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8555446	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhou%20Xinfang	Zhou Xinfang	Zhou revised many old operas, such as Xiao He Chases Han Xin in the Moonlight (), and wrote new plays. His famous performances include Black Dragon House (), Xu Ce Scurries (), Four Scholars (四進士). He also starred in a few film adaptations of his operas, such as Song Shijie (宋士傑, adapted from Four Scholars) and Murder in the Oratory (). According to the official "Zhou Xinfang Art Research Centre" in Shanghai, Zhou had performed over 650 titles of Peking Opera in his career. He made changes to traditional Peking Opera to suit the modern tastes of Shanghai audience, and this new style of Peking opera became known as the Shanghai School. In the early years after the Communist takeover in 1949, Zhou was regarded favourably for having contributed directly to the revolutionisation of traditional opera. Zhou was appointed to a number of official positions, such as the Deputy Directorship of Chinese Opera Research Institute. In 1955, the Shanghai Peking Opera Company was founded and he became the director. However, he would later come into conflict with part of the ruling clique. In 1964, Jiang Qing wanted the Shanghai Peking Opera troupe to rewrite and re-stage plays such as Taking Tiger Mountain by Strategy, plans which Zhou opposed but failed to stop. Hai Rui Submits His Memorial Between 1958 and 1963, "new historical drama" became a prominent form of theatre in China, and such drama was often used for indirect critique of contemporary politics. In 1959, Zhou was asked to write a play for the 10th anniversary celebration in Shanghai of the founding of the People's Republic of China. The story would be about Hai Rui, a Ming Dynasty official noted for his integrity but was dismissed from office for criticizing the Jiajing Emperor. Zhou wrote the play Hai Rui Submits His Memorial (海瑞上疏, Hai Rui Shangshu) with Xu Siyan (), and the play was performed by the Shanghai Peking Opera Troupe.	2.65625
8555446	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhou%20Xinfang	Zhou Xinfang	In Beijing, Wu Han also wrote another opera based on the same theme, Hai Rui Dismissed from Office. This opera was attacked by Yao Wenyuan in 1965, accusing the play of being a veiled criticism of Chairman Mao Zedong. The attack by Yao on Wu Han's work about Hai Rui is often considered the opening shot of the Cultural Revolution, and eventually led to the persecution and death of Wu Han. Zhou was also criticized for attacking Chairman Mao in his portrayal of the Jiajing Emperor in his opera. Zhou however countered by saying that those who suggested any similarity of Jiajing Emperor to Mao were the real detractors of Mao. Zhou and his son were arrested and imprisoned during the Cultural Revolution, but he refused to recant. He was released from prison a year later but placed under house arrest until his death in 1975. Personal life He was married to Fengjiao Liu in 1912, with whom he had three children. In 1928, he took Lilian Qiu (1905–1968) as his mistress, with whom he had six children, including three illegitimate children, Susan Cha, Cecilia Chung (Zhou Yi), and Tsai Chin. In the late 1930s, he divorced his wife and married Lilian Qiu, then bore another three children: William Chow, restaurateur Michael Chow, and Vivian Chow. Zhou was the grandfather of actress China Chow. He was also father-in-law to actor/director Ho Yi, who is married to his youngest daughter, Vivian Chow.	1.9375
8555460	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing%20EC-135	Boeing EC-135	Other EC-135 aircraft (including EC-135A, G, and L models) supporting the Looking Glass missions (communications relay and Minuteman airborne launch control centers) were flown by the 906th Air Refueling Squadron at Minot Air Force Base (North Dakota) (1963–1970), the 70th Air Refueling Squadron at Grissom AFB (1975–1993), and the 301st Air Refueling Squadron at Lockbourne Air Force Base (Ohio) (1963–1970). All aircraft have been retired or repurposed. The United States nuclear strategy depends on its ability to command, control, and communicate with its nuclear forces under all conditions. An essential element of that ability is Looking Glass; its crew and staff ensure there is always an aircraft ready to direct bombers and missiles from the air should ground-based command centers be destroyed or rendered inoperable. Looking Glass is intended to guarantee that U.S. strategic forces will act only in the manner dictated by the President. It took the nickname "Looking Glass" because the mission mirrored ground-based command, control, and communications centers.	2.03125
8555461	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My%20Fur%20Lady	My Fur Lady	My Fur Lady is a satirical musical theatre production, first staged in Canada in the 1950s. Directed by Brian Macdonald, it was premiered in Montreal on February 7, 1957, by McGill University students. A revue, it tells the story of Princess Aurora Borealis (the contralto Ann Golden) of "Mukluko" ("near" Baffin Island) who is searching for a husband, to help keep her country independent from Canada. The music combined elements of 1940s tunes, the contemporary 1950s rock and roll era and a degree of jazz, while the lyrics reflected the political events of the times. It was co-written and produced by James de Beaujeu Domville, Timothy Porteous, Donald MacSween, Galt MacDermot, Harry Garber and Roy Wolvin. Later in 1957 the production played at the Stratford Festival, and toured Canada during the rest of the year and into 1958. 402 performances were given, across 82 locations. An original cast recording was made in June 1957. James Domville, producer, was 25 years later head of the National Film Board, Brian MacDonald was choreographer of Les Grands Ballets Canadiens, Timothy Porteous was chairman of the Canada Council, James Hugessen, male lead, was Associate Chief Justice of the Quebec Superior Court and librettist Donald MacSween was director of the National Arts Centre in Ottawa. Synopsis The show starts off with Mukluko (located near Baffin Island)'s Eskimo citizens celebrating the cash they made by overcharging the constructors of the D.E.W. (distant early warning) line. Their celebration, however, is interrupted by Princess Aurora Borealis (played by Ann Golden), who is searching for a husband in order to keep her country independent from Canada. She is then sent south to find a husband in Canada ("Into a New World").	1.945313
8555461	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/My%20Fur%20Lady	My Fur Lady	Upon her arrival in Canada, Princess Aurora meets Rex Hammerstein (played by Jim Hugessen), a reporter for the True Canadian Romances Magazine. When Rex hears that Princess Aurora is an immigrant, he proposes to take her on a national tour. Aurora agrees, knowing that this would be a good way to find a husband, and instructs Rex about how to think like a Canadian citizen would ("Teach Me How to Think Canadian"). The Canadian government tour in Ottawa begins with a visit to the Governor General (played by Wilfred Hastings), who sings about attending to his generalities ("Governor Generalities"). Culturally speaking, he instructs his Culturality Squad (played by Elizabeth Heseltine, David Langstroth, and Donald Harvie) to take the Princess in hand. They talk about their objective, which is to disseminate the nation ("Canadiana"). The Governor General's secretary, Lilli Brogida (played by Nancy Bacal) talks of her annoyance for preferring culture to a more informal relationship ("Honey Don't Be Highbrow"). Meanwhile, in the Governor General's office, Rex discovers his old fiancée, Constable Renfrew (played by July Tarlo) of the RCMP, whose current job is to guard the Governor-General. Rex and Constable describe their mutual feelings ("We Hate Each Other"). After visiting the Department of National Defence, the Princess's tour of the Canadian government culminates with the opening of Parliament, where she hears the members debating the issues with the official Canadian flag. The members, led by the Minister of Supply and Demand (played by John MacLeod), finally make their decision to leave the solution to Louis St. Laurent, the Prime Minister of Canada at the time ("...And Howe!"). Act II starts off with a public student meeting, whose occupants explain about the coming week ("Next Week Is Work Week"). After listening to a rant about Canadian poetry, Princess Aurora is taken to the Kappa Kappa Kappa female organization, where the girls from the women's residents teach her a dance ("Royal Victoria Rag").	1.992188
8555473	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All%20Hallows%2C%20Bread%20Street	All Hallows, Bread Street	All Hallows Bread Street was a parish church in the Bread Street ward of the City of London, England. It stood on the east side of Bread Street, on the corner with Watling Street. First mentioned in the 13th century, the church was destroyed in the Great Fire of London in 1666. The church was rebuilt by the office of Sir Christopher Wren and demolished in 1876. History The dedication All Hallows, meaning all saints, suggests a Saxon foundation, although the earliest surviving reference is in a document of 1227. Bread Street runs from Cheapside, the main street and market place of medieval London, "cheap" meaning market. Bread Street was the site of the bread market. The patronage of the church belonged to the prior and chapter of Christ Church, Canterbury, until 1365, when they granted it to the Archbishop of Canterbury. The medieval church Two separate grants of land to allow the expansion of the church are recorded in 1349 and 1350. Thomas Beaumont, a member of the Salter's company, who died in 1457, founded a chapel on the south side of the chancel, which became known as the "Salter's Chapel", in which he was buried. The pre-Fire church had a stone spire, which was struck by lightning in 1559. Although not badly damaged, it was taken down to save money on repairs In 1551, the church was closed for a month following a fight between two priests, in which blood was drawn. They were obliged to walk barefoot in penance from St Paul's through Cheapside and Cornhill. In 1555, during the reign of Queen Mary I and King Philip, the rector, Laurence Saunders, was burnt at the stake for preaching Protestant doctrine. John Milton was christened in All Hallows Bread Street in 1608. The event is commemorated by a stone plaque now in the churchyard of St Mary-le-Bow. A donation from a merchant named Ellyot, who died in 1629, funded a sermon to be preached every Thursday afternoon. The practice continued into the 19th century, when it was suspended "for want of a congregation".	2
8555473	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All%20Hallows%2C%20Bread%20Street	All Hallows, Bread Street	Rebuilding after the Great Fire After the church's destruction in the Great Fire, the parish was combined with that of St John the Evangelist Friday Street, also destroyed, but not rebuilt. In 1671 a "tabernacle" or temporary church was set up to serve the parishioners of All Hallows and St John's. The reconstruction of All Hallows began in 1681 and the body of the church was complete by 1684. In that year, however, the unfinished tower was boarded over and work on it suspended, due to the difficulty Wren was experiencing in paying for the simultaneous completion of several dozen churches, as well as for the ongoing construction of St Paul's Cathedral, from the Coal Tax receipts. A letter from 1697 survives from the then Lord Mayor, Edward Clarke, lobbying Wren to complete the steeple. Coincidentally or not, work recommenced and the tower was finished the next year. The total cost of the church and tower was £4,881. Among the vestry records are accounts for £12 of "florence" wine (probably Chianti) for Wren and £11 for his assistant Nicholas Hawksmoor. The main frontage of the reconstructed church faced north onto Watling Street. It had eight round-headed windows (one of them blind) decorated with carved keystones. The plan of the church was in the shape of a slightly irregular quadrilateral with an annex protruding on the south. The walls were topped by a balustrade. The rebuilt church was 72 ft long and 35 ft wide. The interior was a single space, undivided by piers or columns. A gallery at the west end, supported by a single column, housed an organ, erected by subscription in 1717. By the beginning of the 19th century there was also a small gallery on the south side, "somewhat like a balcony or an orchestra in an assembly room", over the door to the vestry. At the east end was a shallow recess, containing the reredos, with the Royal Arms above.	2.109375
8555473	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All%20Hallows%2C%20Bread%20Street	All Hallows, Bread Street	The steeple, completed 14 years after the rest of the church, was the work of Nicholas Hawksmoor. The tower was square in plan, the top storey having three arched openings on each side, each with a finely carved mask keystone. It was topped by a balustrade, with four obelisks on corner plinths. The belfry level beneath this had round headed windows framed by swags. The stage below that, marking the limit of building in 1684, had round windows. Destruction The novelist Mary Anna Lupton was among those resident in the parish and married there in 1854, but by the late 19th century the number of parishioners had declined due to the move of the population to the suburbs. The parish of All Hallows Bread Street was combined with that of St Mary-le-Bow in 1876 and the church demolished in 1878, under the Union of Benefices Act 1860. The site and materials were sold for £32,254 and the proceeds used to build All Hallows East India Dock Road. The furnishings were dispersed to several churches – the pulpit is now in St Vedast alias Foster, the organ case in St Mary Abchurch and the font cover in St Andrew-by-the-Wardrobe. Some of the wood panelling was used to clad the new chancel extension of 1890 in the Church of King Charles the Martyr in Tunbridge Wells. This includes two large prayer boards either side of the Altar depicting the Lord's Prayer and the Apostles Creed. Initially occupied by warehouses, the site is now covered by the Watling Court development of 1977–81.	2.046875
8555503	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty%20of%20Hu%E1%BA%BF%20%281884%29	Treaty of Huế (1884)	The Treaty of Huế or Protectorate Treaty (, or , or Hòa ước Patơnốt) was concluded on 6 June 1884 between France and Đại Nam (Vietnam/Nguyễn dynasty). It restated the main tenets of the punitive Harmand Treaty of 25 August 1883, but softened some of the harsher provisions of this treaty. The treaty created the protectorates of Annam (central Vietnam) and Tonkin (northern Vietnam). It formed the basis of French colonial rule in Vietnam during the next seven decades and was negotiated by Jules Patenôtre, France's minister to China; it is often known as the Patenôtre Treaty. The treaty was signed on the Vietnamese side by Phạm Thận Duật and Tôn Thất Phan, representatives of the emperor Tự Đức’s court. The treaty marked the Nguyễn dynasty's second acceptance of French protectorate in central and northern Vietnam, but it was canceled when the Élysée Accords was signed on 8 March 1949. Despite the government of the Nguyễn dynasty canceling the treaty with the Japanese help in 1945, the French didn't recognise the end of the protectorates until the signing of the Élysée Accords on 8 March 1949. The treaty officially transferred sovereignty over Vietnam to former emperor Bảo Đại and the Provisional Central Government of Vietnam. The treaty also recognized Vietnamese sovereignty over Cochinchina in the South, which would return to Vietnam on June 4. The formal end of the Patenôtre Treaty was proclaimed during a ceremony at the Saigon-Cholon City Hall attended by the high commissioner of French Indochina Léon Pignon, Chief of State Emperor Bảo Đại, and delegates of the government of the State of Vietnam. During this ceremony Pignon officially renounced French sovereignty over Vietnam and recognised the independence of Vietnam, as an associated state within the French Union on June 14. The treaty led to the establishment of the State of Vietnam and would be completed on 2 February 1950.	3.109375
8555503	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty%20of%20Hu%E1%BA%BF%20%281884%29	Treaty of Huế (1884)	Background On 6 June 1884, three weeks after the conclusion of the Tientsin Accord with China, which implicitly renounced China's historic suzerainty over Vietnam, the French concluded a treaty with Vietnam which provided for a French protectorate over both Annam and Tonkin. The treaty was negotiated for France by Jules Patenôtre, the new French minister to China. The new treaty replaced the notoriously vague 'Philastre treaty' of 15 March 1874 (the Treaty of Saigon), which had given France limited commercial privileges in Tonkin. It restated, though in milder language, many of the provisions included in the punitive Harmand Treaty of August 1883, which had never been ratified by the French parliament. It entrenched the French protectorate over both Annam and Tonkin and allowed the French to station residents in most Vietnamese towns. It also granted certain trade privileges to France. Revision of the Harmand treaty had been foreshadowed in January 1884, when the French diplomat Arthur Tricou visited Huế to obtain its ratification from the Vietnamese government. Tricou hinted that some of the more objectionable clauses of the Harmand treaty might be revised if the Vietnamese demonstrated their sincerity, and on 1 January 1884 the Vietnamese government declared its full and complete adhesion to the Harmand treaty. Significantly, it also said that it 'trusted in the goodwill of the French Republic that some of its provisions would be softened at a later date' (s'en remettant au bon vouloir de la République quant aux adoucissements qui pourraient y être ultérieurement apportés).	2.140625
8555516	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bertram%20Stevens%20%28critic%29	Bertram Stevens (critic)	Bertram William Mathyson Francis Stevens (8 October 1872 – 14 February 1922) was an Australian journal editor (Single Tax; Native Companion; Art in Australia; Lone Hand); literary and art critic; and anthologist (An Anthology of Australian Verse [which contained five poems by Henry Lawson]; The Golden Treasury of Australian Verse). Stevens was born at Inverell, New South Wales, the eldest child of William Mathison Stevens and his wife Marian, née Cafe, from Queanbeyan. By 1882 Stevens moved with his family to Newtown, Sydney where he was educated at public schools. Stevens was an avid reader and developed a wide knowledge and culture. In 1895 he began a fifteen-year period as a solicitor's clerk and it was intended that he should study law. During this time Stevens worked as a freelance journalist, coming into contact with a number of literary figures, he edited My Sundowner and other Poems (1904) by John Farrell with a memoir. Stevens prepared An Anthology of Australian Verse (1906), in which he was hampered by copyright restrictions, but he had a much freer hand in The Golden Treasury of Australian Verse (1909), the first anthology of Australasian verse of any importance. In the same year he had the difficult task of succeeding Alfred Stephens as editor of the 'Red Page' of The Bulletin. David Scott Mitchell gave him access to his library of Australiana. At the end of 1911 Stevens became editor of the Lone Hand and conducted this journal for seven years. In 1916 Stevens was one of the founders and joint-editor (with Sydney Ure Smith) of Art in Australia until his death. He also did literary criticism for The Sydney Mail and other journals, published editions of Australian poets, prepared other anthologies, and edited books on leading Australian artists. Much of his literary work is listed in Serle's Bibliography of Australasian Poetry and Verse and Miller's Australian Literature.	2.4375
8555526	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniting%20American%20Families%20Act	Uniting American Families Act	The Uniting American Families Act (UAFA, , ) is a U.S. bill to amend the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 to eliminate discrimination in immigration by permitting permanent partners of United States citizens and of lawful permanent residents to obtain lawful permanent resident status in the same manner as spouses of citizens and of lawful permanent residents and to penalize immigration fraud in connection with permanent partnerships. If the partnership ends within two years, the sponsored partner's immigrant status would be subject to review. Beginning in the 111th Congress, the full text of UAFA, further expanded to provide rights to the children or stepchildren of the foreign-born partner, has been included as Title II of the Reuniting Families Act (), an immigration reform bill, last introduced in the United States House of Representatives on February 14, 2013, by California Congressman Michael Honda (D-CA). UAFA was introduced on February 13, 2013, in the United States Senate by Vermont Senator Patrick Leahy (D-VT) and in the United States House of Representatives by New York Congressman Jerrold Nadler (D-NY). The Senate version has 29 cosponsors. The Senate legislation has been referred to the Senate Committee on the Judiciary. Most of the cosponsors are Democrats and there is little Republican support for the legislation. The 2013 bill was cosponsored by Republican Congressmen Charlie Dent and Richard L. Hanna. There are an estimated 36,000 same-sex binational couples in 2000, according to the Census, who could benefit from this act. Definitions of Permanent Partner and Permanent Partnership UAFA includes the following definitions: The term "permanent partner" means an individual 18 years of age or older who-- (A) is in a committed, intimate relationship with another individual 18 years of age or older in which both parties intend a lifelong commitment; (B) is financially interdependent with that other individual;	2.328125
8555526	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniting%20American%20Families%20Act	Uniting American Families Act	(C) is not married to or in a permanent partnership with anyone other than that other individual; (D) is unable to contract with that other individual a marriage cognizable under this Act; and (E) is not a first, second, or third degree blood relation of that other individual. The term "permanent partnership" means the relationship that exists between two permanent partners. Legislative history In the House of Representatives the bill was referred to the United States House Judiciary Subcommittee on Immigration, Citizenship, Refugees, Border Security, and International Law. This subcommittee has sixteen members including the Chairman Zoe Lofgren (D-CA) and ranking member Representative Steve King (R-IA). The subcommittee consists of representatives from the states of California, Texas, Illinois, Utah, Iowa, Mississippi, New York and Resident Commissioner Pedro Pierluisi (D) from Puerto Rico. The subcommittee has six Republicans and ten Democrats on board. In the Senate the bill was referred to the Senate Committee on the Judiciary which consists of nineteen members which includes Chairman Patrick Leahy (D-VT) who re-introduced the bill and Ranking Member Senator Jefferson Sessions (R-AL). The committee consists of seven Republican Senators and twelve Democratic Senators. The Representatives on the committee come from seventeen different states; this differs vastly from the subcommittee to which the House of Representatives bill has been referred to. Senator Patrick Leahy held a hearing on the bill on June 3, 2009. The hearing was the first-ever hearing on the Uniting American Families Act. In the opinion of the national organization, Immigration Equality, the hearing was a fundamental and important first step for bringing UAFA into comprehensive immigration reform.	2.078125
8555526	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniting%20American%20Families%20Act	Uniting American Families Act	The support for the Uniting American Families Act has increased in the House of Representatives, but much less so in the Senate. Organizations such as the Human Rights Campaign (HRC) and Immigration Equality, both supporters of LGBT rights legislation, support the bill. The HRC points out that the process for sponsoring a partner will have the same requirements that opposite-sex couples face. HRC also reports that 22 countries recognize same-sex couples under immigration law, including France, Germany, Israel, and the United Kingdom, among others. The American Civil Liberties Union wrote in a letter of support for UAFA to senators that the bill does not provide special benefits for same-sex couples, but provides equal sponsorship. The ACLU also mentions that the bill follows traditional family reunification principles in immigration law that are already commonplace in various countries. The Mexican American Legal Defense and Education Fund (MALDEF) supports UAFA and asks that comprehensive immigration reform include lesbian and gay immigrants. Several corporations and organizations, such as Intel Corporation and the Hotel Employees and Restaurant Employees Union, have expressed support for the bill. The Immigration Equality website has a list of organizations, labor unions, civil rights groups, religious institutions, and businesses that support the bill including Parents, Families and Friends of Lesbians and Gays, the U.S. Conference of Mayors, League of United Latin American Citizens, American Bar Association, American Airlines and the American Jewish Committee. Opposition to Uniting American Families Act	2.015625
8555544	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comandante%20Ferraz%20Antarctic%20Station	Comandante Ferraz Antarctic Station	The Comandante Ferraz Antarctic Station () is a permanent Antarctic research station named after the Brazilian Navy Commander Luís Antônio de Carvalho Ferraz (1940–1982), who visited Antarctica many times with the British exploration team and managed to convince his government to create a self-guided Brazilian Antarctic Program. Located in Admiralty Bay (), King George Island (), near the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula, 130 km north of the peninsula, the station began operating on 6 February 1984, brought to Antarctica in modules by the oceanographic ship Barão de Teffé and several other Brazilian naval ships. It now houses about 64 people, including researchers, technicians and staff, military and civilians. History The station was named after Navy Commander Luís Antônio de Carvalho Ferraz, a hydrographer and oceanographer who visited Antarctica twice on British vessels. He was instrumental in persuading his country's government to develop an Antarctic program, and died suddenly in 1982 while representing Brazil at an oceanographic conference in Halifax, Nova Scotia. The station was built on the site of the old British "Base G", and the weathered wooden structures of the old base made a sharp contrast with the bright green and orange metal structures of the Brazilian station, which was first set up on 6 February 1984. Above the site of the base there is a small cemetery with five crosses: three of them are the graves of British Antarctic Survey (BAS) personnel; the fourth commemorates a BAS base leader lost at sea, and the fifth cross is the grave of a Brazilian radio operator sergeant who died of a heart attack in 1990. 2012 fire	2.75
8555544	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comandante%20Ferraz%20Antarctic%20Station	Comandante Ferraz Antarctic Station	On 25 February 2012, an explosion in the machine room that housed the station's generators ignited a fire that, according to the Brazilian navy, destroyed approximately 70% of the complex. Two soldiers, originally reported as missing by the Brazilian navy, were found dead in the debris of the station after the fire, while a third one sustained non-life-threatening injuries. Material damage to the base was calculated at US$12.4 million. At the time of the incident, the Brazilian government estimated it would take two years to rebuild the research station. In August 2012, the station was fully dismantled, with approximately 800 tonnes of debris being shipped back to Brazil. The Brazilian government released U$20 million for the construction of of emergency modules to temporarily house researchers until a permanent station had been built. The construction of the temporary station was completed in May 2013. On 15 April 2013, the Brazilian Navy announced it had chosen the winning design for the new Comandante Ferraz base. The winning proposal went to the Curitiba-based Estúdio 41 architecture firm. The new station will extend and will accommodate 64 people. The cost of the project was approximately US$100 million. Approximately 200 Chinese workers from CEIEC were at the construction site. The new and modern station opened in January 2020.	2.203125
8555551	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streptanthus%20glandulosus%20subsp.%20niger	Streptanthus glandulosus subsp. niger	Streptanthus glandulosus subsp. niger is an endangered subspecies of flowering plant within the family Brassicaceae. Like other genus members, this herb has wavy petal margins with perimeter calluses that discourage larval herbivory. This plant is endemic to the Tiburon Peninsula of Northern California, and occurs at elevations below 150 m on serpentine grasslands. The common name for this subspecies is Tiburon jewelflower or black jewelflower. This annual herb blooms in May and June and displays dark purple sepals. The etymology of this genus scientific name derives from the Greek word streptanthus, meaning twisted flower, with reference to the notable wavy margins of the petals. The subspecies name niger relates to the color of the seeds being black, although an alternate account cites the dark color of the petals as the source of the appellation. Description Streptanthus glandulosus subsp. niger is an annual herb attaining a height of 20 to 70 centimeters. The plant architecture may manifest as simple-stemmed or branching in the upper part. Lower portions of the stems are smooth and practically hairless. This self-pollinated plant has dark purple, almost black, flower petals; moreover, the petals have a purple claw and a white blade with a purple midvein. The zig-zag inflorescence pattern is an identifying characteristic; furthermore, the flower is almost closed at its throat. Sepals measure five to seven mm. The characteristic wavy petal margins have calluses that inhibit larval herbivory. The leaves of S. g. niger appear in a basal manifestation and measure less than nine centimeters in length; leaves are generally oblanceolate in shape, and may appear as coarsely dentate or short-lobed. Chromosomal characterization is 2n=28. This plant is also known for belonging to the mustard family and producing black mustard seeds. Taxonomy This is a subspecies of the bristly jewelflower (Streptanthus glandulosus).	2.734375
8555551	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streptanthus%20glandulosus%20subsp.%20niger	Streptanthus glandulosus subsp. niger	Distribution and habitat There are only two known colonies of Tiburon jewelflower, both of which occur on the Tiburon Peninsula, with a separation of about three km. One of the populations is in the vicinity of the historic Old Saint Hilary's Church. The Federal Register listing document noted that S. niger occurs only on grasslands above shallow serpentine soils involving gentle to moderate southwestern facing slopes. The listing statement further notes that: "Serpentine soils are derived from ultramafic rocks such as serpentinite, dunite, and peridotite, which are found in discontinuous outcrops in the...Coast Ranges". According to the Sacramento Fish and Wildlife Service: "species such as Tiburon jewelflower have adapted to serpentine soils and require them to survive". Conservation The Tiburon jewelflower was first collected by Edward L. Greene in 1886 at the site of Old Saint Hilary's Church on the Tiburon Peninsula. Streptanthus niger was designated as endangered by the state of California in the year 1990 and listed by the U.S. federal government five years later. By 1998 a Species Recovery Plan had been prepared to provide more specific protection measures for this endangered dicotyledon. For each of the two known colonies, the population has varied between 25 and 2000 over recent years, indicating the precariousness of the species. An assistant professor from Mills College, with financial support from the Marin Country Open Space District, is carrying out a three year research project on conservation of the species. The California Native Plant Society has placed S. niger on List 1B (rare or endangered throughout its range).	2.890625
8555568	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred%20Stephens	Alfred Stephens	Alfred George Stephens (28 August 1865 – 15 April 1933), commonly referred to as A. G. Stephens, was an Australian writer and literary critic, notably for The Bulletin. He was appointed to that position by its owner, J. F. Archibald in 1894. Early life and journalism Stephens was born at Toowoomba, Queensland. His father, Samuel George Stephens, came from Swansea, Wales, and his mother, originally Euphemia Russell, was born in Greenock, Scotland. The first enrolled boy, he was educated at Toowoomba Grammar School until he was 15, and had a good grounding in English, French, and the classics, but his education was later much extended by wide reading. His father was part-owner of the Darling Downs Gazette, and in its composing room the boy developed his first interest in printing. On leaving school he was employed in the printing department of William Henry Groom, proprietor of the Toowoomba Chronicle, and later in the business of A. W. Beard, printer and bookbinder of George Street, Sydney. He was learning much that was to be invaluable to him in his later career as journalist and editor. He returned to Queensland and in 1889 was editor of The Gympie Miner. A year or two later he became sub-editor of The Boomerang at Brisbane, which had been founded by William Lane in 1887, but though this journal had able contributors it fell into financial trouble, and in 1891 Stephens went to Cairns to become editor and part proprietor of the Cairns Argus. On the Boomerang he had had valuable experience as a reviewer of literature, on the Argus he enlarged his knowledge of Queensland politics. In 1892 he won a prize of £25 for an essay "Why North Queensland Wants Separation", published in 1893, and in this year was also published "The Griffilwraith" ('An Independent Criticism of the Methods and Manoeuvres of the Queensland Coalition. Government, 1890–1893'), an able piece of pamphleteering attacking the coalition of the old rivals, Sir Samuel Griffith and Sir Thomas McIlwraith. The Bulletin	2.03125
8555568	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred%20Stephens	Alfred Stephens	In April 1893 having sold his share in the Cairns paper he left Australia for San Francisco, travelled across the continent, and thence to Great Britain and France. He had begun to do some journalistic work in London when he received the offer from J. F. Archibald of a position on The Bulletin. He returned to Australia and arrived at Sydney in January 1894. His account of his travels, "A Queenslander's Travel Notes", published in that year, though bright enough in its way suggests a curiously insensitive Stephens. Stephens began work on The Bulletin as a sub-editor, and it was not until after the middle of 1896 that he developed the famous "Red Page" reviews of literature printed on the inside of the cover. They were at first little concerned with work done in Australia, but as the years went by Australians were given their due share of the space. Stephens was an active editor between the years 1897–1904, working on sixteen books of poetry, as well as Such is Life, On Our Selection and Bulletin Story Book. But Stephens was also acting as a literary agent, and in this way came in touch with and influenced much the rising school of Australian poets. He prepared for publication in 1897 a collected edition of the verses of Barcroft Boake, with a sympathetic and able account of his life, and during the next 20 years he saw through the press, volumes of verse by Arthur Henry Adams, Will H. Ogilvie, Roderic Quinn, James Hebblethwaite, Hubert Newman Wigmore Church, Bernard O'Dowd, Charles H. Souter, Robert Crawford, Shaw Neilson and others. In prose he recognised the value of Joseph Furphy's Such is Life, and succeeded in getting it published in spite of the realisation of The Bulletin's proprietary that money would be lost in doing so. Later career	2.171875
8555568	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred%20Stephens	Alfred Stephens	In September 1906, newspapers suggested Stephens was going to London where it was expected he would remain, but this was confusion with another Stephens. In October 1906 however 'Red Page' Stephens had left The Bulletin; the exact occasion for the break has never been known. He then set himself up initially running a bookshop. For the remaining 27 years of his life Stephens was a freelance writer except for a brief period as a leader writer on the Wellington Post in 1907. While he was with The Bulletin he had published a small volume of his own verses, "Oblation", in 1902; "The Red Pagan", a collection of his criticisms from the "Red Page" appeared in 1904, and a short but interesting biography of Victor Daley in the same year. He had also brought out five numbers of a little literary magazine called The Bookfellow in 1899. This was revived as a weekly for some months in 1907, and with variations in the title, numbers appeared at intervals until 1925. He supported himself by freelance journalism, by lecturing, he visited Melbourne and gave a course of four lectures on Australian poets in 1914, and by acting as a literary agent. His quest of a living was a constant struggle, but he never complained. He was joint author with Albert Dorrington of a novel, "The Lady Calphurnia Royal", published in 1909, in 1911 a collection of prose and verse, "The Pearl and the Octopus", appeared, and in 1913 "Bill's Idees", sketches about a reformed Sydney larrikin. A collection of his interviews was published in 1921, "School Plays" in 1924, a short account of Henry Kendall in 1928, and just before his own death a biography of Christopher Brennan.	2
8555718	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger%20H.%20Zion	Roger H. Zion	Roger Herschel Zion (September 17, 1921 – September 24, 2019) was an American World War II veteran and politician who served in the United States House of Representatives from Indiana from 1967 through 1975. Biography Roger Zion was born in Escanaba, Michigan, in September 1921 and attended public schools in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and Evansville, Indiana. He graduated from Benjamin Bosse High School and became an Eagle Scout in 1932. He received his Bachelor of Arts from the University of Wisconsin–Madison in 1943. World War II He served in the United States Navy from 1943 to 1946, serving in the Asia-Pacific area during World War II, and was discharged a lieutenant. Post-war career Zion attended Harvard Graduate School of Business Administration from 1944 to 1945. He became associated with Mead Johnson & Company, working for the company from 1946 through 1965; eventually becoming director of training and professional relations. Congress At the suggestion of D. Mead Johnson, chief of Mead Johnson, he ran for Congress in 1964 as Republican but was unsuccessful losing to the incumbent Democrat Winfield K. Denton. However, running against Denton in the 1966 election, he unseated Denton. Beginning in the 90th Congress, he was re-elected to the three succeeding Congresses, serving from January 3, 1967, to January 3, 1975. In 1967, Zion called anti-Vietnam War protesters "traitors" and suggested that "any of them involved in illegal acts be treated comparably with Frenchmen whose heads were shaved if they were caught collaborating with the Germans in World War II." While in Congress and following his Congressional terms, he participated in various bridge tournaments against corporate executives including Warren Buffett and members of the British Parliament. Zion was an unsuccessful candidate for reelection in 1974 to the 94th Congress, losing to state Senator Philip H. Hayes beginning a long line of frequent turnovers in the district known as the Bloody Eighth.	2.09375
8555754	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Last%20of%20the%20Tsars	The Last of the Tsars	The Last of the Tsars is a play by Michael Bawtree. The action takes place in Russia between 1912 and 1919, and follows the fortunes of the Romanov family and of Russia in the tumultuous years leading up to the Revolution of 1917, and beyond, to the assassination of the Romanov family by the Bolsheviks. The story is told through the eyes of Tsar Nicholas's brother Grand Duke Michael, who had been exiled from Russia by the Tsar in 1912 when he married a divorcee. Michael was called back to Russia at the outbreak of the First World War, where he served in the Russian Army. When Tsar Nicholas abdicated in March 1917, he did so in favour of Grand Duke Michael, who himself abdicated some 48 hours later. So Michael was in fact 'the last of the Tsars.' The play was commissioned by the Stratford Festival, Stratford, Ontario, Canada, in the spring of 1966, after another play on the same subject, "Nicholas Romanov" by William Kinsolving, had been tried out by the Stratford Festival Company at the Manitoba Theatre Centre in February, 1966, and found insufficiently dramatic. In spite of the shared general theme, the two plays are distinctly different works. The Last of the Tsars opened at the Avon Theatre, Stratford Festival on July 12, 1966. It was directed by Stratford's artistic director Michael Langham, and designed by Leslie Hurry, with music by Louis Applebaum, and featured many of the leading actors of the Festival Company. Grand Duke Michael was played by William Hutt; the Tsar by Joel Kenyon; the Tsarina by Amelia Hall; Rasputin by Powys Thomas; and Samoilov, the revolutionary who fights Grand Duke Michael for control of the play, by Tony Van Bridge. Michael's wife Natalie Sergeevna was played by Kim Yaroshevskaya, and his manservant Johnson was played by Barry MacGregor. The production received generally very favourable notices, and ran for 22 performances.	2.59375
8555779	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shire%20of%20Murchison	Shire of Murchison	The Shire of Murchison is a 49,500 km² local government area (LGA), within the Murchison sub-region, in the Mid West region of Western Australia. Encompassing most of the Murchison and East Murchison goldfields, the shire is named after the Murchison River. It is Australia's least-populated LGA and the only one without an official town. Five sparsely-populated rural localities, with a collective population of 101 (as of 2021), comprise the entire shire. The shire offices, located northeast of Geraldton, are the focal point of Murchison Settlement, a small part of the Murchison locality. Description The Shire of Murchison incorporates 29 pastoral stations and a population of 114. Most properties are operated by family units with their main income from cattle, meat sheep and wool, with some goats. A small tourism industry is developing in the region with some stations involved in station stays and with the Murchison Oasis Caravan Park and motel units located at the settlement providing facilities for tourists. History The Shire of Murchison takes its name from the Murchison River, which was named in 1839 by explorer George Grey after Sir Roderick Impey Murchison, President of the Royal Geographical Society of London. The Shire’s logo is based on the coat of arms of his family, Murchison of Tarradale (lion rampant between two pineapples with a scallop shell at the base). The Murchison Road District was gazetted on 3 August 1875. It absorbed the Upper Murchison Road District on 18 March 1912. On 1 July 1961 it became the Shire of Murchison following changes to the Local Government Act, which reformed all remaining road districts into shires. In 2004 the shire was expanded in area when the northern part of the Shire of Mullewa and an eastern section of the Shire of Northampton were incorporated into Murchison. Murchison Settlement	2.515625
8555794	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McCormick-Stillman%20Railroad%20Park	McCormick-Stillman Railroad Park	McCormick-Stillman Railroad Park is a railroad park located in Scottsdale, Arizona. It features a gauge railroad, a Magma Arizona Railroad locomotive, a railroad museum, three model railroad clubs and a gauge live steam railroad. History In 1967, the Fowler McCormicks donated of McCormick Ranch to the City of Scottsdale stipulating that it be used as a park for all people to enjoy. The son of Anne and James A. Stillman, Guy Stillman, assembled his gauge narrow gauge railroad replica in the property. He called it the "Paradise & Pacific Railroad" and was offered to the city in 1971. The U.S. Marines, with the backing of Senator Barry Goldwater, contributed to the railroad's expansion by supplying manpower for the laying of tracks. The park officially opened on October 4, 1975. Originally named McCormick Railroad Park, it was renamed McCormick-Stillman Railroad Park in 1996 in recognition of its founder, Guy Stillman. The City of Scottsdale sold of the donated land to a developer several years ago. Attractions Paradise & Pacific Railroad: Created by Stillman, the Paradise & Pacific Railroad is the oldest and the first attraction to operate in the park. This gauge ridable miniature railway has a route of of track and of sidetrack, including two trestles, a tunnel, 2 water tanks, loading platform, turntable, two crossing signals and an extensive train shed and workshop. The railroad has three steam locomotives (two operational), three diesel locomotives, two cabooses, a coach car, a trolley car (in the model RR building), three stock cars and a large number of gondola cars. Charro Carrousel: This merry-go-round was built in 1950 by The Allan Herschell Company and was purchased and restored by the Scottsdale Railroad & Mechanical Society. Playgrounds: The park has two children's playgrounds, one of them Southwestern-themed in an adobe construction. Statue of Bil Keane: Mr Keane was the creator of the newspaper comic The Family Circus.	2.21875
8555844	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia%20Institute%20of%20Technology%20Historic%20District	Georgia Institute of Technology Historic District	The Historic District of the Georgia Institute of Technology, also known as the Old Campus of Georgia Tech or the Hill District, is significant in the areas of architecture, education, engineering and science, as well as landscape architecture. The area is a Registered Historic Place and part of the central campus of Georgia Tech. Located in Midtown Atlanta, Georgia, United States, it is roughly bounded by North Avenue on the South, Bobby Dodd Stadium, a 55,000 seat football stadium on the East, Bobby Dodd Way on the North and Cherry Street on the West. Environs The Georgia Institute of Technology Historic District is situated on and around the crest of "The Hill," the highest elevation of the school's original nine-acre campus. Comprising 12 buildings, the Old Campus is a landscaped cluster of mixed-period classroom, dormitory and administrative brick buildings. Buildings of the Old Campus include the Carnegie Building, which was the campus library until 1953; the Georgia Tech President's Office is now located there. Lyman Hall Laboratory, named after Lyman Hall, one of Georgia Tech's earlier presidents, was the school's first Chemistry Building. The YMCA Building, funded by John D. Rockefeller in 1910, now houses the Georgia Tech Alumni Association Offices. The random placement of these buildings around the centrally positioned Administration Building ("Tech Tower") has created unique urban spaces. Hundred year-old trees shade the red brick buildings and enhance the sense of special enclosure. A brick roadway, Uncle Heinie Way, wraps itself around the Administration Building forming a "loop" and provides both service and vehicular access to the buildings in this portion of the Campus. A new plaza, Harrison Square, (1968), which both a hard surface of brick and concrete as well as an open green space, was created after the demolition of the Old Shop, the successor of the original (a near-twin to the adjacent Administration building which burned down shortly after its completion).	2.484375
8555924	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%BCsamettin%20Cindoruk	Hüsamettin Cindoruk	Ahmet Hüsamettin Cindoruk (born 8 June 1933) is a Turkish politician and the 17th Speaker of the Parliament of Turkey between 1991 and 1995. He was also the acting president of Turkey in 1993 and the leader of two political parties, notably of the True Path Party. Early life and education He was born in 1933 in İzmir to Turkish Cretan parents. He did all his studies in Ankara, graduated from the prestigious TED Ankara College and attended the University of Ankara, earning a degree in 1955 from the Law School. Following his graduation, he started exercising the lawyer's profession. Professional career He rose to national attention at a relatively young age when, after the 1960 Turkish coup d'état, he became part of the defence team for the imprisoned, and later executed ex-Prime Minister Adnan Menderes and other Democratic Party notables. Despite the final verdict in the case, the one-year-long desperate efforts by the defence team gained widespread respect across Turkey. Political career After the restoration of the civilian rule, he joined the Justice Party and two military coups later, after the 1980 military coup in Turkey, he became in 1985 the Secretary General of the True Path Party, a continuation of the Justice Party in the forced absence from politics of its leader Süleyman Demirel.	1.96875
8555934	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paskamanset%20River	Paskamanset River	The Paskamanset River, also known as the Paskamansett River, is a river in New Bedford and Dartmouth, Massachusetts. The Paskamanset and Slocums River really form just a single river, but the freshwater portion kept its earlier Native American name, while the salt-water portion is named for early English settlers, the Slocum family. The river originates in the Acushnet cedar swamp in New Bedford, and in Sassaquin Pond, also called Myles Pond. It runs through Dartmouth, passing under U.S. Route 6 and the town's former dump, and heading toward Russells Mills, and eventually drains into the Slocums River, with an associated floodplain in Apponagansett Swamp. The river has been polluted for some years, mainly by pathogens and overly high nitrogen levels. Both appear caused primarily by the town's dump. It was closed in 1995 and capped to prevent future contaminated runoff, but decades of waste have been leaching into the river. In addition, although the river has historically supported large river herring runs, the fish have greatly declined since the mid-1970s. This may be caused by rapid urbanization and by dam construction. Efforts are now underway to restore herring runs to the river.	2.703125
8555936	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turiasaurus	Turiasaurus	Turiasaurus (meaning "Turia lizard") is a genus of sauropod dinosaurs. It is known from a single fossil specimen representing the species Turiasaurus riodevensis, found in the Kimmeridgian Villar del Arzobispo Formation of Teruel, Spain. Description Turiasaurus is believed to be the largest dinosaur ever found in Europe, and is among the largest dinosaurs known. It was originally estimated at over , possibly around in length and with a weight of . More recent estimates suggest a length of in length, but a comparable weight of . The length of its skull is 70 centimetres, which is not too large. According to the paleontologist Luis Alcalá, this is because a larger head might have caused Turiasaurus to break its neck. Phylogenetic analysis shows that Turiasaurus lies outside of the Neosauropoda division and belongs to a new clade, Turiasauria, together with Losillasaurus and Galvesaurus. History Fragmentary remains of this animal, including an articulated left forelimb (holotype), skull fragments, teeth, vertebrae and ribs, have been found in terrestrial deposits of the Villar del Arzobispo Formation of Riodeva (Teruel Province, Spain). A forelimb from Portugal is now seen as Zby atlanticus. The type species, Turiasaurus riodevensis, was formally described by Royo-Torres, Cobos & Alcala, in 2006. In the early 2010s, excavations were made east of Madrid that uncovered the most complete fossil of such creatures in the whole world.	2.90625
8556027	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4th%20Rifle%20Division%20%28Poland%29	4th Rifle Division (Poland)	The Polish 4th Rifle Division (, ) was a Polish military unit, forming, together with the Polish 5th Rifle Division of the Blue Army, the only part of the Polish military which took part in the Russian Civil War. Under the command of General Lucjan Żeligowski, it operated as an ally of the White movement from autumn 1918 to August 1919 in southern Russia and Bessarabia. History and operations The 4th Rifle Division could trace its origins to the Polish 2nd Corps in Russia. The 2nd Corps was formed from various Polish units, but primarily the 2nd Brigade of the Polish Legions in World War I, which rebelled against the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and decided to join the newly-forming Polish army and help secure the territories inhabited by the Poles in the Kresy region. The Polish 5th Rifle Division found itself fighting in the northern territories of the former Russian Empire; the 4th, in its southern regions. The ever-changing and chaotic currents of the Russian Civil War, coupled with the weak chain of command of the newly reborn Polish Army, meant that the local commanders had much autonomy; thus the 2nd Corps found it most useful to ally itself with the forces of the White movement, even though Polish commander-in-chief Józef Piłsudski declined to support the Whites with any other units after he had established firm control over the Polish forces in 1919. Nonetheless this meant that the soldiers of the 2nd Corps were fighting the Bolsheviks and their Red Army even before the Polish-Soviet War began in 1919.	2.34375
8556027	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4th%20Rifle%20Division%20%28Poland%29	4th Rifle Division (Poland)	After the Battle of Kaniów on 11 May 1918, in which the forces of the 2nd Brigade broke through the front and created the 2nd Corps, the Polish commanders entered the alliance with one of the White generals, Mikhail Alekseev, and his Volunteer Army in the northern Caucasus near the Kuban River. By September 1918 the Polish forces in the region, called the 'Polish Unit of the Volunteer Army', numbered over 700 people under the command of Col. Franciszek Zieliński, and were engaged in several battles with the Bolsheviks. In October 1918 General Lucjan Żeligowski assumed command of the Polish forces in the east from General Haller. At the same time, General Alekseev died, and General Anton Ivanovich Denikin assumed the command of the White forces in the region. The local Polish forces were reorganized into the Polish 4th Rifle Division, subordinated to the 2nd Corps of the Blue Army of General Józef Haller. By the end of January 1919 the division numbered over 2800 men, including many from the now-disbanded Polish 1st Corps in Russia. At that time Piłsudski ordered the Polish units in the far East to move close to the core Polish territory. Denikin, who received this order through French General Ferdinand Foch, ordered Żeligowski to move to Odessa, a major port west of Crimea. Żeligowski reorganized and strengthened the units in the area, and in December 1918 he found himself facing the Ukrainian forces of Symon Petlura. Reinforced by French and Greek troops, it helped to secure Odessa as part of the Allied Southern Russia Intervention and took part in the fights near Tiraspol. In March 1919 the unit numbered about 3000 men, including a sizeable cavalry contingent.	2.484375
8556054	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisiana%20Civil%20Code	Louisiana Civil Code	The Louisiana Civil Code (LCC) constitutes the core of private law in the State of Louisiana. The Louisiana Civil Code is based on a more diverse set of sources than the laws of the other 49 states of the United States: substantive law between private sector parties has a civil law character, based on the French civil code and Spanish codes and ultimately Roman law, with some common law influences. First enacted on March 31, 1808, in bilingual version as Louisiana Civil Code Digest ()., it was drafted by the lawyers James Brown, Louis Moreau-Lislet and Edward Livingston. Afterwards it underwent continuous revisions and updates. It is still considered the controlling authority in the state; despite the strong influence of common law tradition, the civil law tradition is still deeply rooted in most aspects of Louisiana private law. Thus property, contractual, business entities structure, much of civil procedure, and family law, as well as some aspects of criminal law, are still based mostly on traditional Roman legal thinking.	2.53125
8556101	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorenzaccio	Lorenzaccio	Lorenzaccio is a French play of the Romantic period written by Alfred de Musset in 1834, set in 16th-century Florence, and depicting Lorenzino de' Medici, who killed Florence's tyrant, Alessandro de' Medici, his cousin. Having engaged in debaucheries to gain the Duke's confidence, he loses the trust of Florence's citizens, thus earning the insulting surname "Lorenzaccio". Though he kills Alessandro, he knows he will never return to his former state. Since opponents to the tyrant's regime fail to use Alessandro's death as a way to overthrow the dukedom and establish a republic, Lorenzo's action does not appear to aid the people's welfare. Written soon after the July revolution of 1830, at the start of the July Monarchy, when King Louis Philippe I overthrew King Charles X of France, the play contains many cynical comments on the lack of true republican sentiments in the face of violent overthrow. The play was inspired by George Sand's Une conspiration en 1537, in turn inspired by Varchi's chronicles. As much of Romantic tragedy, including plays by Victor Hugo, it was influenced by William Shakespeare's Hamlet.	2.421875
8556113	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography%20Cup	Geography Cup	The Geography Cup is an online, international competition between the United States and the United Kingdom, with the aim of determining which nation collectively knows more about geography. It was also intended to raise awareness of the importance of world geography in the modern world. Any resident of the US or UK could participate to test their own geographic knowledge and to support their nation. The first (and so far only) competition took place between 12 November and 31 December 2006 to coincide with Geography Awareness Week, the third week in November. Creation The Geography Cup was created in late 2006 by two geography enthusiasts: Roger Andresen from Atlanta, Georgia, and Daniel Raven-Ellison, a geography teacher from Reading, Berkshire. Both became committed to expanding public awareness of the importance of geography after seeing the results of polls illustrating Americans' and Britons' startling lack of geographical knowledge. A poll of young Americans conducted in the United States by National Geographic in 2006 found that only 37% of those polled could find Iraq on a map, and half could not even find the state of New York. Andresen and Raven-Ellison created the competition for two main reasons. One reason was to determine whether people who live in the United States or people who live in the United Kingdom knew more about world geography. However, the main reason was to encourage people to learn more about world geography and to understand the importance of geography. The two creators plan to hold the competition yearly beginning in the third week in November to coincide with Geography Awareness Week, established in the United States by Ronald Reagan in 1987. In 2007, more than 18,000 people participated.	2.84375
8556113	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography%20Cup	Geography Cup	Quiz Any citizen of the USA or the UK was eligible to participate in the contest. Upon signup, the website determined which country a user lived in based on their IP address and automatically put the user into the correct team. The quiz consisted of thirteen random, geography-related questions that had to be answered in a total of two minutes. The first ten questions consisted of placing randomly selected countries onto a blank political map. The final three questions consisted of geography-related trivia questions that were answered by selecting the correct country on the blank map. Each user could practice, affect their own score, and learn about geography by playing as many times as they wanted to, but only three plays per 24-hour period could affect their nation's score. The randomly selected countries could be any country (or territory) in the world. This included the large and well-known regions (Russia, Canada, United States, etc.) as well as smaller and more obscure nations (Palau, Djibouti, Togo, etc.). Most participants had little trouble recognizing the major European and Asian countries but many people on both teams had trouble locating small Pacific Islands and some African countries. The trivia questions were sometimes related directly to geography, e. g., "Made up of 33 atolls, which country straddles both the equator and the International Date Line?" (Kiribati). However, some were about current events to test if participants knew where, geographically, news stories were taking place, e. g., "Which Asian country recently made its first test of a nuclear weapon?" (North Korea). Scoring	2.859375
8556140	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20York%20State%20Route%20122	New York State Route 122	New York State Route 122 (NY 122) is a east–west state highway in northern Franklin County, New York, United States. The western terminus of the route is at an intersection with NY 37 in the town of Westville. Its eastern terminus is at a junction with U.S. Route 11 (US 11) in the town of Burke. Near its midpoint, NY 122 has a short overlap with NY 30 in the town of Constable. NY 122 serves as a northerly bypass of the village of Malone, situated to the south. NY 122 was assigned as a north–south connector between what is now NY 11B and US 11 in the nearby town of Bangor. It was extended northeast to Burke via Westville after the state acquired ownership of the Westville–Burke highway in 1980, and truncated to begin in Westville approximately 10 years later. Modern NY 122 follows what was originally designated New York State Route 188 during the 1930s. Route description NY 122 begins at an intersection with NY 37 in the Westville hamlet of Westville Center as an eastward continuation of County Route 19 (CR 19, Jewett Road). The route initially heads eastward from NY 37 as a rural, two-lane road before ducking to the southeast. After an intersection with Bird Road roughly from Westville Center, it continues on a southeasterly track for , running alongside the Salmon River before curving eastward into the town of Constable. NY 122 soon enters the hamlet of the same name, where the undeveloped surroundings give way to a stretch of residences on both sides of the highway.	1.992188
8556140	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20York%20State%20Route%20122	New York State Route 122	In the center of Constable, NY 122 intersects NY 30, which overlaps with NY 122 for one block on its way from Malone to the Canadian border. The highway continues east from NY 30, serving residences in the eastern part of the hamlet before curving to the southeast and entering another rural area. The road crosses into the town of Burke at a junction with Constable–Burke Town Line Road east of Constable, and subsequently takes on a more pronounced southeasterly alignment. NY 122 ends later at an intersection with US 11 just west of the hamlet of Burke Center. History In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York, a north–south highway in the town of Bangor that linked the hamlets of Bangor and North Bangor was designated as part of NY 187, an east–west route connecting Nicholville to North Bangor via Bangor. Farther north, an east–west roadway between NY 10 (now NY 30) in Constable and US 11 in Burke was assigned the NY 188 designation. NY 187 was realigned to continue east from Bangor to Malone via modern NY 11B. Its former routing between Bangor and North Bangor was designated as NY 122 by the following year. Meanwhile, NY 188 was extended west to NY 37 in Westville before it was removed . On April 1, 1980, ownership and maintenance of former NY 188 (by this point redesignated as CR 22) was transferred from Franklin County to the state of New York as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government. In return, the state transferred all of then-NY 122 to Franklin County. The new Westville–Burke state highway became part of NY 122, which was extended north along CR 19 to Westville Center and east along former NY 188 to Burke. NY 122 was truncated between 1985 and 1993 to consist only of the state-maintained part of the route between Westville and Burke. Major intersections	2.171875
8556147	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9%20Gonzalo%20Rodr%C3%ADguez%20Gacha	José Gonzalo Rodríguez Gacha	José Gonzalo Rodríguez Gacha (14 May 1947 – 15 December 1989), also known by the nicknames Don Sombrero () and El Mexicano (), was a Colombian drug lord who was one of the leaders of the Medellín Cartel along with the Ochoa brothers and Pablo Escobar. At the height of his criminal career, Rodríguez was acknowledged as one of the world's most successful drug dealers. In 1988, Forbes magazine included him in their annual list of the world's billionaires. Early years José Gonzalo Rodríguez Gacha was born in May 1947 in the small town of Veraguas, near Pacho in the department of Cundinamarca. He came from a poor family of cheese vendors, and it is said that his formal education did not extend beyond grade school. He left school in the early 1970s and moved to Muzo, Boyacá, the center of the emerald exploitation in Colombia. There he began to work under Gilberto Molina Moreno, who at the time was called the "tsar" of emeralds in Boyacá, as part of his security, developing a fearsome reputation as a killer. As he started to go up in the ranks among Molina's men, he also became acquainted with drug traffickers. At some point, Rodríguez Gacha decided that the drug business was more profitable and became independent. He moved to Bogotá and became associated up with Verónica Rivera de Vargas, a pioneering drug trafficker who was known as the "queen of cocaine," by murdering the family of her main rival. Rivera introduced him to Pablo Escobar and to Mexican drug lord, Miguel Ángel Félix Gallardo.	1.960938
8556147	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9%20Gonzalo%20Rodr%C3%ADguez%20Gacha	José Gonzalo Rodríguez Gacha	Paramilitary groups (or self-defense groups, autodefensas as they are frequently referred to in Colombia), were created with the support of landowners and cattle ranchers who had been under pressure from the guerrillas as well as from groups affiliated with narcotics traffickers such as the Muerte a Secuestradores movement (MAS – Death to Kidnappers). As made clear in a 2004 judgment of the Inter-American court of Human Rights, numerous independent reports and from what the paramilitaries themselves have said, in at least some cases they were given support by the state itself. The top leaders of the Medellín Cartel created private armies to guarantee their own security and protect the property they had acquired. According to The Washington Post, in the mid-1980s, Rodríguez and Pablo Escobar bought huge tracts of land in the Magdalena Department (as well as Puerto Boyacá, Rionegro and the Llanos) which they used to transform their self-defense groups from poorly trained peasant militias into sophisticated fighting forces. By the late 1980s Medellin traffickers controlled 40% of the land in the Middle Magdalena, according to a Colombian military estimate, and also funded most of the paramilitary operations in the region. Throughout the 1980s, Rodríguez helped catalyze the Medellín Cartel's explosive rise to power by financing the importation and implementation of expensive foreign technology and expertise. According to the report by the Departamento Administrativo de Seguridad (Colombia's Administrative Security Department), between December 1987 and May 1988, Rodríguez hired Israeli and British mercenaries to train teams of assassins at remote training camps in Colombia. Yair Klein, a retired Israeli lieutenant colonel, acknowledged having led a team of instructors in Puerto Boyacá in early 1988. It is not clear whether Klein's mercenary activities in Colombia coincided with those of a group of British mercenaries who had allegedly trained paramilitary squads for the cocaine cartels.	2.265625
8556147	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9%20Gonzalo%20Rodr%C3%ADguez%20Gacha	José Gonzalo Rodríguez Gacha	American fight against drugs By 1989, the Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) estimated that 80 percent of cocaine consumed in the United States was imported from Colombia by the Medellín Cartel and its rival, the Cali Cartel. The newly elected administration of President George H. W. Bush was under considerable pressure to combat the increasing drug usage and drug-related violence plaguing scores of American cities. Much of the government strategy concentrated on restricting drug supply by extraditing Colombian cartel leaders to the United States for prosecution. On August 21, 1989, Attorney General Dick Thornburgh released a list of the twelve Colombian drug kingpins (commonly referred to as the "dirty dozen") most wanted by the United States and said the names would be shared with the Colombian government and Interpol. The list included Pablo Escobar, Jorge Luis Ochoa, and José Gonzalo Rodríguez, the leading members of the Medellín Cartel. Financial crackdown President Bush declared money laundering a critical target in the war on drugs, allocating $15 million to launch a counteroffensive. Only hours after Bush unveiled his antidrug offensive in September 1989, a federal task force began taking shape. The Financial Crimes Enforcement Network (FINCEN) was designed to zero in on money launderers with computer programs capable of spotting suspicious movements of electronic money. On December 6, 1989, Attorney General Dick Thornburgh announced that authorities had frozen accounts in five countries holding $61.8 million belonging to Rodriguez Gacha. According to the Justice Department, the money represented long-term high-yield stocks and investments and was held in bank accounts in England, Switzerland, Austria, Luxembourg and the United States. An additional $20 million of Gacha's drug money was suddenly transferred to Panama, where it was protected from American authorities.	2.75
8556165	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strongman%20%28character%29	Strongman (character)	The Strongman is the name of three different fictional characters appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Publication history The Bruce Olafson incarnation of Strongman first appeared in Incredible Hulk #3 (September 1962) as a member of the Circus of Crime, and was created by Stan Lee and Steve Ditko. The character subsequently appears in The Amazing Spider-Man #16 (September 1964), The Avengers #22 (November 1965), Thor #145 (October 1967), Ghost Rider #72-73 (September–October 1982), The Sensational She-Hulk #1 (May 1989), and X-Men and Power Pack #3 (February 2006). The Strongman appeared as part of the "Circus of Crime" entry in the Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe Deluxe Edition #2. Fictional character biography Bruce Olafsen Bruce Olafsen was born in Stockholm, Sweden, but later came to the United States and became a naturalized American citizen. As a longtime member of the criminal organization Circus of Crime, Bruto the Strongman works as a circus strongman and weight-lifter. He has particularly strong biceps and teeth. Bruto the Strongman first assisted the Circus of Crime to rob the people that attended the circus and were hypnotized by Ringmaster with one of the attendees being Rick Jones. When Hulk came bursting through the tent, Strongman and the rest of the Circus of Crime attacked Hulk where Ringmaster manages to hypnotize Hulk to be part of his next circus act. The next day, Hulk escapes Ringmaster's control and defeat the Circus of Crime before leaving with Rick upon the arrival of Thunderbolt Ross' army. Strongman was later seen with Ringmaster when he has hypnotized Daredevil into serving him. Spider-Man manages to break Daredevil free of the hypnosis as they both defeat the Circus of Crime.	2.03125
8556186	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laird%20Wilcox	Laird Wilcox	Laird Maurice Wilcox (November 28, 1942 - November 4, 2023) was an American researcher of political fringe movements. He was the founder of the Wilcox Collection of Contemporary Political Movements, housed in the Kenneth Spencer Research Library at the University of Kansas. Early life Wilcox was raised in a family with, as he described, "political intensity". His relatives' politics ranged from socialist to membership in the far-right John Birch Society. Wilcox's father was a construction accountant. His family moved frequently. Wilcox attended the University of Kansas. He joined the Students for a Democratic Society and later dropped out of college. While living in Olathe, Kansas, he worked as carpenter, investigator and writer. Wilcox Collection of Contemporary Political Movements In 1965, after Wilcox had accumulated four file drawers of literature about radical political movements, some since his teens, the University of Kansas library bought a portion of it for $1,000. The collection, now called the Wilcox Collection of Contemporary Political Movements, is kept in the Kansas Collection of Kenneth Spencer Research Library. It includes literature relating to, according to the university, "more than 10,000 individuals and organizations. The bulk of the collection covers 1960 to the present and comprises nearly 10,000 books, pamphlets and periodicals, 800 audio tapes, of manuscript materials and more than 100,000 pieces of ephemera including flyers, brochures, mailings, clippings and bumper stickers." From then through at least 1992, Wilcox continued sending two or three boxes each month to add to the collection. In 1986 Reason magazine described the collection as among the largest archives of extremist material.	2.25
8556260	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal%20oxidation	Thermal oxidation	In microfabrication, thermal oxidation is a way to produce a thin layer of oxide (usually silicon dioxide) on the surface of a wafer. The technique forces an oxidizing agent to diffuse into the wafer at high temperature and react with it. The rate of oxide growth is often predicted by the Deal–Grove model. Thermal oxidation may be applied to different materials, but most commonly involves the oxidation of silicon substrates to produce silicon dioxide. The chemical reaction Thermal oxidation of silicon is usually performed at a temperature between 800 and 1200 °C, resulting in so called High Temperature Oxide layer (HTO). It may use either water vapor (usually UHP steam) or molecular oxygen as the oxidant; it is consequently called either wet or dry oxidation. The reaction is one of the following: The oxidizing ambient may also contain several percent of hydrochloric acid (HCl). The chlorine neutralizes metal ions that may occur in the oxide. Thermal oxide incorporates silicon consumed from the substrate and oxygen supplied from the ambient. Thus, it grows both down into the wafer and up out of it. For every unit thickness of silicon consumed, 2.17 unit thicknesses of oxide will appear. If a bare silicon surface is oxidized, 46% of the oxide thickness will lie below the original surface, and 54% above it. Deal-Grove model According to the commonly used Deal-Grove model, the time τ required to grow an oxide of thickness Xo, at a constant temperature, on a bare silicon surface, is: where the constants A and B relate to properties of the reaction and the oxide layer, respectively. This model has further been adapted to account for self-limiting oxidation processes, as used for the fabrication and morphological design of Si nanowires and other nanostructures.	2.171875
8556260	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal%20oxidation	Thermal oxidation	Oxide quality Wet oxidation is preferred to dry oxidation for growing thick oxides, because of the higher growth rate. However, fast oxidation leaves more dangling bonds at the silicon interface, which produce quantum states for electrons and allow current to leak along the interface. (This is called a "dirty" interface.) Wet oxidation also yields a lower-density oxide, with lower dielectric strength. The long time required to grow a thick oxide in dry oxidation makes this process impractical. Thick oxides are usually grown with a long wet oxidation bracketed by short dry ones (a dry-wet-dry cycle). The beginning and ending dry oxidations produce films of high-quality oxide at the outer and inner surfaces of the oxide layer, respectively. Mobile metal ions can degrade performance of MOSFETs (sodium is of particular concern). However, chlorine can immobilize sodium by forming sodium chloride. Chlorine is often introduced by adding hydrogen chloride or trichloroethylene to the oxidizing medium. Its presence also increases the rate of oxidation. Other notes Thermal oxidation can be performed on selected areas of a wafer, and blocked on others. This process, first developed at Philips, is commonly referred to as the local oxidation of silicon (LOCOS) process. Areas which are not to be oxidized are covered with a film of silicon nitride, which blocks diffusion of oxygen and water vapor due to its oxidation at a much slower rate. The nitride is removed after oxidation is complete. This process cannot produce sharp features, because lateral (parallel to the surface) diffusion of oxidant molecules under the nitride mask causes the oxide to protrude into the masked area. Because impurities dissolve differently in silicon and oxide, a growing oxide will selectively take up or reject dopants. This redistribution is governed by the segregation coefficient, which determines how strongly the oxide absorbs or rejects the dopant, and the diffusivity.	2.125
8556455	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tachiniscinae	Tachiniscinae	The Tachiniscinae are a subfamily of the fruit fly family Tephritidae. They are treated by some authorities as a separate family, Tachiniscidae. An undetermined species of the genus Tachiniscidia has been reared from Saturniidae caterpillars in Nigeria. The family Tachiniscidae was established by Kertész for a single species, Tachinisca cyaneiventris Kertész, 1903 from Peru and Bolivia. Kertész correctly placed that family in the “Muscidae acalyptratae”, in spite of its tachinid-like appearance. In the same year, Bischof described another genus, Bibundia, with a single species, B. hermanni Bischof (from Central Africa), which he assigned to “Ortalidae”. Malloch described one more monotypic tachiniscid genus, Tachiniscidia, with the type species T. africana Malloch from “Chirinda Forest, S. Rhodesia” (Zimbabwe). The only host data recorded for these three genera, or any other Tachiniscinae, is the mention of “Anthophasia robertsi Cogan” (nomen nudum; listed by Cogan as an undescribed species of Bibundia) reared from pupae of Bunaea alcinoe Stoll and Imbrasia obscura Butler (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae) by Roberts (1969). The exact identity of the host species needs further investigation, as Cogan (1980: 555) stated that “A single specimen of a Bibundia species has been reared by Roberts (1969) from a caterpillar of a saturniid moth, Imbrasia nictitans Fabricius” (=Imbrasia epimethea Drury).	2.046875
8556497	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contraposition	Contraposition	The contrapositive is "If an object does not have color, then it is not red." This follows logically from our initial statement and, like it, it is evidently true. The inverse is "If an object is not red, then it does not have color." An object which is blue is not red, and still has color. Therefore, in this case the inverse is false. The converse is "If an object has color, then it is red." Objects can have other colors, so the converse of our statement is false. The negation is "There exists a red object that does not have color." This statement is false because the initial statement which it negates is true. In other words, the contrapositive is logically equivalent to a given conditional statement, though not sufficient for a biconditional. Similarly, take the statement "All quadrilaterals have four sides," or equivalently expressed "If a polygon is a quadrilateral, then it has four sides." The contrapositive is "If a polygon does not have four sides, then it is not a quadrilateral." This follows logically, and as a rule, contrapositives share the truth value of their conditional. The inverse is "If a polygon is not a quadrilateral, then it does not have four sides." In this case, unlike the last example, the inverse of the statement is true. The converse is "If a polygon has four sides, then it is a quadrilateral." Again, in this case, unlike the last example, the converse of the statement is true. The negation is "There is at least one quadrilateral that does not have four sides." This statement is clearly false. Since the statement and the converse are both true, it is called a biconditional, and can be expressed as "A polygon is a quadrilateral if, and only if, it has four sides." (The phrase if and only if is sometimes abbreviated as iff.) That is, having four sides is both necessary to be a quadrilateral, and alone sufficient to deem it a quadrilateral.	2.484375
8556497	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contraposition	Contraposition	Truth If a statement is true, then its contrapositive is true (and vice versa). If a statement is false, then its contrapositive is false (and vice versa). If a statement's inverse is true, then its converse is true (and vice versa). If a statement's inverse is false, then its converse is false (and vice versa). If a statement's negation is false, then the statement is true (and vice versa). If a statement (or its contrapositive) and the inverse (or the converse) are both true or both false, then it is known as a logical biconditional. Traditional logic In traditional logic, contraposition is a form of immediate inference in which a proposition is inferred from another and where the former has for its subject the contradictory of the original logical proposition's predicate. In some cases, contraposition involves a change of the former's quality (i.e. affirmation or negation). For its symbolic expression in modern logic, see the rule of transposition. Contraposition also has philosophical application distinct from the other traditional inference processes of conversion and obversion where equivocation varies with different proposition types. In traditional logic, the process of contraposition is a schema composed of several steps of inference involving categorical propositions and classes. A categorical proposition contains a subject and predicate where the existential impact of the copula implies the proposition as referring to a class with at least one member, in contrast to the conditional form of hypothetical or materially implicative propositions, which are compounds of other propositions, e.g. "If P, then Q" (P and Q are both propositions), and their existential impact is dependent upon further propositions where quantification existence is instantiated (existential instantiation), not on the hypothetical or materially implicative propositions themselves.	2.734375
8556497	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contraposition	Contraposition	Notice that contraposition is a valid form of immediate inference only when applied to "A" and "O" propositions. It is not valid for "I" propositions, where the obverse is an "O" proposition which has no valid converse. The contraposition of the "E" proposition is valid only with limitations (per accidens). This is because the obverse of the "E" proposition is an "A" proposition which cannot be validly converted except by limitation, that is, contraposition plus a change in the quantity of the proposition from universal to particular. Also, notice that contraposition is a method of inference which may require the use of other rules of inference. The contrapositive is the product of the method of contraposition, with different outcomes depending upon whether the contraposition is full, or partial. The successive applications of conversion and obversion within the process of contraposition may be given by a variety of names. The process of the logical equivalence of a statement and its contrapositive as defined in traditional class logic is not one of the axioms of propositional logic. In traditional logic there is more than one contrapositive inferred from each original statement. In regard to the "A" proposition this is circumvented in the symbolism of modern logic by the rule of transposition, or the law of contraposition. In its technical usage within the field of philosophic logic, the term "contraposition" may be limited by logicians (e.g. Irving Copi, Susan Stebbing) to traditional logic and categorical propositions. In this sense the use of the term "contraposition" is usually referred to by "transposition" when applied to hypothetical propositions or material implications.	2.078125
8556497	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contraposition	Contraposition	Form of transposition In the inferred proposition, the consequent is the contradictory of the antecedent in the original proposition, and the antecedent of the inferred proposition is the contradictory of the consequent of the original proposition. The symbol for material implication signifies the proposition as a hypothetical, or the "if–then" form, e.g. "if P, then Q". The biconditional statement of the rule of transposition (↔) refers to the relation between hypothetical (→) propositions, with each proposition including an antecedent and consequential term. As a matter of logical inference, to transpose or convert the terms of one proposition requires the conversion of the terms of the propositions on both sides of the biconditional relationship, meaning that transposing or converting to requires that the other proposition, to be transposed or converted to Otherwise, converting the terms of one proposition and not the other renders the rule invalid, violating the sufficient condition and necessary condition of the terms of the propositions, where the violation is that the changed proposition commits the fallacy of denying the antecedent or affirming the consequent by means of illicit conversion. The truth of the rule of transposition is dependent upon the relations of sufficient condition and necessary condition in logic. Sufficient condition In the proposition "If P, then Q", the occurrence of P is sufficient reason for the occurrence of Q. P, as an individual or a class, materially implicates Q, but the relation of Q to P is such that the converse proposition "If Q, then P" does not necessarily have sufficient condition. The rule of inference for sufficient condition is modus ponens, which is an argument for conditional implication: Premise (1): If P, then Q Premise (2): P Conclusion: Therefore, Q	2.5625
8556497	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contraposition	Contraposition	Necessary and sufficient conditions can be explained by analogy in terms of the concepts and the rules of immediate inference of traditional logic. In the categorical proposition "All S is P", the subject term S is said to be distributed, that is, all members of its class are exhausted in its expression. Conversely, the predicate term P cannot be said to be distributed, or exhausted in its expression because it is indeterminate whether every instance of a member of P as a class is also a member of S as a class. All that can be validly inferred is that "Some P are S". Thus, the type "A" proposition "All P is S" cannot be inferred by conversion from the original type "A" proposition "All S is P". All that can be inferred is the type "A" proposition "All non-P is non-S" (note that (P → Q) and (¬Q → ¬P) are both type "A" propositions). Grammatically, one cannot infer "all mortals are men" from "All men are mortal". An type "A" proposition can only be immediately inferred by conversion when both the subject and predicate are distributed, as in the inference "All bachelors are unmarried men" from "All unmarried men are bachelors". Distinguished from transposition	2.109375
8556497	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contraposition	Contraposition	While most authors use the terms for the same thing, some authors distinguish transposition from contraposition. In traditional logic the reasoning process of transposition as a rule of inference is applied to categorical propositions through contraposition and obversion, a series of immediate inferences where the rule of obversion is first applied to the original categorical proposition "All S is P"; yielding the obverse "No S is non-P". In the obversion of the original proposition to a type "E" proposition, both terms become distributed. The obverse is then converted, resulting in "No non-P is S", maintaining distribution of both terms. The "No non-P is S" is again obverted, resulting in the [contrapositive] "All non-P is non-S". Since nothing is said in the definition of contraposition with regard to the predicate of the inferred proposition, it is permissible that it could be the original subject or its contradictory, and the predicate term of the resulting type "A" proposition is again undistributed. This results in two contrapositives, one where the predicate term is distributed, and another where the predicate term is undistributed.	2.640625
8556497	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contraposition	Contraposition	Proof by contrapositive Because the contrapositive of a statement always has the same truth value (truth or falsity) as the statement itself, it can be a powerful tool for proving mathematical theorems (especially if the truth of the contrapositive is easier to establish than the truth of the statement itself). A proof by contrapositive is a direct proof of the contrapositive of a statement. However, indirect methods such as proof by contradiction can also be used with contraposition, as, for example, in the proof of the irrationality of the square root of 2. By the definition of a rational number, the statement can be made that "If is rational, then it can be expressed as an irreducible fraction". This statement is true because it is a restatement of a definition. The contrapositive of this statement is "If cannot be expressed as an irreducible fraction, then it is not rational". This contrapositive, like the original statement, is also true. Therefore, if it can be proven that cannot be expressed as an irreducible fraction, then it must be the case that is not a rational number. The latter can be proved by contradiction. The previous example employed the contrapositive of a definition to prove a theorem. One can also prove a theorem by proving the contrapositive of the theorem's statement. To prove that if a positive integer N is a non-square number, its square root is irrational, we can equivalently prove its contrapositive, that if a positive integer N has a square root that is rational, then N is a square number. This can be shown by setting equal to the rational expression a/b with a and b being positive integers with no common prime factor, and squaring to obtain N = a2/b2 and noting that since N is a positive integer b=1 so that N = a2, a square number.	3.109375
8556500	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oil%20pulling	Oil pulling	Oil pulling is an alternative medical practice in which an edible oil is swished around the mouth for a period of time and then spat out, similar to mouthwash. It originates from Ayurvedic medicine. Practitioners of oil pulling claim it is capable of improving oral health. Its promoters claim it works by pulling out toxins, but there is no credible evidence to support this. History Oil pulling stems from traditional Ayurvedic medicine, whose practitioners may use sunflower oil, olive oil, or other herbal oils instead of coconut oil. Criticism There is no high-quality research on oil pulling, no understanding of a possible mechanism explaining how it would work, and no evidence that it provides any benefit. The American Dental Association agrees that there are no reliable scientific studies supporting the practice of oil pulling for any benefit to oral hygiene or overall wellbeing. The Canadian Dental Association assessed the practice of oil pulling in 2014 stating: "We sense oil pulling won't do any harm, we're not convinced there are any particular benefits to it."	2.609375
8556624	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Cocking	Robert Cocking	Robert Cocking (1776 – 24 July 1837) was a British watercolour artist who died in the first parachute accident. Parachute design Robert Cocking was a professional watercolour artist with a keen amateur interest in science. He had seen André-Jacques Garnerin make the first parachute jump in England in 1802 (the first modern parachute jump had been carried out in 1785 by Jean-Pierre Blanchard) and been inspired to develop an improved design after reading Sir George Cayley's paper On Aerial Navigation. Cayley's paper, published in 1809–1810, discussed Garnerin's jump at some length. Garnerin had used an umbrella-shaped parachute which had swayed excessively from side-to-side during the descent; Cayley theorised that a cone-shaped parachute would be more stable. Cocking spent many years developing his improved parachute, based on Cayley's design, which consisted of an inverted cone 107 feet (32.61 m) in circumference connected by three hoops. Cocking approached Charles Green and Edward Spencer, owners of the balloon Royal Nassau (formerly the Royal Vauxhall), to allow him an opportunity to test his invention. Despite the fact that Cocking was 61 years old, was not a professional scientist, and had no parachuting experience, the owners of the balloon agreed and advertised the event as the main attraction of a Grand Day Fete at Vauxhall Gardens.	2.84375
8556624	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Cocking	Robert Cocking	Crash A large crowd had gathered to witness the event, but it was immediately obvious that Cocking was in trouble. He had neglected to include the weight of the parachute itself in his calculations and as a result the descent was far too quick. Though rapid, the descent continued evenly for a few seconds, but then the entire apparatus turned inside out and plunged downwards with increasing speed. The parachute broke up before it hit the ground and at about 200 to 300 feet (60 to 90 m) off the ground the basket detached from the remains of the canopy. Cocking was killed instantly in the crash; his body was found in a field in Lee. The blame for the failure of the parachute was initially laid at Cayley's door, but tests later revealed that although Cayley had neglected to mention the additional weight of the parachute in his paper, the cause of the crash had been a combination of the parachute's weight and its flimsy construction, in particular the weak stitching connecting the fabric to the hoops. Cocking's parachute weighed 250 lb (113 kg), many times more than modern parachutes. However, tests carried out by John Wise, an American balloonist, showed that Cocking's design would have been successful if only it had been larger and better constructed. In comparing the designs of Garnerin's and Cocking's parachutes he found that the latter always descended in a much steadier and more even manner. The oscillation problem inherent in the Garnerin parachute was later solved by the introduction of a vent in the top of the canopy. Following Cocking's death parachuting became unpopular, and was confined to carnival and circus acts until the late 19th century, when developments such as the harness and breakaway chutes made it safer.	2.90625
8556749	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated%20lamellar%20keratoplasty	Automated lamellar keratoplasty	Automated lamellar keratoplasty (ALK), also known as keratomileusis in situ, is a non-laser lamellar refractive procedure used to correct high degree refractive errors. This procedure can correct large amounts of myopia and hyperopia. However, the resultant change is not as predictable as with other procedures. Procedure ALK uses a device called a microkeratome to separate a thin layer of the cornea and create a flap. The eye is anesthetized and a ring is fixed to it in order to keep it properly positioned and flat. The microkeratome then makes a small incomplete flap across the cornea by cutting across it. While still attached at one side, the corneal flap is folded back to reveal a sub layer of cornea. At this point, the microkeratome is precisely readjusted to match the calculated cut depth for the patient's vision correction. The calculation is based on the patient's glasses and contact lens prescriptions. The surgeon then passes the microkeratome completely over the eye making the power cut. After the power cut, the corneal flap is laid back over the eye where it reattaches. ALK is a technique used to correct very high levels of myopia and is generally used from -5.00 to -18.00 diopters of nearsightedness. Advantages and disadvantages Healing time from ALK is very rapid, usually in about 24 hours or so. Results are immediately realized, though it may take several months for the vision correction to finally stabilize. On the down side, the results of ALK are not as highly predictable as with the laser procedures of LASIK or PRK. Other disadvantages include irregular astigmatism, long visual recovery time and tissue damage.	2.203125
8556783	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I%20Spy%20Spooky%20Mansion	I Spy Spooky Mansion	Gameplay In the game, the player starts at the entrance of a haunted mansion. They enter and are locked inside. The "Guide", a skeleton known as Skelly (Voiced by Amy Birnbaum) informs the player that they must earn puzzle pieces to escape the house. They search various areas in the mansion for hidden objects or words specified at the bottom of the screen. Once all of the items in an area have been found, Skelly appears and awards the player with a puzzle piece. When the player has collected 15 puzzle pieces, they may combine them inside a picture frame to obtain instructions leading to Skelly's secret study in the library. Following Skelly's instructions, the player pulls on three books in the order of blue, green, then red. This causes the head on the bookshelf to move, unlocking the secret entrance to Skelly's study. The player can then escape through the window by climbing down a rope with Skelly, taking them back to the front entrance of the mansion. The player is then invited back into the house for more I Spy riddles. From there, the player must find the ingredients to Skelly's favorite recipe: Shrinking Soup. Once the player fetches all of the ingredients, they are able to eat it and escape the mansion through a mousehole by the front door. This hole takes the player back to the front entrance of the mansion, where Skelly invites the player into the house for a final game of riddles. To escape for a third time, the player must collect all of the parts to fix Skelly's ghost machine. Once the machine is repaired, the player creates ghosts from various objects inside the mansion. After creating six ghosts, the seventh and final ghost is revealed. Skelly crawls into the machine to turn into a ghost called the "Get-Out Ghost". The "Get-Out Ghost" propels the player out of the mansion through the chimney. Having finally escaped, Skelly congratulates the player and the game ends.	2.0625
8556789	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ewing%20Young	Ewing Young	The Spanish and later Mexicans had not focused on trapping fur-bearing animals of the Southwest as demand was small within the Spanish trading system. Expeditions of the Hudson's Bay Company, the American Fur Company and others established the North American fur trade (mainly beaver) in response to demand for furs in American and European markets, and the new trail opened up fresh hunting grounds. For the next nine years Young pioneered trapping in the region, dividing his time between Santa Fe and Missouri. He led many of the first American expeditions into the mountains and watercourses of the present-day states of New Mexico, Colorado, Utah, and Arizona. Young and his associates established a commercial route between Nuevo México and Missouri that exchanged Mexican furs, horses and mules for American-produced trade goods. When they returned to Nuevo Mexico, they sold the American goods for gold and silver coin. During the trapping expedition of 1827–1828, Young employed a teenaged Kit Carson. Despite tension that developed with Mexican authorities trying to restrict American activities, Young became a successful trapper and businessman. He eventually set up a trading post in Pueblo de Taos in northern Nuevo Mexico, in the late 1820s. During his time in Mexico he was generally called Joachin John or Joaquin Jóven by fellow inhabitants. California In spring 1830, Young led the first American trapping expedition to reach the Pacific Coast from Santa Fe, traveling via the Salt River, Gila and Verde rivers, then cross-country to the Colorado River and on across the Mojave Desert following the trail marked three years before by Jedediah Smith, eventually arriving at Mission San Gabriel Arcángel, where they recuperated. The group then visited Mission San Fernando Rey de España on their way north into California's great Central Valley via its southern San Joaquin Valley section.	2.859375
8556789	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ewing%20Young	Ewing Young	Once there, the group moved north to the Sacramento Valley, where they encountered Peter Skene Ogden of the Hudson's Bay Company (HBC). The two groups jointly trapped the valley before the Americans set off for the Tule River. After a short trapping excursion there, the party encountered an official from the Mission San José, who was trying to capture members of the mission, possibly Ohlone people. With the aid of eleven of Young's trappers the "fugitives" were taken back to the mission, where Young visited on 11 July. From here the Americans moved on to San Francisco Bay to trade their pelts. After this they went south to Pueblo de Los Angeles and then back to Taos before the end of 1830. At the time of his return to Taos with the proceeds of this expedition, Young was established as one of the wealthiest Americans in Mexican territory. Over the next few years, Young and his group continued traveling to Alta California to trap and trade. In 1834, in San Diego, Young encountered Hall J. Kelley, the great promoter of the Oregon Country from Boston. Kelley invited Ewing Young to accompany him north to Oregon, but Young at first declined. After re-thinking, Young agreed to travel with Kelley and they set out in July 1834, with a group including Webley John Hauxhurst and Joseph Gale, both prominent figures in the Willamette Valley, accompanying them.	2.1875
8556799	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iv%C3%B6%20Lake	Ivö Lake	Ivö Lake (Swedish: Ivösjön) is the largest and deepest lake of Skåne, Sweden, located in the municipalities of Kristianstad and Bromölla in the northeastern part of Skåne County. It covers an area of just under , with a maximum depth of 50 meters. The lake is the richest in fish species in Sweden, including pike, salmon, burbot, vendace, bream, ide, ruffe, minnow, rudd, and spined loach, rare for this area, which has prompted biodiversity conservation efforts and attention from among others EU Natura 2000. 25-30 different species are regularly caught in the lake. It is very well known among fishing enthusiasts, not only in Sweden but in many countries in Europe. A lake with numerous islands and sheltered bays, it has become a popular tourist destination for sightseeing as well as fishing. It is surrounded by hills with deciduous forests and valleys with fertile soil, and is located in a climate zone suitable for fruit tree cultivation. The area is one of Scania's fruit districts. Ivö The largest island in the lake, Ivö, has a permanent, year-round population. A free, cable-driven car ferry operates a regular scheduled service to the island from the village Barum on the mainland. On the island are the ruins of Anders Sunesøn's castle Ivöhus. Sunesøn, a Danish archbishop of Lund, died in Ivöhus in 1228. Ivö is a place of geological interest as it contains relict landforms and fossils dating to the Campanian age of the Late Cretaceous epoch. These features are exposed at a location known as Ivö Klack which was first described geologically by Gerard De Geer in 1889. The locality contains sedimentary rocks overlying basement gneiss and kaolinite. Ivö Klack started operating as a kaolinite quarry in 1886. The site is illustrative of the deep weathering process that led to the formation of the Sub-Mesozoic hilly relief that covers much of Sweden and Norway.	2.34375
8556849	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dasypus%20bellus	Dasypus bellus	The earliest fossils are found in early Pleistocene South America, and would emigrate into southern North America. They have been found at many sites in Florida, including caves, sinkholes, river sites, coastal, and lake deposits. By the late Pleistocene, D. bellus spread into the American Southwest. The living animals apparently preferred dry scrub environments. The most frequent type of fossil found are isolated osteoderms. The most common types of osteoderms that have been found are the hexagonal elements, which include most of osteoderms covering the shoulder or pectoral regions. Other types of osteoderms include those covering the pelvic region of the carapace or the so-called buckler or immovable osteoderms and the elongate rectangular elements from the movable bands, the imbricating or movable osteoderms. Modern descendants The beautiful armadillo likely shares a common lineage with numerous species of large armadillos from the Pleistocene of South America. This includes Propraopus sulcatus and Propraopus grandis. D. kappleri, the great long-nosed armadillo, which is the largest living species of Dasypus from tropical South America, has the same features of osteoderms as D. bellus. They also share a large, unreduced fifth digit on the manus. The range of D. novemcinctus, the smaller nine-banded armadillo, has expanded out of Mexico and into much of the former range of Dasypus bellus. The two species are morphologically similar to each other. This had led many to believe that they might be a single, highly adaptable species that has gone through a course of phenotypical changes along with geographical range fluctuations causing from environmental changes. However, as previously stated, DNA research has proved D. bellus and D. novemcinctus to be separate species.	3.125
8556886	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albarello	Albarello	An albarello (a name of Italian descent meaning "cell", plural: albarelli) also known as a "majolica drug jar" because of the type of tin glaze used is known as Majolica (also known as maiolica). This cylindrical storage unit or maiolica earthenware jar, is used for a plethora of purposes, most commonly for drug storage as a medicinal jar. The jar was also used for other purposes such as storing dried fruit, herbs, balms, and apothecaries' ointments and dry drugs. Function People usually stored their albarelli in buildings with medical purposes, like pharmacies, hospitals, and doctors' offices. Such jars served both functional and decorative purposes in traditional apothecaries and pharmacies, and represented status and wealth. The jars were generally sealed with a piece of parchment or leather tied with a piece of cord. Hospitals often used albarelli to hold products such as ointments, balms, and different remedies for patients. Albarelli were also utilized in ways other than its originally intended purpose: they were used to hold perfume, they could function as a form of décor, and as vases to display flowers.	2.5
8556886	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albarello	Albarello	Importation from China and the Middle East The origin of this type of pharmacy jar has its roots in the Middle East during the time of the Islamic conquests. The term majolica specifically refers to a type of tin glaze that originated in the Near East along Islamic trade routes, showcasing the strong influence of Islamic material culture. The characteristic shape of the arbarello also has its roots in the East. Additionally, Chinese porcelain and its manufacturing played a significant role in influencing the development and spread of arbarelli across Europe. The influence from the Islamic empire coupled with the manufacturing of Chinese porcelain made for mass manufacture and subsequent exportation of albarelli for several cultures including those in Italy, China, and Spain, and in turn were re-purposed for differing needs. Spanning out of the East from the Islamic empires and China, the albarelli were first introduced to Europe in Syria and Spain and then brought to Italy by Muslim Arab traders, during the height of the Italian Renaissance where its shape and purpose was adopted. By importing majolica from Spain and Syria, Italian artists began producing versions of their own that differed from the traditional Islamic arbarelli with the addition of handles to heighten the functionality of the jar and the introduction of new designs including "a trofei" (with trophies), "a foglie" (leafy designs), and "a frutti" (decorated with fruits). While the styles in both Spain and Italy kept on developing, clear influence could still be linked backed to traditional Chinese and Islamic ceramic designs despite the changes in style and designs. Eventually Syrian manufacture of the jars lead to them being described in Italian as "porcellana domaschina" (damascene porcelain), to distinguish that the blue-and-white lusterware were made in Damascus and were not authentic Chinese porcelain that had been imported into Europe previously.	2.375
8556889	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cedar%20Rapids%20and%20Missouri%20River%20Railroad	Cedar Rapids and Missouri River Railroad	The Cedar Rapids and Missouri River Railroad was a railroad chartered to run from Cedar Rapids, Iowa to Council Bluffs, Iowa on the Missouri River. Under lease by the Chicago & North Western Railroad, it was the first railroad to reach Council Bluffs opposite Omaha Nebraska, and the eastern terminus of the First transcontinental railroad. It was one of four railroads that were built as result of the Iowa Land Bill of 1856 that gave land grants for railroads. Background The Chicago, Iowa and Nebraska Railroad Company was a 'land grant railroad' organized in 1855 in conjunction with the Iowa Land Co. in Clinton, Iowa. As the name indicates, its plan was to build across Iowa and cross the Missouri river but it had only reached Cedar Rapids by 1859 when it ran out of money. It had, however, managed to build a short bridge from the east side of the Mississippi to the Little Rock Island at a place opposite Clinton called "the narrows". This determined the location of the rail connection with Chicago and the eventual location of the Clinton Railroad Bridge. In the meantime the connection was by steam ferry. The CR&MR railroad was organized on January 16, 1860, and composed largely of stockholders in the CI&N, which had been unable to get beyond Cedar Rapids. Its purpose was to complete the road to the Missouri river at Omaha. Meanwhile Union Pacific Railroad baron Thomas Clark Durant was manipulating railroad stocks to add to his fortune. "Doc" Durant controlled another of the Iowa land grant railroads, the Mississippi and Missouri Railroad (M&M) and ran up its stock by saying the transcontinental railroad would connect to it. Then while selling high priced M&M stock, he was buying the depressed CR&MR stock. Durant then declared that the CR&MR would be the railroad of choice for the transcontinental connection. After buying back the newly depressed M&M stock, Durant and his cohorts made about $5 million.	2.59375
8556908	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tracey%20Wainman	Tracey Wainman	Tracey Wainman (born May 27, 1967) is a Canadian former competitive figure skater. She is the 1981 Skate Canada International champion and a two-time Canadian national champion (1981 and 1986). Competitive career Early in her career, Tracey Wainman was coached by Ellen Burka at the Toronto Cricket, Skating, and Curling Club. Her skating-related expenses were about $30,000 a year. Wainman first came to international prominence in 1980. At the age of 12, she won her first senior national medal, taking bronze at the 1980 Canadian Championships behind Heather Kemkaran and Janet Morrissey. Kemkaran received Canada's sole ladies' berth to the 1980 Olympics but Wainman was controversially selected for the World Championships instead of Kemkaran or Morrissey. At that time, David Dore, the head of the Canadian Figure Skating Association (CFSA), and Canadian television were heavily promoting Wainman as a future champion. At the 1980 World Championships in Dortmund, she finished 14th overall, having placed 21st in the compulsory figures, 17th in the short program and 10th in the free skate. Howard Bass of The Daily Telegraph wrote, "Tracey steals the show", and predicted she would win the 1984 Olympic title. In a 2006 interview, Wainman stated, "I was so excited to be there, skating with my idols, all these stars I'd seen on TV. I spent the whole week running around with an autograph book." The chatter at her skating club in Toronto, however, was sometimes harsh. Wainman recalled, "Kids said that I was taking drugs to stunt my growth, that I was secretly 27. The best one was that my parents had doctored my birth certificate and locked me in a room to prevent me from growing."	2.484375
8556908	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tracey%20Wainman	Tracey Wainman	The following season, Wainman won the Canadian national title for the first time and was assigned to her second World Championships. In contrast to a year earlier, she had her best performance at 1981 Worlds in Hartford, Connecticut in the compulsory figures, placing 6th. Her short program was ranked 15th and her free skate 10th for an overall result of 10th. In the summer of 1981, Wainman moved to Orillia to work with Dough Leigh, the coach of Brian Orser. Wainman began the next season by winning gold at the 1981 Skate Canada International. The Canadian Press named her the Female Athlete of the Year. However, she struggled at the 1982 Canadian Championships, falling three times in the long program and finishing third overall. She was not assigned to Worlds. The media's highlighting of her errors affected her mental focus—"Every time I made a mistake it was magnified. The media would report every fall. And then I started being afraid of making a mistake. So in training, I would try a jump and change my mind in mid-air," Wainman later stated. She was also undergoing a teenage growth spurt; she grew six inches in two years and put on weight as her figure developed. At the start of the 1982–83 season, the CFSA stripped Wainman of an international assignment in the Netherlands, criticizing the 14-year-old's work ethic. After placing 7th at the 1983 Canadian Championships, she stopped skating entirely for a year. When Wainman resumed skating in the spring of 1984, she returned to her old coach, Ellen Burka, at the Toronto Cricket Club. Burka taught her from scratch—the teenager had lost most of her skills and had a fear of jumping.	2.484375
8556908	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tracey%20Wainman	Tracey Wainman	She began her comeback at the 1985 Canadian National Championships by leading the field after the first phase, compulsory figures—then worth 30% of the final score. After falling on a planned Triple Salchow+Double Toe Loop combination in her short program, she was left with required element scores as low as 4.0. In the long program, she again failed to complete her sole planned triple jump, the Salchow. Further errors on other significant elements left her off the podium. Returning to the Canadian Championships in February 1986, Wainman unexpectedly won her second national title, the judges putting her ahead of reigning champion Elizabeth Manley. She was assigned to her third international championships, the 1986 Worlds. After placing 5th in compulsory figures and 11th in both the short and free programs, she came in 9th overall at the event in Geneva, Switzerland. The CFSA passed her over for international assignments the following season—allegedly because they disapproved of her undisciplined off-ice behavior. Wainman decided to retire from competitive skating and then skated professionally with shows including Holiday on Ice and Ice Capades. Often cited as a cautionary example of a young skater who burned out after being prematurely pushed into the spotlight, Wainman commented in 2006, "if they had held me back, I might never have got to compete at the Worlds. I'm just glad I got to go." Coaching career Wainman currently works as a coach and skating director at the York Region Skating Academy in Richmond Hill, Ontario. She has coached skaters to a total of nine national medals, including four titles. She was awarded the COS Competitive Coach of the Year twice (2002 and 2006) and 2011 Skate Canada Competitive Coach of Excellence. Wainman previously coached Alexandra Najarro Conrad Orzel, and Nam Nguyen. She is the current coach of Roman Sadovsky.	1.96875
8556941	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dekada%20%2770%20%28film%29	Dekada '70 (film)	Dekada '70 () is a 2002 Filipino historical drama film directed by Chito S. Roño and based on the 1983 novel of the same name by Lualhati Bautista. Set in the Philippines during the period of martial law under Ferdinand Marcos, the film follows the struggles of the middle-class Bartolome family spanning several years. It stars Vilma Santos and Christopher De Leon as parents raising five sons amidst the tense political background. Their sons are played by Piolo Pascual, Carlos Agassi, Marvin Agustin, Danilo Barrios, and John Wayne Sace. Distributed by Star Cinema upon its initial premiere at the 28th Metro Manila Film Festival, the film is now restored in high-definition by the ABS-CBN Film Archives and Central Digital Lab, and on January 1, 2024, was released on the distributing company's YouTube channel. Plot Incumbent President Ferdinand Marcos Sr. is re-elected for a second term, amidst anti-war protests during the Vietnam War. At dinner, brothers Julian "Jules" Bartolome Jr. and Isagani "Gani" Bartolome, speak about the upcoming Junior-Senior Prom. Amanda, the mother of five children (including Jules & Gani) of the middle-class Bartolome family residing in Manila, finds a new advertising job, but her husband, Julián Bartolome, Sr, infuriatingly opposes her decision. As they leave for home at night after a prom, the Bartolomes get stuck in traffic due to a protest with effigy burning near the Legislative Building. In 1971, Jules and his best friend Willy, participate in the student protest at the University of the Philippines. At the same time, Emmanuel "Em" Bartolome begins writing illegal exposés and other kinds of banned literature. Julián becomes furious when he discovers Jules and Willy's involvement, angrily explaining the suspension of the writ of habeas corpus and the disappearance of student leader Charlie del Rosario.	2.078125
8556945	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy%20Mitchell%20Airport	Billy Mitchell Airport	Billy Mitchell Airport is a public use airport located east of the central business district of Hatteras, in Dare County, North Carolina, United States. The airport is located in the Cape Hatteras National Seashore and is owned by the National Park Service. It is named after United States Army Air Service General Billy Mitchell, and is included in the National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2017–2021, which categorized it as a general aviation facility. Although most U.S. airports use the same three-letter location identifier for the FAA and IATA, Billy Mitchell Airport is assigned HSE by the FAA and HNC by the IATA. The airport's ICAO identifier is KHSE. Facilities and aircraft Billy Mitchell Airport covers an area of 100 acres (40 ha) at an elevation of 16 feet (5 m) above mean sea level. It has one runway designated 7/25 with an asphalt surface measuring 3,002 by 75 feet (915 x 23 m). For the 12-month period ending September 2, 2022, the airport had 9,200 aircraft operations, an average of 25 per day: 97% general aviation, 1% air taxi and 1% military.	1.992188
8556953	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plaza%20Las%20Delicias	Plaza Las Delicias	Plaza Luis Muñoz Rivera Plaza Luis Muñoz Rivera is the smaller of the two plazas. It is situated to the north of the Ponce Cathedral, and was originally known as Paseo de La Alameda, and was at a time also called "Plaza Las Delicias" itself, but today it is known as Plaza Luis Muñoz Rivera. It is so named to honor the prominent poet, journalist, and politician by that name born in Barranquitas and whose statue stands prominently in the center of this plaza. The statue is the product of the foundry of Italian sculptor Luiggi Tomassi. in Pietrasanta, Italy. The Muñoz Rivera statue is made in bronze and was unveiled in 1923. Luis Yordán Dávila, mayor of Ponce at the time, was one of the main proponents of the monument. In addition to the statue of Munoz Rivera, this section of Plaza Las Delicias also has two fountains. Plaza Muñoz Rivera is bounded on the north by Plaza Muñoz Rivera street (also called Reina street and Isabel street), on the west by Union street, on the east by Atocha street, and on the south by the Ponce Cathedral and Parque de Bombas. Two hotels, various banks, several boutiques, a five-story drugstore building (now home to the Pontifical Catholic University of Puerto Rico School of Architecture), and the historic Fox Delicias theater surround this smaller plaza. Plaza Federico Degetau Plaza Federico Degetau is the larger of the two plazas. It was designed by architect Francisco Porrata-Doria in 1914. It is located south of the cathedral and the firehouse. It was originally called Antigua Plaza Real (Old Royal Plaza). This section of Plaza Las Delicias is perhaps the best known and the one most often seen in pictures.	2.484375
8556953	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plaza%20Las%20Delicias	Plaza Las Delicias	In the center of this plaza lies the famous Fuente de los Leones (Lions Fountain). The large, round-shaped fountain is bounded by a low, marmol and granite wall. The fountain's wall boundary is shaped in the form of a regular octagon and built so that one of the vertices of the octagon points towards the historic Ponce City Hall. The fountain also features four lion statues and water that flows under colored lighting effects. The four lion statues are located one statue on each alternating vertex of the fountain's octagonal boundary wall. The fountain was purchased in 1939 at the New York World's Fair. The fountain, including a mechanical basement, was remodeled and restored in 1993. Its base was enlarged and a computerized lighting system was installed. This plaza also features a statue of native composer, Juan Morel Campos. This statue was also produced at the workshop of Italian sculptor Luiggi Tomassi Also in this plaza is an obelisk in honor of the firefighters that fought in the "Polvorín" fire (See Monumento a los heroes de El Polvorín). The obelisk was unveiled in 1948, in time for the 50th anniversary of the frightful fire. There is also a statue, called Blind Justice of a woman on a long dress with her eyes covered by a cloth wrapped around the top of her head. The woman's left hand holds a sword inside a shaft resting on the ground and there are two children sitting happily by her feet: one is embracing the lower part of the shaft, the other is playing with an orange tree branch. Plaza Degetau is bounded on the north by the Our Lady of Guadalupe Cathedral and Parque de Bombas, on the south by Plaza Degetau street (also called Villa street and Comercio street), on the west by Union street, and on the east by Atocha street. It is surrounded by two hotels, the Ponce City Hall, two banks (historic Banco de Ponce and historic Banco Crédito), a long-standing ice cream parlor called "King's Cream", and various boutiques and cafes.	2.328125
8557032	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nelson%20Island%20%28British%20Columbia%29	Nelson Island (British Columbia)	Nelson Island is an island in the Sunshine Coast region of the South Coast region of British Columbia. It is surrounded by Hotham Sound, Agamemnon Channel, and Malaspina Strait. The closest communities are Pender Harbour, British Columbia and Egmont, both on the Sechelt Peninsula. The island is mostly forested, although there are some clear cut areas inland. Lakes and large mountainous hills define the geography. Hardy Island sits alongside Nelson Island with Blind Bay in between the two. Logging operations and granite quarries were early features of the island, and many buildings in BC were built out of Nelson Granite including the Parliament Buildings in Victoria. There were once a few homesteads and small logging operations, most of which are now summer cabins. As a consequence, the permanent population is quite small. One of the most well known residents was Harry Roberts, who retired to the island in 1929. The house he built, Sunray, was a cottage with south-facing walls of glass the stretched out like the rays of a sun. It still stands in a cove at Cape Cockburn. The island is named for the British naval hero, Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson. The adjacent island of Hardy Island is named after his Commodore, who was the last man to whom Nelson spoke as he lay dying after the Battle of Trafalgar. The eastern side of Nelson Island is bordered by Agamemnon Channel, named after Nelson's first command and favourite ship, HMS Agamemnon. The southernmost part of the island is Fearney Point, named after Nelson's bargeman William Fearney who took charge of the swords of surrendered Spaniards during the Battle of Cape St Vincent. The scene is commemorated on a bas-relief plaque at the foot of Nelson's Column in Trafalgar Square, London.	2.5
8557069	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Her%20Majesty%20%282001%20film%29	Her Majesty (2001 film)	Her Majesty is a 2001 coming of age film about a young girl who realises her lifelong dream when Queen Elizabeth II comes to visit her small hometown. Directed by Mark J. Gordon, this New Zealand made, family-friendly feature film, is the winner of over 20 festival awards, including the Audience Award at Florida, Newport Beach, Stonybrook, World Cinema Naples and Marco Island. Vicky Haughton who co-stars in Her Majesty went on to play the grandmother in the movie Whale Rider. She also had a part in King Kong. Walter Coblenz, the producer, was also producer on such films as All the President's Men, The Candidate, and The Onion Field. Virginia Katz, the editor, also edited Kinsey and Dreamgirls. Production designer Kim Sinclair also won an Academy Award in 2010 for his work on Avatar. Synopsis Elizabeth Wakefield (Sally Andrews), a young girl who lives in Middleton, New Zealand during the 1950s, idolizes Queen Elizabeth II and writes to her continuously when she hears that the Queen will be making a visit to New Zealand, to convince her to make her town one of the stops. The town was built on land originally owned by the Maori, the indigenous people of New Zealand. The thoughts in the town are that the Maori are not to be trusted, and there is resentment as the young boys of the local tribe start to take jobs from the white English townspeople.	2.25
8557069	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Her%20Majesty%20%282001%20film%29	Her Majesty (2001 film)	Elizabeth learns of this, and despite her father not wanting her to visit Hira, she goes to the house and learns the pistols were actually given to Hira's father, the chief of the tribe. He had given in return a gift of his ceremonial spear. Elizabeth uses every trick she can to keep the ladies of the town from blocking Hira from the queen, so her story can be told. This leads to her learning about the history of the tribe, and coming to respect them so much, she adopts them. This has disastrous consequences in how she is treated around the town. She was in line to lead her drill team squad in the parade for the Queen, which would have allowed her to greet the Queen and present her case about the pistols. However the headmaster threatened the instructor for the squad, and Annabel was chosen instead. Not willing to give up, Elizabeth plans to march in the parade anyway to try to find a way to present her case. Her brother and his group of bully boys discover her and lock her in her dog Kupe's pen. Annabel is worried, and goes to find her. Elizabeth manages to escape by cutting the rope tying the gate shut with the medallion Hira gave her. Together, she and Annabel discover the Queen has received all the letters Elizabeth had been writing, and was so intrigued by her story of Hira Mata, she decided to make that her stop in Middleton. When Annabel defers to Elizabeth about presenting the pistols, she is finally able to state her case. The Queen not only agrees, but returns to Hira Mata her father's ceremonial spear, as a gesture of good will and friendship between the Maori tribe and the English Crown.	2
8557079	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wehib%20Pasha	Wehib Pasha	Wehib Pasha also known as Vehip Pasha, Mehmed Wehib Pasha, Mehmet Vehip Pasha (modern Turkish: Kaçı Vehip Paşa or Mehmet Vehip (Kaçı), 1877–1940), was an Albanian general in the Ottoman Army. He fought in the Balkan Wars and in several theatres of World War I. In his later years, Vehib Pasha volunteered to serve as a military advisor to the Ethiopian Army against Fascist Italy during the Second Italo-Ethiopian War. He served as the chief of staff to Nasibu Zeamanuel, the Ethiopian Commander-in-Chief on the southern front. Biography Vehib was born in 1877 in Yanya, Janina Vilayet (present day: Ioannina, Greece), then part of the Ottoman Empire. Coming from a prominent family of the city his father, Mehmet Emin Efendi, had served as its mayor. He was an Albanian. His elder brother Esad Pasha defended Gallipoli in 1915. His younger brother Mehmet Nakyettin Bey was the father of Kâzım Taşkent the founder of Yapı Kredi, the first nationwide private bank in Turkey. Vehib himself graduated from the Imperial School of Military Engineering (Mühendishane-i Berrî-i Hümâyûn) in 1899, then from the Ottoman Military College (Staff College, Mekteb-i Erkân-ı Harbiye-i Şâhâne) as a staff captain and joined the Fourth Army, which was then stationed in Yemen. In 1909, after the 31 March Incident, Vehib was called to Constantinople, where he began to work at the Ministry of War. Shortly afterwards Mahmud Shevket Pasha appointed Vehib as the Commander of the Cadet School (Military high school, Askerî İdadi). He reached the rank of Major. Balkan wars During the First Balkan War, Vehib defended the Fortress of Yanya with his brother Esad Pasha who was the commander of the Yanya Corps, until 20 February 1913. The Ottoman forces eventually surrendered to the Greeks under Crown Prince Constantine. After his release as a prisoner of war, Vehib was made a Colonel in the 22nd Infantry Division. He was sent to Hejaz in Arabia.	2.109375
8557125	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary%20G.%20Enig	Mary G. Enig	Mary Gertrude Enig (née Dracon; July 13, 1931 – September 8, 2014) was a nutritionist and researcher known for her unconventional positions on the role saturated fats play in diet and health. She disputed the medical consensus that diets high in saturated fats contribute to development of heart disease, while she advocated for a low-carbohydrate high-fat diet, rich in animal fats and coconut oil. Along with Sally Fallon, Enig co-founded the Weston A. Price Foundation (WAPF) in 1999. Enig died of a stroke at the age of 83. Career Enig attended the University of Maryland, College Park (UMD) where she received a MS and later a PhD in Nutritional Sciences in 1984. From 1984 through 1991 she was a faculty research associate at UMD with the Lipids Research Group in the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry where she participated in biochemical research on lipids. Enig was a Licensed Nutritionist in Maryland from May 1988 to October 2008. She was a Master of the American College of Nutrition. and was a former editor of the Journal of the American College of Nutrition where she published articles on food fats and oils. Enig was a board member and vice-president of the Weston A. Price Foundation (WAPF) which she co-founded with Sally Fallon in 1999 to promote nutrition and health advice based on the work of early 20th century dentist and researcher Weston A. Price. Dietary views	2.109375
8557125	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary%20G.%20Enig	Mary G. Enig	Enig, a member of The International Network of Cholesterol Skeptics (THINCS), disputed the widely accepted view in the scientific community that consumption of saturated fats contributes to heart disease. Her chapter in the book Coronary Heart Disease: The Dietary Sense and Nonsense – An evaluation by scientists was reviewed in the New England Journal of Medicine, which noted that while she provided an appropriate discussion of trans fats in diet, she did not accurately depict the medical literature on the connection between diet and coronary disease, and that she wrote with an inflammatory tone that was unjustified. Enig responded in a letter published in the journal. Enig criticized vegetarianism and low-fat diets. She argued against medical consensus by stating, "heart disease has been correlated most consistently with consumption of sugar and an excess in polyunsaturated oils". She denied studies linking heart disease to red meat consumption. She opposed the use of processed foods such as pasteurized milk, sugar, vegetables oils and white flour. Enig claimed butter and coconut oil are good for heart health. She published articles on the properties of coconut oil and was a vocal advocate for its consumption. Citing the work of Jon J. Kabara, she claimed that unprocessed coconut oil could be effective in the treatment of viral infections including HIV/AIDS. Enig was an early researcher of trans fatty acids, warning of their dangers before they were widely accepted. She believed that trans fats lower the beneficial type of cholesterol-carrying particles (HDL) and pushed for improved labeling of trans fats on products, which is now mandatory on food products in the U.S. and in Europe.	2.390625
8557229	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colour%20Strike	Colour Strike	The Colour Strike was an industrial action by technicians at ITV companies which ran from 13 November 1970 to 8 February 1971. Due to a pay dispute, technicians refused to work with colour television equipment. Some shows made during this period aired in black-and-white as late as December 1971. History At that time, ITV had recently switched to colour transmissions, requiring the individual companies to invest heavily in new equipment. Early colour television studio cameras consisted of four tubes to relay the picture: three were receptive to colour (red, green and blue – the chrominance signal) with the fourth providing a high-resolution monochrome image (the luminance signal). The final colour picture was created by combining the chrominance and luminance signals, but the technicians simply switched off the colour tubes whilst this dispute took place. This meant that even though colour equipment was available, all shows were recorded and broadcast in black-and-white, thus denying the ITV companies the ability to sell airtime at the higher value that colour transmissions dictated. In some film sequences for location shots in these programmes (shot in colour), the colour signal from the telecine machine had to be switched off in the vision mixing desk before being recorded to tape, but this was partly unsuccessful, leading to some film sequences being recorded with an odd array of pale colours (as for items where the colour is a mix of two primary colours, only one primary colour would show). This is prominent in the second series of Hadleigh, for example. The first Coronation Street episode to be broadcast in colour was transmitted on 3 November 1969, but due to the strike, some 1970–71 episodes, including the one featuring Valerie Barlow's electrocution, were recorded in black-and-white. The last black-and-white edition was shown on 10 February 1971, although the episodes transmitted between 22 and 24 February 1971 contained black-and-white film inserts.	2.578125
8557287	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Articles%20of%20organization	Articles of organization	The articles of organization are a document similar to the articles of incorporation, outlining the initial statements required to form a limited liability company (LLC) in many U.S. states. Some states refer to articles of organization as a certificate of organization or a certificate of formation. Once filed and approved by the Secretary of State, or other company registrar, the articles of organization legally create the LLC as a registered business entity within the state. For terms of similar meaning in other countries, see Articles of association. United States The articles of organization outline the governance of an LLC along with the operating agreement and the corporate statutes in the state where articles of organization are filed. The articles of organization document typically includes the name of the LLC, the type of legal structure (e.g. limited liability company, professional limited liability company, series LLC), the registered agent, whether the LLC is managed by members or managers, the effective date, the duration (perpetual by default in most states), and the names and signatures of the organizer(s). It is the Articles of Organization that establishes the power, rights, liabilities, duties, and other important obligations of LLC members. This document also establishes the obligations between LLC members. Most secretaries of state provide fill-in-the-blank PDF templates to file with the state. Some people use the services of an attorney to draft articles of organization. Articles must be drafted to meet the state requirements to form a LLC. The state fee to file articles of organization to form a traditional LLC range from $40 - $500.	2.203125
8557344	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drude%20particle	Drude particle	Drude particles are model oscillators used to simulate the effects of electronic polarizability in the context of a classical molecular mechanics force field. They are inspired by the Drude model of mobile electrons and are used in the computational study of proteins, nucleic acids, and other biomolecules. Classical Drude oscillator Most force fields in current practice represent individual atoms as point particles interacting according to the laws of Newtonian mechanics. To each atom, a single electric charge is assigned that doesn't change during the course of the simulation. However, such models cannot have induced dipoles or other electronic effects due to a changing local environment. Classical Drude particles are massless virtual sites carrying a partial electric charge, attached to individual atoms via a harmonic spring. The spring constant and relative partial charges on the atom and associated Drude particle determine its response to the local electrostatic field, serving as a proxy for the changing distribution of the electronic charge of the atom or molecule. However, this response is limited to a changing dipole moment. This response is not enough to model interactions in environments with large field gradients, which interact with higher order moments. Efficiency of simulation The major computational cost of simulating classical Drude oscillators is the calculation of the local electrostatic field and the repositioning of the Drude particle at each step. Traditionally, this repositioning is done self consistently. This cost can be reduced by assigning a small mass to each Drude particle, applying a Lagrangian transformation and evolving the simulation in the generalised coordinates. This method of simulation has been used to create water models incorporating classical Drude oscillators.	2.765625
8557344	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drude%20particle	Drude particle	Quantum Drude oscillator Since the response of a classical Drude oscillator is limited, it is not enough to model interactions in heterogeneous media with large field gradients, where higher order electronic responses have significant contributions to the interaction energy. A quantum Drude oscillator (QDO) is a natural extension to the classical Drude oscillator. Instead of a classical point particle serving as a proxy for the charge distribution, a QDO uses a quantum harmonic oscillator, in the form of a pseudoelectron connected to an oppositely charged pseudonucleus by a harmonic spring. A QDO has three free parameters: the spring's frequency , the pseudoelectron's charge and the system's reduced mass . The ground state of a QDO is a gaussian of width . Adding an external field perturbs the ground state of a QDO, which allows us to calculate its polarizability. To second order, the change in energy relative to the ground state is given by the following series: where the polarizabilities are Furthermore, since QDOs are quantum mechanical objects, their electrons can correlate, giving rise to dispersion forces between them. The second order change in energy corresponding to such an interaction is: with the first three dispersion coefficients being (in the case of identical QDOs): Since the response coefficients of QDOs depend on three parameters only, they are all related. Thus, these response coefficients can combine into four dimensionless constants, all equal to unity: The QDO representation of atoms is the basis of the many body dispersion model which is a popular way to account for electrostatic forces in molecular dynamics simulations. This representation allows describing the processes of biological ion transport, small drug molecules across hydrophobic cell membranes and the behavior of proteins in solutions.	2.015625
8557389	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditions%20of%20the%20Georgia%20Institute%20of%20Technology	Traditions of the Georgia Institute of Technology	Numerous Georgia Tech legends and traditions have been established since the school's opening in 1888, some of which have persisted for decades. Over time, the school has grown from a trade school into a large research university, and the traditions reflect that heritage. One of the cherished holdovers from Tech's early years, a steam whistle blows every weekday at various times to mark the changing of classes. It's for this reason that the faculty newspaper is named The Whistle. Some of the traditions are well-known, the most notable being the now-banned tradition of stealing the "T" from Tech Tower. Tech Tower, Tech's historic primary administrative building, has the letters TECH hanging atop it on each of its four sides. A number of times, students have orchestrated complex plans to steal the huge symbolic letter T, and on occasion have carried this act out successfully. One especially well-known tradition that has existed nearly since the school's establishment is Clean, Old-Fashioned Hate, Georgia Tech's heated, long-standing and ongoing rivalry with the University of Georgia. The first known hostilities between the two schools trace back to 1891. Several legends originated at Georgia Tech. George P. Burdell, Tech's ever-present fictional student, was created in 1927 when a student filled out two application forms. Burdell went on to lead a long life; he earned several degrees, fought in World War II, and almost won Times 2001 Person of the Year award. Georgia Tech is also known for the largest margin of victory in a football game, achieved in their 222-0 thrashing of Cumberland University in the 1916 Cumberland vs. Georgia Tech football game. Traditions Stealing the T	2.3125
8557389	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditions%20of%20the%20Georgia%20Institute%20of%20Technology	Traditions of the Georgia Institute of Technology	Tech's historic and primary administrative building, Tech Tower, has the letters TECH hanging atop it on each of its four sides. Since 1969, students on several occasions have orchestrated complex plans to scale Tech Tower and steal the huge symbolic letter T off the building. The 'T' was first stolen in April 1969 by a secret group of Georgia Tech students calling themselves the "Magnificent Seven." The students, who were inspired by a similar prank that had taken place in 1968 at Harvard University, planned the theft as a means of commemorating Institute President Edwin D. Harrison's retirement. The 'T' was returned several days later via helicopter at the behest of Atlanta mayor Ivan Allen. Following successful thefts, the T would then be returned at the halftime of the homecoming football game or would be returned to the lawn of the president's mansion, and the student's achievement would be celebrated. Tradition dictates that the first T to be stolen should be the one facing east, as this can most easily be seen from the I-75/I-85 Downtown Connector. Although the administration used to turn a blind eye to this practice, it is now officially discouraged, due to the risk of fatal falls and the potential for damage to the building, and equated to criminal activity (trespassing and theft). In recent years, this has become a serious offense, and perpetrators today would face a hefty fine to repair damages done to the building and a minimum of a semester-long suspension for attempting the feat, if not outright expulsion.	1.953125
8557389	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditions%20of%20the%20Georgia%20Institute%20of%20Technology	Traditions of the Georgia Institute of Technology	Security features such as security cameras, pressure sensitive roof tiling, and fiber optic cabling running throughout the letters have been added to the T to help prevent its theft and aid in catching the perpetrators. In 1999, the T was successfully stolen by a group of "six or seven people" on the morning of June 3. The location of that T is still unknown. In 2001, two members of the fraternity Beta Theta Pi were caught and suspended in an attempt to steal the T. In October 2005, a replica of the T was stolen from the Student Services Building and returned two days later. Despite the lack of physical danger involved in stealing the spare T, the theft was still strongly criticized. The most recent successful theft of the T occurred during Georgia Tech's spring break on March 18, 2014, which was the first time since 1999 that it had been successfully stolen. Ramblin' Wreck The term Ramblin' Wreck from Georgia Tech refers to either current students or alumni, the school mascot (also referred to as the Ramblin' Reck), or the various sports teams. Georgia Tech alumni, working on the construction of the Panama Canal, were called Ramblin' Wrecks for the ingenious machines that they devised to transport themselves in and out of the jungles of Panama. These devices and their creators were nicknamed Ramblin' Wrecks from Georgia Tech. Since then the term Ramblin' Wreck has been applied to a graduate or current student of Georgia Tech. The actual Ramblin' Reck is a 1930 Ford Model A Sports Coupe first acquired by then-associate dean of students James E. Dull, in 1961. The first Ramblin' Wreck mascot reference was in 1926 to Dean Floyd Field's 1914 Ford Model T. Sports teams of Georgia Tech are also called the Ramblin' Wreck. The fight song for Georgia Tech "I'm a Rambling Wreck" begins with the lyrics, "I'm a Ramblin' Wreck from Georgia Tech and a hell of an engineer." The song is sung at sporting events, official school functions, and always at the end of every graduation ceremony. The Whistle	2.359375
8557389	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditions%20of%20the%20Georgia%20Institute%20of%20Technology	Traditions of the Georgia Institute of Technology	A steam whistle that blows at various times throughout the day to mark the end of classes. This tradition is a hold over from the trade school days, originally used to mark the end of a shift in the shops; now it is used both to mark the end of classes and as a fifteen-minute warning to the beginning of the next classes. It is also blown when Georgia Tech's football team scores a touchdown or wins a game, and at each spring's "When the Whistle Blows" remembrance ceremony. Although not as popular as "stealing the T", the whistle has been stolen several times. The first ever Tech whistle installed in the late 1890s was stolen in 1902. The whistle was returned to Dean Griffin in 1949 as a retirement gift. The second theft of the whistle occurred in 1963, when a group of students nicknamed the "Magnificent 7" stole the whistle. Fearing Institute repercussions, the group returned the whistle in the spring of 1964. The whistle was again stolen in 1978 by a group nicknamed the "Committee of Five". The whistle was also stolen in 1969 and 1997. Both times the whistle was returned almost immediately after its theft. In 1969, the whistle was given to the student body president as a graduation gift a month after its theft and the 1997 theft was solved when President Clough found the whistle on his lawn a day after its theft. The current steam whistle, located near Tech Tower, was built by the GTRI Machine Shop and installed in 2004. Prior to the Fall 2017 semester, the Whistle blew five minutes before the hour, every hour from 8:55 am to 5:55 pm, but following a modification of the class schedule, the whistle now follows a modified blowing schedule. The Faculty newspaper is also named The Whistle. To Hell With Georgia	1.953125
8557389	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditions%20of%20the%20Georgia%20Institute%20of%20Technology	Traditions of the Georgia Institute of Technology	Reck Club was given charge of the Ramblin' Wreck in 1967 following the disbandment of the Student Council's Reck Committee. A member from Reck Club known as the wreck driver has been elected annually since 1967 to drive the Wreck onto Grant Field for football games and other school functions. Reck Club was the first group to make attempts at humanoid mascots on Tech Campus. The first was a bee costume donned by Judi McNair of Reck Club. She sported her bee costume to home basketball games and pep rallies. In 1973, a spandex-clad hero named T-Man and his faithful sidekick T2 patrolled campus in search of opposing mascots and fans. T-Man would perform spirit skits at pep rallies and home basketball games. Often seen riding in the Ramblin' Wreck, T-Man was an anonymous member of the Reck Club until his mysterious disappearance in 1975. The Ramblin' Reck Club today oversees several homecoming traditions such as the Freshman Cake Race, the Mini 500, and the Wreck Parade. Reck Club also serves as a bridge between Georgia Tech Athletics and the Georgia Tech student body organizing the Swarm cheering section, pep rallies, flashcards sections, and other spirit related events. Bull Dog Club The Bull Dog Club was an honor society created in 1910 originally as a social branch of Tech's Koseme Society. The Bull Dogs first major role was facilitating the first cross country races that eventually evolved into the Freshman Cake Race. The Bull Dogs only admitted rising juniors and seniors into their ranks in order to maintain prestige and honor in the club. The Bull Dogs rise to Institute prominence also led to their eventual demise. The Bull Dogs put a particular emphasis on mediating campus-wide sporting events. The Bull Dogs utilized their Cake Race ties to the Athletic Association in order to coordinate the first intramurals on the athletic playing fields.	2.1875
8557389	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditions%20of%20the%20Georgia%20Institute%20of%20Technology	Traditions of the Georgia Institute of Technology	The Bull Dogs also aided in spirit and tradition upkeep on campus by aiding in Ramblin' Wreck Parade judging, homecoming queen selection, and homecoming dance planning. Despite the Bull Dogs roles in homecoming celebrations, their intramural coordination became their primary focus by the 1960s. With the planning of the Student Athletic Center, intramurals were placed under official Institute control rather than the Bull Dogs and in 1969 the Bull Dogs were disbanded, relinquishing all homecoming duties to Ramblin' Reck Club and the student government. Georgia Tech Bands The Georgia Tech Bands are student musical groups fielded at many of the home athletic and schoolwide events. None of the musicians receive scholarships for participating in the assorted bands meaning the bands are composed entirely of volunteers. Every home football game and most away games include a 300 member Georgia Tech marching band performing during dead ball time and half-time. The GT Bands also field smaller pep bands at home basketball, ice hockey, and volleyball games. The bands are known to follow teams for special events such as bowl games and basketball tournaments. The ice hockey pep band in particular travels to Savannah every year for the Thrasher cup. The band has some of the richest traditions on campus, including a strict enforcement of RAT caps amongst first year band members, no matter their actual year in college.	2.03125
8557389	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditions%20of%20the%20Georgia%20Institute%20of%20Technology	Traditions of the Georgia Institute of Technology	The term Yellow Jacket or Yellowjacket has been used to refer to students and the various sports teams as early as the 1890s. Fans of Georgia Tech would often wear yellow jackets to sporting events in support of the early Georgia Tech teams. The early football teams, lacking gold fabric for jerseys, wore yellow jerseys. John Heisman told the Atlanta Constitution that he wanted his teams to be referred to as the Yellow Jackets in October 1905. In November 1906, the Atlanta Journal portrayed a University of Georgia football player being attacked by a yellowjacket with the words "Somebody's going to get stung" as the caption. This would be the first time and not the last time that the Georgia Tech sports teams would be referred to as the Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets. Buzz Bee became the anthropomorphized Yellow Jacket in 1979. He was initially an impromptu student volunteer but is now an official cheerleader that requires an intense tryout process. This Buzz character would be the model for a new Georgia Tech emblem, designed in 1985 by Mike Lester. George P. Burdell The legendary imaginary Tech student George P. Burdell who enrolled in 1927 is said to possess nearly every degree Georgia Tech offers, after many students took a variety of classes in his name. In 1927, a student, receiving two enrollment forms, also enrolled as George P. Burdell and attended as both names, so Burdell obtained a B.S. 1930, got a master's, and in World War II, went to Harvard and joined the Army Air Forces. Since the 1960s, some students have managed to re-enroll George P. Burdell in the institute registrar's computers. When Tech switched to online class registration, Burdell took every course offered that term. After initially vigorously searching for the hackers, the institute has since accepted the presence of George P. Burdell in every year's class. George P. Burdell is also a common tool for pranks at various school events and games. He usually gets paged over the stadium public address system at away sporting events.	2.390625
8557389	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditions%20of%20the%20Georgia%20Institute%20of%20Technology	Traditions of the Georgia Institute of Technology	Many students replace the lyric "to cheer on the brave and bold" with "to raise The Ratio" from the section "Oh! If I had a daughter, sir, I'd dress her in White and Gold, And put her on the campus to cheer the brave and bold" of "Ramblin' Wreck from Georgia Tech" when singing at various Georgia Tech events. Due to The Ratio, some students have felt that certain women at Georgia Tech may be stuck up because of all the attention they get from an overwhelming number of males. These students call the behavior of the female in this scenario as "tech bitch syndrome" or "TBS" for short. The Odds (always capitalized) refers to the saying that "the odds are good, but the goods are odd" in reference to the interactions and expectations of social engagement from men with women on campus. Women against the term claim that they are often labeled the term without warrant. An analysis of the term was done by Georgia Tech's Sexual Violence and Prevention Initiative. The Hill A nickname given to Tech's academic administration and historic district. Topographically, Tech's first administrative buildings were built on an actual hill in Atlanta. As campus expanded onto surrounding lower terrain, the Hill became a much more prominent sight on campus. The term now is typically used in derision when referring to the administration. Former Tech Interim President Gary Schuster's blog, titled, "Notes from the Hill", refers to this nickname. The Hill also refers to the steep incline of Bobby Dodd Way (which most students now refer to as "Freshman Hill"), which residents of East Campus must trek up in order to attend class. The climb is often referred to as a hike up the Freshman Hill as many freshman dorms are located around the bottom of Freshman Hill. Ma Tech An affectionate name used by students and alumni for their Alma Mater.	1.929688
8557417	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Grossman%20%28artist%29	Robert Grossman (artist)	For the 1970 comedy recording Don't Crush That Dwarf, Hand Me the Pliers, Grossman painted a quartet of caricatures of The Firesign Theatre. The painting depicts the players as animal / human hybrids, with the animal portions signifying each member's Zodiacal sign (each was born under a Fire Sign). Rolling Stone magazine issued a series of posters featuring Grossman's cover paintings of George W. Bush, Richard Nixon, Bob Dylan, The Who, Jerry Garcia, and Crosby Stills and Nash. Painter Throughout his career, Grossman employed an airbrush (he favored compressed air over piston) in order to render the sculptural forms which are his paintings' most readily identified characteristic. Since with an airbrush a skilled user may lay in areas of shadow and light with either crisp or soft edges, the shapes possess a high degree of visual verisimilitude. Grossman is sometimes credited with spearheading a resurgence of the tool in illustration; for decades it had been used primarily for photo retouching. Pete Hamill writing in the international journal of visual communication Graphis and Steven Heller in Innovators of American Illustration note that Grossman's approach to the airbrush has been widely imitated. His "mordant wit" is never duplicated, adds Heller. On the evolution of technique in his illustration, Grossman said, "I was impressed by the way David Levine and the Push Pin artists were using line to develop a bulgy three-dimensional feeling in their work. I found an old airbrush in my dad's shop and discovered a jiffy way to outbulge them all. For a while I diligently pursued outline-less-ness as the secret to a real stereoscopic three-dimensional look. I felt my line work belonged to a different world that had nothing to do with the airbrush and went its separate way. Lately I find a strong line reasserting itself in my pictures."	2.1875
8557455	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rambler%20Six%20and%20V8	Rambler Six and V8	The Rambler Six and the Rambler V8 are intermediate sized automobiles that were built and marketed by American Motors Corporation (AMC) for model years 1956 through 1960. Launched on 15 December 1955, the 1956 model year Rambler Six ushered a "new era in motoring has begun" according to George W. Romney, President of AMC. In 1956, the Rambler was sold through both Nash and Hudson networks of dealerships. This resulted from the merger of the two companies to form AMC in 1954. The new Rambler line created and defined a new market segment, the "compact car" as the automobile classification was called at that time. A V8 engine powered model, the Rambler V8, was added for the 1957 model year. Background The full-size cars made by Nash and Hudson were experiencing declining sales. The newly-organized American Motors focused its resources on introducing a line of smaller cars compared to those then available from the domestic Big Three (General Motors, Ford, and Chrysler) for the 1956 model year. The designs were developed by AMC's styling director, Edmund E. Anderson, and they were aimed at a new market segment. Although conventional business thinking states that bigger profits were made from sales of bigger cars, American Motors lacked the resources to develop a full range of models targeting different market segments. As the chairman and president of AMC, George W. Romney also avoided a head-to-head battle with the U.S. automakers by focusing the company on the compact car. He "felt that with the Rambler I had the car of the future" and Romney "bet the farm on the Rambler" by spending US$5.4 million on a "crash program to bring the 1957 Rambler to market a year earlier."	2.375
8557455	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rambler%20Six%20and%20V8	Rambler Six and V8	By 1958, Rambler was selling half of its production as station wagons, proportionately more of that body style than any other automaker. All Rambler station wagons carried the Cross Country name. The innovative hardtop (no "B-pillar") station wagon body style was no longer available in the Rambler line, as it was reserved for the 1958 Ambassador models. The Rambler station wagons featured a step-down roof over their rear cargo area and a standard roof rack. The new design also featured wider rear openings with a frame-less roll-down rear window and a "one-finger" latch on the spring-assisted tailgate. Rambler's new one-piece, fold-down station wagon tailgate was adopted by all the U.S. automakers by 1961. A horizontal roller-type "window blind" was available to hide the lower half of the wagon's cargo area. Motor Trend magazine conducted a comparison test of four 1958 station wagons (Rambler, Ford, DeSoto, and Oldsmobile) and found that the compact Rambler could hold as much cargo as the others. The Rambler models continued to be the shortest cars marketed in the United States – at in total length – with room for six passengers. Rambler's marketing focused on having "the best of both: 1. American big car room and comfort. 2. European small car economy and handling ease." Powering the Rambler Six was AMC's new overhead valve (OHV) straight-six. NASCAR tests showed the Rambler Six had a $0.01 per mile gasoline cost when equipped with overdrive transmission. A V8 engine was available in the performance-oriented Rambler Rebel models. A Borg-Warner torque converter "Flash-O-Matic" automatic transmission, with the "then-trendy pushbutton" gear selection on the far left side of the instrument panel, was optional. Also new on the left side for the driver was a step-on parking brake pedal.	1.960938
8557455	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rambler%20Six%20and%20V8	Rambler Six and V8	American Motors instituted a new paint system for the 1958 model year. All Ramblers received rust-inhibiting by submerging assembled bodies up to their roof into a large vat of primer (not sprayed on) before the color coat was applied, a revolutionary process that was later copied by other automakers. After drying, an additional wax-based compound was sprayed inside girders, rocker panels, fenders, and other hidden areas in the car bodies. American Motors promoted the 1958 Rambler in several advertising campaigns. One approach featured George W. Romney challenging "the big car concept." A series of print ads also mocked the domestic Big Three automakers' standard-sized cars featuring illustrations by famous cartoonists showing the compact Rambler easily getting through places that would get the large "gas guzzling dinosaur" automobiles stuck. An example is the story, "The Millionaire and The Rambler" by Otto Soglow. Chon Day illustrated a story on how "Rambler foils bank robbery." Sales of the Rambler six and V8 increased to 119,000 during a year when all U.S. cars were down in volume. The 1958 Ramblers "sold like hotcakes" and returned the smallest U.S. automaker to profitability. Together with the smaller Rambler American line, AMC "broke sales records" in 1958 as consumers valued basic transportation from their automobiles and no longer cared "how big their cars were." Although in the midst of the Recession of 1958, Rambler captured seventh place in automobile sales. 1959	2.375
8557455	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rambler%20Six%20and%20V8	Rambler Six and V8	The 1960 models featured numerous exterior and interior design changes. The greenhouse was made "lighter" with a narrower C-pillar and roof profile, as well as slanting both the windshield and rear window at a greater angle providing for an "airy cabin." The front end was simplified, while the tailfins became smaller thus highlighting the new tall taillamps. The overall length was trimmed by because of a new spit-bumper design. Riding on 15-inch wheels the Rambler appeared to be larger than it actually was. The interior was also revised and the instrument panel now incorporated all instrumentation within a large oval in front of the driver. The practice of separate Six and Rebel V8 models now ended with the focus on the Rambler name and the trim three levels: "Deluxe", "Super", and "Custom". Each was offered with "Economy 6 or Rebel V-8 engines." The larger Rambler sedans were joined by a new four-door Rambler American model that rode on the shorter platform as the smaller two-door sedan and wagon series, but sales of all Ramblers continued to increase. In 1960, the Rambler line reached third place in total annual industry sales in the United States. The 1960 Rambler Six with its engine became the best selling model for AMC with 297,368 sold for the year. Overseas assembly Canada The former Nash plant on Danforth Avenue in Toronto produced the Rambler Six from 1955 until 1957. Production ended as subsequent models were imported from the United States.	1.960938
8557459	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Bartholom%C3%A9	Albert Bartholomé	\|At Soissons, the war memorial has four standing statues by Bartholomé and a series of bas-reliefs by sculptor and medallist Raoul Lamourdedieu It was as late as 21 July 1935 that Soissons finally saws her monument aux morts unveiled by the President, Albert Lebrun. The Soissons monument had first been designed by Bartholome in 1914 as a monument to celebrate the history of Soissons but it was decided to create the memorial as the city's monument aux morts and it was erected in 1926. However the Great War veterans ("Les Anciens Combattants") were unhappy with Bartholomé's statue of a woman at the very top of the monument, the so-called "Dame Blanche", and after much discussion the "Dame Blanche" was moved to a position in the St Crepin park and eventually replaced on the top of the monument aux morts by the four men carrying an "eternal flame" which was completed by a pupil of Lamourdedieu. The monument comprises a central pedestal with the "eternal flame" at the very top and Lamourdedieu's reliefs are on the sides of the pedestal. At each corner of the monument are Bartholomé statues. In the middle section of the pedestal there are bas-reliefs on the south and east facing sides. In one Lamourdedieu depicts a group of soldiers and in the other a winged female figure representing "Victory" protects another two soldiers, one of whom is wounded. On the west-facing side of the lower part of the pedestal the bas-relief depicts the King of France and Joan of Arc entering Soissons on horseback on 23 June 1429 and on the south-facing side the bas-relief depicts the story of the "Vase of Soissons". A soldier is seen crushing the vase under the eyes of Clovis and the messengers of St Remigius. The north-facing bas-relief shows the evacuation of the city. The statue on the north west side depicted a "citizen" holding a scroll. The inscription reads In the south west corner is a knight carrying a sword. The inscription tells his story	2.59375
8557528	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Nixie%20of%20the%20Mill-Pond	The Nixie of the Mill-Pond	"The Nixie of the Mill-Pond" () is a German fairy tale that tells the story of a man captured by a nix (water spirit) and his wife's efforts to save him. The Brothers Grimm collected the tale in their Grimm's Fairy Tales (1857) as tale number 181. A note in the volume indicated that it was current in Upper Lusatia when the story was collected. Andrew Lang included a version in The Yellow Fairy Book, citing his source Hermann Kletke and titling it The Nixy. It is classified as Aarne-Thompson Type 316, "The Nix of the Mill-Pond". This fairy tale type that falls under the larger category of "Supernatural Adversaries" and is characterized by a hero's parents being promised wealth or gifts in exchange for their child. This tale type is most common in Northern Europe and some variants have been recorded in Scotland. Synopsis A poor miller and his wife are at risk of losing their mill which is their livelihood. One day while passing by the mill pond, a beautiful water spirit, known as a nixie, rises from the water and calls out to the miller by name. Initially intimidated, the miller eventually confides in the nixie about his financial troubles. The nixie offers him wealth in exchange for what was born in his house that morning. The miller assumes that he was only at risk of losing a pet such as a young puppy or a kitten and therefore agrees to the deal. The miller returning to his home is surprised to find that his wife had unexpectedly given birth to a baby boy. Horrified, the miller realizes that the nixie was aware of his son's birth when she offered him the deal; both he and his wife are unsure of what to do. The years pass and both the miller's fortune and son grow. Despite this success, the miller remains worried about the nixie collecting payment and warns his son of danger near the mill pond.	2.59375
8557597	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verne%20Duncan	Verne Duncan	Verne Allen Duncan (born April 6, 1934) is an American politician from the state of Oregon. As an educator and moderate Republican, he has become outspoken in protest of policies of his own party he views as extreme. A former classroom teacher, principal, district superintendent and professor, Duncan has served in the legislatures of two states, Idaho and Oregon, held the office of Oregon Superintendent of Public Instruction, and served as a university dean. Early life Born and raised in McMinnville, Duncan is a member of a pioneer Oregon family. His grandfather, S.S. Duncan, had been a teacher and for many years was superintendent of schools for Yamhill County. His uncle was Leland Duncan, long-time district attorney of Harney County, Oregon. As a schoolboy, Duncan had occasion to visit the state Department of Education on a class trip. When he needed a workspace on which to take down some notes, then-superintendent Rex Putnam rose from his desk and offered it to the young Duncan. Neither knew the boy would grow up to occupy that desk for fifteen years as superintendent himself. After completing a public school education, including graduation from McMinnville High School, he attended Linfield College in McMinnville, Oregon. Duncan served in the United States Army, remaining active in the reserves, ultimately attaining the rank of colonel. Duncan graduated from Idaho State College, earning a B.A. in 1960, and began a long career in education. He would ultimately earn several graduate degrees, including an M.Ed. in Education Administration from the University of Idaho, a PhD in Public School Administration from the University of Oregon and an M.B.A. in Labor Management from the University of Portland.	2.015625
8557605	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1974%20NBA%20playoffs	1974 NBA playoffs	The 1974 NBA playoffs was the postseason tournament of the National Basketball Association's 1973-74 season. The tournament concluded with the Eastern Conference champion Boston Celtics defeating the Western Conference champion Milwaukee Bucks 4 games to 3 in the NBA Finals. John Havlicek was named NBA Finals MVP. It was the Celtics' twelfth NBA title, and first accomplished in the post-Bill Russell era. It was the last Finals appearance for Milwaukee until 2021. This is the last postseason with only 3 rounds and using only 8 teams. The 1975 NBA Playoffs added a First Round and the number of teams was expanded to 10. Using the revised playoff format adopted in 1973, two third-place teams (Buffalo in the Atlantic Division, Detroit in the Midwest Division) qualified for the playoffs, while the second-place finishers in the Central (Atlanta) and Pacific (Golden State) divisions did not. Also, since the top three Western qualifiers were in the Midwest Division, the two divisional champions in the Western Conference (Milwaukee and Los Angeles) played in the conference semifinals. With a 4–3 series victory over the Pistons in the first round, the Bulls earned their first playoff series victory. In their first eight years of existence, the Bulls made the playoffs seven times. The Bulls–Pistons rivalry started in their conference semifinal encounter, which Chicago won, 4–3. But it wasn't until the next four meetings (1988, 1989, 1990, and 1991) that the rivalry became even more intense, particularly due to the intense battles that made both teams legitimate contenders in the East. As a matter of historical curiosity, 3 of the 4 teams in the 1974 Western Conference bracket (Milwaukee, Detroit and Chicago) now reside in the Eastern Conference. This was the only appearance of the Capital Bullets in the playoffs under that moniker; they assumed the "Capital" name for one year before changing to the Washington Bullets the next season. It was the playoff debut of the Buffalo Braves, who had joined the league in 1970.	2.328125
8557668	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearson%20Renegade	Pearson Renegade	The Pearson Renegade is a 27' sloop rigged sailboat produced by Pearson Yachts of Bristol, RI from 1966-1969, with the first boats being sold in 1967. Designed by William Shaw, about 175 of the boats were built. They were Pearson's first split underbody boat and were designed to Cruising Club of America racing rules. They are also one of the first American "racer-cruiser" style boats that combine the comforts of a cruising boat with the advantage of a modified full keel with a spade rudder (see photo), like that of the Bill Lapworth Cal 40 designs that revolutionized ocean racing in the mid-late 1960s. The keel allows the boat to track well and have good stability. The deep balanced rudder allows a high degree of maneuverability, and the turning radius of the boat is very tight. It continues to be a sought after boat because of their stout construction and kindly sailing ability. Early versions had a traditional two settee salon, while boats produced in 1968 and after feature a more modern galley starboard and settee to port. Both have a spacious V-berth over six feet long and were available with either a 30-HP Universal Atomic 4 gas inboard or an outboard well. The cockpit can comfortably accommodate 4-6 people, and the boat can sleep 4 adults below decks. Standard steering on the boat was with a tiller, but many owners have installed after-market wheel steering. Other typical upgrades would include a roller furling headstay to replace the original forestay, and upgraded instrumentation such as depth, speed, and wind gauges, which did not come standard on the original boats. For more information on upgrades and projects on the Pearson Renegade, visit the Renegade homepage via the link at the bottom of the page. Specifications	2.015625
8557676	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demersal%20zone	Demersal zone	Two types of fish inhabit the demersal zone: those that are heavier than water and rest on the seabed, and those that have neutral buoyancy and remain just above the substrate. In many species of fish, neutral buoyancy is maintained by a gas-filled swim bladder which can be expanded or contracted as the circumstances require. A disadvantage of this method is that adjustments need to be made constantly as the water pressure varies when the fish swims higher and lower in the water column. An alternative buoyancy aid is the use of lipids, which are less dense than water—squalene, commonly found in shark livers, has a specific gravity of just 0.86. In the velvet belly lanternshark (Etmopterus spinax), a benthopelagic species, 17% of the bodyweight is liver of which 70% are lipids. Benthic rays and skates have smaller livers with lower concentrations of lipids; they are therefore denser than water and they do not swim continuously, intermittently resting on the seabed. Some fish have no buoyancy aids but use their pectoral fins which are so angled as to give lift as they swim. The disadvantage of this is that, if they stop swimming, the fish sink, and they cannot hover, or swim backwards. Demersal fish have various feeding strategies; many feed on zooplankton or organisms or algae on the seabed; some of these feed on epifauna (invertebrates on top of the seafloor), while others specialise on infauna (invertebrates that burrow beneath the seafloor). Others are scavengers, eating the dead remains of plants or animals, while still others are predators.	3.15625

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