2 diesel is the common fuel used. It is dyed red to show that it is road-tax exempt. In most markets of the United States, heating oil is the same specification of fuel as on-road un-dyed diesel. An oil burner is a part attached to an oil furnace, water heater, or boiler. It provides the ignition of heating oil/biodiesel fuel used to heat either air or water via a heat exchanger. The fuel is atomized into a fine spray usually by forcing it under pressure through a nozzle which gives the resulting flame a specific flow rate, angle of spray and pattern (variations of a cone shape). This spray is usually ignited by an electric spark with the air being forced through around it at the end of a blast tube, by a fan driven by the oil burner motor. The fuel pump is typically driven via a coupling connecting its shaft to the motor. In the United States residential home heating oil market, the "vaporizing gun burner" is the most common mechanical device used to heat a home or small commercial forced air space with. These simple burners may achieve a lifespan of several decades with regular maintenance. The maintenance in a gun burner usually involves a replacement of the nozzle used to atomize the fuel, replacing the filter located at the air handler, replacing the fuel filter on the heating oil system from the tank, cleaning out any soot or deposits in the heat exchanger of the furnace, and ensuring the system is in good working order. It also involves checking and adjusting the fuel-air mixture for efficiency with a combustion analyzer. If a heating oil burner runs out of oil, it often must be primed to be restarted. Priming involves purging any air from the fuel lines so that a steady flow of oil can find its way to the burner.	2.453125
7062443	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil%20burner	Oil burner	If an oil burner wears out, it can usually be upgraded and replaced with a more efficient modern burner. If the heat exchanger wears out, a new furnace is required. Oil furnaces can last decades if maintained regularly ensuring the heat exchanger is vacuumed out and cleaned. Oil burners deposit soot in the heat exchanger, which insulates unevenly and causes temperature gradients and uneven stresses throughout the steel, potentially leading to cracking. Annual or every other year tune-ups guarantee this wear is far reduced. Oil furnace lifespans of 50-75 years with regular service are not uncommon, compared to the approximately 20-year lifespan of natural gas furnaces. Fuel injection Fuel is injected into the combustion chamber at high pressure by a spray nozzle. Fuel nozzles are usually rated in fuel volume flow per unit time e.g. US gallons per hour. A fuel nozzle is characterized by three features: Flow at 100 psi pump pressure (e.g. 0.65 gallons per hour) Spray characteristic (e.g. "B" indicating a solid cone-shaped spray) Spray angle (e.g. 60°, indicating the width of the cone) Because of erosion from friction with the oil, and possible blockage due to debris in the fuel, they need replacement when worn. Alternatively to standard nozzles, fuel may be passed in front of a tiny orifice fed with compressed air. This arrangement is referred to as a Babington atomiser or Babington nozzle, named after its inventor Robert Babington. As the oil flows in front of the nozzle and not through it, high fuel pressure is not needed. Because it is only compressed air that passes through the orifice hole, such nozzles do not suffer from significant erosion. Oil pump Oil pressure is generated by an electric pump, usually driven by a capacitor start motor. The pump consists of two parts:	2.28125
7062443	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil%20burner	Oil burner	Oil-fired burners are fitted with a safety mechanism to confirm proper ignition. The terms "primary control", "safety control", "cad cell control", "master control", and "fire-eye control" are variously used to describe a light dependent resistor (LDR) which detects the flame whose value changes by the amount of light it is exposed to. The resistance decreases as the LDR is exposed to more light. The material is usually cadmium sulfide, hence the name "cad cell" for this component. In darkness the resistance is around 1 MΩ, while when exposed to light from a properly ignited flame the resistance is much lower, around 75–300 Ω. Older oil burners were equipped with a primary control installed on the exhaust stack with a bimetallic heat sensing element protruding into the stack, such a control was referred to as a "stack relay" or a "stack control". It performed the same function as the newer cad-cell control, but instead of sensing light from the burner flame, it sensed the heat of exhaust gases to confirm ignition.	2.546875
7062457	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tienne-Gaspard%20Robert	Étienne-Gaspard Robert	Robert developed a phantasmagoria show based around his projection system and the use of other effects and techniques. Robert scripted scenes that involved actors and ventriloquism alongside his projections, creating a convincing impression of the appearance of ghosts. Robert used several projection devices in a variety of ways, including rear projection and projection onto large pieces of wax-coated gauze (giving the image a more translucent appearance). He also used smoke and mirrors to further disguise the mechanisms behind his show. His painting skills allowed him to create accurate depictions of famous French heroes such as Jean-Paul Marat, Voltaire, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Robert appeared at the Pavillon de l'Echiquier on 23 January 1798 and performed his first show. His charisma and the never-before-seen visual effects left the audience convinced that they had seen real ghosts, with many left terrified by the performance. After being investigated by the authorities, Robert's show was shut down in Paris. He moved to Bordeaux and continued to perform, before returning to Paris a few weeks later. It was during this trip to Bordeaux that Robert first experience balloon flight as a passenger – an experience that would have a massive influence on his life. On his return to Paris Robert discovered that two of his former assistants had continued the performances without him. He refined his show, making it more elaborate and inventive and started performing in a more permanent location from 3 January 1799. The Gothic surroundings of the crumbling Convent des Capucines near the Place Vendôme gave Robert the ideal eerie home for his show.	2.640625
7062457	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tienne-Gaspard%20Robert	Étienne-Gaspard Robert	The shows began with the audience being shown optical illusions and trompe-l'œil effects on their way to the showroom. Inside the candlelit room the audience would be seated as audio effects emulate the sound of wind and thunder and an unseen glass harmonica plays unsettling music. Robert would then enter the room and start a monologue about death and the afterlife. He then began the show in earnest, creating smoky mix of sulphuric acid and aqua fortis before projecting his ghostly apparitions. The shows were performed at the Convent des Capucines for four years, and Robert went on to take the show around the world, visiting Russia, Spain, and the United States among others. During his travels he dedicated a lot of his time to ballooning. Balloon flights Robert was a keen balloonist who designed and flew balloons in different countries around the world. On 18 July 1803 in Hamburg, he set an altitude record in a montgolfière. He spent many flights investigating meteorological activity. Robert's two hydrogen-balloon flights in Hamburg, a third in St. Petersburg and a fourth in Riga were claimed to be "scientific" by himself. In fact, he did numerous observations: Observations of barometer and thermometer, on shapes and altitudes of cloud formations, the behaviour of parachutes at different altitudes, the evaporation of ether, the electrical properties of different materials and the air, behavior of a magnetic needle, the boiling point of water at great altitudes, sound propagation, influence of the high altitudes on animals (pigeons and butterflies), strength of solar radiation, the solar spectrum, gravity properties, chemical composition of the air and pressure of the air.	2.515625
7062457	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tienne-Gaspard%20Robert	Étienne-Gaspard Robert	Nevertheless, close examination of the results shows, that many of them contradict with laws of physics, which were already known at the time of the flights. Prof. L.W. Gilbert discussed the results published by Robert in his Annalen der Physik. and showed why Robert was wrong. For example, Robert claimed, that a spring scale with attached weights showed a lower weight at altitude as compared to the ground. Such an effect exists, but only becomes apparent at altitudes in excess of 70,000 feet (20,000 metres). In 1806 an audience of 50,000, including the royal family, gathered at Rosenborg Castle in Copenhagen to see Robert and his balloon. Robert flew all the way to Roskilde – a remarkable feat for the time. The event made a lasting impression on Hans Christian Ørsted, an influential Danish physicist who went on to write a series of poems about the flight. Other details Robert officially opened the third Jardin de Tivoli, Paris on 14 May 1826. He died in Paris in 1837 and is buried at Père Lachaise Cemetery. The huge monument bears bas relief sculptures depicting audiences being startled by ghoulish shows.	2
7062469	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthquake%20scenario	Earthquake scenario	Earthquake scenario is a planning tool to determine the appropriate emergency responses or building systems in areas exposed to earthquake hazards. It uses the basics of seismic hazard studies, but usually places a set earthquake on a specific fault, most likely near a high-population area. Most scenarios relate directly to urban seismic risk, and seismic risk in general. Some earthquake scenarios follow some of the latest methodologies from the nuclear industry, namely a Seismic Margin Assessment (SMA). In the process, a Review Level Earthquake (RLE) is chosen that challenges the system, has a reasonable probability, and is not totally overwhelming. Scenarios have been developed for Seattle, New York City, and many of the faults in California. In general, areas west of the Rockies use urban earthquakes of M7 (moment magnitude), and eastern cities use an M6. Some eastern cities do not have an earthquake scenario. As an example, the Greater Toronto area in Ontario, Canada has a local seismicity with about as much a chance for an M6 as most of the moderate earthquake zones of Eastern North America (ENA), including New York City. As seen on the map, the RLE would be an M6 located in the western end of Lake Ontario. It could be suspected that the damage would follow the New York City scenario, with extensive damage to lifelines, and brick buildings on soft ground.	2.78125
7062509	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosignal	Biosignal	A biosignal is any signal in living beings that can be continually measured and monitored. The term biosignal is often used to refer to bioelectrical signals, but it may refer to both electrical and non-electrical signals. The usual understanding is to refer only to time-varying signals, although spatial parameter variations (e.g. the nucleotide sequence determining the genetic code) are sometimes subsumed as well. Electrical biosignals Electrical biosignals, or bioelectrical time signals, usually refers to the change in electric current produced by the sum of an electrical potential difference across a specialized tissue, organ or cell system like the nervous system. Thus, among the best-known bioelectrical signals are: Electroencephalogram (EEG) Electrocardiogram (ECG) Electromyogram (EMG) Electrooculogram (EOG) Electroretinogram (ERG) Electrogastrogram (EGG) Galvanic skin response (GSR) or electrodermal activity (EDA) EEG, ECG, EOG and EMG are measured with a differential amplifier which registers the difference between two electrodes attached to the skin. However, the galvanic skin response measures electrical resistance and the Magnetoencephalography (MEG) measures the magnetic field induced by electrical currents (electroencephalogram) of the brain. With the development of methods for remote measurement of electric fields using new sensor technology, electric biosignals such as EEG and ECG can be measured without electric contact with the skin. This can be applied, for example, for remote monitoring of brain waves and heart beat of patients who must not be touched, in particular patients with serious burns. Electrical currents and changes in electrical resistances across tissues can also be measured from plants.	3.09375
7062643	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil%20burner%20%28engine%29	Oil burner (engine)	An oil burner engine is a steam engine that uses oil as its fuel. The term is usually applied to a locomotive or ship engine that burns oil to heat water, to produce the steam which drives the pistons, or turbines, from which the power is derived. This is mechanically very different from diesel engines, which use internal combustion, although they are sometimes colloquially referred to as oil burners. History A variety of experimental oil powered steam boilers were patented in the 1860s. Most of the early patents used steam to spray atomized oil into the steam boilers furnace. Attempts to burn oil from a free surface were unsuccessful due to the inherently low rates of combustion from the available surface area. On 21 April 1868, the steam yacht Henrietta made a voyage down the river Clyde powered by an oil fired boiler designed and patented by a Mr Donald of George Miller & Co. Donald's design used a jet of dry steam to spray oil into a furnace lined with fireproof bricks. Prior to the Henrietta’s oil burner conversion, George Miller & Co was recorded as having used oil to power their works in Glasgow for a “considerable time”.	2.78125
7062652	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villa%20Ludovisi	Villa Ludovisi	The Villa Ludovisi was a suburban villa in Rome, built in the 17th century on the area once occupied by the Gardens of Sallust (Horti Sallustiani) near the Porta Salaria. On an assemblage of vineyards purchased from Giovanni Antonio Orsini, Cardinal Francesco Maria Del Monte and others, Cardinal Ludovico Ludovisi erected in the 1620s the main villa building to designs by Domenichino; it was completed within thirty months, in part to house his collection of Roman antiquities, additions to which were unearthed during construction at the site, which had figured among the great patrician pleasure grounds of Roman times. Modern works, most famously Gian Lorenzo Bernini's Pluto and Persephone, were also represented. The engraving of the grounds by Giovanni Battista Falda (1683) shows a short access avenue from a tree-lined exedra in via di Porta Pinciana and cypress-lined avenues centered on each of the facades of the main villa, laid out through open fields, the main approaches to both the villa and the Casino dell'Aurora converging on gates in the Aurelian Walls, which formed the northern bounds of the park; symmetrical parterres of conventional form including bosquets peopled with statuary flanked the main avenue of the Casina, and there was an isolated sunken parterre, though these features were not integrated in a unified overall plan. The overgrown avenues contrasting with the dramatic Roman walls inspired Stendhal to declare in 1828 that the Villa Ludovisi's gardens were among the most beautiful in the world. Frescoes in the villa were carried out by Domenichino, Guercino, Giovambattista Viola, and others. A casina was added, largely to house the Cardinal's growing collection of Roman sculptures and inscriptions, which Alessandro Algardi treated to sometimes extensive restoration. The villa passed to the ownership of the Boncompagni Ludovisi family, which in 1872 rented it to King Victor Emmanuel II. The King used the villa as residence for his lover, Rosa Vercellana.	1.953125
7062719	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aduard	Aduard	Aduard (; ) is a village in the municipality of Westerkwartier, in the Netherlands. It is located about 8 km northwest of Groningen. As of 1 January 2023, it had a population of 2,095. The history of Aduard dates back to the foundation in 1192 of the Cistercian Aduard Abbey, where famous early Humanists like Rodolphus Agricola and Wessel Gansfort studied and lectured. The centre of the village is dominated by the so-called Abdijkerk (abbey church), one of the last visible remains of the erstwhile prestigious monastery. It is suggested that this building, currently in use by the Protestant congregation, was originally the monastery's infirmary. Aduard's Abbey Museum (Kloostermuseum) provides further information about the Abbey's history, including archeological findings and a model and 3D animation of the original abbey complex. In the museum backyard, one may also find an oven used to make the original style of brick (kloostermoppen) used for the construction of the Abbey. Until 1990, Aduard was a separate municipality.	2.265625
7062738	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001%20Avjet%20Gulfstream%20III%20crash	2001 Avjet Gulfstream III crash	On March 29, 2001, a chartered Gulfstream III business jet operated by Avjet from Los Angeles, California, to Aspen, Colorado, crashed into the ground while on final approach. All three crew members and 15 passengers on board perished. The subsequent investigation by the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) concluded that the cause of the accident was the captain's premature descent below the minimum descent altitude, carried out without having the runway in sight. The accident's investigation also brought into focus several generic safety issues, such as pressure applied on charter pilots by customers, night flight into airports near mountainous terrain, and the ambiguity of some Federal Aviation Administration rules. Flight history Captain Robert Frisbie (44) and First Officer Peter Kowalczyk (38) reported for work at Avjet's Burbank, California, facility around noon on the day of the accident. After checking the weather and the aircraft, they embarked on an 11-minute repositioning flight to Los Angeles International Airport (LAX) to pick up their passengers. The flight was originally scheduled to leave LAX at 16:30 MST, but departed after a 41-minute delay for late passengers at 17:11 MST. Earlier in the day, an FAA specialist had informed the crew that it would be illegal to land at night in Aspen under instrument flight rules. In addition, the crew were aware that due to noise abatement restrictions, their jet aircraft was required to land at Aspen by the 18:58 MST night curfew. Following the delayed departure from LAX, their estimated arrival time was 18:46 MST, twelve minutes before the curfew took effect. As the flight approached Aspen/Pitkin County Airport, it became evident that some of the other inbound flights were performing missed approaches, as they had been unable to complete an instrument approach to the airport's runway. The airport is surrounded by high terrain on all sides and a fairly steep descent is required in order to land.	2
7062765	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornelis%20Nay	Cornelis Nay	Cornelis Corneliszoon Nay was a Dutch navigator and explorer who attempted to discover the Northeast Passage from Europe to the Far East. He came from Enkhuizen in the Netherlands. In June 1594, he set out from the Dutch island of Texel with a small fleet consisting of three ships and a fishing sloop to discover the Northeast Passage. Nay commanded the ship De Zwaan. He sailed together with Brandt Tetgales commanding the Mercurius. A fellow explorer, Willem Barentsz, who commanded the third ship also called Mercurius as well as the fishing boat, followed the coast of Novaya Zemlya, but his progress was halted by ice. Nay and Tetgales were more successful: they passed through the Yugor Strait and reached the Kara Sea. Nay's success led to a second expedition the following year (1595) with a larger fleet, consisting of seven ships. The expedition was under the command of Nay to which Barentsz was strongly opposed. Having left too late in the season, the explorers were soon stopped by the ice. Barentsz wanted to stop for the winter and continue in the spring, but Nay decided that the fleet should return home. The Dutch government considered the expedition a total failure and refused to fund a new expedition. Nevertheless, a third attempt was made the following year, in 1596 - this time without Nay. This was the famed expedition during which Barentsz and his men managed to survive the winter on Novaya Zemlya, though Barentsz died on the way home. Although Nay and Barentsz failed to find the passage to the East by way of the Arctic Sea, the Dutch journeys of exploration in the Arctic paved the way for large-scale whale and seal fishery which greatly enriched the Netherlands during the Dutch Golden Age. Sources	2.78125
7062805	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple%20epiphyseal%20dysplasia	Multiple epiphyseal dysplasia	Multiple epiphyseal dysplasia (MED), also known as Fairbank's disease, is a rare genetic disorder (dominant form: 1 in 10,000 births) that affects the growing ends of bones. Long bones normally elongate by expansion of cartilage in the growth plate (epiphyseal plate) near their ends. As it expands outward from the growth plate, the cartilage mineralizes and hardens to become bone (ossification). In MED, this process is defective. Signs and symptoms Children with autosomal dominant MED experience joint pain and fatigue after exercising. Their x-rays show small and irregular ossification centers, most apparent in the hips and knees. There are very small capital femoral epiphyses and hypoplastic, poorly formed acetabular roofs. A waddling gait may develop. Knees have metaphyseal widening and irregularity while hands have brachydactyly (short fingers) and proximal metacarpal rounding. Flat feet are very common. The spine is normal but may have a few irregularities, such as scoliosis. By adulthood, people with MED are of short stature or in the low range of normal and have short limbs relative to their trunks. Frequently, movement becomes limited at the major joints, especially at the elbows and hips. However, loose knee and finger joints can occur. Signs of osteoarthritis usually begin in early adulthood. Children with recessive MED experience joint pain, particularly of the hips and knees, and commonly have deformities of the hands, feet, knees, or vertebral column (like scoliosis). Approximately 50% of affected children have abnormal findings at birth (such as club foot or twisted metatarsals, cleft palate, inward curving fingers due to underdeveloped bones and brachydactyly, or ear swelling caused by injury during birth). Height is in the normal range before puberty. As adults, people with recessive MED are only slightly more diminished in stature, but within the normal range. Lateral knee radiography can show multi-layered patellae.	2.984375
7062805	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple%20epiphyseal%20dysplasia	Multiple epiphyseal dysplasia	Since 2003, the European Skeletal Dysplasia Network has used an online system to diagnose cases referred to the network before mutation analysis to study the mutations causing PSACH or MED. COL9A1, COL9A2, COL9A3 are genes coding for collagen type IX, that is a component of hyaline cartilage. MATN3 protein may play a role in the formation of the extracellular filamentous networks and in the development and homeostasis of cartilage and bone. In the recessive form, the DTDST gene, also known as SLC26A2, is mutated in almost 90% of the patients, causing diastrophic dysplasia. It is a sulfate transporter, transmembrane glycoprotein implicated in several chondrodysplasias. It is important for sulfation of proteoglycans and matrix organization. Diagnosis Diagnosis should be based on the clinical and radiographic findings and a genetic analysis can be assessed. Treatment Symptomatic individuals should be seen by an orthopedist to assess the possibility of treatment (physiotherapy for muscular strengthening, cautious use of analgesic medications such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs). Although there is no cure, surgery is sometimes used to relieve symptoms. Surgery may be necessary to treat misalignment of the hip (osteotomy of the pelvis or the collum femoris) and, in some cases, malformation (e.g., genu varum or genu valgum). In some cases, total hip replacement may be necessary. However, surgery is not always necessary or appropriate. Sports involving joint overload are to be avoided, while swimming or cycling are strongly suggested. Cycling has to be avoided in people having ligamentous laxity. Weight control is suggested. The use of crutches, other deambulatory aids or wheelchair is useful to prevent hip pain. Pain in the hand while writing can be avoided using a pen with wide grip. History Multiple epiphyseal dysplasia was described separately by Seved Ribbing and Harold Arthur Thomas Fairbank in the 1930s.	2.234375
7062805	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple%20epiphyseal%20dysplasia	Multiple epiphyseal dysplasia	In 2007, Piròg-Garcia's group generated another mouse model carrying a mutation previously found in a human patient. With this new model, they were able to demonstrate that reduced cell proliferation and increased apoptosis are significant pathological mechanisms involved in MED and PSACH. In 2010, this mouse model allowed a new insight into myopathy and tendinopathy, which are often associated with PSACH and MED. These patients show increased skeletal muscle stress, as indicated by the increase in myofibers with central nuclei. Myopathy in the mutant mouse results from underlying tendinopathy, because the transmission of forces is altered from the normal state. There is a higher proportion of larger diameter fibrils of collagen, but the cross-sectional area of whole mutant tendons was also significantly less than that of the wild-type tendons causing joint laxity and stiffness, easy tiring and weakness. This study is important because those diseases are often mistaken for neurological problems, since the doctor can detect a muscle weakness. This includes many painful and useless clinical neurological examination before the correct diagnosis. In this work, the researchers suggest to the pediatric doctor to perform x-rays before starting the neurological assessment, to exclude the dysplasia. COL9A1 mutation was discovered in 2001. Culture Prominent people with this condition Danny DeVito, American actor, producer, and director Robert Reich, former United States Secretary of Labor under President Bill Clinton from 1993 to 1997 David Wetherill, British Paralympian table tennis athlete	2.34375
7062854	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moses%20H.%20Grinnell	Moses H. Grinnell	Moses Hicks Grinnell (March 3, 1803 – November 24, 1877) was a shipper and businessman. He became a United States Congressman representing New York, and a Commissioner of New York City's Central Park. Early life Grinnell was born in New Bedford, Massachusetts, on March 3, 1803. He was the son of Cornelius Grinnell (1758–1850) and Sylvia (née Howland) Grinnell (1765–1837). His siblings included Henry Grinnell and Joseph Grinnell. After attending public school, he took his first paying job at the age of 15, working in the counting room of a bank in New York City. Shipping career In 1815, his brother Joseph Grinnell helped to establish the shipping firm Grinnell, Minturn & Co. Moses and his brother, Henry Grinnell, became members of the firm in 1825. In 1830, Robert Bowne Minturn joined the firm and it became Grinnell & Minturn. The company stayed active until 1880. Grinnell became a successful New York merchant and shipper and was subsequently appointed as president of the New York Chamber of Commerce. The pilot boat Moses H. Grinnell, was built in 1850 for the Jersey pilots and designed by George Steers. She was owned by George W. Blunt of New York. The Grinnell was the first pilot boat to show the fully developed long entry that was to become the New York schooner's trade mark. The shipping company is best known for owning the clipper ship Flying Cloud. Grinnell bought her from Donald McKay in 1851 for $90,000 (~$ in ). Political career However, unlike his brother Joseph Grinnell, who represented Massachusetts for four terms as a Whig, Moses did not stick to a single political party. He was first a Democrat, then became a Whig in the 1830s, was an "out-and-out Native American party man" the 1840s, and in the 1850s joined the newly founded Republican Party, for which he served as a presidential elector in 1856.	2.0625
7062870	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T.%20C.%20Worsley	T. C. Worsley	Thomas Cuthbert Worsley (10 December 1907 – 23 February 1977) was a British teacher, writer, editor, and theatre and television critic. He is best remembered for his autobiographical book Flannelled Fool: A Slice of a Life in the Thirties. Biography Cuthbert Worsley was born on 10 December 1907 in Durham, the son of a rising Anglican clergyman. He was the third of four sons, with one sister. His father, F. W. Worsley—a Doctor of Divinity, a holder of the Military Cross, a former holder of the English long jump record and obsessive sportsman, and eventually Dean of Llandaff Cathedral—was a dominating but dysfunctional force in family life until his abrupt desertion, with two suitcases, of both family and deanery, when Worsley was a university student. Worsley was educated initially at the Llandaff Cathedral school, transferring later to Brightlands preparatory school, Newnham-on-Severn, from where he won two scholarships to Marlborough College. While at home from Marlborough during a summer vacation Worsley's younger brother Benjamin drowned at the seaside, an event incalculably traumatic for Worsley: however gentle everyone was with me, I had the facts to face. I was alive and he was dead. He, the specially beloved of them all, the little genius, the most precious of any of us, hadn't survived. I had. And how could I forget that in the final climax of that deadly crisis, I had cast him off? I had torn myself free. If I hadn't, there would, of course, have been two deaths instead of one. True. But I had, I had actually, physically, deliberately, wilfully torn his clutching hands away from my thighs.	2.015625
7062871	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assam%20Accord	Assam Accord	The Assam Accord was a Memorandum of Settlement (MoS) signed between representatives of the Government of India and the leaders of the Assam Movement. It was signed in the presence of the then-Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi in New Delhi on 15 August 1985. Later, the Citizenship Act was amended for the first time the following year, in 1986. It followed a six-year agitation that started in 1979. Led by the All Assam Students’ Union (AASU), the protestors demanded the identification and deportation of all illegal foreigners – predominantly Bangladeshi immigrants. They feared that past and continuing large scale migration was overwhelming the native population, impacting their political rights, culture, language and land rights. The Assam Movement caused the estimated death of over 855 people. The movement ended with the signing of the Assam Accord. The leaders of the Assam Movement agreed to accept all migrants who had entered into Assam prior to 1 January 1966. The Government of India acknowledged the political, social, cultural and economic concerns of the Assamese people and agreed to revise the electoral database based on that date. Further, the government agreed to identify and deport any and all refugees and migrants after March 25 1971. In 1971, millions of citizens of Bangladesh – then called East Pakistan – fled the abuses of a civil war and associated genocide between East Pakistan and West Pakistan triggering a mass influx of refugees into Assam, West Bengal, Tripura, various other nearby states of India as well as Myanmar.	3
7062917	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mabel%20Fairbanks	Mabel Fairbanks	Mabel Fairbanks (November 14, 1915 – September 29, 2001) was an American figure skater and coach. As an African American and Native American woman she paved the way for other minorities to compete in the sport of figure skating such as Tai Babilonia, Debi Thomas, and Naomi Lang. She was inducted into the US Figure Skating Hall of Fame, as the first person of African American and Native American descent, and the International Women's Sports Hall of Fame. Youth Fairbanks was born on November 14, 1915, in Florida's Everglades. Her father was African American while her mother had a Seminole mother and a father of English descent. In a 1999 interview, she said, "my mother took in everybody – every kid off the street – and gave them a place to stay and something to eat. So I never knew who were my real sisters and brothers, but my older sister told me there were 14." Fairbanks was orphaned at the age of eight when her mother died. After staying with a teacher who treated her like a "maid," she joined one of her brothers in New York City. She worked for him and his wife at their fish market on 8th Avenue in Harlem but they became displeased when, out of sympathy, she gave a family more fish than they had paid for. A wealthy woman saw her sleeping on a park bench and offered her a job as a babysitter at a home overlooking Central Park. Career Fairbanks began figure skating around 1925 to 1928. After observing children at the Central Park ice rink, she bought herself used skates, stuffed them with cotton because they were two sizes too big, and began skating at the rink. She said, "Blacks didn't skate there. But it was a public place, so I just carried on." She gained further inspiration after seeing Sonja Henie in the 1936 film One in a Million.	2.828125
7062917	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mabel%20Fairbanks	Mabel Fairbanks	In the 1930s, Fairbanks, due to her race, was denied access to the local rink by the cashier but she kept returning until the manager admitted her. Maribel Vinson Owen and Howard Nicholson provided her with technical advice. Fairbanks was not allowed to compete in the national qualifying event for the Olympics or any competition. In a 1998 interview, she said, "If I had gone to the Olympics and become a star, I would not be who I am today." Fairbanks performed in shows in New York until the 1940s. She often wore pink or purple skate boots rather than the more common black or white. She practiced on a 6 ft by 6 ft rink constructed by her uncle Wally in her room. After relocating to Los Angeles, she toured internationally, skating with Ice Capades in Mexico and later with Ice Follies. After returning to the United States, she saw a sign with "Colored Trade Not Solicited" at the Pasadena Winter Gardens. She stated, "my uncle had newspaper articles written about it and passed them out everywhere until they finally let me in." Fairbanks coached singles and pairs, including Tiffany Chin, Billy Chapel, Scott Hamilton, Kristi Yamaguchi / Rudy Galindo, Tai Babilonia / Randy Gardner, Leslie Robinson, Michelle McCladdie, Richard Ewell, Debi Thomas, Atoy Wilson, and Jean Yuna. She also taught skating to the children of many celebrities. In 1997, she became the first African American inducted into the US Figure Skating Hall of Fame. She was inducted into the International Women's Sports Hall of Fame in October 2001. Death Mabel Fairbanks was diagnosed with myasthenia gravis in 1997 and with acute leukemia in mid-2001. She died on September 29, 2001, at Providence Saint Joseph Medical Center in Burbank, California. She is buried at the Hollywood Forever Cemetery, Hollywood, California.	2.078125
7062936	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almkerk	Almkerk	Almkerk is a village in the municipality of Altena, in the Netherlands. It is located about 7 km south of Gorinchem. History The village was first mentioned in 1292 as Almekercke, and means "church on the Alm river". The Alm used to be a distributary of the Meuse. The mouth of river had been dammed before 1230 in Giessen. Almkerk developed on the bank of the Alm river. The Altena Castle was located east of the village. The polder mill Oude Doornse Molen was built around 1700. The wind mill was in service until 1965. In 1940 and 1944, the polder was inundated by the Dutch and German armies respectively, and Oude Doornse Molen later removed the water again. The mill also removed the water after the North Sea flood of 1953. Almkerk was home to 320 people in 1840. In 1879, Almkerk absorbed the former municipality of Emmikhoven. The Dutch Reformed church was destroyed in 1945, and rebuilt in 1951. Until 1973, Almkerk was a separate municipality. Since 2019, it is part of the municipality of Altena. However, the town hall is located in Almkerk. Sights On the eastern edge of Almkerk, the motte of the former Altena Castle is visible from the road. The castle was probably built in the 12th century. In the 17th century, there was still a tower. Notable people Leendert Antonie Donker (1899–1956), politician Hans van Helden (born 1948), former speed skater Gallery	1.976563
7062949	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A3o%20F%C3%A9lix%20Hill	São Félix Hill	São Félix Hill or Mount São Félix, Monte de São Félix in Portuguese, is the highest hill in Póvoa de Varzim, Portugal, as measured by the height above sea level of its summit, . São Félix is the north of the two hills east of the city, the other being Cividade Hill. São Félix is located in the civil parish of Laundos, and is a sequence of Serra de Rates mountain range. In the Middle Ages the hill was known as Lanudos, hence the name of the civil parish. Despite its low height, São Félix is easily distinguished in the landscape because it is a significant rise in front of a coastal plain. Alto River's source is located in São Félix Hill and ends at Rio Alto Beach in Estela. Myths and religion The hill is of ancient cult to the people of Póvoa de Varzim, especially the fishermen, as it was used as a reference from the sea. It is one of the sacred hills of Northern Portugal, sacro-monte in Portuguese. It has several temples: Senhora da Saúde chapel, Senhora da Saúde Sanctuary, the small São Félix Chapel, 12 sideway shrines, and the main São Félix Chapel in the top of the hill. While Senhora da Saúde temples are located in the base, the ones from São Félix are located higher in the hill. It is also the main pilgrimage site of Póvoa de Varzim and Vila do Conde, especially important for the fisher community, who walk a 7 km long way from the Matriz Church of Póvoa de Varzim to Senhora da Saúde Shrine. In the latest pilgrim measures, it gathered 30,000 pilgrims in 2009 and over 40,000 in 2010. It is believed that Saint Félix used to live in this hill, thus its current name. In a local myth, that became important for Christianity in the Iberian Peninsula, Félix is thought to have found the body of the first bishop of the Iberian Peninsula, Saint Peter of Rates, in the hilltop while seeing a light every evening. This myth was used by Braga clergy in order to justify that city's religious leading role in Christian Iberia.	2.4375
7062964	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draper%20Kauffman	Draper Kauffman	Rear Admiral Draper Laurence Kauffman (4 August 1911 – 18 August 1979) was an American underwater demolition expert, who served during the 1960s as 44th Superintendent of the United States Naval Academy. During World War II, he organized the first U.S. Navy Combat Demolition Units from which the SEALs and Navy Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) would evolve. His wartime service also included participation in the invasions of Saipan, Tinian, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa. Childhood and education Draper L. Kauffman, the son of Vice Admiral James L. Kauffman, was born in San Diego, California, on 4 August 1911. He attended St. Albans School in Washington, D.C., and Kent School in Kent, Connecticut and was appointed to the United States Naval Academy from Ohio in 1929. Kauffman graduated from the U.S. Naval Academy in 1933, but poor eyesight denied him a commission in the regular navy. World War II Volunteer service in Europe, 1940–1941 Employed by the United States Lines Steamship Company, his travels in Europe alerted him to the danger of Nazi Germany. In February 1940, he joined the American Volunteer Ambulance Corps in France. On 16 June, he was captured by the Germans and held prisoner for two months. Released in August, he made his way to England and was commissioned a sub-lieutenant in the British Royal Navy Volunteer Reserve, later rising to lieutenant. At the height of the Blitz on London (1940–1941), he served as a bomb and mine disposal officer, and achieved a high degree of proficiency in bomb disposal techniques. U.S. Navy service, 1941–1945 Securing a U.S. Naval Reserve commission a month before Pearl Harbor, Kauffman was rushed to Hawaii after the Japanese attack, and there disarmed an enemy bomb, the first to be recovered intact for study. For this action, the Navy awarded him a Navy Cross.	2.328125
7062964	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draper%20Kauffman	Draper Kauffman	In January 1942, he was assigned the task of organizing a U.S. Naval Bomb Disposal School at the Washington Navy Yard. This school is one of the forefathers to the Explosive Ordnance Disposal School (NAVSCOLEOD) at the Kauffman Training Facility at Eglin Air Force Base, Florida, which is managed by the Navy and staffed by all services to train the Department of Defense EOD technicians. As an additional duty he assisted the U.S. Army in setting up a comparable school at Aberdeen, Maryland. In June 1943, he organized the first U.S. Navy Combat Demolition Units (NCDUs). They were incorporated into the Underwater Demolition Teams, forerunners of the SEALs. Lt. Commander Kauffman was the first commanding officer of the Naval Combat Demolition Unit, Naval Amphibious Training Base, Fort Pierce, Florida. While there, he also organized and was the first chairman of the Joint Army-Navy Experimental and Testing Board (JANET). In April 1944, he was ordered to the Pacific Fleet and served at; the Naval Combat Demolition Training and Experimental Base, Maui, Hawaii; first as the commanding officer of Underwater Demolition Team 5 (UDT 5); then as senior staff officer, Underwater Demolition Teams, Amphibious Forces, Pacific Fleet; and as Underwater Demolition Training Officer, Amphibious Training Command, Pacific Fleet. As commander of UDT 5, he participated in the invasion of Saipan, and received a second Navy Cross for leading his team on a daylight reconnaissance of hostile beaches under heavy fire, and on 10 July 1944, leading a night reconnaissance of hostile beaches on Tinian island. At Iwo Jima and Okinawa he was the Commander Underwater Demolition Teams. Twice he had to transfer command from a damaged ship to another to carry on operations. At Iwo Jima in 1945, following a hit from an aerial attack on his vessel, he directed fire control efforts despite exploding munitions.	2.6875
7063125	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Wainwright%20%28CG-28%29	USS Wainwright (CG-28)	USS Wainwright (DLG/CG-28), a destroyer leader, was the third ship of the United States Navy to be named for members of the Wainwright family; specifically, Commander Jonathan Mayhew Wainwright, his son, Master Jonathan Mayhew Wainwright Jr., and his cousin, Commander Richard Wainwright, as well as Rear Admiral Richard Wainwright, the son of Commander Richard Wainwright, and Commander Richard Wainwright, the son of Admiral Wainwright. Her keel was laid down on 2 July 1962 at Bath, Maine, by the Bath Iron Works Corporation. She was launched on 25 April 1965 sponsored by Mrs. Richard W. Wainwright; and commissioned on 8 January 1966 at the Boston Naval Shipyard. Shakedown Between January and May, the guided missile cruiser completed her outfitting at Boston, Massachusetts. On 21 May, she departed Boston, initially to test the Navy's newest sonar equipment and then to proceed to her home port, Charleston, South Carolina. During the months of June, July, and early August, she operated out of that port along the eastern seaboard and in the West Indies. During this period, she made six highly successful missile firings on the Atlantic Fleet weapon range and conducted a three-day search for an unidentified submarine contact. Though no positive identification of the submarine could be made, Wainwright did establish contact with her new long-range sonar and then tracked the vessel for a time. On 13 August, the ship returned to Charleston for 15 days of upkeep in preparation for shakedown training, upon which she embarked on 28 August. At the conclusion of shakedown, she proceeded to Culebra Island for both gun and Terrier missile shoots. She returned to Charleston in October to prepare for the annual Atlantic Fleet exercise. On 28 November, the guided missile cruiser stood out of Charleston for 17 days of drills, including replenishment exercises, weapon coordination drills, and formation steaming maneuvers and tactics. She returned home on 16 December and ended the year in a leave and upkeep status. Vietnam War	2.09375
7063125	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Wainwright%20%28CG-28%29	USS Wainwright (CG-28)	On 6 January 1967, Wainwright got underway for Boston and post-shakedown availability. She concluded that repair period and headed back to Charleston on 15 March. Following local operations there, the guided missile destroyer embarked upon her first deployment to the western Pacific on 10 April. She transited the Panama Canal a week later and arrived in San Diego, California, on 23 April. For almost a month, she conducted exercises off the coast of southern California before heading west on 15 May. After brief stops at Pearl Harbor and Guam, Wainwright entered Subic Bay in the Philippines on 3 June. Three days later, she arrived on station in the Tonkin Gulf and, on 8 June, took over positive identification radar advisory zone (PIRAZ) duties from . In that capacity, Wainwright maintained constant radar and visual surveillance of the gulf and adjoining coasts for the purpose of identifying all aircraft in the zone and vectoring defensive forces to the interception of any possible airborne enemy intruders. Because of the relative immobility necessary to those duties, she also served as a reference point to guide American strike aircraft to their targets ashore. Since her duties afforded her a continual picture of the events occurring in the air over the zone, she also served as a base for search and rescue (SAR) helicopters. During that first line period, one SAR helicopter crashed Wainwrights flight deck area; but the damage proved to be minimal, and the destroyer was able to resume full-scale flight operations the following day. Damage to the superstructure of the helicopter storage compartment consisted of a gash provided by a helicopter blade. The helicopter was ordered to be pushed over the side as a result of the damage to it.	2.25
7063125	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Wainwright%20%28CG-28%29	USS Wainwright (CG-28)	The guided missile destroyer ended 1967 and began 1968 at Charleston. On 19 January 1968, she exited her home port and headed for Newport, Rhode Island, where she served as school ship for the Destroyer School from 21 January to 3 February before returning to Charleston on 5 February. Her operations from her home port, including Operation "Rugby Match" exercises in the West Indies, lasted until she sailed for the western Pacific on 24 June. The warship transited the Panama Canal on 29 June, stopped briefly at Pearl Harbor from 11 to 15 July and at Guam on 21 July, and arrived at Subic Bay on 26 July. Four days later, she embarked upon the first tour of combat duty of her 1968 deployment. She stopped at Da Nang for briefings on 2 August and then relieved on PIRAZ station on 4 August. During the following 41 days, she left her station only once – to evade a typhoon – and returned immediately after the storm passed. On 14 September, she turned PIRAZ duties back over to Sterett and steamed off for a month of port visits which included a brief upkeep period at Subic Bay followed by calls at Hong Kong and Yokosuka. On 13 October, she headed from Japan directly to the PIRAZ station and relieved Sterett once more. The 27 days of her second line period passed even more routinely than those of the first, and she cleared the Tonkin Gulf on 15 November for a four-day upkeep in Sasebo from 19 to 23 November. Back on station on 28 November, Wainwright concluded the year as the Navy's air coordinator in the northern portion of the Tonkin Gulf.	2.09375
7063125	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Wainwright%20%28CG-28%29	USS Wainwright (CG-28)	On 16 February 1970, the ship returned to operational status. Training off the Florida coast followed by more of the same off the Virginia Capes occupied her until mid-March. After three days in Charleston, Wainwright got underway for gunnery and missile shoots on the Atlantic Fleet weapons range near Puerto Rico. Refresher training out of Guantanamo Bay followed in April, but it was interrupted by two special assignments. On 26 April, she received orders to intercept three Haitian Coast Guard vessels fleeing that country in the wake of an unsuccessful coup. The ship encountered one near the entrance to Guantanamo Bay; but, observing American port officials boarding the ship peacefully, she continued on her way. Later, Wainwright found the other two ships and escorted them back to Guantanamo Bay for temporary asylum. On 10 May, she put to sea to intercept quite a different force – a Soviet task group. That night, she came upon two of the Russian ships, a guided missile cruiser and a guided missile destroyer. The following day, two submarines, an oiler, and a submarine tender rendezvoused with the first two ships; and all six entered port at Cienfuegos, Cuba, on 14 May. The next day, Wainwright returned to Guantanamo Bay to resume refresher training. Less than a month later, on 12 June, she moored at Charleston for two months of upkeep and training in preparation for her forthcoming deployment to the Far East. On 25 August, the guided missile destroyer stood out of Charleston, bound for her third and final deployment to the western Pacific in conjunction with the Vietnam War. Steaming via the Panama Canal and Pearl Harbor, she arrived in Yokosuka, Japan, on 21 September. For almost two months, she conducted operations in Japanese waters, primarily bilateral ASW exercises in the Sea of Japan with units of the Japanese Maritime Self Defense Force. Periodically, the warship put into Yokosuka and Sasebo for upkeep and liberty.	2.265625
7063125	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Wainwright%20%28CG-28%29	USS Wainwright (CG-28)	After a final two-day stop at Subic Bay, Wainwright began the long voyage back to Charleston which took her through the Indian Ocean, around the Cape of Good Hope, and across the southern Atlantic to complete her first circumnavigation of the globe. Along the way, she made a series of calls at African and South American ports, beginning with Djibouti in French Somaliland. From there, she headed for Massawa, Ethiopia, where she participated in the celebration of the Ethiopian Navy Day, during which she joined ships of other nations in observing the graduation of midshipmen from the Ethiopian Naval Academy and hosted then-Emperor Haile Selassie I on board. She rounded out her African itinerary with calls at Diego Suarez, Madagascar, and at Lourenço Marques, Mozambique, before rounding the cape and heading across the Atlantic toward Brazil. Visits to Rio de Janeiro and Recife in Brazil and at St. Thomas in the Virgin Islands preceded gunfire support training and a missile shoot at Culebra Island. On 2 April, Wainwright steamed into Charleston and began an extended standdown period. Wainwright received four battle stars for service in the Vietnam War. Post-Vietnam service	2.140625
7063125	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Wainwright%20%28CG-28%29	USS Wainwright (CG-28)	Upon completion of a 59-day post-deployment stand-down, Wainwright resumed operations early in June as a unit of the Atlantic Fleet Cruiser-Destroyer Force. She spent much of June in the Caribbean Sea undergoing gunnery and missile training and returned to Charleston on 19 June. Four days later, work began on the installation of a Light Airborne Multi-Purpose System (LAMPS). Those modifications were completed by mid-July, and Wainwright occupied the following four months with operations along the eastern seaboard in conjunction with the initial evaluation of her LAMPS helicopter. A tender availability followed by the conversion of her propulsion plant to burn Navy distillate fuel brought the year to a close at Charleston. The warship completed the conversion on 11 January 1972 and had resumed operations at sea out of Charleston by 24 January. For the next nine months, she tested her new LAMPS installation, made port visits to Atlantic and gulf coast ports, and participated in the usual Second Fleet exercises. Those duties took her from the southeastern coast of Texas to the West Indies and thence as far north as Maine. By late November, she was at Charleston preparing for her first tour of duty in the Mediterranean Sea. On 1 December, Wainwright stood out of Charleston and set a course for Rota, Spain, where she arrived on 10 December. After changing operational control from the Second Fleet to the Sixth Fleet, the guided missile destroyer departed Rota on 11 December and entered the Mediterranean Sea. Conducting ASW and antiair warfare (AAW) exercises, the warship headed across the Mediterranean, stopping at Barcelona from 20 to 26 December and arriving in Naples, Italy, on 30 December. She departed that port on 6 January 1973, and headed for the Ionian Sea. During ASW exercises in Greek waters, Wainwright contacted, tracked, and positively identified four Soviet submarines in spite of their strenuous efforts to evade.	2.328125
7063125	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Wainwright%20%28CG-28%29	USS Wainwright (CG-28)	Upon completing those exercises, she headed for the southern coast of France, arriving in Marseille on 17 January for a two-day visit. More AAW exercises followed, as did port visits to Palma de Mallorca, Málaga, and Genoa. On 17 February, she departed Genoa in company with the Italian cruiser Vittorio Veneto to participate in National Week XV, a multinational naval exercise of broad scope conducted across the Central Mediterranean. In addition to the Americans and Italians, units of the Greek and Turkish navies also participated in drills and battle exercises extending westward from Crete to the Strait of Messina between Sicily and the toe of the Italian boot. After National Week XV, Wainwright punctuated a series of Sixth Fleet ASW and AAW exercises with visits to many of the ports already mentioned as well as at Athens, Civitavecchia, Livorno, and Golfe Juan. On 17 June, she steamed from Palma de Mallorca through the Strait of Gibraltar to Rota on the Atlantic coast of Spain. There, she turned her duties over to on 21 June. That same day, she departed Rota for Lisbon, where she joined and in preparation for a transatlantic exercise to test the concept of the sea control ship. The three warships departed Lisbon on 28 June. The exercise lasted from 28 June to 8 July, during which time Wainwright vectored Guam-based Harrier II aircraft to the interception of two Soviet "Bear" aircraft. Just before the conclusion of the exercise on 8 July, Wainwright ventured across the Arctic Circle briefly before setting a course for Charleston. The guided missile destroyer concluded her first Mediterranean deployment on 20 July and began her standdown period at Charleston. On 10 September, she entered the Charleston Naval Shipyard for her second regular overhaul.	2.375
7063125	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Wainwright%20%28CG-28%29	USS Wainwright (CG-28)	Wainwright completed sea trials, the final phase of overhaul, between 10 and 14 June 1974 and officially rejoined the Atlantic Fleet on 20 June at the Charleston Naval Station. For the remainder of the year, the warship was busy with refresher training, a myriad of tests, qualifications, inspections, and evaluations, and other normal Second Fleet operations conducted along the southern Atlantic coast and in the Caribbean. The beginning of 1975 brought another period in drydock, this time at the Norfolk Naval Shipyard, for repairs to her sonar dome. She returned to Charleston on 1 February 1975 and resumed tests and inspections in preparation for her second deployment to European waters. On 5 March, she stood down the Cooper River on her way to Europe. En route to the Mediterranean, the guided missile destroyer joined and in a series of ASW, surface, and air action drills, at the conclusion of which Wainwright continued on her way to Spain. She changed operational control to the Sixth Fleet while at Rota between 15 and 17 March. The warship entered the "middle sea" on the latter date and arrived in Naples, her first Mediterranean port of call, on 22 March. As during her previous Mediterranean cruise, she engaged in one training exercise after another, but interrupted that schedule almost as frequently for port calls all along the Mediterranean coast of Europe. Late in April, a missile-firing exercise was interrupted by a snoopy Soviet destroyer and had to be postponed until the following day.	2.265625
7063125	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS%20Wainwright%20%28CG-28%29	USS Wainwright (CG-28)	The battle, the largest for American surface forces since World War II, sank two Iranian warships and as many as six armed speedboats. It also marked the first surface-to-surface missile engagement in U.S. Navy history. The attack by the U.S. helped pressure Iran to agree to a ceasefire with Iraq later that summer, ending the eight-year conflict between the Persian Gulf neighbors. On 18 April 1988, the Americans responded with several groups of surface warships, plus airplanes from the carrier . The action began with coordinated strikes by two surface groups. One group, consisting of two destroyers and the amphibious transport dock , attacked the Sassan oil platform while the other, which included the guided missile cruiser, Wainwright and two frigates, attacked the Sirri oil platform. U.S. Marines from Marine Air-Ground Task Force (MAGTF) 2-88 fast-roped onto the Sassan platform, gathered intelligence, and set explosives to disable it. Iran responded by dispatching Boghammar speedboats to attack various targets in the Persian Gulf, including an American-flagged supply ship and a Panamanian-flagged ship. After these attacks, A-6E Intruder aircraft from VA-95 were vectored in on the speedboats by an American frigate. The two aircraft, dropped Rockeye II cluster bombs on the speedboats, sinking one and damaging several others. Action continued to escalate. Joshan, an Iranian Kaman-class (La Combattante II type) fast attack craft, challenged Wainwright and her surface group, firing a Harpoon missile at Wainwright. Wainwright responded to the challenge by firing four Standard missiles. After damage assessment of Joshan, fired one Harpoon missile at Joshan; however, Joshans superstructure had been destroyed by the previous attacks, so the missile did not strike the target. The three ships of Surface Action Group Charlie closed on Joshan, destroying it with naval gunfire.	2.3125
7063216	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top%20Skater	Top Skater	Top Skater is an arcade skateboarding sports video game released by Sega in 1997, and built on the Sega Model 2 hardware. It was one of the first arcade games to feature a skateboard controller interface. The game was directed by Kenji Kanno. In Top Skater, players stand on a skateboard-like platform which swung side-to-side or tilted, manipulating the actions of the avatars in the game. The game has ramps, rails and other skating objects from which the player can do tricks to gain points. The player has a limited amount of time in which to perform tricks, but can extend this time by collecting time bonus rings or by performing certain tricks. Kenji Kanno went on to create the Crazy Taxi series, which has similar character art design and music. Top Skater also served as a basic foundation for later skateboarding games including Activision's Tony Hawk's series. Top Skater had a sequel called Air Trix, released by Sega for arcades in 2001. Development The game was directed by Kenji Kanno and produced by AM3 general manager Hisao Oguchi. The AM3 team wanted to make Top Skater a game which would allow players to explore unrealistically large skateboarding courses and perform the fantasy tricks associated with skateboarding's image, rather than a realistic simulation. Because of this, recreating some of the tricks for motion capture would require an unusually large studio with equipment to propel the motion capture actor through the air, so all the animation was done by hand. The primary target audience for the game was young Americans. None of the development team members skateboarded; instead, they watched professional skateboarders both live and on video for research. An AM3 member explained the game's trick-based approach: "It wouldn't make any sense to make a skateboard racing game. You don't need to skateboard as fast as you can. I just wanted to make the game cool and fashionable. If the game were a racing game you wouldn't want to do any tricks as you'd be absorbed in trying to race as fast as possible."	2.15625
7063291	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hockey%20card	Hockey card	A hockey card is a type of trading card typically printed on some sort of card stock, featuring one or more ice hockey players or other hockey-related theme and are typically found in countries such as Canada, the United States, Finland and Sweden where hockey is a popular sport and there are professional leagues. The obverse normally features an image of the subject with identifying information such as name and team. The reverse can feature statistics, biographical information, or as many early cards did, advertising. There is no fixed size or shape of hockey cards, running the gamut from rectangular to circular, however modern North American cards have typically standardized on a rectangular format. History The first hockey cards were included in cigarette packages from 1910 to 1913, manufactured by Imperial Tobacco Canada for the inaugural NHL season. The 1910 set had a total of 36 cards, each one featuring an illustration of a player. After World War I, only one more cigarette set was issued, during the 1924–25 season by Champ's Cigarettes. NHL player Billy Coutu's biography includes an example of one of the 40 cards issued at that time. During the 1920s, some hockey cards were printed by food and candy companies, such as Paulin's Candy, Maple Crispette, Crescent, Holland Creameries and La Patrie. Through to 1941, O-Pee-Chee printed hockey cards, stopping production for World War II. Presumably, the 1941 involvement of the U.S. in the war affected the hockey card market, since Canada had been in the war since 1939. Hockey cards next appeared during 1951–52, issued by Toronto's Parkhurst Products. Brooklyn's Topps Chewing Gum began printing hockey cards in 1954–1955. Parkhurst and Topps did not produce cards for the 1955–56 season but returned for 1957–58. In the 1960s, some hockey card and hockey coin sets were issued by food companies, including Shirriff Desserts, Salada Tea and York Peanut Butter.	2.5
7063324	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%20Earp	Newton Earp	Newton Jasper Earp (October 7, 1837 – December 18, 1928) was an American pioneer born in Kentucky in 1837. He was the eldest child of Nicholas Porter Earp and Abigail Storm. He was the half-brother of Old West lawmen Wyatt, Virgil, and Morgan Earp. He was in the Union army during the Civil War, serving as a part of the 4th Iowa Cavalry, and eventually mustered out with the rank of corporal. Departing the army in 1865 he went to Missouri to farm on the land of his father near Lamar, then lost an election for constable five years later at Lamar. In 1871 he moved to Kansas, near the town of Stearling, Rice County where he was a farmer and pioneer settler, and thence to Garden City, in which town he rose quickly, becoming marshal for some time. He was said to have hunted buffalo in 1873 near Peace, Kansas. He had also migrated to Wyoming and Nevada, probably settling in the towns of Casper and Paradise before moving to California. Newton was a Mason and died in 1928. Early life and Civil War service Newton was born in Ohio County, Kentucky, to Nicholas Earp and his first wife, Abigail Storm. His mother died when he was two. Newton Earp, and half-brothers James and Virgil, were close for their entire lives. He married Jennie (last name unknown) in 1854. She died before 1887. He ran against his younger half-brother Wyatt for the office of constable. The Earps may have hoped to keep the job in the family one way or another. Wyatt won by 137 votes to Newton's 108, but their father Nicholas lost the election for justice of the peace in a very close four-way race.	2.03125
7063487	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Bed%20of%20Nails%20%28Yes%20Minister%29	The Bed of Nails (Yes Minister)	The episode is often credited in the UK professional community as being the source of the term 'integrated transport'. A 'Commission for Integrated Transport' was established in 1998 "to provide independent advice to Government on the implementation of integrated transport policy, to monitor developments across transport, environment, health and other sectors and to review progress towards meeting our objectives" (this was abolished in the 2010 spending review). In 2008 the passenger transport authorities in a number of major UK conurbations were renamed integrated transport authorities. By 2010 the Department for Transport had an 'Integrated Transport Economics and Appraisal' unit which included in its remit to "develop a strategic National Transport Model for use by the Department in the assessment of a range of transport policy options. The Model uses data on how people travel according to their circumstances and where they live. It takes into account the choices available and the use people make of the different modes of transport—car, rail, bus, walk and cycle." New Labour's first transport white paper A New Deal for Transport: Better for everyone in 1997 led to the formation of Transport Direct which established an information system to "deliver an integrated and comprehensive information service for all travel modes and mode combinations" and also to "develop integrated information and ticket sales for journeys involving more than one mode of transport". The first aim was achieved in 2004, but a comprehensive national ticketing system was not. The Integrated Transport Smartcard Organisation was established in 2001 to develop and maintain the relevant data standards for electronic ticketing. Some regional systems are in use and the Oyster card does allow travel on mainline rail and the London Underground in the London area. In 2010 the new government announced that it would introduce a national smart card ticketing system to make multi-modal journeys easy and seamless by 2014.	2.109375
7063495	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mander%20family	Mander family	The Mander family has held for over 200 years a prominent position in the Midland counties of England, both in the family business and public life. In the early Industrial Revolution, the Mander family entered the vanguard of the expansion of Wolverhampton, on the edge of the largest manufacturing conurbation in the British Isles. Mander Brothers was a major employer in the city of Wolverhampton, a progressive company which became the Number One manufacturers of varnish, paint and later printing ink in the British Empire. The family became distinguished for public service, art patronage and philanthropy. Charles Tertius Mander (1852–1929) was created the first baronet of The Mount in the baronetage of the United Kingdom in the Coronation honours of George V, on 8 July 1911. Early history The family were franklins, settled by 1291 at Tredington on the Warwickshire/Worcestershire borders of Midland England. The Wolverhampton family descends from Henry Mander (1601–72), of Aston Cantlow, whose son, Samuel Mander, migrated about 1695 to Lapworth Hall (also known as 'Irelands'), where the family remained for about 200 years. In 1742, his grandson Thomas Mander (1720–1764), a younger son, migrated a few miles north to Wolverhampton, then a market town of just 7,500 people. There he settled as a merchant, maltster and manufacturer, and in due course inherited property from the family of his wife, Elizabeth Clemson, in John Street, which today forms the core of the modern city. Family members	2.296875
7063495	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mander%20family	Mander family	(Samuel) Theodore Mander (1853–1900), paint and varnish manufacturer, public servant and philanthropist, was the eldest of seven children of Samuel Small Mander. He was educated at London and Berlin Universities, and at Clare College, Cambridge. He entered the partnership of Mander Brothers with his first cousin Charles Tertius Mander in 1879. As a Congregationalist with a fervent interest in the arts and education, he was active in the building of the Wolverhampton Free Library, governor of several local schools and of Birmingham University (where he endowed a scholarship), and one of the founding benefactors of Mansfield College, Oxford, the first Nonconformist college in the university, as his father had been of Tettenhall College, established in 1862 for the children of those disadvantaged for their religious principles. A selection of his journals and letters was edited and published in 1996. He was an art collector and patron, and is remembered as the builder of Wightwick Manor in 1887 and 1893 to the designs of Edward Ould, with decorations and furnishings by C.E. Kempe, William Morris and William de Morgan, which was given by his son Geoffrey Mander to the National Trust in 1937. He was an alderman and magistrate, who died in office as Mayor of Wolverhampton at Wightwick Manor on 14 September 1901 at the early age of 47, when he was given a civic funeral.	2.140625
7063495	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mander%20family	Mander family	Sir Geoffrey Le Mesurier Mander (1882–1962), was the eldest son of (Samuel) Theodore Mander, the builder of Wightwick Manor. He was a Midland industrialist and chairman of Mander Brothers, an art collector and radical parliamentarian. He was the Member of Parliament for Wolverhampton East from May 1929 until he lost his seat in the Labour Party landslide at the 1945 general election. He was the Liberal Party specialist on foreign policy between the wars, strongly anti-Appeasement and a crusader on behalf of the League of Nations. He gave Wightwick Manor, with its outstanding collections of Victorian art, to the National Trust in 1937. His second wife, Rosalie Glynn Grylls, was a biographer of writers and artists (particularly female "Pre-Raphael-ladies") of the Romantic period, and an early authority on William Morris and the Pre-Raphaelite movement. His autobiography was published posthumously in 2021 as Lemons for Chamberlain: The Life and Backbench Career of Geoffrey Mander MP, edited by Patricia Pegg. Sir Frederick Mander FEIS (1883–1964) was a headmaster and trade unionist and the General Secretary of the National Union of Teachers (NUT) from 1931 to 1947. Mander College of Further Education in Bedford College was named after him. Born in Luton, Bedfordshire, he was descended from the above Henry Mander of Aston Cantlow.	1.992188
7063495	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mander%20family	Mander family	Miles Mander (1888–1946), younger brother of Geoffrey, broke away from the mould of public service and industry, and became a well-known character actor of the Hollywood cinema of the 1930s and 1940s, and film director, playwright and novelist. He was an early aviator and racing car enthusiast, who spent his 20s in New Zealand farming sheep. He achieved success in films with The First Born which he directed and acted in, and which was based on his own novel and play. He is better remembered for his character portrayals of oily types, many of them upper-crust villains – such as Cardinal Richelieu in The Three Musketeers (1939). In his Hollywood debut, he portrayed King Louis XIII in the 1935 version of that same Alexandre Dumas, père classic. Other films credits included Wuthering Heights with Laurence Olivier and Merle Oberon. His first wife was an Indian princess, Princess Prativa Sundari Devi, the daughter of the Maharajah Nripendra Narayan of Cooch Behar. His youngest brother Alan married her sister, Princess Sudhira. John Mander (1932–1978), a British political commentator, writer, translator from the German, editor and poet, was the younger son of Geoffrey Mander by his second wife, the author and biographer Rosalie Glynn Grylls. Raymond Mander (1911–1983), theatre historian, author and collector. Together with Joe Mitchenson, he was the founder of the Mander and Mitchenson Theatre Collection (MMTC) of theatrical memorabilia and archives, since 2010 housed in the Theatre Collection of the University of Bristol. Lewis Norman Mander, , FAA, FRS (1939–2020) was an Australian organic chemist; of the New Zealand branch of the family, he was born in Auckland. He has widely explored the synthesis and chemistry of the gibberellin class of diterpenes over a 20-year period at the Australian National University (ANU).	2.15625
7063615	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonthi%20Boonyaratglin	Sonthi Boonyaratglin	He also suggested that the term in office of village heads and kamnan be increased from 5 years to 10 years, while the role of elected tambon administrative organisations be reduced. Relations with Singapore In 2006, Thaksin Shinawatra sold his shares in telecom firm Shin Corp to Temasek Holdings. The sale also transferred control of Shin Corp's five satellites (including IPSTAR, the world's largest commercial satellite) and mobile phone operator to the Singaporean company. After the coup, Sonthi claimed that Singapore was eavesdropping on confidential mobile telephone calls made by junta leaders. AIS and Shin Satellite, Shin Corp's mobile operator and satellite operator, denied the claim. In February 2007, Sonthi vowed in front of a thousand volunteer territorial defence students to reclaim the satellites and other telecom assets. "Soldiers will not tolerate a loss of territory, not even a square inch," he said, and continued about how it was his specific duty to "retrieve our assets". Sonthi stopped short of threatening to nationalise the telecommunications conglomerate. An opinion poll found more than 78 percent of 1,116 Thais surveyed backed Sonthi's bid to somehow reclaim the satellites. Sonthi's deputy in the CNS, General Saprang Kalayanamitr, noted in a February interview that, "if the telecommunication business is in private hands, it won't be safe for the country." Human rights Human Rights Watch accused the Thai Army, under Sonthi's command, of "disappearing" ethnic Malay Muslims in the far south in a deliberate attempt to defeat the South Thailand insurgency. "These 'disappearances' appear to be a matter of policy, not simply the work of rogue elements in the security services," said the agency in a report.	1.96875
7063693	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel%20Mosberg	Samuel Mosberg	Olympic gold medalist, 1920 Mosberg did not perform well enough in the Olympic trials in Boston to be placed on the two-person American lightweight boxing team, but was picked as an alternate and sailed to the Olympics in Antwerp, Belgium in August 1920. He was selected for the team when he defeated a higher-ranking team member, black boxer Ben Pontieu, in a match on the boat ride. Mosberg also claimed to have beaten Pontieu earlier that year in an Eastern elimination tournament prior to the trials, and admired his skills and technique. In 1952, he claimed Pontieu was a better boxer than those he would later meet in the Olympics. The New York Age told a different version of Pontieu's Olympic trails experience, but omitted that Mosberg had beaten Pontieu prior to the Olympics. With an exceptional performance in his Olympic showing on August 23, 1920, Mosberg knocked out his Semi-Final competitor, rugged South African, Richard Beland, only seconds into the first round, establishing what might have been an Olympic record at the time for fastest knockout. Not long after the opening bell, Mosberg feinted, and connected with a powerful hook to Beland's chin that sent his opponent to the canvas for the count and ended the bout. In his Olympic Finals match on August 24, he defeated Danish boxer Gottfred Johansen, and claimed the gold medal. In one of his proudest moments, he was presented with his medal by King Albert of Belgium in an Olympic ceremony. His Olympic coach, Spike Webb, the long serving boxing coach for the US Olympics, and Naval Academy's teams, commented once that Mosberg was the greatest Olympic champion he had ever coached.	2.4375
7063693	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel%20Mosberg	Samuel Mosberg	In his first professional match, on December 7, 1920, Mosberg defeated Frank Cassidy, in a close ten-round newspaper decision of the Philadelphia Record at the Fourth Regiment Armory in New Jersey. Other newspapers wrote that Mosberg had clearly won on points scoring, but admitted the bout was close. Cassidy had the stronger punching in the bout, but Mosberg was credited with greater speed, and started off with a points lead in the first two rounds. In the closing round, Cassidy bore in to Mosberg with strong body blows, leading at least one reporter to write that the bout was a draw. Mosberg was happy to face Cassidy, who had decisioned him in the Olympic finals in Boston earlier that year. Cassidy had been a great amateur boxer who was an AAU Champion in 1918 and New York State Amateur boxing champion in 1919. But Mosberg knew Cassidy's fighting style and was willing to prove he could defeat his former Olympic rival in a final meeting. Dave Driscoll had promoted the bout, and got Mosberg $1,500 for the well-attended match. The boxing card included Mosberg's friend and future lightweight contender Mel Coogan against Jewish boxer Eddie Wallace. It also featured future light heavyweight champion Gene Tunney, the "fighting Marine". Mosberg was praised for his aggressive boxing, and claimed to have been particularly skilled in infighting in his early career. In his second bout, on the afternoon of December 25, 1920, Mosberg defeated Paul Edwards, a more experienced and proven opponent than Cassidy, in a decisive ten-round unanimous decision at the Commonwealth Sporting Club in New York. Both boxers were from New York's East Side, and the fighting was fast and furious, with Mosberg landing more blows and more telling ones than his opponent. Mosberg "made a chopping block" out of his more experienced opponent, but though he tried desperately, was unable to put him away in the later rounds, as Edwards assimilated the blows and sailed in for more	2.203125
7063693	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel%20Mosberg	Samuel Mosberg	On December 26, 1921, Mosberg lost to fellow Jewish boxer Harry "Kid" Brown in a close eight-round newspaper decision of three Philadelphia newspapers before a partisan crowd at the Olympic Athletic Club in Philadelphia. Brown, a native Philadelphian, was a formidable opponent with a powerful punch, an enviable record, and a deadly 30% knockout rate in his winning matches. Their bout was considered the fastest of the day, and Mosberg had to use his best defensive skills to avoid the power of his opponent. The respected New York Evening World, Mosberg's hometown newspaper, believed Mosberg had won the close bout, taking five of the eight rounds, and had skillfully dropped Brown to the canvas in the fourth. The World further noted that he had weakened Brown throughout the bout with strong body punches and deserved the decision. In their second and last match together, Mosberg lost to Harry Brown in February 1922 in a close eight-round points decision at Madison Square Garden. Mosberg later claimed he was out of shape for the bout, as he had been called at the last minute to substitute for another boxer. Their semi-final match was fought before a large audience who would later see Benny Leonard fight Rocky Kansas in the final match. The fast and close contest featured a great deal of clinching, that kept the referee busy separating the wary combatants who knew the skills of their opponent from their previous fight. Mosberg's lack of conditioning may have explained his need to clinch so frequently. Mosberg was in a rough and close twelve-round fight on April 22, 1922, with Mickey Donley at the Clermont Avenue Rink in Brooklyn. Mossberg knocked Donley to the canvas in the opening round, but the majority of the bout was even, though the boxers mixed it up throughout.	2.125
7063693	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel%20Mosberg	Samuel Mosberg	Eddie Fitzsimmons, June 1922 On June 26, 1922, Mosberg was knocked out a few seconds into the first round by southpaw Eddie Fitzsimmons in an important twelve-round, semi-final match before a huge crowd of 20,000 at New York's Bronx Velodrome. Fitzsimmons was an unusually powerful lightweight, with over 50% of his wins by knockout and a good record against most of the better lightweights of the 1920s. Mosberg, in an interview in 1948, claimed Fitzsimmons had hit him with his powerful left when he went to shake hands shortly after the opening bell. The large crowd had come to see Benny Leonard meet welterweight champion Jack Britton in the final match but first watched the Mosberg bout. The powerful Fitzsimmons had beaten future world Junior Welterweight champion Pinky Mitchell and had fared well against the great lightweights Johnny Dundee, Pal Moran, and New York Jewish battler Lou Tendler. He had also won decisive victories over Chicagoan Jewish lightweight Charley White, New York Jewish lightweight Phil Bloom and 1920 Connecticut state welterweight champion Lou Bogash. Mosberg felt badly about the loss and was hoping for a rematch when he was called to fight in Australia. Loss to Australian light champ, Hughie Dwyer, 1922 Mosberg boxed in Australia in 1922, losing a decision to new Australian national lightweight champion Hughie Dwyer in a long and grueling twenty-round non-title fight in Brisbane on November 25, but defeating 5-foot-3-inch Filipino Silvino Jamito on December 9, who lacked his reach and power, in another twenty-round bout. In the Dwyer bout, Mosberg received a hard bash in the second that rocked him, but dropped Dwyer briefly in the sixteenth, using an effective defense to remain on his feet throughout the historic match. Mosberg later claimed Dwyer was not a hard puncher, and typical of his English style, favored long-range boxing and retreating to the close-range infighting that was characteristic of American boxing in the era.	2.0625
7063727	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shri%20Venkateswara%20%28Balaji%29%20Temple	Shri Venkateswara (Balaji) Temple	The Shri Venkateswara (Balaji) Temple () is a large functioning Hindu temple in the United Kingdom, Europe. It is dedicated in the Vaishnava tradition to a form of the supreme Hindu god Maha Vishnu, who is believed to be the preserver and protector of the universe. The temple is located in Tividale, West Midlands, England between the suburbs of Tipton and Oldbury, northwest of Birmingham city. The temple was designed with inspiration from the Tirupati Venkateswara Temple in Andhra Pradesh, India. The temple was consecrated and opened to the general public in August 2006. The primary deity worshiped at this temple is Venkateswara, a well known manifestation of the supreme lord Maha Vishnu (He is one of the three supreme gods in the Hindu triumvirate, along with Brahma and Shiva, who are responsible for the creation, maintenance, and destruction of the world). Within the main temple complex are also shrines to his consort Padmavati (Alamelu). The temple also houses shrines to other major Hindu deities such as Hanuman, Shiva, Karthikeya, Ganesh, Ayappan and the Navagraha. The temple runs the Balaji School for Culture & Education which provides spiritual and cultural foundation for children and arranges classes on Veda (Hindu scriptures), music etc. The temple has a large Community Hall. The temple also provides free Matrimonial service by helps one find a suitable marriage partner.	2.4375
7063813	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tract%20index	Tract index	A tract index is a document which summarizes real property transactions in certain U.S. states and may be available in the offices of Recorder of deeds. Layout and content The information is organized by section, with a section relating to one square mile. Each section is presented in a two-page representation, usually by presenting the northwest quarter-section as the top half of the left page. The other quarter-sections are placed in map relationship to the northwest. In each quarter-section area, all transfers are listed in chronological order, often regardless of any subdivisions of the quarter-section. Each entry includes several cross-reference details, such as the names of the grantor (seller) and grantee (purchaser), the description of the parcel, the volume and page of the Deed books, the date, and other identifying characteristics of the transfer (for example, the type of deed). Typically, when one quarter-section fills with its listings of transactions, a new set of pages is begun in the same volume or a later volume, so that all transactions in a period are found in the same volume. The number of sections within a jurisdiction dictates how many volumes are needed for a single period. In comparison to the atlas (also called a plat map or cadastral map), which is a graphic representation of land ownership in a township for the date of publication, the tract index is relatively dynamic. However, the most accurate information results from use of the tract index together with the grantor-grantee index and the recorded deeds or mortgages themselves. Availability Only a few states require their recording offices to maintain this type of index. Among these states are Nebraska, North Dakota, Oklahoma, South Dakota, Utah and Wyoming. In addition, some other states permit recording offices to maintain tract indexes (for example, Kansas, Minnesota, Montana, Ohio, and Wisconsin).	2.609375
7063882	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road%20Traffic%20Act%201930	Road Traffic Act 1930	The Road Traffic Act 1930 (20 & 21 Geo. 5. c. 43) is an act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom introduced by the Minister of Transport Herbert Morrison. Context The last major legislation on road traffic was the Motor Car Act 1903. Amendments had been discussed in 1905, 1911, 1913 and 1914 as the Motor Car Act (1903) Amendment Bill and Motor Car Act (1903) Amendment (No 2) Bill. Since 1926 in which there were 4,886 fatalities in some 124,000 crashes a detailed set of national statistics (now known as Road Casualties Great Britain) had been collected. It was not until 1929 that a new Road Traffic Bill was discussed in detail following a Royal Commission report on Transport, "The control of traffic on roads," which was adopted almost in its entirety. During a parliamentary debate on making speedometers compulsory in 1932 it was suggested that speed limits for cars were removed by this Act because "the existing speed limit was so universally disobeyed that its maintenance brought the law into contempt" rather that for considerations of safety. Clauses The Act repealed the Locomotives Act 1865, the Locomotives on Highways Act 1896 and the Motor Car Act 1903 and introduced many new regulations which controversially included the removal of all speed limits on UK roads for motor cars. Relating to motor cars Abolition of all speed limits for cars Introduction of driving offences of dangerous, reckless and careless driving and driving whilst being unfit and under the influence of drink or drugs Compulsory third-party insurance The first UK driving tests for disabled drivers only Classification of motor vehicles Construction, weight and equipment of motor vehicles Issue of Highway Code For public service vehicles Central regulation of UK coach services Introduction of a 30-mile an hour speed limit for buses and coaches. Issue of public service vehicles Rules regarding the conduct of drivers, conductors and passengers on public service vehicles. Limitation of hours of continuous driving	2.703125
7063886	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry%20Mallin	Harry Mallin	Henry William Mallin (1 June 1892 – 8 November 1969) was an English middleweight amateur boxer. He came originally from Hackney Wick, his younger brother was the Olympic boxer Fred Mallin. He lived in Dartmouth Park, North London and was a police officer with the Metropolitan Police. Boxing career Mallin was Amateur Boxing Association British middleweight champion five years in a row from 1919 to 1923. He was also world champion in the middleweight class between 1920 and 1928. He never lost an amateur bout and never turned professional. In the 1920 Summer Olympics he won a gold medal in middleweight division, defeating Canadian boxer Georges Prud'Homme in the final. In 1924 he went on to win another gold in the same weight class. In that year, he met Roger Brousse of France in the quarter-finals, and after the decision came down 2–1 in favour of Brousse, Mallin showed the referee fresh teeth marks on his chest, which further examination proved that Mallin had definitely been bitten by his French opponent. Brousse was disqualified, clearing the way for Mallin to win his second gold medal. After the incident versus Brousse, Mallin was referred to by one reporter as "the unroasted human beef of Old England". Mallin was the first to successfully defend an Olympic title in two consecutive games, and still remains the only male British boxer to do so until Nicola Adams repeated the feat in 2016. He retired undefeated after over 300 bouts. Subsequently, he managed the British Olympic boxing teams at the 1936 and 1952 Summer Olympics. In 1937, he achieved the distinction of being the first British television sports commentator, when he gave commentary on two boxing matches that were broadcast by the BBC from Alexandra Palace. Henry Mallin died at a nursing home in Lewisham in November 1969.	1.914063
7063916	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central%20U.S.%20hardwood%20forests	Central U.S. hardwood forests	The central U.S. hardwood forests comprise a temperate broadleaf and mixed forests ecoregion in the Eastern United States, as defined by the World Wildlife Fund. It has one of the most diverse herbaceous plant floras of ecoregions in North America. Setting This is a large region, mainly of rolling plain except for the Ozark plateau and other smaller areas of plateau and basin in Kentucky and Tennessee. The region contains the large system of sandstone caves in Mammoth Cave National Park. The region was designated by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) and is a fraction of what others consider the Central Hardwood Forest of the Central Hardwood Region, which would include the northern hardwood forest to the north. Flora The pre-Columbian dominant ecosystems in this region were oak savannas with woodlands and forests of oak and hickory. Today only small areas of oak and hickory woodland remain, mixed with dogwoods, sassafras trees and hop hornbeams. The ecoregion contains large areas of prairie as well as wetter meadows that are home to tulip trees and sweetgums. Fauna Birds of the woodlands include vireos and tanagers while mammals include bobcats, white-tailed deer, Eastern gray squirrels, chipmunks, raccoons and opossums. Threats The dominance of oak in this part of the pre-Columbian savannas of North America was due to frequent fires. The fire suppression policies since the 1930s have been a significant forest disturbance.	2.6875
7063916	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central%20U.S.%20hardwood%20forests	Central U.S. hardwood forests	Today there is very little intact habitat in this ecoregion, with a reduction of bottomland hardwood forests by 70–95%, and only 0.02 percent of the original oak savannas remain. Although much of the area is forested, these forests tend to be highly fragmented and significantly altered by development, agriculture, and fire suppression. The forests are dominated primarily by oak and hickory species, but succession has filled the understory with maples and yellow poplar and blocking oak regeneration. In some areas, habitat is threatened by urbanization and invasive species such as non-native privet, honeysuckle, garlic mustard and kudzu. Significant natural areas in the ecoregion include: Wolf River (Tennessee), the Cedar glades and the western Highland Rim of Tennessee; Mammoth Cave National Park; the Land Between the Lakes National Recreation Area of Tennessee and Kentucky; Hoosier National Forest and Yellowwood State Forest in southern Indiana; the Edge of Appalachia Preserve in Ohio; the Cache River (Illinois) wetlands and the Shawnee Hills in southern Illinois; and the Ozarks in Missouri including Mark Twain National Forest. The best preserved of these are Mammoth Cave, Edge of Appalachia, and parts of the Missouri Ozarks and the Tennessee Cedar Glades.	2.671875
7063965	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aponogeton%20crispus	Aponogeton crispus	Aponogeton crispus, the crinkled aponogeton or ruffled sword plant, is an aquatic plant species in the family Aponogetonaceae. Description It is a seasonally submerged aquatic plant with a round rhizome 2–3 cm and up to 5 cm in diameter. The leaves are light green to olive green-brown, 8 – 14 inches (20–35 cm) long and 2.5 inches (6 cm) broad, with a wavy margin and a petiole up to 18 inches (45 cm) long; wild plants tend to have longer and narrower leaves than the cultivated varieties. No floating leaves are formed. The flowers are produced on an erect stem up to 80 cm tall with an apical white (- pink) spike-like raceme up to 18 cm long; each flower is small, with a 2 mm perianth and six stamens. The flowers are scented, and a flowering spike will last 1 – 2 weeks. The seeds are elliptical, 5–6 mm long and 2 mm diameter. Many plants sold in the aquarium trade are actually hybrids and many are sterile. The genuine plant never has leaves that float on the surface of the water. It is a protected plant in Sri Lanka, where A. crispus is banned from exportation under Section 24 (1) of Forest Ordinance. Distribution and habitat Aponogeton crispus is native to India, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. It usually occurs in seasonal ponds, becoming dormant in the dry season, Aponogeton crispus is found naturally in both still and running waters. Cultivation and uses Aponogeton crispus is often cultivated as an aquarium plant and is probably the easiest and most robust of the aponogetons. It requires a mineral-rich substrate where carbon dioxide is easily available in the form of carbonic acid.	2.671875
7063965	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aponogeton%20crispus	Aponogeton crispus	It prefers moderate to bright lighting from above, and will tolerate a wide temperature range, c. 15 – 32C. It does better planted in an established aquarium because of its liking for a nutrient rich environment. When these conditions are met a mass of leaves will be formed and flowering will often occur. It doesn't normally need a dormant period under aquarium conditions but will sometimes lose its larger leaves and can be rested in cooler water for about two months; hence it is often grown in removable pots. A. crispus is one of the aponogetons that eventually require a dry storage during a dormancy, of which the onset is recognized by the gradual ripening off and loss of leaves. Propagation is by seed or by carefully splitting the rhizome. The seeds have two prolongations which in horizontal position get curved and stuck into marshy ground forming the initial roots. Flowers can be pollinated with a soft brush and the resulting seeds sown in a propagator at normal room temperatures. They take several weeks to germinate. When both leaves and roots can be seen they can be potted in a peat-based compost and covered with water.	2.875
7063977	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East%20Kent%20Road%20Car%20Company	East Kent Road Car Company	During the Second World War, East Kent vehicles were regular targets for enemy aircraft and their long-range guns, from across the Channel on the French coast, after the fall of France. To try to combat this, the cream-coloured roofs of the buses were repainted grey to help make them less visible. The company experienced many vehicle losses during this time, especially at Dover where the garage suffered a direct hit in 1942, killing several staff. Lots of the vehicles had been lent out or contracted away, some stationed in the Midlands; and this, coupled with those written off by enemy action, led to severe shortages. This was alleviated, somewhat, with the delivery of 10 Guy Arabs with utility Park Royal bodywork. Post-war After the war, orders were placed for 50 Leyland Tiger PS1 coaches and 60 Dennis Lancet single decker service buses. These arrived between 1946 and 1949. In September 1946, East Kent ordered 50 Leyland Titan PD1As with Leyland bodywork. These were delivered in 1947 and 1948. East Kent was one of many operators to use rebodied buses as a way to extend their service life. Prewar Leyland Titans went to ECW for this treatment whilst 28 Leyland Titan TD5s were rebuilt as coaches by Beadle at Dartford. The company began to standardise on Guy Arabs for double decker buses and AEC Reliances for single deckers and coaches, although Dennises and Leylands were also acquired. In the mid-1950s, two of the company's bus stations were rebuilt, Folkestone and Canterbury - both surviving today in refurbished form.	2.09375
7064125	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20Thai%20coup%20d%27%C3%A9tat	2006 Thai coup d'état	The 2006 Thai coup d'état took place on 19 September 2006, when the Royal Thai Army staged a coup d'état against the elected caretaker government of Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra. The coup d'état, which was Thailand's first non-constitutional change of government in fifteen years since the 1991 Thai coup d'état, followed a year-long political crisis involving Thaksin, his allies, and political opponents and occurred less than a month before nationwide House elections were scheduled to be held. It has been widely reported in Thailand and elsewhere that General Prem Tinsulanonda, a key person in the military-monarchy nexus, Chairman of the Privy Council, was the mastermind of the coup. The military cancelled the scheduled 15 October elections, abrogated the 1997 constitution, dissolved parliament and the constitutional court, banned protests and all political activities, suppressed and censored the media, declared martial law nationwide, and arrested cabinet members. The new rulers, led by General Sonthi Boonyaratglin and organised as the Council for Democratic Reform (CDR), issued a declaration on 21 September setting out their reasons for taking power and giving the commitment to restore democratic government within one year. However, the CDR also announced that after elections and the establishment of a democratic government, the council would be transformed into a Council of National Security (CNS) whose future role in Thai politics was not explained. The CNS later drafted an interim charter and appointed retired General Surayud Chulanont as Premier. Martial law was lifted in 41 of Thailand's 76 provinces on 26 January 2007 but remained in place in another 35 provinces. Elections were held on 23 December 2007, after a military-appointed tribunal outlawed the Thai Rak Thai (TRT) party of Thaksin Shinawatra and banned TRT executives from contesting in elections for five years.	1.945313
7064125	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20Thai%20coup%20d%27%C3%A9tat	2006 Thai coup d'état	The Nation noted that the timing of the coup contains many instances of the number nine, a highly auspicious number in Thai numerology. The coup occurred at the 19th day of the 9th month of Buddhist Era 2549. Coup leader Sonthi Boonyaratglin made a major public announcement on the morning after the coup at 9.39 am. The Nation earlier indicated 09:16 as the time for Sonthi's press conference and the Buddhist calendar is in line with the Gregorian calendar only since 1941. Coup financing The junta was accused of paying Army officers 1.5 billion baht in order to participate in the coup. Junta leader Sonthi Boonyaratkalin stopped short of denying that the military spent money from a secret fund, saying "We certainly needed money for our people's food and other necessary expenses." Causes of the coup Many causes of the coup were identified, both by the junta as well as by independent observers. Initial reasons stated by the junta were the Thaksin government's alleged creation of an "unprecedented rift in society", corruption, nepotism, interference in independent agencies, and insults to the King. Later reasons stated by junta leaders included Thaksin's alleged vote buying, plans to provoke violence, and weakening of the military. Two months after the coup, the junta issued a white paper identifying many reasons for the coup, including corruption, abuse of power, lack of integrity, interference in the checks and balances system, human rights violations, and destroying the unity of the people.	2.09375
7064125	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006%20Thai%20coup%20d%27%C3%A9tat	2006 Thai coup d'état	The junta established a committee empowered to investigate any projects or acts by members of the Thaksin government and others who were suspected of any irregularities, including personal tax evasion. The committee, chaired by Nam Yimyaem, had the authority to freeze the assets of members and families of the Thaksin government accused of corruption and was composed of several figures who had been publicly critical of the Thaksin government, including Kaewsan Atibhoti, Jaruvan Maintaka, Banjerd Singkaneti, Klanarong Chantik, and Sak Korsaengruang. A separate decree (No. 31) gave the NCCC the authority to freeze the assets of politicians who failed to report their financial status by a deadline or intentionally reported false information. Another decree (No. 27) increased the penalty for political party executives whose parties had been ordered dissolved, from simply banning them from forming or becoming executives of a new party, to stripping them of their electoral rights for five years. Interim constitution A draft interim constitution was released on 27 September 2006, and received mixed reactions. Structurally, the draft was similar to the 1991 Constitution, the 1976 Constitution, and the 1959 Charter, in that it allows an extremely powerful executive branch to appoint the entire legislature. The CDR, which would be transformed into a Council for National Security (CNS), would appoint the head of the executive branch, the entire legislature, and the drafters of a permanent constitution. Thailand's future government Gen Sonthi Boonyaratglin, leader of the Council for Democratic Reform under Constitutional Monarchy told foreign diplomats that a civilian government and prime minister would be appointed to run the country within two weeks. The constitution would be amended for a rapid return to democracy through a national election in a year's time. This would imply that the October 2006 elections will not take place as scheduled.	2.1875

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