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2136771	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June%20Anderson	June Anderson	June Anderson (born December 30, 1952) is a Grammy Award-winning American coloratura soprano. She is known for bel canto performances of Rossini, Donizetti, and Vincenzo Bellini. Subsequently, she has extended her repertoire to include a wide variety of other roles, including those from the Russian repertoire and works by Richard Strauss. In 2008, Anderson was elevated to Commandeur of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres by the French Government and in 2007 received a "Victoire d'honneur" in the Victoires de la musique classique in Paris. Anderson has performed in noted opera houses including La Scala, Covent Garden, La Fenice, Metropolitan Opera, San Francisco Opera, Lyric Opera of Chicago and Teatro Colón. She has collaborated with conductors Leonard Bernstein, James Levine, Charles Dutoit, Zubin Mehta, Riccardo Muti, Seiji Ozawa, Giuseppe Sinopoli, Kent Nagano and Michael Tilson Thomas. Early life June Anderson was born in Boston, Massachusetts and raised in Wallingford, Connecticut. She attended Lyman Hall High School where she was the 5th highest in academic standing among 505 graduates in the class of 1970. She began vocal studies at age 11 and at age 17 was the youngest finalist (at that time) in the Metropolitan Opera auditions. She received a degree from Yale University in French, graduating cum laude and then decided to pursue a career in singing. Anderson studied voice under Robert Leonard in New York City. She had numerous auditions but no engagements at first. She has said that she continued her pursuit as a challenge, giving herself a deadline of two years (after which she would, if unsuccessful, enter law school). "No one wanted to know my name. I was down to my last $50. That's when I decided I was going to be a singer if it killed me!" Career	1.992188
2136776	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallace%20Thurman	Wallace Thurman	Wallace Henry Thurman (August 16, 1902 – December 22, 1934) was an American novelist and screenwriter active during the Harlem Renaissance. He also wrote essays, worked as an editor, and was a publisher of short-lived newspapers and literary journals. He is best known for his novel The Blacker the Berry: A Novel of Negro Life (1929), which explores discrimination based on skin tone within the black community, with lighter skin being more highly valued. Early life Thurman was born in Salt Lake City to Beulah and Oscar Thurman. When Thurman was less than a month old, his father abandoned his wife and son. It was not until Wallace was 30 years old that he met his father. Between his mother's many marriages, Wallace and his mother lived in Salt Lake City with Emma Jackson, his maternal grandmother. Jackson ran a saloon from her home, selling alcohol without a license. Thurman's early life was marked by loneliness, family instability, and illness. He began grade school at age six in Boise, Idaho, but his poor health eventually led to a two-year absence from school. During this time, he returned to live with his grandmother Emma in Salt Lake City. From 1910 to 1914, Thurman lived in Chicago. Continuing to move with his mother, he finished grammar school in Omaha, Nebraska. During this time, he suffered from repeated heart attacks. While living in Pasadena, California in the winter of 1918, Thurman caught influenza during the worldwide Influenza Pandemic. He recovered and returned to Salt Lake City, where he finished high school. Thurman was a voracious reader. He enjoyed the works of Plato, Aristotle, Shakespeare, Havelock Ellis, Flaubert, Charles Baudelaire and many others. He wrote his first novel at the age of 10. He attended the University of Utah from 1919 to 1920 as a pre-medical student. In 1922 he transferred to the University of Southern California in Los Angeles, but left without earning a degree.	2.78125
2136776	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallace%20Thurman	Wallace Thurman	While in Los Angeles, he met and befriended writer Arna Bontemps, and became a reporter and columnist for a black-owned newspaper. He started a magazine, Outlet, intended to be a West Coast equivalent to The Crisis, operated by the NAACP. Career In 1925 Thurman moved to Harlem, New York City. During the next decade, he worked as a ghostwriter, a publisher, and editor and wrote novels, plays, and articles. In 1926, he became the editor of The Messenger, a socialist journal addressed to black people. There he was the first to publish the adult-themed stories of Langston Hughes. Thurman left the journal in October 1926 to become the editor of World Tomorrow, which was owned by whites. The following month, he collaborated in founding the literary magazine Fire!! Devoted to the Younger Negro Artists. Among its contributors were Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, Richard Bruce Nugent, Aaron Douglas, and Gwendolyn B. Bennett. Thurman published only one issue of Fire!!. It challenged such established figures as W. E. B. Du Bois and African Americans who had been working for social equality and racial integration. Thurman criticized them for believing that black art should serve as propaganda for those ends. He said that the New Negro movement spent too much energy trying to show white Americans that black people were respectable and not inferior. Thurman and others of the "Niggerati" (the deliberately ironic name he used for the young African American artists and intellectuals of the Harlem Renaissance) wanted to show the real lives of African Americans, both the good and the bad. Thurman believed that black artists should fully acknowledge and celebrate the arduous conditions of African-American lives. As Singh and Scott wrote, Thurman's Harlem Renaissance is, thus, staunch and revolutionary in its commitment to individuality and critical objectivity: the black writer need not pander to the aesthetic preferences of the black middle class, nor should he or she write for an easy and patronizing white approval.	2.21875
2136776	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wallace%20Thurman	Wallace Thurman	During this time, Thurman's flat in a rooming house, at 267 West 136th Street in Harlem, became the central meeting place of African-American literary avant-garde and visual artists. Thurman and Hurston mockingly called the room "Niggerati Manor." He had painted the walls red and black, which were the colors he used on the cover of Fire!! Nugent painted murals on the walls, some of which contained homoerotic content. In 1928, Thurman was asked to edit a magazine called Harlem: A Forum of Negro Life; its contributors included Alain Locke, George Schuyler, and Alice Dunbar-Nelson. He put out two issues. Afterward, Thurman became a reader for a major New York publishing company, the first African American to work in such a position. Langston Hughes described Thurman as "a strangely brilliant black boy, who had read everything and whose critical mind could find something wrong with everything he read." Thurman's dark skin color attracted comment, including negative reactions from both black and white Americans. He addressed such colorism in his writings, attacking the black community's preference for its lighter-skinned members. Thurman wrote a play, Harlem: A Melodrama of Negro Life in Harlem, which debuted on Broadway in 1929 to mixed reviews. His theatrical agent was Frieda Fishbein. The same year his first novel The Blacker the Berry: A Novel of Negro Life (1929) was published. The novel is now recognized as a groundbreaking work of fiction because of its focus on intra-racial prejudice and colorism within the black community, where lighter skin was favored. Three years later Thurman published Infants of the Spring (1932), a satire of the themes and individuals of the Harlem Renaissance. He co-authored his final novel, The Interne (1932), with Abraham L. Furman, a white man. Thurman worked in the late 1920s as a screenwriter for Fox, MGM, and Pathe studios. His film credits as a screenwriter include Tomorrow's Children and High School Girl, both released in 1934.	2.359375
2136788	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stigmatized%20property	Stigmatized property	In real estate, stigmatized property is property that buyers or tenants may shun for reasons that are unrelated to its physical condition or features. These can include death of an occupant, murder, suicide, previous illicit activities, and even the belief that a house is haunted. Controversy exists regarding the definitions of stigma and what sorts of stigma must be disclosed at sale. It is argued that the seller has a duty to disclose any such history of the property. This, in practice, falls into two categories: demonstrable (physical) and emotional. Local jurisdictions vary widely in their interpretation of these issues and occasionally contradict federal law. Types of stigma Many jurisdictions recognize several forms of stigmatized property, and have passed resolutions or statutes to deal with them. One issue that separates them is disclosure. Depending on the jurisdiction of the house, the seller may not be required to disclose the full facts. Some specific types must always be disclosed, others are up to the jurisdiction, and still others up to the realtor. The types of stigma include:	2.828125
2136788	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stigmatized%20property	Stigmatized property	Legal status At least in the United States, the principle of caveat emptor ("let the buyer beware") was held for many years to govern sales. As the idea of an implied warranty of habitability began to find purchase, however, issues like the stigma attached to a property based on acts, "haunting", or criminal activity began to make their way into legal precedents. In Stambovsky v. Ackley the New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division, affirmed a narrow interpretation of the idea of stigmatized property. The court held that since the property in question was previously marketed by the seller as a "haunted house" he was estopped from claiming the contrary. The majority opinion specifically noted that the veracity of the claims of paranormal activities were outside the purview of the opinion. Notwithstanding these conclusions, the court affirmed the dismissal of the fraudulent misrepresentation action and stated that the realtor was under no duty to disclose the haunting to potential buyers. Several states have created specific statutes in the US adding "stigmatised property" verbiage to their legal code. Examples Famous homes, such as those used in television productions or filmmaking, can also be stigmatized by increased traffic from fans wanting to see the house in person. One example is the house at 112 Ocean Avenue in Amityville, New York where Ronald DeFeo, Jr. murdered his family, later made famous by best-selling book The Amityville Horror and numerous film adaptations. The Lutz family claimed the house was haunted by evil spirits who drove them out. Their claims are supported by paranormal investigators such as Ed and Lorraine Warren and Hans Holzer, but dismissed as fraudulent by skeptics such as Robert Todd Carroll. Since the film's release, the house has been renovated and the address changed in an attempt to prevent sightseers from disturbing the neighborhood.	2.421875
2136794	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brockenhurst%20College	Brockenhurst College	Many of the lessons held in this block are Music courses with their own sound rooms and recording studios, Performing Arts and Theatre with their own Performing Arts Centre, Media which also have sound rooms and digital editing suites, Philosophy, Politics, Archeology, History, and Business which has over five computer suits for its study. A and S Block A Block contains the Specialist Art Centre, and S is the Sciences Centre complete with three-story building of Biology, Chemistry and Physics laboratories on the ground, first and second floor respectively. Both Chemistry and Biology have student accessible prep rooms frequented by staff. Alongside Physics, a GCSE in Astronomy is also offered. On the bottom floor is the staff room used for morning meetings with the Principal and division heads. B Block The Beacon Technology Block, named after the college's Beacon Status, contains recording studios, media suites and a photo development lab. All top floor classrooms in the block are fitted with flat screens attached to PCs, and some classrooms are fitted with Apple Mac computers. On the ground floor of the building are the Training Kitchens and MJ's Restaurant, which is open to the public. Engineering technology facilities and workshops are based in the block, as well as the Graphic Design rooms. E Block The Errington Block, which was named after an ex-governor of the college, holds additional classrooms for Language, Sociology, Psychology, Business Studies, Early Childhood, Health & Higher Education, Key Skills and GCSE courses. Each room is fitted with digital projectors and computers. Sports Centre The sports centre holds all main functions regarding sports, and also contains a Fitness Suite which is opened to the public and college staff during the day and after college hours. The sports centre is also home to the National Volleyball League's New Forest Volleyball Club The Hard Brock Café	2.171875
2136799	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Front%20%28Italy%2C%201967%29	National Front (Italy, 1967)	The National Front (Fronte Nazionale, FN) was a neo-fascist political party in Italy. The party was founded in 1967 by Junio Valerio Borghese who was dissatisfied by the political activities of the Italian Social Movement, of which he had held the largely ceremonial post of party President. The new party aimed to abolish political parties and trade unions and instead to build an Italy based on corporatism, class co-operation and strong government in opposition to what they called "red terror". The Front drew many of its members from amongst the officer class and veterans thereof, groups with which Borghese was already closely linked, and co-operated closely with the Stefano Delle Chiaie's Avanguardia Nazionale and Pino Rauti's Ordine Nuovo, even sharing members with both groups. With a nationwide structure and a network of funding from business sources the Front soon had a few thousand members and even set up underground "B groups" to prepare the ground for an armed uprising. The Front's mission was fulfilled in the Golpe Borghese, a failed coup attempt launched in December 1970, with the group disappearing soon afterwards. Like its close cousin in the National Vanguard, the party was alleged to have been promoting terrorism and to have been infiltrated by the Italian intelligence agencies. These agencies used it as a recruiting ground for expendable pawns to be used in 'wet' and 'dirty' operations which would have been outside their jurisdiction or supposed ethics (see strategy of tension).	1.984375
2136812	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernie%20Barnes	Ernie Barnes	Ernest Eugene Barnes Jr. (July 15, 1938 – April 27, 2009) was an American artist, well known for his unique style of elongated characters and movement. He was also a professional football player, actor and author. Early life Childhood Ernest Barnes Jr. was born during the Jim Crow era in "the bottom" community of Durham, North Carolina, near the Hayti District of the city. He had a younger brother named James (b. 1942), as well as a half-brother, Benjamin B. Rogers Jr. (1920–1970). Ernest Jr. was nicknamed "June". His father, Ernest E. Barnes Sr. ( –1966), worked as a shipping clerk for Liggett Myers Tobacco Company. His mother, Fannie Mae Geer (1905–2004), oversaw the household staff for a prominent Durham attorney and local Board of Education member, Frank L. Fuller Jr. On days when Fannie allowed "June" (Barnes's nickname to family and childhood friends) to accompany her to work, Mr. Fuller encouraged him to peruse the art books and listen to classical music. The young Ernest was intrigued and captivated by the works of master artists. By the time Barnes entered the first grade, he was familiar with the works of such masters as Toulouse-Lautrec, Delacroix, Rubens and Michelangelo. When he entered junior high school, he could appreciate, as well as decode, many of the cherished masterpieces within the walls of mainstream museums – although it would be many more years before he was allowed entrance because of segregation.	2.390625
2136812	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernie%20Barnes	Ernie Barnes	A self-described chubby and unathletic child, Barnes was taunted and bullied by classmates. He continually sought refuge in his sketchbooks, finding the less-traveled parts of campus away from other students. One day Ernest was drawing in his notebook in a quiet area of the school. He was discovered hiding there by the masonry teacher, Tommy Tucker, who was also the weightlifting coach and a former athlete. He was intrigued with Barnes's drawings, so he asked the aspiring artist about his grades and goals. Tucker shared his own experience of how bodybuilding improved his strength and outlook on life. That one encounter would begin Barnes's discipline and dedication that would permeate his life. In his senior year at Hillside High School, Barnes became the captain of the football team and state champion in the shot put. College education Barnes attended racially segregated schools. In 1956 he graduated from Hillside High School with 26 athletic scholarship offers. Segregation prevented him from attending nearby Duke University or the University of North Carolina. His mother promised him a car if he lived at home so he attended the all-Black North Carolina College at Durham (formerly North Carolina College for Negroes, now North Carolina Central University). At North Carolina College he majored in art on a full athletic scholarship. His track coach was Dr. Leroy T. Walker. Barnes played the football positions of tackle and center at NCC. At age 18, on a college art class field trip to the newly desegregated North Carolina Museum of Art in Raleigh, Barnes inquired where he could find "paintings by Negro artists". The docent responded, "Your people don't express themselves that way". 23 years later, in 1979, when Barnes returned to the museum for a solo exhibition, North Carolina Governor Jim Hunt attended. In 1990, Barnes was awarded an Honorary Doctorate of Fine Arts by North Carolina Central University.	2.859375
2136812	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernie%20Barnes	Ernie Barnes	In what was one of the most unusual positions in the AFL, Werblin retained Barnes as a salaried player, but positioned him in front of the canvas, rather than on the football field. Werblin told Barnes, "You have more value to the country as an artist than as a football player." Barnes's November 1966 debut solo exhibition, hosted by Werblin at the Grand Central Art Galleries in New York City, was critically acclaimed and all the paintings sold. In 1971, Barnes wrote a series of essays (illustrated with his own drawings) in the Gridiron newspaper titled "I Hate the Game I Love" (with Neil Amdur). These articles became the beginning manuscript of his autobiography, later-published in 1995 titled From Pads to Palette which chronicles his transition from professional football (also erroneously indicating that he had been an NFL player) to his art career. In 1993, Barnes was selected to the "Black College Football 100th Year All-Time Team" by the Sheridan Broadcasting Network. Artwork Barnes credits his college art instructor Ed Wilson for laying the foundation for his development as an artist. Wilson was a sculptor who instructed Barnes to paint from his own life experiences. "He made me conscious of the fact that the artist who is useful to America is one who studies his own life and records it through the medium of art, manners and customs of his own experiences." All his life, Barnes was ambivalent about his football experience. In interviews and in personal appearances, Barnes said he hated the violence and the physical torment of the sport. However, his years as an athlete gave him unique, in-depth observations. "(Wilson) told me to pay attention to what my body felt like in movement. Within that elongation, there's a feeling. And attitude and expression. I hate to think had I not played sports what my work would look like." Barnes sold his first painting "Slow Dance" at age 21 in 1959 for $90 to Boston Celtic Sam Jones. It was subsequently lost in a fire at Jones' home.	2.234375
2136812	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernie%20Barnes	Ernie Barnes	Eyes closed A consistent and distinct feature in Barnes's work is the closed eyes of his subjects. It was in 1971 when I conceived the idea of The Beauty of the Ghetto as an exhibition. And I showed it to some people who were Black to get a reaction. And from one (person) it was very negative. And when I began to express my points of view (to this) professional man, he resisted the notion. And as a result of his comments and his attitude I began to see, observe, how blind we are to one another's humanity. Blinded by a lot of things that have, perhaps, initiated feelings in that light. We don't see into the depths of our interconnection. The gifts, the strength and potential within other human beings. We stop at color quite often. So one of the things we have to be aware of is who we are in order to have the capacity to like others. But when you cannot visualize the offerings of another human being you're obviously not looking at the human being with open eyes. "We look upon each other and decide immediately: This person is black, so he must be ... This person lives in poverty, so he must be ...". Jewish community influence Moving to an all-Jewish neighborhood in Los Angeles known as the Fairfax District in 1971 was a major turning point in Barnes's life and art. Fairfax enlivened me to everyday life themes … and forced me to look at my life – the way I had grown up, the customs within my community versus the customs in the Jewish community. Their customs were documented, ours were not. Because we were so clueless that our own culture had value and because of the phrase "Black is Beautiful" had just come into fashion, Black people were just starting to appreciate themselves as a people. But when it was said, "I'm Black and I'm Proud," I said, "proud of what?" And that question of "proud of what" led to a series of paintings that became "The Beauty of the Ghetto".	1.976563
2136812	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernie%20Barnes	Ernie Barnes	"The Beauty of the Ghetto" exhibition In response to the 1960s "Black is beautiful" cultural movement and James Brown's 1968 "Say it Loud: I'm Black and I'm Proud" song, Barnes created The Beauty of the Ghetto exhibition of 35 paintings that toured major American cities from 1972 to 1979 hosted by dignitaries, professional athletes and celebrities. Of this exhibition, Barnes said, "I am providing a pictorial background for an understanding into the aesthetics of black America. It is not a plea to people to continue to live there (in the ghetto) but for those who feel trapped, it is ... a challenge of how beautiful life can be." When the exhibition was on view in 1974 at the Museum of African Art in Washington, DC, Rep. John Conyers stressed the important positive message of the exhibit in the Congressional Record. Sports art Barnes created many styles of athletic pieces of art that weren't just football related. These pieces would capture sports such as hockey, boxing, tennis, basketball, and gymnastics The Los Angeles Olympic Organizing Committee named Barnes "Sports Artist of the 1984 Olympic Games". LAOOC President Peter V. Ueberroth said Barnes and his art "captured the essence of the Olympics" and "portray the city's ethnic diversity, the power and emotion of sports competition, the singleness of purpose and hopes that go into the making of athletes the world over." Barnes was commissioned to create five Olympic-themed paintings and serve as an official Olympic spokesman to encourage inner city youth. 1985: Barnes was named the first "Sports Artist of the Year" by the United States Sports Academy. 1987: Barnes created Fastbreak, a commissioned painting of the World Champion Los Angeles Lakers basketball team that included Magic Johnson, Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, James Worthy, Kurt Rambis and Michael Cooper.	2.984375
2136816	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young%20Citizen%20Volunteers%20%281912%29	Young Citizen Volunteers (1912)	The Young Citizen Volunteers of Ireland, or Young Citizen Volunteers (YCV) for short, was an Irish civic organisation founded in Belfast in 1912. It was established to bridge the gap for 18 to 25 year olds between membership of youth organisations—such as the Boys' Brigade and Boy Scouts—and the period of responsible adulthood. Another impetus for its creation was the failure of the British government to extend the legislation for the Territorial Force—introduced in 1908—to Ireland. It was hoped that the War Office would absorb the YCV into the Territorial Force, however such offers were dismissed. Not until the outbreak of World War I did the YCV—by then a battalion of the UVF—become part of the British Army as the 14th Battalion of the Royal Irish Rifles. The YCV was launched in Belfast City Hall on 10 September 1912 at a meeting chaired by the Lord Mayor, Robert James McMordie, who became its first president. The ideals of the YCV at its onset was stated as being "non-sectarian" and "non-political", and despite its leadership and membership being largely drawn from unionist families it included prominent Belfast nationalist Francis Joseph Biggar as part of its committee. The creation of the YCV had nothing to do with the Home Rule Crisis or Ulster Day on 28 September 1912, which saw the signing of the anti-Home Rule Ulster Covenant. However, by May 1914 the YCV—despite some controversy—merged with the anti-Home Rule Ulster Volunteer Force. Despite its name implying that it covered the whole of Ireland it never extended outside of Belfast, however there were plans to set up battalions in places such as counties Londonderry and Fermanagh. The YCV's name was later resurrected by the YCV youth movement attached to the 1966 Ulster Volunteer Force (also UVF). Although there is no direct continuity between the two groups, they share the same emblem of a shamrock surmounted by a Red Hand of Ulster.	2.734375
2136819	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthias%20N.%20Forney	Matthias N. Forney	Matthias Nace Forney (March 28, 1835 – January 14, 1908) was an American steam locomotive designer and builder. He is most well known for the design of the Forney type locomotive. Locomotives that he designed served the elevated railroads of New York City for many years before that system converted to electric power. One example of a Forney 0-4-4T locomotive built in 1902 by Baldwin Locomotive Works has been restored for daily operations on the Disneyland Railroad in Anaheim, California, as the railroad's number 5, Ward Kimball. Forney was born March 28, 1835, in Hanover, Pennsylvania. He apprenticed with another prominent locomotive builder, Ross Winans, before joining the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad (B&O) as a draftsman in 1855. He left the B&O in 1858, then worked for the Illinois Central Railroad from about 1861 to 1864. In that position, he patented an 0-4-4T locomotive that was the first of the "Forney" types of locomotives, characterized by the truck (US) or bogie (UK) under the coal bunker/water tank. In 1865 Forney changed employers again, this time to the Hinkley Locomotive Works, where he stayed until 1870. At that time, he started working as an associate editor for Railroad Gazette and quickly earned a reputation as an expert in steam locomotive theory. In late 1886, he bought the rival publication American Railroad Journal, as well as Van Nostrand's Engineering Magazine. He merged the two titles as The Railroad and Engineering Journal, describing himself as "Editor and Proprietor". He renamed the publication American Engineer and Railroad Journal in 1893. Forney was a founding member of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and he participated heavily in other engineering organizations such as the Master Car Builders Association. He died on January 14, 1908, in New York, New York. Legacy	2.15625
2136842	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sardine%20run	Sardine run	The KwaZulu-Natal sardine run of southern Africa occurs from May through July when billions of sardines – or more specifically the Southern African pilchard Sardinops sagax – spawn in the cool waters of the Agulhas Bank and move northward along the east coast of South Africa. Their sheer numbers create a feeding frenzy along the coastline. The run, containing millions of individual sardines, occurs when a current of cold water heads north from the Agulhas Bank up to Mozambique where it then leaves the coastline and goes further east into the Fisherman are sometimes observed singing songs while hauling in the fishing nets in typical South African style. It is estimated that the sardine run is the biggest Biomass migration in terms of numbers. In terms of biomass, researchers estimate the sardine run could rival East Africa's great wildebeest migration. However, little is known of the phenomenon. It is believed that the water temperature has to drop below 21 °C in order for the migration to take place. In 2003, the sardines failed to 'run' for the third time in 23 years. While 2005 saw a good run, 2006 marked another non-run. The shoals are often more than 7 km long, 1.5 km wide and 30 metres deep and are clearly visible from spotter planes or from the surface. Sardines group together when they are threatened. This instinctual behaviour is a defence mechanism, as lone individuals are more likely to be eaten than when in large groups. Causes The sardine run is still poorly understood from an ecological point of view. There have been various hypotheses, sometimes contradictory, that try to explain why and how the run occurs. A recent interpretation of the causes is that the sardine run is most likely a seasonal reproductive migration of a genetically distinct subpopulation of sardine that moves along the coast from the eastern Agulhas Bank to the coast of KwaZulu-Natal in most years if not in every year.	3.1875
2136842	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sardine%20run	Sardine run	Genomic and transcriptomic data indicate that the sardines participating in the run originate from South Africa's cool-temperate Atlantic coast. These are attracted to temporary cold-water upwelling off the south-east coast, and eventually find themselves trapped in subtropical habitat that is too warm for them. The migration is restricted to the inshore waters by the preference of sardine for cooler water and the strong and warm offshore Agulhas Current, which flows in the opposite direction to the migration, and is strongest just off the continental shelf. A band of cooler coastal water and the occurrence of Natal Pulses and break-away eddies make it possible for sardine shoals to overcome their habitat constraints. The importance of these enabling factors is greatest where the continental shelf is narrowest. The presence of eggs off the KwaZulu-Natal coast suggests that sardine stay there for several months and their return migration during late winter to spring is nearly always unnoticeable because it probably occurs at depths where the water is cooler than at the surface. In some years there does not appear to be a sardine run. This may be because it is not detected by coastal observers either because it actually does not occur due to high water temperatures and/or other hydrographic barriers, or the migration may occur farther offshore and possibly deeper due to unusual conditions. Oceanographic influences Sardine prefer water temperatures between 14 and 20 °C. Each southern winter the nearshore sea temperature along the South African south east coast drops to within this range. Along the KwaZulu-Natal coast, sardine may be found in water warmer than 20 °C. It was hypothesized that factors beside temperature may influence the movement of sardine along the KwaZulu-Natal coastline, One of these factors may be predation pressure.	3.28125
2136842	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sardine%20run	Sardine run	Oceanographic regions of the KwaZulu-Natal coast The KwaZulu-Natal coast includes varied oceanographic regions, each influenced by distinct environmental forces. The continental shelf waters of the KwaZulu-Natal Mid to Lower South coasts are dominated by the warm Agulhas Current which flows toward the south west. This water has a mean winter temperature of 23 °C and the current speed is often more than 1 m/s within 5 km of the coast. The Agulhas Current follows a very constant path. The main stream is just offshore of the continental shelf break most of the time, which suggests that conditions are normally unsuitable for sardines along that part of the coast. Local winds do not appear to have much effect on the currents. Sardine move closer to shore as they travel northwards along the coast, but it is not known whether this is due to environmental conditions or biological conditions. There is a persistent cyclonic gyre known as the Durban Eddy, where warm Agulhas Current water flows onto the shelf and the resulting inshore current direction is from south to north. This section of coast may be considered a transition from the wind-dominated section of the continental shelf to the north, to the Agulhas Current dominated section of shelf to the south. The North Coast section of continental shelf is considerably wider (>40 km) than that of the south coast (roughly 15 km). This causes the Agulhas Current to flow farther offshore, and current conditions over the shelf are more variable. Wind appears to be a dominant influence in the region. Longshore north-easterly or south-westerly winds precede currents of similar direction by roughly 18 hours. Sea temperature is often lower and nutrients higher than along the South Coast. The North Coast would seem to be more suitable habitat for sardine, but it is not known to what extent they use it. These distinct regions may affect sardine distribution and movement.	3.140625
2136842	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sardine%20run	Sardine run	Water temperature has an inverse and highly significant influence. This is consistent with the preferred temperature range of sardine. Sea currents have a significant effect, with calm current conditions most favourable for sardine presence and moderate current speeds from north to south most detrimental. As sardine movement during the run is northwards, this counter-current effect is expected. Other conditions associated with sardine presence are: Increasing atmospheric pressure: sardine presence appears to be higher during periods between the cold fronts along the KwaZulu-Natal coast. These periods have calm atmospheric conditions and slow nearshore currents. Large swells and low water clarity associated with cold fronts have a negative effect on sardine presence. Wind direction, wind speed, current direction, air temperature and rainfall all significantly affect sea surface temperature and consequently sardine presence. *Current and wind direction effects dominated, with north-easterly wind and currents from north to south resulting in cooler sea surface temperatures. North-easterly winds cause the surface water layer to move away from shore (Ekman veering), allowing the cool water to reach the surface, and south-westerly winds push warm Agulhas Current surface water towards the shore causing inshore temperatures to increase, which would negatively impact upon sardine presence. Increasing maximum air temperature, south-easterly (onshore) winds, wind speeds in excess of 6 m/s, and rainfall, all result in warmer sea surface temperatures. Strong south-easterly winds and rainfall are associated with the passage of frontal systems, which would push warm surface waters shoreward resulting in warmer sea surface temperatures.	2.921875
2136842	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sardine%20run	Sardine run	Swells dropped to 1–1.5 m on 28 June 2011, allowing more netting of sardines. Sardines were netted at Amanzimtoti; on the main beach and at Chain Rocks. A 22-year-old American marine biology student (research diver) named Paulo Edward Stanchi was attacked by a large dusky shark while diving at Aliwal Shoal Marine Protected Area. The group of divers had encountered a pocket of sardines when a 3 m long dusky shark bit Mr Stanchi on his left leg and hands. Mr Stanchi managed to free himself from the shark, and was treated on the diving boat before being transported to Rocky Bay, where medics stabilised him. He was then airlifted to Nkosi Albert Luthuli Hospital, where he underwent surgery. Dusky sharks generally live offshore, but come closer to the shore during the sardine run. The annual sardine run allowed more dusky sharks in the Aliwal Shoal MPA than usual, but there was no reason for them to show any more interest in divers than usual. Mr Stanchi had been wearing split fins with black and grey stripes, and this may have looked like a small shoal of fish to the shark. Meanwhile, a woman in her 40s broke her leg in the frenzy at Amanzimtoti when the sardines were netted. The woman is believed to have been trying to get some of the sardines when she "stepped wrong" and fractured her leg. Paramedics stabilized her before transporting her to hospital. 5 July 2011 was a "quiet day" for the sardine run. "Plenty of birds" were seen diving at Karridene close to the shore. 50 crates of sardines were taken at Umgababa in the early afternoon, while a net of sardines pulled in at Karridene contained some Garrick. More Garrick were caught by fishermen at Karridene, but in general there was little other game fish activity. There was reported to be a "massive shoal" of sardines off Coffee Bay in the Eastern Cape. On 15 July 2011, 100 baskets were netted at Pennington. It was difficult to predict the sardines' movements as they were staying offshore.	2.4375
2136858	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pok%C3%A9mon%20episodes%20removed%20from%20rotation	Pokémon episodes removed from rotation	Pokémon is an anime television series that originally debuted in Japan on April 1, 1997. Throughout its run of over 1,300 episodes, specific episodes have been pulled from airing, banned from airing in certain countries, or never aired at all. Many episodes that have been banned were stated to have been the cause of "moral panic" as a result of the content included in them. The globally banned episode "Dennō Senshi Porygon", which aired only once on Japan's TV Tokyo on December 16, 1997, features a series of rapidly alternating red and blue frames that provoked epileptic seizures in hundreds of children. Episodes including the Pokémon species Jynx and Passimian were pulled from air or never aired in the United States due to concerns about racial stereotyping and blackface in their respective episodes. Other episodes were removed from airing due to various real-world events. Banned episodes "Dennō Senshi Porygon" Incident aired only once on TV Tokyo in Japan on December 16, 1997, at 6:30 pm JST. The episode focused on protagonist Ash Ketchum, who had to fight a Porygon stolen by the villainous organization Team Rocket. To do this, Ash travels to cyberspace, where missiles are fired to attack him. To stop these missiles, Ash's Pikachu uses a destructive attack, causing an explosion that resulted in rapid flashes of red and blue lights. Although red and blue flashes are shown earlier in the episode, a technique called "paka paka" makes this scene especially intense, as it uses alternating rapidly flashing lights to convey a sense of tension. As a result, the scene contained rapid flashing listed at 10 hertz, which translated to roughly ten flashes a second.	1.984375
2136861	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian%20Red%20Cross	Italian Red Cross	7 Fundamental Principles The 7 Fundamental Principles are the foundation of the Italian Red Cross and International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies: Humanity: "The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, born of a desire to bring assistance without discrimination to the wounded on the battlefield, endeavours, in its international and national capacity, to prevent and alleviate human suffering wherever it may be found. Its purpose is to protect life and health and to ensure respect for the human being. It promotes mutual understanding, friendship, cooperation and lasting peace amongst all peoples." Impartiality: "It makes no discrimination as to nationality, race, religious beliefs, class or political opinions. It endeavours to relieve the suffering of individuals, being guided solely by their needs, and to give priority to the most urgent cases of distress." Neutrality: "In order to continue to enjoy the confidence of all, the Movement may not take sides in hostilities or engage at any time in controversies of a political, racial, religious or ideological nature." Independence: "The Movement is independent. The National Societies, while auxiliaries in the humanitarian services of their governments and subject to the laws of their respective countries, must always maintain their autonomy so that they may be able at all times to act in accordance with the principles of the Movement." Voluntary service: "It is a voluntary relief movement not prompted in any manner by desire for gain." Unity: "There can be only one Red Cross or one Red Crescent Society in anyone country. It must be open to all. It must carry on its humanitarian work throughout its territory." Universality: "The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, in which all Societies have equal status and share equal responsibilities and duties in helping each other, is worldwide."	2.453125
2136866	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl%20Heinrich%20Weizs%C3%A4cker	Karl Heinrich Weizsäcker	Karl Heinrich Weizsäcker (11 December 1822 – 13 August 1899) was a German Protestant theologian. Life and work Weizsäcker was born in Öhringen near Heilbronn in Württemberg, the son of Sophie (Rößle) and Christian Ludwig Friedrich Weizsäcker. He studied at Tübingen and Berlin. After studying at the University of Tübingen and the Frederick William University of Berlin, he became Privatdozent at Tübingen in 1847 and professor of ecclesiastical history and the history of dogma in 1861. From 1856 to 1878 he helped to edit the Jahrbücher für deutsche Theologie, and his elaborate studies Untersuchungen über die evangelische Geschichte, ihre Quellen und den Gang ihrer Entwicklung (Investigations in the history of the evangelical church, its sources, and its course of development, 1864) and Das apostolische Zeitalter der christliche Kirche (The Christian Church in the time of the apostles, 1886; Engl. trans. 1894–1895; 3rd edition Leipzig and Tübingen: Mohr, 1901) made him widely known and respected. Weizsäcker's other works include Zur Kritik des Barnabas-Briefs (1863) and Ferdinand Christian Baur (1892). In 1861 he succeeded Ferdinand Christian Baur as professor for history of church and dogma at Tübingen. Later, he became chancellor of the university. Weizsäcker was a New Testament critic, and the editor of a theological journal, and distinguished for his learning and lucid style. He died in Tübingen in 1899. Family In 1848, he married Auguste Sophie Dahm (1824–1884), with whom he had three children: Sophie (1850 – after 1910), married in 1875 Adolf von Bilfinger (1846-1902) Karl von Weizsäcker (1853–1926), prime minister in the Kingdom of William II of Württemberg Marie (1857–1939), married in 1875 Paul von Bruns (1846–1916), surgeon	1.921875
2136875	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack%20Lawrence%20%28songwriter%29	Jack Lawrence (songwriter)	Jack Lawrence (born Jacob Louis Schwartz, April 7, 1912 – March 16, 2009) was an American songwriter. He was inducted into the Songwriters Hall of Fame in 1975. Life and career Jack Lawrence was born in Brooklyn, New York to an Orthodox Jewish family of modest means as the third of four sons. His parents, Barney (Beryl) Schwartz and Fanny (Fruma) Goldman Schwartz, were first cousins who had run away from their home in Bila Tserkva, Ukraine to go to America in 1904. Lawrence started writing songs as a child, but because of parental pressure after he graduated from Thomas Jefferson High School, he enrolled in the First Institute of Podiatry, where he received a D.P.M. degree in 1932. The same year, his first song was published and he immediately decided to make a career of songwriting rather than podiatry. That song, "Play, Fiddle, Play", won international fame and he became a member of ASCAP that year at age 20. In the early 1940s, Lawrence and several fellow hitmakers formed a sensational review called "Songwriters on Parade", performing all across the Eastern seaboard on the Loew's movie-theater and Keith vaudeville circuits. Lawrence joined the United States Maritime Service during World War II and wrote the official song of the Maritime Service and Merchant Marine, "Heave Ho! My Lads, Heave Ho!" as a lieutenant in 1943, while bandleader at Sheepshead Bay Maritime Service Training Station in New York.	2.359375
2136876	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renal%20colic	Renal colic	Renal colic, also known as ureteric colic, is a type of abdominal pain commonly caused by obstruction of ureter from dislodged kidney stones. The most frequent site of obstruction is the vesico-ureteric junction (VUJ), the narrowest point of the upper urinary tract. Acute obstruction and the resultant urinary stasis (disruption of urine flow) can distend the ureter (hydroureter) and cause a reflexive peristaltic smooth muscle spasm, which leads to a very intense visceral pain transmitted via the ureteric plexus. Signs and symptoms Renal colic typically begins in the flank and often radiates to below the ribs or the groin. It typically comes in waves due to ureteric peristalsis, but may be constant. It is often described as one of the most severe pains. Although this condition can be very painful, most ureteric stones under 5 mm size will eventually pass into the bladder without needing treatments, and cause no permanent physical damage. The experience is said to be traumatizing due to the severe pain, and the experience of passing blood and clots as well as pieces of stone. In most cases, people with renal colic are advised to drink more water to facilitate passing; in other instances, lithotripsy or endoscopic surgery may be needed. Preventive treatment can be instituted to minimize the likelihood of recurrence. Diagnosis The diagnosis of renal colic is the same as the diagnosis for renal calculus and ureteric stones. Differential diagnosis A renal colic must be differentiated from the following conditions: biliary colic and cholecystitis aortic and iliac aneurysms (in older patients with left-side pain, hypertension or atherosclerosis) interstitial: appendicitis, diverticulitis or peritonitis (in this case patients prefer to lie still rather than being restless) gynaecological: endometriosis, ovarian torsion and ectopic pregnancy testicular torsion	2.140625
2136876	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renal%20colic	Renal colic	Treatment Most small stones are passed spontaneously and only pain management is required. Above the rate of spontaneous stone passage decreases. NSAIDs (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs), such as diclofenac or ibuprofen, and antispasmodics like butylscopolamine are used. Although morphine may be administered to assist with emergency pain management, it is often not recommended as morphine is addictive and raises ureteral pressure, worsening the condition. Vomiting is also considered an important adverse effect of opioids, mainly with pethidine. Oral narcotic medications are also often used. There is typically no antalgic position for the patient (lying down on the non-aching side and applying a hot bottle or towel to the area affected may help). Larger stones may require surgical intervention for their removal, such as shockwave lithotripsy, laser lithotripsy, ureteroscopy or percutaneous nephrolithotomy. Patients can also be treated with alpha blockers in cases where the stone is located in the ureter. A 2019 review found three cases of renal colic were hydronephrosis caused by malpositioned menstrual cups pressing on a ureter. When the cups were removed, the symptoms disappeared.	1.96875
2136884	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard%20Brodie%20%28military%20strategist%29	Bernard Brodie (military strategist)	Bernard Brodie (May 20, 1910 – November 24, 1978) was an American military strategist well known for establishing the basics of nuclear strategy. Known as "the American Clausewitz," and "the original nuclear strategist," he was an initial architect of nuclear deterrence strategy and tried to ascertain the role and value of nuclear weapons after their creation. Brodie was initially a strong supporter of the concept of escalating responses; he promoted the view that a war in Europe would be started with conventional forces and escalate to nuclear only if and when necessary. After a meeting with French counterparts in 1960, he came to espouse a very different policy, one based purely on nuclear deterrence with the stated position that the US would use nuclear arms at the first instance of hostilities of any sort. Brodie felt that anything short of this seriously eroded the concept of deterrence and might lead to situations where one side might enter hostilities believing it could remain non-nuclear. This change in policy made Brodie increasingly at odds with his contemporaries. Life and career Born in Chicago, Bernard Brodie was the third of four sons of Max and Esther (Bloch) Brodie, Jewish immigrants from Latvia, in the Russian Empire. He graduated from the University of Chicago with a Ph.B in 1932, and received a Ph.D in 1940 under Jacob Viner. His dissertation was titled Sea Power in the Machine Age: Major Naval Inventions and Their Consequences on International Politics, 1814–1940. Brodie was an instructor at Dartmouth College from 1941 to 1943. During World War II, he served in the U.S. Naval Reserve Bureau of Ordnance and at the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations. He then taught at Yale University from 1945 to 1951, where he was a member of the Yale Institute of International Studies, and worked at the RAND Corporation as a senior staff member between 1951 and 1966. Brodie was a full professor and taught Political Science and International Relations at UCLA from 1966 until his death in 1978.	2.65625
2136884	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard%20Brodie%20%28military%20strategist%29	Bernard Brodie (military strategist)	He married Fawn McKay Brodie – who became a well-known biographer of Richard Nixon, Joseph Smith, Thomas Jefferson and others – on August 28, 1936. They were the parents of three children. Theories Initially a theorist about naval power, Brodie shifted his focus to nuclear strategy after the creation of the nuclear bomb. His most important work, written in 1946, was entitled The Absolute Weapon: Atomic Power and World Order, which laid down the fundamentals of nuclear deterrence strategy. He saw the usefulness of the atomic bomb was not in its deployment but in the threat of its deployment. The book had a now-famous passage "Thus far the chief purpose of our military establishment has been to win wars. From now on its chief purpose must be to avert them. It can have almost no other useful purpose." In the early 1950s, he shifted from academia and began work at the RAND Corporation. There, a stable of important strategists, Herman Kahn and others, developed the rudiments of nuclear strategy and warfighting theory. Working at the RAND Corporation, Brodie wrote Strategy in the Missile Age (1959), which outlined the framework of deterrence. By arguing that preventative nuclear strikes would lead to escalation from limited to total war, Brodie concluded that deterrence by second-strike capability would lead to a more secure outcome for both sides. The virtual abandonment of first strike as a strategy made Brodie suggest investment in civil defense, which included the "hardening" of land based missile locations to ensure the strength of second-strike capability. The building of protected missile silos around the United States is a testament to that belief. It was important for the second-strike force to have first-strike capabilities to provide the stasis necessary for deterrence.	2.625
2136885	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pac-Man%20%28TV%20series%29	Pac-Man (TV series)	Pac-Man is an American animated television series produced by Hanna-Barbera Productions and based on the Namco video game franchise of the same title. It premiered on ABC and ran for 44 episodes over two seasons from September 25, 1982, to November 5, 1983. It was the first cartoon based on a video game. It was the highest-rated Saturday morning cartoon show in the US during late 1982. Upon its debut, it was watched by an audience of over 20 million children in the US, in addition to adults. The show also inspired the 1984 arcade game Pac-Land. Plot The show follows the adventures of the title character, Pac-Man, his wife Pepper Pac-Man (Ms. Pac-Man), their child Pac-Baby, their dog Chomp-Chomp and their cat Sour Puss. The family lives in Pac-Land, a place in which the geography and architecture seem to revolve primarily around sphere-like shapes. Most episodes of the series center around the ongoing battle between the Pac family and their only known enemies, the Ghost Monsters: Inky, Blinky, Pinky, Clyde, and Sue. They work for Mezmaron, whose sole mission is to locate and control the source of "Power Pellets", which serve as the primary food and power source for the city, and also is the deus ex machina in virtually every episode. The second (and final) season later introduces Super-Pac and Pac-Man's teenage cousin P.J. Production During his time working as a theatrical agent, Marty Ingels was handling calls on behalf of his client Robert Culp. After briefly being disconnected, Ingels' attempts to re-establish contact connected him by accident to Hanna-Barbera executive Gordon Hunt who exclaimed "We got the rights to Pac-Man!" In response, Ingels was left confused as to what Pac-Man was, initially thinking it was a luggage company. After going into his pitch for Culp, Hunt interrupted Ingels to compliment him on his New York accented voice, which led to Hunt offering Ingels the voice of Pac-Man after sampling approximately 173,000 other voices.	2.390625
2136889	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20%28VII%29%20of%20Germany	Henry (VII) of Germany	Henry (VII) (1211 – 12 February 1242), a member of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, was King of Sicily from 1212 until 1217 and King of Germany (formally Rex Romanorum) from 1222 until 1235, as son and king, co-ruler of Emperor Frederick II. He was the seventh Henry to rule Germany, but in order to avoid confusion with the Luxembourg emperor Henry VII, he is usually numbered Henry (VII). Under custody Henry was born in Sicily, the only son of King Frederick II and his first wife, Constance of Aragon. He was the elder brother of Conrad IV, who eventually succeeded him as king. While Frederick sought to be elected German king against his Welf rival Otto IV, he had his new-born son crowned King of Sicily (as Henry II) by Pope Innocent III in March 1212, since an agreement between Frederick and the Pope stated that the kingdoms of Germany and Sicily should not be united under one ruler. For this, the regency of the Sicilian kingdom went to his mother Constance and not to his father. However, after the death of the Pope in 1216, Frederick called his son to Germany, entrusted him with the Duchy of Swabia, and again assumed the title of King of Sicily in 1217. Henry's mother remained as regent in Sicily, now on behalf of her husband, until 1220. After the extinction of the Swabian Zähringen line in 1219 Henry also received their title of a Rector of Burgundy, though that title disappeared when Henry was elected king.	2.71875
2136889	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20%28VII%29%20of%20Germany	Henry (VII) of Germany	In Nürnberg on 29 November 1225, by order of his father, Henry married Margaret of Babenberg, daughter of Duke Leopold VI of Austria, a woman seven years older than he was. Sixteen months later, on 23 March 1227, she was crowned German queen in Aachen. The marriage produced two sons, Henry and Frederick, who both died at a young age. Henry seems to have been a lively, cultured ruler and kept many Minnesänger at his court. It is possible he wrote some Minnelieder (courtly love poetry) himself. He was physically robust, although lame, and about 1.66 m (5' 4½") tall. Majority and rebellion against his father In 1228, he had a falling-out with Duke Louis of Bavaria, who was suspected of plotting with Pope Gregory IX against Emperor Frederick II. Around Christmas of that year, Henry took over the rule for himself, forced Louis to submit, and then turned against the Bishop of Straßburg. The German princes, angered by his city-friendly policies, forced him however to issue in Worms on 1 May 1231 the Statutum in favorem principum, directed against the cities, and by their complaints turned Frederick II against his son. The emperor was dependent on the support of the princes for his Italian policies against the Pope. Among other things which augmented the discord between father and son, Frederick lifted several regulations Henry had stipulated during his minority years to reduce his authority, and on the other side, the elevation of the Swabian count Egeno V of Urach, a staunch enemy of the Emperor, who became the most important of Henry's advisers.	2.609375
2136889	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20%28VII%29%20of%20Germany	Henry (VII) of Germany	'The British Library's manuscript Royal MS 14 C VII is the only complete copy of the Historia Anglorum, a history of England covering the years 1070–1253, probably composed and written by Matthew Paris in the period between 1250–1255, and also includes Part III of the Chronica Maiora by Matthew Paris, covering the years 1254–1259. The manuscript includes numerous shields with coats of arms upright or inverted, indicating births, coronations, or deaths of kings, nobles, clerics, and knights.' In this manuscript, Conrad's shield with the coat of arms, at death, is a double headed eagle and in chief a red point within a part of, what it looks like, the moon. Henry VII's halfbrother Conrad was crowned in his place and therefore the eagle with cross, is assumed to be the shield, with coat of arms, of or for Henry VII who is supporting Conrad IV; the shield hanging above Henry's head while riding a horse following Conrad IV. On the original Codex Manesse the picture shows: the eagle faded out and 'overwritten' with a cross may resamble the time of an enforced abdication of Henry VII by his father Frederick II. There is a book that survived to this day about the art of hunting with birds "De arte venandi cum avibus", appreciated by connaisseurs for its scientific content, and therefore very close to the original user of the coat of arms. The Kingdom of Aragón has a similar cross, pointed at the bottom. Henry VII's mother was the daughter of the King of Aragón. At Lescun with Pic d’Ansabère (Pyrenees Aragón/France) in the background you may discover a similar cross. Imprisonment and death Henry was kept prisoner in various places, first in Heidelberg and Alerheim Castle, later in Apulia and at Rocca San Felice in Campania. His seclusion may have been dictated as much by his health as by his rebelliousness: analysis of his skeleton in 1998–1999 has shown that he was suffering from advanced leprosy in his last years. This was perhaps the real cause which prevented the emperor from forgiving him.	2.46875
2136903	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lionel%20Chetwynd	Lionel Chetwynd	Lionel Chetwynd (born January 29, 1940) is a British-American screenwriter, director and producer. Life and career Lionel Chetwynd was born to a Jewish family in Hackney, London, the son of Betty (née Dion) and Peter Chetwynd. His family moved to Canada when he was eight years old. Problems within his dysfunctional family led him to quit school at the age of 14. Chetwynd returned the following year but was promptly expelled. He then enlisted in the Canadian Army. After serving with The Black Watch (Royal Highland Regiment) of Canada, Chetwynd turned his life around. He walked into Sir George Williams University — now Montreal's Concordia University — and waited two hours to meet its principal, Henry F. Hall, who had a reputation for giving students a second chance. After a battery of tests, Chetwynd received conditional admittance as a mature student. Chetwynd became an honours student in philosophy and economics. He also championed Sir George Williams University on televised youth panels and in debating competitions. Shortly after graduating as valedictorian, Chetwynd married future Hollywood actor Gloria Carlin, whom he met at Sir George. He excelled to the point that he earned a scholarship to Montreal's McGill University Law School. At McGill law he served as a contributing editor for the McGill Law Journal. While a law student he also found employment at the beginning of preparations for the forthcoming Expo67, beginning as a laborer on the man-made islands. He quickly found a transfer to the Critical Path Section and then was moved into the Entertainment Branch. By January, 1967, three months before the opening of the fair, he had risen to a senior position within the E Branch with responsibility for approving all media licenses to the fair with the title Directeur de Reproduction, Terre des Hommes (Director of Reproduction, Man and World).	2.171875
2136914	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Green%20%28Medal%20of%20Honor%29	John Green (Medal of Honor)	John Green (November 20, 1825 – November 22, 1908) was a United States cavalry officer who received the Medal of Honor for his bravery and leadership at the First Battle of the Stronghold during the Modoc War. Early life Green was born in the German territory of Württemberg in 1825, and in 1832 his parents brought the family of one girl and five boys to Crawford County, Ohio. Green helped his father on the family farm, and in winter months he attended school. At age 14 he was apprenticed to a carpenter in the county, but he returned home after one month. At age 16 he was sent to live with his brother in Columbus to learn cabinetmaking, but his apprenticeship ended after only two weeks. Green left home and found employment as a Columbus store clerk, a job that lasted four years. When a recruiter from the Mountain Rifle Regiment opened an office in Columbus in 1846, Green and a friend enlisted in the army. Green was promoted to sergeant at Newport, Kentucky, after one month of duty. Military career Green entered the army July 1, 1846. He fought in the Mexican–American War under General Winfield Scott as a first sergeant of the U.S. Mounted Rifles. He was discharged in August 1848, but he re-enlisted with the same regiment in September 1852. By the time the American Civil War began, Green was a first lieutenant of the 2nd Dragoons. On August 13, 1861, he was promoted to captain and served with the same regiment throughout the war, though it was renamed the 2nd Cavalry Regiment. He received a brevet promotion to major for service at the Battle of Gettysburg and to lieutenant colonel for service during the war.	2.359375
2136925	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lip	Lip	The lips are a horizontal pair of soft appendages attached to the jaws and are the most visible part of the mouth of many animals, including humans. Vertebrate lips are soft, movable and serve to facilitate the ingestion of food (e.g. suckling and gulping) and the articulation of sound and speech. Human lips are also a somatosensory organ, and can be an erogenous zone when used in kissing and other acts of intimacy. Structure The upper and lower lips are referred to as the labium superius oris and labium inferius oris, respectively. The juncture where the lips meet the surrounding skin of the mouth area is the vermilion border, and the typically reddish area within the borders is called the vermilion zone. The vermilion border of the upper lip is known as the Cupid's bow. The fleshy protuberance located in the center of the upper lip is a tubercle known by various terms including the procheilon (also spelled prochilon), the "tuberculum labii superioris", and the "labial tubercle". The vertical groove extending from the procheilon to the nasal septum is called the philtrum. The skin of the lip, with three to five cellular layers, is very thin compared to typical face skin, which has up to 16 layers. With light skin color, the lip skin contains fewer melanocytes (cells which produce melanin pigment, which give skin its color). Because of this, the blood vessels appear through the skin of the lips, which leads to their notable red coloring. With darker skin color this effect is less prominent, as in this case the skin of the lips contains more melanin and thus is visually darker. The skin of the lip forms the border between the exterior skin of the face, and the interior mucous membrane of the inside of the mouth. The lip skin is not hairy and does not have sweat glands. Therefore, it does not have the usual protection layer of sweat and body oils which keep the skin smooth, inhibit pathogens, and regulate warmth. For these reasons, the lips dry out faster and become chapped more easily.	3.296875
2136925	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lip	Lip	The lower lip is formed from the mandibular prominence, a branch of the first pharyngeal arch. The lower lip covers the anterior body of the mandible. It is lowered by the depressor labii inferioris muscle and the orbicularis oris borders it inferiorly. The upper lip covers the anterior surface of the body of the maxilla. Its upper half is of usual skin color and has a depression at its center, directly under the nasal septum, called the philtrum, which is Latin for "lower nose", while its lower half is a markedly different, red-colored skin tone more similar to the color of the inside of the mouth, and the term vermillion refers to the colored portion of either the upper or lower lip. It is raised by the levator labii superioris and is connected to the lower lip by the thin lining of the lip itself. Thinning of the vermilion of the upper lip and flattening of the philtrum are two of the facial characteristics of fetal alcohol syndrome, a lifelong disability caused by the mother's consumption of alcohol during pregnancy. Microanatomy The skin of the lips is stratified squamous epithelium. The mucous membrane is represented by a large area in the sensory cortex, and is therefore highly sensitive. The frenulum labii inferioris is the frenulum of the lower lip. The frenulum labii superioris is the frenulum of the upper lip. Nerve supply Trigeminal nerve The infraorbital nerve is a branch of the maxillary branch. It supplies not only the upper lip but also much of the skin of the face between the upper lip and the lower eyelid, except for the bridge of the nose. The mental nerve is a branch of the mandibular branch (via the inferior alveolar nerve). It supplies the skin and mucous membrane of the lower lip and labial gingiva (gum) anteriorly. Blood supply The facial artery is one of the six non-terminal branches of the external carotid artery.	2.703125
2136925	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lip	Lip	A woman's lips are also a visible expression of her fertility. In studies performed on the science of human attraction, psychologists have concluded that a woman's facial and sexual attractiveness is closely linked to the makeup of her hormones during puberty and development. Contrary to the effects of testosterone on a man's facial structure, the effects of a woman's oestrogen levels serve to maintain a relatively "childlike" and youthful facial structure during puberty and during final maturation. It has been shown that the more oestrogen a woman has, the larger her eyes and the fuller her lips, characteristics which are perceived as more feminine. Surveys performed by sexual psychologists have also found that universally, men find a woman's full lips to be more sexually attractive than lips that are less so. A woman's lips are therefore sexually attractive to males because they serve as a biological indicator of a woman's health and fertility. A woman's lipstick (or collagen lip enhancement) attempts to take advantage of this fact by creating the illusion that a woman has more oestrogen than she actually has and thus that she is more fertile and attractive. Lip size is linked to sexual attraction in both men and women. Women are attracted to men with masculine lips that are more middle size and not too big or too small; they are to be rugged and sensual. In general, the researchers found that a small nose, big eyes and voluptuous lips are sexually attractive both in men and women. The lips may temporarily swell during sexual arousal due to engorgement with blood. Facial expression The lips contribute substantially to facial expressions. The lips visibly express emotions such as a smile or frown, iconically by the curve of the lips forming an up-open or down-open arc, respectively. Lips can also be made pouty when whining or perky to be provocative.	2.15625
2136925	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lip	Lip	Open questions The function of the abrupt change in skin structure between the lips and surrounding face (in particular, the function of the less keratinized vermillion and the white roll) is not completely understood. Possible reasons for the difference may include advantages to somatosensory function, better communication of facial expressions, and/or emphasis of the lips' slight sexual dimorphism as a secondary sex characteristic. Clinical significance As an organ of the body, the lip can be a focus of disease or show symptoms of a disease: One of the most frequent changes of the lips is a blue coloring due to cyanosis; the blood contains less oxygen and thus has a dark red to blue color, which shows through the thin skin. Cyanosis is the reason why corpses sometimes have blue lips. In cold weather cyanosis can appear, so especially in the winter, blue lips may not be an uncommon sight. Inflammation of the lips is termed cheilitis. This can be in several forms such as chapped lips (dry, peeling lips), angular cheilitis (inflammation of the corners of the mouth), herpes labialis (cold sore, a form of herpes simplex) and actinic cheilitis (chronically sun damaged lips). Cleft lip is a type of birth defect that can be successfully treated with surgery. Carcinoma (a malignant cancer that arises from epithelial cells) at the lips is caused predominantly by using tobacco and overexposure of sunlight. Alcohol appears to increase the carcinoma risk associated with tobacco use. It is most often a diffuse and often hyperkeratinised lesion, occasionally has the form of nodules and grows infiltratively, and can also be a combination of the two types. It more often occurs at the lower lip, where it is also much more malign. Lower lip carcinoma is exclusively planocellular carcinoma, whereas at the upper lip, it can also be basocellular carcinoma. Society and culture	3
2136925	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lip	Lip	Lips are often viewed as a symbol of sensuality and sexuality. This has many origins; above all, the lips are a very sensitive erogenous and tactile organ. Furthermore, in many cultures of the world, a woman's mouth and lips are veiled because of their representative association with the vulva, and because of their role as a woman's secondary sexual organ. As part of the mouth, the lips are also associated with the symbolism associated with the mouth as orifice by which food is taken in. The lips are also linked symbolically to neonatal psychology (see for example oral stage of the psychology according to Sigmund Freud). Lip piercing or lip augmentation is sometimes carried out for cosmetic reasons. Products designed for use on the lips include lipstick, lip gloss and lip balm. Other animals In most vertebrates, the lips are relatively unimportant folds of tissue lying just outside the jaws. However, in mammals, they become much more prominent, being separated from the jaws by a deep cleft (a notable exception being the naked mole-rat, whose lips close behind the front teeth). They are also more mobile in mammals than in other groups since it is only in this group that they have any attached muscles. In some teleost fish, the lips may be modified to carry sensitive barbels. In birds and turtles, the lips are hard and keratinous, forming a solid beak. Clevosaurids like Clevosaurus are notable for the presence of bone "lips"; in these species the tooth-like jaw projections common to all sphenodontians form a beak-like edge around the jaws, protecting the teeth within.	2.828125
2136931	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conquest%20of%20Elysium%20II	Conquest of Elysium II	Conquest of Elysium II ("II" denotes the version 2.0, the first Windows compatible version) is a turn-based strategy game developed by Illwinter Game Design. The game can be played with up to eight human players. Single player against computer is possible. The game has support for Linux, Windows, Mac OS X and Solaris. Goal The goal is the elimination of other players either by eliminating their commanders or capturing their citadels. Setup At the start, the player can choose whether to create a random map or load a scenario. Random maps ask for a size of the map and the amount of terrain features. They require the player to select the society to base the map on. The societies affect the number of settlements, what kinds of NPCs threaten the players and the general shape of the map. For example, the "Monarchy" setting has independent castles surrounded by farms and minor settlements as a dominant feature. Available societies range from early human settlements to a crumbled central empire. Next, the player chooses a character from among seventeen options. The characters are divided into Warlords, Magic users, Priests and Non-humans. The character is, in practice, the player's "nation". Each character has its own strengths and require different playstyles. Warlords have strong military units and occasionally special features such as the ability to levy soldiers or construct watchtowers. Magic users gather a unique resource, and their strength is their summoned or constructed creatures. Priests differ from each other, but generally need to either capture civilized settlements (for converts or blood sacrifices), or gather herbs or fungi (for use in summoning or attacking).	2.171875
2136931	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conquest%20of%20Elysium%20II	Conquest of Elysium II	The game map, made out of separate terrain tiles, is littered with different terrain types and locations including old battlefields, settlements of varying size, mines and locations that can be used as additional citadels. Certain locations have other uses for some characters. Seasonal changes affect money and spells. For example, Winter greatly reduces tax income and stunts growth of herbs and fungi. Gameplay The game is combat oriented. Control of each player's nation is basically limited to buying units or changing the tax. Units are recruited centrally and are deployed into special structures called "citadels", which range from castles to wooden watchtowers. Large cities double as citadels. Units troops require a commander to be moved. Troops range from spearmen to siege engines and mythological and imaginary creatures of varying strength. Combat is handled in a separate mode: when two armies clash the game calculates combat results in the turn generation and the player gets to see the battles during the turn generation. Combat is automated and the player can only watch once combat starts. The opposing armies line up against each other. Some units have special abilities that come into play in combat. The combat's graphical presentation is simple: the only things displayed are the units on a black background and the possible walls protecting the defenders. Sound effects are few and simple as are spell effects. The game's interface is partially usable by mouse and partially keyboard only. This ensures that the game runs on minimally equipped computers. The game is one of Illwinter's lesser known games. They continued to support it for years after its release, with the final patch in 2014. On August 15, 2011, Illwinter announced development of Conquest of Elysium III.	2.515625
2136941	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guagua	Guagua	Later in 1918, Guagua National Institute (now Guagua National Colleges) in Barangay Santa Filomena was founded in the convento of the local church. Further, in 1941, the then-parish priest felt the need for another high school in town, so he opened Saint Michael's College. Philippine independence In November 1959, nine rural barrios (now barangays) of Guagua were granted a 50-year electrification franchise, with the electricity provided by the National Power Corporation. At the overthrow of the Marcos dictatorship in 1986, the local government carried out a sustainable development program to address the town's destitute state. From its income classification in 1986 as a third-class municipality, Guagua grew to a first-class one. Guagua garnered several outstanding citations for its achievement, including of several "Most Outstanding LGU" awards. Guagua was severely devastated by the eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991. Geography Guagua is bounded on the north by the towns of Bacolor and Santa Rita; on the south by the towns of Sasmuan and Lubao; on the east, Macabebe and Sasmuan; and on the west, Porac and Floridablanca. It is from the capital city of San Fernando, from Angeles City, and from Metro Manila. Topography The town is mostly flat and is suitable to any kind of development; agricultural, industrial, commercial and others. It is only a meter above sea level. Soil type In general, the soils of Guagua are of recent alluvial origin consisting of fine sand, silt loam and hydrosol. The average chemical analysis of its top soils is : nitrogen, 0.02 to 0.1; phosphorus, 0.06 to 0.28; potassium, 0.46 to 1.74; organic carbon, 0.41 to 3.02; and pH value (acidity and alkalinity), 5.61 to 6.99.	2.390625
2136956	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georg%20Rudolf%20Weckherlin	Georg Rudolf Weckherlin	Georg Rudolf Weckherlin (15 September 1584 – 13 February 1653) was a German poet and diplomat. Influenced by the French La Pléiade, his poetry introduced Renaissance forms and themes previously unknown in German verse. In his political career, Weckherlin worked in the service of the Electorate of the Palatinate, serving on diplomatic missions to France and England. Weckherlin would eventually come to be employed by the English crown as an expert on foreign languages and cryptography, and continued to serve in this position in the Commonwealth of England. Biography Georg Weckherlin was born at Stuttgart. After studying law in Tübingen he settled at Stuttgart, and, as secretary to Duke Johann Friedrich of Württemberg, was employed on diplomatic missions to France and England. Between 1620 and 1624 he lived in England in the service of the Electorate of the Palatinate, and from this connection came to be employed in various positions in the English government. He was chief clerk to a succession of Secretaries of State and was especially skilled in foreign languages and cryptology. He acted as a licenser of London foreign news publications for Charles I and in the mid-1630s he assisted with the negotiations for the development of an offensive and defensive treaty with France that would have brought Britain directly into the Thirty Years' War. Although employed by the English crown, when civil war came in 1642, Weckherlin chose to remain in London and serve the bureaucracy that supported the Long Parliament. In 1644 he was appointed "Secretary for Foreign Tongues" in England, a position in which, on the establishment of the Commonwealth, he was followed by Milton. His son had a position in the household of Charles I's oldest son Prince Charles and went into exile with the royalists. He did not return to England until 1660 after the death of his father in 1653 in London.	2.078125
2136978	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macabebe	Macabebe	Macabebe, officially the Municipality of Macabebe (; ), is a municipality in the province of Pampanga, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 78,151 people. Etymology The town was named Macabebe because it is geographically situated along the shores (Pampangan: bebe; Tagalog: baybay) or banks of Río Grande de Pampanga. The town is sometimes referred to as Makabibe because of the abundance of corals and shells along the Río Grande in earlier times. The English translation of Macabebe, meaning: 'surrounded by rivers' describes the historical heritage of the ancient town. History The residents of Macabebe had played conflicting roles in the history of the Philippines. They fought against the Spanish in 1571, during which Tarik Soliman (Bambalito) became the first recorded Kapampangan to fight against Spanish rule. They also defended the last Spanish garrison against revolutionaries in 1898. The services of the Macabebes led to the naming of a street in the Spanish capital Madrid in their honor, "Calle de Voluntarios Macabebes." The residents of Macabebe were also allies of imperial Spain when the Dutch invaders tried to colonize the Philippines. They fought together with the Spaniards to protect the islands from its invaders, and in return only the Kapampangan were allowed to study in prominent exclusive schools and universities run by the Spaniards. In 1901, American General Frederick Funston and his troops captured Philippine President Emilio Aguinaldo in Palanan, Isabela, with the help of some Kapampangans (later called the Macabebe Scouts after their home locale) who had joined the Americans' side. The Americans pretended to be captives of the Macabebes, who were dressed in Philippine Army uniforms. Once Funston and his "captors" entered Aguinaldo's camp, they immediately apprehended Aguinaldo and his men. During World War II, Japanese fighter and bomber planes attacked Macabebe in December 1941. Macabebe was subsequently occupied by the Japanese Imperial Army in 1942.	2.578125
2136980	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magalang	Magalang	Magalang, officially the Municipality of Magalang (; ), is a municipality in the province of Pampanga, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 124,188 people. History Magalang was mentioned as a visita to the nearby town of Arayat on December 29, 1598. On April 30, 1605, it was separated by the Augustinians from Arayat and attained township status due to the bajo de la campana system. The Augustinians appointed Fr. Gonzalo de Salazar, OSA as the first pastor. Magalang was initially called Magalo, derived from the Kapampangan word "Galo", which means wavy and moving, describing the dangerous flow of the Parua River. Magalang was where Juan Severino Mallari, the first Filipino serial killer who killed at least 57 people, served as the town's parish priest from 1816 to 1826 and committed his murders. The town proper was located in Macapsa, but due to the natural calamities and revolts led by Andres Malong and his subordinate Melchor de Vera against the Spanish in 1660, it was nearly abandoned. It was moved to San Bartolome in 1734 until it was swept by the flood due to the overflow of the Parua River in 1863. It was transferred to the present site in barrio San Pedro Talimunduc on December 13, 1863, led by the parish priest, Fr. Ignacio Manzanares, OSA and some of the members of principalia including Pablo M. Luciano, gobernadorcillo of Magalang at that time. In 1885, the agricultural experiment station La Granja Modelo de Luzon was transferred from San Isidro, Nueva Ecija to the foothills of Mount Arayat, which became the present Pampanga State Agricultural University.	2.046875
2136980	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magalang	Magalang	The revolutionary government took over the local government on June 12, 1898, led by General Francisco Macabulos and Colonel Lorenzo D. Camaya. During that time, Magalang was one of the revolutionary centers in Pampanga due to its proximity to Camansi, a revolutionary headquarters located in Mount Arayat. The forces of Major General Servillano Aquino defended Magalang against the Americans until it was successfully captured on November 5, 1899, led by Major General Arthur MacArthur and Colonel Jacob H. Smith. During the Second World War, Japanese forces defeated the Filipino-American forces composed of Igorot troops led by Major Helmert Duisterhof and Capt. Russell W. Volckmann, paving the way for the capture of Magalang on January 1, 1942. It was liberated by the 148th Infantry of 37th Division, US Army with the help of Hukbalahap on January 25, 1945. It was one of the hotbeds of the Hukbalahap insurgency until the rebellion was crushed in 1954. On December 28, 1963, Mayor Benedicto T. Dayrit was assassinated by the alleged men of Commander Sumulong during a night ball in the town plaza. In 1968, Mayor Daniel T. Lacson was sworn in as mayor of Magalang until his term ended in 1986. In December 1993, Mayor Daniel Lacson Jr. was briefly replaced by his political rival Elpidio Lakandula when the latter was declared the victor in the 1992 election by the Angeles City Regional Trial Court on December 28, which was immediately met with protests by Lacson and his followers. During the tenure of Mayor Pastor Z. Guiao, Magalang was named one of the cleanest municipalities in the Philippines. Mayor Maria Lourdes P. Lacson was sworn in on June 30, 2016, as the first woman mayor of Magalang. The National Museum of the Philippines declared on December 23, 2015, the "Magalang Municipal Hall" as an Important Cultural Property (Philippines).	2.6875
2136980	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magalang	Magalang	Heliograph Towers On August 21, 2017, the “Heliograph Towers” inside the premises of Cariyana Monastery in Barangays San Isidro and Santa Cruz were declared as Important Cultural Property (Philippines) of the National Museum of the Philippines per Resolution 14-2016. They were officially turned over by the National Museum of the Philippines to the local government unit on May 27, 2021. The "Torre" was called "imburnal", “bornal” or “batiawan” as smoke outlets for “cabiawan” or trapiche of early carabao-driven sugar mills. These solar-sun telegraphs are made of fine laryu (red bricks) and huge cut stones of pumiceous rocks and volcanic tuff. They were used as “sun writers” (mirrored communications devices for sending messages in Morse code by flashing the reflected sun's rays to a distant station). The 1896 description states: “An instrument called the heliograph, or sun telegraph, constructed with small mirrors made to turn upon both a horizontal and vertical axis, mounted upon a tripod, so arranged as to make the flashes appear and disappear in rapid succession, is to a limited extent in use in the army; and by it, messages may be transmitted much faster than with flags or torches, and it can be used at longer ranges. It is manipulated by a key similar to the electric telegraph instrument. Mirror signaling was first used by the North American Indians.”	2.75
2137015	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahmoud%20Shabestari	Mahmoud Shabestari	Mahmoud Shabestari or Mahmūd Shabestarī (‎; 1288–1340) is one of the most celebrated Persian Sufi poets of the 14th century. Life and work Shabistari was born in the town of Shabestar near Tabriz in 1288 (687 AH), where he received his education. He became deeply versed in the symbolic terminology of Ibn Arabi. He wrote during a period of Mongol invasions. His most famous work is a mystic text called The Secret Rose Garden (Gulshan-i Rāz) written about 1311 in rhyming couplets (Mathnawi). This poem was written in response to fifteen queries concerning Sufi metaphysics posed to "the Sufi literati of Tabriz" by Rukh Al Din Amir Husayn Harawi (d. 1318). It was also the main reference used by François Bernier when explaining Sufism to his European friends (in: Lettre sur le Quietisme des Indes; 1688) Other works include The Book of Felicity (Sa'adat-nāma) and The Truth of Certainty about the Knowledge of the Lord of the Worlds (Ḥaqq al-yaqīn fi ma'rifat rabb al-'alamīn. The former is regarded as a relatively unknown poetic masterpiece written in khafif meter, while the latter is his lone work of prose.	2.109375
2137026	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert%20Stephenson	Gilbert Stephenson	Vice Admiral Sir Gilbert Owen Stephenson, (13 February 1878 – 27 May 1972) was a senior officer in the Royal Navy, a pioneer of anti-submarine techniques in the First World War and a distinguished naval training commandant in the Second World War. Early life and career Stephenson was born in London on 13 February 1878. His father was a merchant in the Indian trade. Stephenson joined the Royal Navy aged fourteen in 1892 when he began his training at the Royal Naval College, Dartmouth. As a midshipman he was posted to and . While with Forte he was involved in the Punitive Expedition of 1897 in Benin. Following promotion to sub-lieutenant on 15 June 1898, he went first to the First Destroyer Flotilla. In February 1900 he was posted to , flagship of the Mediterranean Fleet, and served on for the voyage to Malta. The following year he was given his first command, the torpedo boat, TB 90. He was promoted lieutenant in June 1900. Stephenson managed to make a favourable impression on Admiral Sir Jackie Fisher, the then Commander-in-Chief, Mediterranean. As a result, Stephenson, aged just 23, was given command of the destroyer, . He then took the torpedo course at Royal Naval College, Greenwich, and was posted to the staff of , the Royal Navy's torpedo school. This was followed by appointments as torpedo officer aboard the cruisers and . After promotion to lieutenant commander, he served as First Lieutenant on the battleship . He was promoted commander in 1912.	2.28125
2137026	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert%20Stephenson	Gilbert Stephenson	First World War and first retirement At the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914, Stephenson was based in the Admiralty, attached to the Naval Intelligence Division. However, he soon managed to obtain a seagoing role as executive officer of . He was involved in operations in the Dardanelles, and then commanded a fleet of naval trawlers undertaking patrols from Crete. He went on to command the gunboat and, (as an acting captain) the Otranto Barrage, a fleet of small boats which attempted to control the exit from the Adriatic Sea, particularly trying to prevent submarines of the Austro-Hungarian Navy breaking out into the Mediterranean. In this last role, he also undertook early experiments into the use of hydrophones to detect submarines. He was Mentioned in Despatches in December 1918, appointed a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George in the 1919 New Year Honours, awarded the Greek decoration of Commander of the Order of the Redeemer for his service in the Mediterranean and Adriatic, and was also awarded the United States Navy Distinguished Service Medal. These experiments led to Stephenson's first post-war role, as director of the anti-submarine division of the Admiralty. He found many of his fellow officers conservative in their approach, and struggled to get new techniques accepted. He left this role in 1921 to command the cruiser , and then in 1923 the battleship , where he had the young Louis Mountbatten as one of his junior officers.	2.515625
2137026	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert%20Stephenson	Gilbert Stephenson	Stephenson then served ashore, first as Chief of Staff to the Commander-in-Chief, Portsmouth and then as Commodore of Portsmouth Naval Barracks, where he undertook many innovations to raise morale including regular community singing. In 1929, he was part of the official British delegation at the funeral of Marshal Ferdinand Foch, acting as Naval Aide-de-camp to Prince George, and later that year was placed on the retired list, with promotion to rear admiral. He was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath in 1930. From 1932 to 1935 he was Secretary of the Navy League, and he was promoted to vice admiral in 1934. He also ran a boys' club near his Hampshire home, where he was nicknamed "Monkey Brand" as the boys thought his heavily whiskered face was like the image used to advertise a well-known household cleaning product. Second World War With the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939, Stephenson was recalled as Commodore, Royal Navy Reserve. Initially he served as a Commodore of Convoy and made several trips in that capacity. He was also involved in the Dunkirk evacuation. In 1940 Stephenson was tasked with setting up the training base at Tobermory on the Isle of Mull in the Scottish Inner Hebrides. This was to be the Royal Navy's Anti-Submarine Training School for the remainder of the war and Stephenson's greatest legacy was that his training methods had an influence within the service that lasted long after the cessation of conflict.	2.28125
2137026	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert%20Stephenson	Gilbert Stephenson	Stephenson realised that the task of training war-time reservist officers and hostilities-only ratings required a different approach to that of training regulars. He believed that the most important priority was making the trainees determined to win; then that they understood the importance of discipline; next the importance of correct administration; and finally technical proficiency—he felt that skill would be worthless if overall spirit were lacking. He emphasised strict discipline in his training combined with encouraging a willingness to adapt quickly to various situations with surprise inspections and orders to trainees as well as creative wargames to simulate difficult situations at sea. A frequently recounted anecdote is that when inspecting a corvette and its crew, Stephenson suddenly threw his hat on the deck and called it an unexploded bomb. A trainee (variously reported as quartermaster, or a sub-lieutenant) immediately kicked it into the water. After Stephenson commended him for quick action, but wanting his heavily gold-braided hat back, he then suddenly said the hat was now a man overboard and the trainee had to dive in to retrieve it. Stephenson had the reputation of being a very hard taskmaster, with officers being replaced before the ship was allowed to leave (and even commanding officers being dismissed on occasion). However, he was reportedly very pleasant to those who matched his standards. Although he was disliked by the trainees, who called him "The Terror of Tobermory" and "The Monkey", Stephenson was credited in producing capable sailors who were able to meet the demands of the Battle of the Atlantic. As such, Stephenson is credited with being a factor in turning the tide in favour of the Allies in that critical contest in the war. A noted fictionalised depiction of Stephenson and his Second World War assignment is presented in Nicholas Monsarrat's novel The Cruel Sea. Stephenson was reportedly very proud of this depiction.	2.234375
2137031	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International%20Association%20of%20Art%20Critics	International Association of Art Critics	AICA - the International Association of Art Critics (Association Internationale des Critiques d’Art, AICA) was founded in 1950 to revitalize critical discourse, which suffered under Fascism during World War II. Affiliated with UNESCO AICA was admitted to the rank of non-governmental organization in 1951. The main objectives of AICA are: to promote the critical disciplines in the field of visual arts to ensure their having sound methodological and ethical bases to protect the ethical and professional interests of art critics by defending the rights of all members equally to ensure permanent communication among its members by encouraging international meetings to facilitate and improve information and international exchanges in the field of visual arts to contribute to the reciprocal knowledge and closer understanding of differing cultures to provide collaboration with developing countries During the 1973 General Assembly of the organization in SFR Yugoslavia, which took place in Zagreb, Ljubljana, Belgrade and Dubrovnik, art critic Célestin Badibanga from Kinshasa called upon the organization to "move beyond the Eurocentric tendencies in art". Structure President: Malgorzata Kazmierczak (Poland) Secretary General: Marc Partouche (France) Treasurer: Jesus Pedro Lorente (Spain) International Vice Presidents: Jean Bundy (USA) Chauhsin Chen (Taiwan) Rui G. Cepeda (UK) Fernando Farina (Argentina) Juan Carlos Flores Zúñiga (Costa Rica) Margarita Grullon Perea (Dominican Republic) Marja-Terttu Kivirinta (Finland) Danièle Perrier (Germany) Susana Sulic (France) Committees The committees support the activity of the association according to their purpose. Each committee is led by a Committee Chair and consists of a variable number of members.	2.15625
2137040	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang%20Sartorius%20von%20Waltershausen	Wolfgang Sartorius von Waltershausen	Wolfgang Sartorius Freiherr von Waltershausen (17 December 180916 March 1876) was a German geologist. Life and work Waltershausen was born at Göttingen and educated at this city's university. There he devoted his attention to physical and natural science, and in particular to mineralogy. Waltershausen was named after Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, who was close friends with his parents. Waltershausen's father, Georg, was a writer, lecturer and professor of economics and history at Göttingen. Georg Sartorius (later Sartorius von Waltershausen) is best known in his role of translator and popularizer of Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations. His son, August, was a well known economist who specialized in American economy, and had at least one of his books translated into English. During a tour in 1834–1835 Waltershausen carried out a series of magnetic observations in various parts of Europe. He then gave his attention to an exhaustive investigation of the volcano of Mount Etna, in Sicily, and carried on the work with some interruptions until 1843 including with Christian Heinrich Friedrich Peters. The chief result of this undertaking was his great Atlas des Ätna (1858–1861), in which he distinguished the lava streams formed during the later centuries. After his return from Mount Etna, Waltershausen visited Iceland, and subsequently published Physisch-geographische Skizze von Island (1847), Über die vulkanischen Gesteine in Sizilien und Island (1853), and Geologischer Atlas von Island (1853). Meanwhile, he was appointed professor of mineralogy and geology at Göttingen, and held this post for about thirty years, until his death. In 1866 Waltershausen published an important essay entitled Recherches sur les climats de l'époque actuelle et des époques anciennes; in this he expressed his belief that the Ice age was due to changes in the configuration of the Earth's surface. He died in Göttingen. In 1880, Arnold von Lasaulx edited Waltershausen's notes and published the book Der Aetna (cover page pictured).	2.390625
2137053	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parable%20of%20the%20Ten%20Virgins	Parable of the Ten Virgins	The Parable of the Ten Virgins, also known as the Parable of the Wise and Foolish Virgins or the Parable of the ten bridesmaids, is one of the parables of Jesus. According to , ten virgins await a bridegroom; five have brought enough oil for their lamps for the wait, while the oil of the other five runs out. The five virgins who are prepared for the bridegroom's arrival are rewarded, while the five who went to buy further oil miss the bridegroom's arrival and are disowned. The parable has a clear eschatological theme: be prepared for the Day of Judgement. It was one of the most popular parables in the Middle Ages and had influence on Gothic art, sculpture and the architecture of German and French cathedrals. Narrative according to the Gospel of Matthew In the Parable of the Ten Virgins, Jesus tells a story about a party of virgins, perhaps bridesmaids or torchbearers for a procession, chosen to participate in a wedding. Each of the ten virgins is carrying a lamp or torch as they await the coming of the bridegroom, which they expect at some time during the night. Five of the virgins are wise and have brought extra oil for their lamps. Five are foolish and have brought their lamps but no extra oil. At midnight, all the virgins hear the call to come out to meet the bridegroom. Realising their lamps are going out, the foolish virgins ask the wise ones for oil, but they refuse, saying that there will certainly not (Greek ou mē) be enough for them to share. While the foolish virgins are away trying to buy more oil, the bridegroom arrives. The wise virgins then accompany him to the celebration. The others arrive too late and are excluded from the event. Interpretations The parable is one of a sequence of responses to a question in Matthew 24:	2.25
2137053	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parable%20of%20the%20Ten%20Virgins	Parable of the Ten Virgins	Other parables in this sequence include the parable of the budding fig tree (Matthew 24:32–35) and the parable of the Faithful Servant (Matthew 24:42–51). The parable of the Ten Virgins reinforces the call for readiness in the face of the uncertain time of the Second Coming. It has been described as a "watching parable". Like the parable of the Lost Coin, it is a parable about women which immediately follows, and makes the same point as, a preceding parable about men. Along with most early Christian interpreters of this parable, some today continue to understand it as an allegory, whereby Jesus Christ is the bridegroom, echoing the Old Testament image of God as the bridegroom in and similar passages, and the virgins are the Christians. The awaited event is the Second Coming of Christ. Other elements in the story, e.g., lamps, oil, delay of the bridegroom, and exclusion of the foolish virgins from the celebration, also often take on various meanings. R. T. France writes that the parable is "a warning addressed specifically to those inside the professing church who are not to assume that their future is unconditionally assured." This story in its present form in Matthew seems to be an allegory, at least in its implied identification of the bridegroom as the Son of Man (cf. 24:44) and reflection of the church’s experience of delay in his Parousia – although not a full-blown allegory like the Parable of the Sower, where almost every detail of the story has a hidden meaning. It has been argued that its original form, possibly on the lips of Jesus himself, was likely a narrative parable that simply illustrated the contrasting outcomes of groups who prepared themselves for uncertain circumstances and those who did not.	2.28125
2137053	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parable%20of%20the%20Ten%20Virgins	Parable of the Ten Virgins	The parable does not criticise the virgins for sleeping, since both groups do that, but for being unprepared as they brought no extra oil. It is unclear as to whether the foolish virgins succeed in purchasing any oil that night: most shops would not have been open. The New Testament scholar, Dan O. Via, considers the story of the bridesmaids as an example of a tragic parable with an inverted U-shaped plot. The rising action of the parable is the preparation for the coming of the bridegroom, but a crisis occurs when the bridegroom is delayed. This is the turning point (reversal or peripety) that leads to disaster. The parable is not written in praise of virginity, and indeed Louis of Granada, in The Sinner's Guide of 1555, writes "No one makes intercession with the Bridegroom for the five foolish virgins who, after despising the pleasures of the flesh and stifling in their hearts the fire of concupiscence, nay, after observing the great counsel of virginity, neglected the precept of humility and became inflated with pride on account of their virginity." Catholic Friedrich Justus Knecht wrote that this parable shows "the necessity of good works", with the spare oil symbolizing good works stored up by faithful Christians, and the lax Christians being those whose faith did not compel them to active love or good deeds. Jesuit Roger Baxter writes in his Meditations for Every Day in the Year:	2.21875
2137053	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parable%20of%20the%20Ten%20Virgins	Parable of the Ten Virgins	In the Syriac Orthodox Church, the parable is used to commemorate the Sunday vespers service of Nahire. They believe Nahire symbolizes living in accordance with the 10 virgins, and that only through a life of dedication, vigilance, fasting and prayer can we be ready for the Bridegroom himself. The parable is the Gospel reading for the 27th Sunday after Trinity in the traditional Lutheran lectionary. In the Revised Common Lectionary, the parable is read in Year A as the Gospel for Proper 27 (32nd Sunday in Ordinary Time; 24th Sunday After Pentecost). In the arts This parable has been a popular subject for painting, sculpture, music, and drama. Paintings and engravings The parable has been depicted in several paintings, including altarpieces in Northern Europe. A recent example, from 1954, is by Tove Jansson. In the 19th century, the artists of the Nazarene movement also took up this theme. An engraving titled "The Parable of the Wise and Foolish Virgins" is at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, which labels it "After Pieter Bruegel the Elder", "ca. 1560–63". In his novel Là-bas, Joris-Karl Huysmans describes the engraving and writes that Durtal, the novel's protagonist, "was extremely fond of this old engraving, appreciating both the domesticity of the scenes set on earth and the pious naivety, typical of the Primitives, of the heavenly ones". Sculpture Sculptures of the wise and foolish virgins were a common motif in medieval ecclesial architecture in Europe, especially for the decoration of doorways, and carved figures representing them appear on many of the medieval churches and cathedrals of the Gothic style, including: Amiens Cathedral Auxerre Cathedral Laon Cathedral Notre Dame de Paris Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Reims Strasbourg Cathedral Erfurt Cathedral Freiburg Minster Magdeburg Cathedral	2.40625
2137053	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parable%20of%20the%20Ten%20Virgins	Parable of the Ten Virgins	The virgins are also depicted on cathedrals in Switzerland and other countries; the portal leading into the main church of Hovhannavank (1216-1221) in Armenia has carved scenes from the Parable of the Wise and Foolish Virgins. The ubiquity of such sculptures has inspired a fictional description: the carvings on the doors of Kingsbridge cathedral in Ken Follett's novel World Without End, set in the Late Middle Ages. Music Several religious musical compositions have been inspired by the parable. Its message was formed into a hymn, "Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme", by Philipp Nicolai, which Johann Sebastian Bach used for his chorale cantata Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme, BWV 140. The parable forms the theme for other hymns as well, including the 19th-century hymn "Behold the Bridegroom Cometh" by George Frederick Root, which begins: The Wise Virgins is a one-act ballet, written in 1941 by William Walton, based on the music of Johann Sebastian Bach, with choreography by Frederick Ashton. "Keep Your Lamp Trimmed and Burning" is a gospel blues song based on the parable. It has been recorded by such artists as Blind Willie Johnson, Reverend Pearly Brown, and Rev. "Blind" Gary Davis. Non-religious music has also used the parable as a theme, such as the ballet "The wise and the foolish virgins" by Swedish composer Kurt Atterberg (1887–1974), written in 1920. A reference is made to the parable in the 2002 Johnny Cash song "The Man Comes Around," which draws heavily on the Bible. On the 1974 album by Genesis — The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway — a reference to the parable is made in the song The Carpet Crawlers: "and the wise and foolish virgins giggle with their bodies glowing bright."	2.546875
2137054	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Malden%20Studd	Peter Malden Studd	Sir Peter Malden Studd (15 September 1916 – 22 June 2003) was an English cricketer and the 643rd Lord Mayor of London. Biography Peter Malden Studd was born 15 September 1916. Studd's father, Brigadier Malden A. Studd DSO MC, was ADC to King George VI during the early part of World War II. Sir Peter Studd was the Lord Mayor of the City of London between 1970–1971 and an executive of De La Rue, the banknote printing company; as a young man he was an outstanding cricketer, captaining both the Harrow and Cambridge teams. During his mayoralty was the re-opening of the transplanted London Bridge at Lake Havasu City, Arizona. The old bridge, which dated from 1831, had been sold by the City authorities for £1,025,000, and shipped to America to become the centrepiece of a new community. As Alderman Sheriff of the City of London in 1967, Studd and his wife attended the laying of the foundation stone and in October 1970 he returned in full regalia to join the state governor in an opening ceremony which featured a Lord Mayor's procession. Studd was a great nephew of the famous Studd brothers who all captained Cambridge at Cricket. One of the brothers, Kynaston was also Lord Mayor of London. Like his forebear Sir Kynaston Studd, he was a governor of the Regent Street Polytechnic (now part of the University of Westminster). Between 1973 and 1974 Studd was also a master of the Merchant Taylors' Company, thus maintaining another long-standing Studd family connection. An equally long-standing family connection was English Freemasonry, and Peter Studd was an active member of the organisation, and a Past Master of the Lodge of Assistance No 2773 (London, England). Positions and honours Amongst his other positions were: Chairman of the Florence Nightingale Hospital President of the British Chiropractic Advancement Association Vice-president of the Arts Educational Schools Governor of Harrow Chairman of King George's Jubilee Trust Part-time member of the London Electricity Board 1973-77	2.03125
2137067	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital%20Authority	Hospital Authority	The Hospital Authority is a statutory body managing all the government hospitals and institutes in Hong Kong. It is under the governance of its board and is under the monitor of the Secretary for Health of the Hong Kong Government. Its chairman is Henry Fan. History Before the establishment of the Hospital Authority, all health and medical issues were under the management of the Medical and Health Department. In 1990, a new health administration system was introduced as part of the 1989 reforms. The establishment of the Authority served to rebuild state capacity amid the emergence of party politics in Hong Kong. The department became the Department of Health and in 1991, the management of all the public hospitals was passed to a new statutory body, the Hospital Authority, which was established on 1 December 1990 under the Hospital Authority Ordinance. In 2003, the General Outpatient Clinics of Department of Health were transferred to the authority. Hospital clusters Hospital Authority has been providing services to the public under a cluster-based structure since 1993. It currently manages 43 public hospitals and institutions, 49 specialist outpatient clinics and 73 general outpatient clinics. As of 31 March 2019, it has a workforce of about 79,000 and some 28,000 beds. These facilities are organised into seven hospital clusters according to their geographical locations, as shown in the table below. Each hospital cluster comprises a mix of acute and convalescent or rehabilitation hospitals to provide a full range of healthcare services. Corporate governance	2.46875
2137067	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital%20Authority	Hospital Authority	Hospital Governing Committees To enhance community participation and governance of public hospitals, the authority has established 31 Hospital Governing Committees in 38 hospitals and institutions. These committees received regular management reports from the hospital chief executives, monitored operational and financial performance of the hospitals, participated in human resources and procurement functions, as well as hospital and community partnership activities. Regional Advisory Committees To provide the authority with advice on the healthcare needs for specific regions of Hong Kong, the authority has established three Regional Advisory Committees. Each of the committees meets four times a year. Funding The authority is funded primarily by Hong Kong Government subvention, which amounted to HK$42.5 billion for 2012–2013, equating to over 90% of the authority's total income. Its other incomes include hospital and clinic fees and charges, donations, and investment. The authority's total expenditure was HK$46.1 billion for 2012–2013, with 70% used to pay staff, and 14% to pay for drugs and other supplies. Controversies 2003 SARS outbreak In 2003, Hong Kong suffered from the outbreak of SARS and recorded considerable number of patients and casualties. The slow and delayed response of Hospital Authority was criticized. Believing that Hong Kong was safe from infectious diseases, the HA had inadequate preparation for facilities like isolated wards and single rooms that are important for the treatment of highly contagious diseases. In the early phase of the outbreak, public hospitals placed SARS patients in non-quarantined rooms that severely increased the chance of infection.	2.296875
2137075	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher%20Wandesford	Christopher Wandesford	Christopher Wandesford (24 September 1592 – 3 December 1640) was an English administrator and politician who sat in the House of Commons between 1621 and 1629. He was Lord Deputy of Ireland in the last months of his life. Life Wandesford was born on 24 September 1592 at Bishop Burton, near Beverley, Yorkshire, the son of Sir George Wandesford (1573–1612) of Kirklington, Yorkshire and his wife Catherine Hansby, daughter of Ralph Hansby of Gray's Inn. Educated at Clare College, Cambridge, and Gray's Inn, he entered Parliament as MP for Aldborough in 1621 and 1624. He was then returned for Richmond in 1625 and 1626 and Thirsk in 1628. His rise to importance was due primarily to his close friendship with Sir Thomas Wentworth, afterwards Earl of Strafford, who was his distant cousin. Although at first hostile to Charles I, as shown by the active part he took in the impeachment of George Villiers, 1st Duke of Buckingham, Wandesford soon became a royalist partisan, and in 1633 he accompanied Wentworth to Ireland, where he became Master of the Rolls. Wandesford said that he went to Ireland not out of ambition, but simply out of his affection for Wentworth. He sat in the Irish House of Commons as member for Kildare in the Irish Parliaments of 1634 and 1639 and was a member of the Privy Council of Ireland. Wandesford's value to Wentworth was fully recognised by the latter, who wrote that of all the Privy Council he confided only in Wandesford and George Radcliffe, for whose services he could never be sufficiently thankful. In 1640 Wandesford succeeded Strafford as Lord Deputy of Ireland, but he had only just begun to struggle with the problems of his new position when he died, after a short illness which seems to have been a severe fever, on 3 December 1640. The medical treatment he received, which included applying split pigeons to the soles of his feet, is unlikely to have improved his chances of survival.	2.078125
2137075	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher%20Wandesford	Christopher Wandesford	He had married Alice (1592–1659), the only daughter of Sir Hewett Osborne and his wife Joyce Fleetwood, and sister to Sir Edward Osborne, 1st Baronet, vice-president, under Wentworth, of the Council of the North. They had seven children, five of whom survived to adulthood. During the Irish Rebellion of 1641 his widow and children were forced to flee from their home and after some hardship returned safely to Yorkshire. In the general confusion, Wandesford's will disappeared and was not found until 1653: this led to bitter family disputes and years of litigation. Family His son Christopher (1628–1687), made a baronet in 1662, was the father of Sir Christopher Wandesford, who was created an Irish peer as Viscount Castlecomer in 1707, Castlecomer in Kilkenny having been acquired by his grandfather when in Ireland. Christopher, the 2nd viscount, was Secretary-at-War in 1717–1718. In 1758 John, 5th viscount, was created Earl Wandesford, but his titles became extinct when he died in January 1784. Wandesford's younger daughter Alice Thornton (1626–1707) is still remembered for her Autobiography, first published in 1875, which is a valuable source for her father's life and career. Alice married William Thornton in 1651 and had three surviving children. Her elder sister Katherine (died 1645) married Sir Thomas Danby and had sixteen children, of whom ten survived infancy. There were two other surviving sons, John and George. George drowned accidentally near Richmond in 1651.	2.515625
2137075	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher%20Wandesford	Christopher Wandesford	Defence was a priority for Christopher Wandesford, who built a castle in Castlecomer sometime between 1635 and 1640. He had been granted Castlecomer after he argued that the O'Brennans or Brennans who had been there since 1200 held the area without legal right. Because of this, he had to build a castle "to protect his steward and collieries from the wild Irish". Apparently he regretted this decision on his death bed and asked that half the rent for the entire area for the last 21 years be repaid to the O'Brennans. This was not done, despite the legal efforts of the clan. Finally in 1686 the Lord Chancellor of Ireland pronounced judgment in their favour, although it seems that this was not the end of the matter. The Wandesford family were influential in Leinster, lending military aid to suppress the Irish rebellion of 1798 in Enniscorthy. A member of the family also married into the Butler family of Ormonde. Character Strafford's biographer, C. V. Wedgwood, describes Wandesford as shy, self-effacing, tolerant and charitable, a profound thinker, a fine lawyer and a man who was deeply concerned for social justice. Even though public opinion in Ireland had turned against Strafford's associates in his final months, Wandesford's death was genuinely mourned there.	2.046875
2137097	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masantol	Masantol	Masantol, officially the Municipality of Masantol (; ), is a municipality in the province of Pampanga, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 57,990 people. Etymology The municipality is named after the santol trees that used to grow abundantly in the area. The reason is either because there was a proliferation of santol trees in the area, or because the town was where santol fruits were heavily bartered (Kapampangans being fond of 'sinigang' dish). A legend of how the town got its name goes like this: 'A Spanish missionary came to the town for the first time. Upon reaching a roadside corner store, he parked his horse-driven vehicle and inquired from the store keeper the name of the place. A middle-aged woman vendor, believing that the Spanish priest was asking for the name of the fruits she was selling, readily responded in broken Spanish language, Padre, todos dulce Masantol. The priest took from his pocket a pencil and a small diary and wrote down the word mas santol, referring to the name of the place he has visited. At the time, the locality abounded with santol trees, and santol fruits were in season when the priest visited the place. History San Miguel de Masantol May 1, 1878 Originally named San Miguel de Masantol and a part of the town of Macabebe, three of the town's leading patriarchs - Manuel Fajardo, Gregorio Bautista, and Juan Lacap - filed a motion on June 26, 1877, to separate the barrios of Bebe, Bulacus, Caingin and Nigui from Macabebe thereby creating a new Spanish pueblo called San Miguel. This new pueblo was approved by Spanish Governor General Domingo Moriones y Murillo and was inaugurated on May 1, 1878. On November 30, 1893, the Catholic Parish of San Miguel was formally acknowledged through a Royal Decree. For a while it came to be known San Miguel Masantol, until popular usage reverted it to the original name.	2.125
2137099	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico%2C%20Pampanga	Mexico, Pampanga	Mexico (also known as Masiku), officially the Municipality of Mexico (; ), is a municipality in the province of Pampanga, the Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 173,403 people. It was also formerly known as Nuevo México during the Spanish period. Mexico is from San Fernando and from Manila. History According to folk etymology, the original pre-Hispanic name of the village was purportedly Masicu or Maca-sicu, which the Spaniards spelled as "México". It is claimed that this was a reference to an abundance of chico trees. However chico trees are not endemic to the Philippines and were introduced by the Spaniards from what is now the country of Mexico. Another claim is that it is derived from siku ("elbow") and was a reference to the elbow-shaped bends of the nearby Abacan and Pampanga Rivers. But there are no records of the town ever being called Masicu. Instead, the origin of the latter name is believed to be simply a common mispronunciation by the locals. According to the Augustinian records in Libros de Gobierno Eclesiástico, the town was founded as a river trading port at around 1581 and was originally named Novo México (the Old Spanish form of Nuevo México, "New Mexico") after Mexico City. Mexico, Pampanga, definitely received immigrants from Mexico since it is recorded that there were thousands of Mexican migrants to the Philippines, per year, back when the Philippines was part of Mexico-City governed Viceroyalty of New Spain. The Spanish colonists made México the capital of the newly formed Province of Pampanga. Gaspar de San Agustin wrote that being the capital, México was one of the most “beautiful and charming” centers in the province. A lavish church made of stone and tiles, the Parish of Santa Monica, was built in 1581 with Masangsang and Matúlid serving as its visitas. Mexico also formerly included the city of San Fernando, including parts of Angeles City (formerly the barrio San Angelo).	2.515625
2137099	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico%2C%20Pampanga	Mexico, Pampanga	September 4: The people of Mexico celebrate the feast of Virgen dela Consolacion y Correa (Our Lady of Consolation and the Cincture; Patroness of the Augustinian Order) during which they receive blessed cinctures imitating the gesture of the Virgin Mary giving her own cincture to Saint Monica during her grief and sorrow at her son's misgivings. September 10: The Sanikulas Festival is celebrated in honor of Saint Nicolas de Tolentino. Bread/cookies (a local delicacy in the town with arrowroot as their main ingredient) are eaten. The tradition is inspired by the story of San Nicolas when he was ill for some time and his advancement to old age started to manifest. He was about to die when his superiors asked him to eat a little meat (for he was a vegetarian) to be nourished, after all he is needed by his community and the souls in purgatory, which he had been praying for. Although he wanted to follow the advice of his superiors he also acknowledged the power and value of fasting towards God's merciful love. He then sought the help of the Virgin Mary through a prayer. Moved by his prayers, she appeared with the baby Jesus in her arms. She handed Nicolas a small piece of bread and asked him to dip it in the water contained in a chalice being held by the baby Jesus. Following her advice, he immediately recovered from his illness, and had more strength than he had ever had before. From then on, Nicolas would bless little pieces of bread, which he would hand out among the people for them to be healed.	2.171875
2137100	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minalin	Minalin	Minalin, officially the Municipality of Minalin (; ), is a municipality in the province of Pampanga, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 48,380 people. The name of the Municipality "Minalin" came from the word "Minalis" or "Minalis la ding dutung". This got its name during the construction of the Sta. Maria Tabungao Church, when a flood came and wiped out all the materials or dutung meaning woods and carried them to Santa Monica Parish Church. The town is known for its 400-year-old church, the Santa Monica Parish Church, with its unique design that incorporates pre-colonial architectural motif alongside its European Catholic iconography. Minalin is also known for its "Aguman Sanduk" New Year's Celebration, where in which the town's straight men dress up as beauty queens and ride through town on festive floats. The town is also referred to as the "Egg Basket of Central Luzon" because of its large-scale production of eggs and chickens, prompting the town to put up the Philippines' first egg festival in 2008. Etymology Pansomun (grandson of Prince Balagtas, the ruler of the Kapampangan empire and Luzon), in his will, claimed to be a cousin of Rajah Soliman and Lakandula, the chieftains of Manila and Tondo in 1571 (conquest by Spain). Pansomun, as Christian convert Fernando Malang Balagtas signed in 1589 a will on the Kapampangan territory. Pansomun/Balagtas stated that he was born in Tabungao (Santa Maria, the old location of Minalin). The legend of Minalin's name came from "minalis la ding dutung, minalis ya ing pisamban" (the lumber moved, and so must the church). Lumber stocks at Santa Maria for the church construction were carried by floods to a hilly Burol. Capitan Diego Tolentino wrote "minalis", thus, the name Minalin evolved.	2.359375
2137100	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minalin	Minalin	This is an avenue where men from all walks of life cross-dress and dare to step out of their statuses. Whether you are a known public figure, a farmer, or a professional, it is with utmost pride that a man from Minalin will dare step out of his status to give joy (pikatulan) to his people. With the continuous celebration of the festival, it is a living proof of how Minaleños value camaraderie (pamakiabe). It is the dare that keeps the community's bond and strengthen the ties of Minaleños. This annual display of beautiful dresses and expertise in women's make up signifies that this town follows the dynamic changes in women's fashion not only in the Philippines but also in Europe, Asia and in other countries. Egg Festival On June 4, 2008, Minalin celebrated its fame for producing over a million chicken eggs per day by holding the country's first "First Egg Festival." An exhibit of Minalin's egg produce was put up, and a taste test of 10,000 boiled eggs was held. Also, 70 poultry raisers donated 100,000 eggs to Typhoon Cosme's victims in the nearby provinces of Pangasinan and Zambales. Mayor Edgar Flores and President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo graced the exhibit of their egg produce, and a taste test of 10,000 boiled eggs. Also, 70 poultry raisers donated 80,000 eggs to Pangasinan's "Cosme" typhoon victims, and 20,000 shall go to Zambales. La Purisima Concepcion Festival On 2008, the Sta Maria Barangay Youth Ministry of Barangay Sta Maria spearheaded the said festival. It is in honor of the Image of La Purisima Concepcion which was according to the book, , in the year 1609, an image was found placed inside a dried gourd skin (Tabungao in Spanish) floating in front of the chapel they were building.	2.21875
2137103	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porac	Porac	Porac, officially the Municipality of Porac (; ), is a municipality in the province of Pampanga, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 140,751 people. History Porac was founded on October 31, 1594, upon acceptance by Fray Mateo Peralta in the Friar's Intermediate Chapter (recorded by Fray Gaspar de San Agustin, by saying Porac has its First Minister and Friar, Fray Mateo de Mendoza. The General Headquarters and Military Camp Base of the Philippine Commonwealth Army and Philippine Constabulary was stationed in Porac from 1942 to 1946 and the local military operates against the Imperial Japanese military and local collaborators from 1942 to 1945. The Mexican Expeditionary Air Force were given a base around Porac to help liberate the country from the Japanese Empire in World War II. Geography With an area of , Porac is the largest town in Pampanga. It was once among the largest municipalities in the archipelago before it was divided into separate municipalities. Porac is from Manila and from the provincial capital San Fernando. It is south of Angeles City and north of Floridablanca. A portion of Mount Pinatubo is in the municipality. Porac has a hilly to mountainous terrain in the majority of its plains. Most rivers, if not all, are heavily silted by mudflow due to the eruption of Mount Pinatubo and succeeding lahar flows. Tourist spots include Darabulbul Falls (nicknamed Dara Falls) in Jalung, Miyamit Falls in Sapang Uwak, and the hot springs of Sitio Puning, accessed through Sapang Bato in Angeles. Babo Pangulo offers a view of Porac and Mount Negron. The Subic–Clark–Tarlac Expressway (SCTEx) traverses this town, the exit of which is located in Barangay Manuali. Barangays Porac is politically subdivided into 29 barangays. Each barangay consists of puroks and some have sitios.	2.40625
2137108	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa%20Ana%2C%20Pampanga	Santa Ana, Pampanga	Santa Ana, officially the Municipality of Santa Ana (; ), is a municipality in the province of Pampanga, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 61,537 people. History of Santa Ana (Town and Parish) The chapter of December 19, 1598 accepted the town of Pinpin (meaning "land laid aside") as a visita of Arayat. Sta. Ana was a track of forest and bordered by the towns of Arayat, Candaba, Mexico and San Luis. A settlement was established by people who came from the neighboring towns. They cleared the area and as the years passed, more people came to settle the place. Years later, they selected a leader among themselves, the bravest, most diligent and who can defend and provide the needs of the people, whom they addressed as DATU, CAT and APOL. The name of the town was changed to Santa Ana, who became the titular patroness of the town. The town continued as a visita of Arayat in 1617. Augustinian historians mark 1756 as the year the church was made independent. Rev. Fr. Lorenzo Guerra was the first parish priest. Fr. Vicente Ferrer started the construction of the present church in 1853. Fray Lucas Gonzalez, OSA finished it and constructed a five-store belfry in 1857. Materials used for the construction of the church vary from stones brought from Meycauayan and wood from Betis and Porac. Fray Antonio Redondo built the convent with stone in 1866. Fray Francisco Diaz, OSA began restoration work in 1872, which was continued by Fray Paulino Fernandez, OSA in 1877. On 1910, Sta. Ana became a barrio of Arayat, but on January 1, 1913 it is reinstated back to its status as a town. During the Japanese Occupation, the church convent was converted into a garrison where Japanese Soldiers torture captured Filipino and American soldiers using the "water cure" method. On November 29, 1945, Sta. Ana established its first private catholic school, the Holy Cross Academy thru the efforts of Rev. Msgr. Francisco Lansangan as its founder.	2.140625
2137108	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa%20Ana%2C%20Pampanga	Santa Ana, Pampanga	In October 22, 2013, the National Historical Commission, installed a historical marker in the church belfry, bearing the church's history. It was inaugurated with the town former Mayor Rommel Concepcion, Archbishop Emeritus Paciano B. Aniceto D.D and the Rev. Fr. Nolasco L. Fernandez, parish priest. The town celebrates its annual town fiesta every July 26. In honor of their patroness Santa Ana, the mother of the Blessed Virgin Mary. Santa Ana Parish also have a daughter parish, San Agustin Parish in Brgy. San Agustin (Sumpung) that established in 1992. Majigangga Festival If there’s one reason to visit Pampanga, it’s to attend one of their festivals. The practice of manufacturing Majiganggas in the town of Santa Ana, Pampanga, is one of the re-emerging festivals to look out for. The festival has proven to be one of the most memorable events in Santa Ana, being more colorful and vibrant than ever before. The Majiganggas, or enormous puppets, are claimed to be inspired by John the Baptist, who cleared the way for the arrival of the Savior. The Majiganggas follow the light processions in Santa Ana and are also present for the three major festivities such as Christmas, New Year’s, and the feast of the Three Kings. The puppets, which stand 10 feet tall, are made by both children and adults out of bamboo, springs, steel rods, and colorful paper mache and cloth. These puppets’ faces feature comically large eyebrows and mustaches made of dried durian bark, the body is constructed of discarded tarpaulins, and the hair is made of recycled sacks — a creative and unique approach! During the event, the people also work together to control the huge puppets that dance around the streets of Santa Ana.	2.1875
2137111	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa%20Rita%2C%20Pampanga	Santa Rita, Pampanga	Dúman is made of malagkit rice (lacatan malútû) that is beaten from its husks and toasted in a clay oven. To the rest of the country, it may just be plain green rice or even un-popped pinipig. But it is a prized seasonal food that can be found during the Christmas season, after the rice harvest in November. The younger kernels of rice that don't fall off the husks are colored green. These husks are beaten against a hard surface until they fall off. They are then soaked in water, cooked for 30 minutes and then pounded. This rigorous process helps release the sweet oils and nuttiness of the rice. Families who produce duman rice are called Mágdurúman. They pass their methods from generation to generation and have kept to the manual production process. Throughout Pampanga, street vendors selling green rice in bilaos or flat baskets are seen. These vendors often sell dúman near churches or marketplaces. It can be eaten plain and munched on like popcorn. It can also be snacked on in spoonfuls with sugar or made into rice cakes. Kapampangans also like adding dúman to other dishes like fresh carabao's milk or hot chocolate as a breakfast cereal, or even ice cream. Harvested and processed through the end of December, dúman is usually eaten with fresh carabao milk (gátas damúlag) for breakfast or stirred into sucláti (drinking chocolate made with Philippine cacao). In Santa Rita, a Pampangan municipality and the epicenter of dúman production, the eagerly awaited specialty is honored annually with its own festival. Years ago, during dúman season, Santa Rita's streets rang daily with the “tok-tok” of baseball bat-sized wooden pestles hitting meter-high mortars as lacatan malútû, a red-husked variety of glutinous rice, was transformed into dúman. Nowadays, only a few barangays engage in the laborious and time-consuming production process.	2.5
2137111	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa%20Rita%2C%20Pampanga	Santa Rita, Pampanga	Building of the church had to be delayed until the late 19th century due to economic adjuristicial conditions. The single-nave church is 55m long, 13m wide and 10m high. It has a large and well lit transept. The solid brass facade has baroque characteristics and the single columns are relatively slender. The reliquary The parish is the site where the Holy Relic of Saint Rita de Cascia is enshrined. The parish first obtained the First Class Relic of the saint through the help and assistance of His Excellency, Most Rev. Riccardo Fontana of Spoleto-Norcia, Italy, the archdiocese to which Cascia belongs. Archbishop Fontana forwarded the Relic through the mediation of the Apostolic Nunciature in Manila to Archbishop Paciano Aniceto who in turn handed it over to the parish of Santa Rita de Cascia on August 17, 2008. The First Class Relic is from the flesh “ex carne”of the Saint. As noted in its accompanying Certificate of Authenticity, the relic was part of the last batch extracted from the incorrupt body of Saint Rita on 20 August 1972. The reliquary is laid open for public veneration every August 17. St. Rita of Cascia (1381) was born in the Italian town of Roccaporena. When her husband and twin sons died, she entered the Augustinian Nuns. The next 40 years of her life saw St. Rita devoting herself to a life of prayer and works and deeds of charity as dictated by the rules of St Augustine. At age 60, while meditating before the cross, a wound seeming afflicted by a thorn appeared on her forehead. St. Rita began boring the sign of stigmatization which is considered being one with Jesus. Because of the stigmata, she suffered in pain for the next 15 years which she courageously accepted. St. Rita died on May 22, 1457. Her intact and incorrupt body is kept and honored in the shrine at her hometown on Cascia, Italy.	2.125
2137116	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sasmuan	Sasmuan	Sasmuan, officially the Municipality of Sasmuan (, ; ), formerly known by its Spanish name Sexmoán (pronunciation: ses-mo-wan), is a municipality in the province of Pampanga, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 29,076 people, making it the least populated municipality in the province. Etymology It was known as Sexmoán until January 15, 1991. The town's former name in Spanish was Sexmoán, as was initially transcribed by Spanish friars. In Spanish, the letter <x> used to be pronounced as a voiceless postalveolar fricative /ʃ/, identical to the digraph "sh" in English. It was derived from the ancient Kapampangan root word sasmo, which means to meet, according to a 17th-century Kapampangan dictionary. Sasmuan therefore is synonymous with "pitagmuan" or "meeting place of the datus" or "meeting point". It was named "Sasmuan" because it is where the Pampangos meet when they were at war with the Chinese in Guagua. In 1991, the spelling was unanimously changed into Sasmuan, due to perceived sexual connotations. History Sasmuan already had a well-developed system of government well before the era of Spanish colonization. It was one of the major towns of Pampanga in the 16th century. The Santa Lucia Church was one of the first Roman Catholic churches built in the Philippines by the Spaniards with the political and financial support of the Principalia. Geography Sasmuan is located in the southern part of Pampanga. It is bounded to the north by the municipalities of Guagua and Minalin; to the east by the municipality of Macabebe; to the west by the municipality of Lubao; and to the south by Manila Bay. Most of the town's area is fish ponds. It is one of the three coastal towns in Pampanga along with Lubao and Macabebe. Barangays Sasmuan is politically subdivided into 12 barangays. Each barangay consists of puroks and some have sitios.	2.15625
2137118	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santo%20Tomas%2C%20Pampanga	Santo Tomas, Pampanga	Santo Tomas, officially the Municipality of Santo Tomas (; ), is a municipality in the province of Pampanga, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 42,846 people. It is a mainly agricultural and fishing community; industry includes casket manufacture, ceramics, and carpentry. Etymology The town's name is derived from Baliwag ("tardy" in Kapampangan) a reference to local habit of arriving late for Mass. Baliwag, whose original name was Santo Tomas, had its Patron, St. Thomas the Apostle. He is also called Doubting Thomas or Didymus (meaning "twin," as does "Thomas" in Aramaic) and was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus. The patronal feast is celebrated yearly on 21 December from the town's original founding date of 1792. History On September 15, 1792, Santo Tomas was severed from its parent Minalin, Pampanga. On May 4, 1899, the town was under the U.S. Force's administration. On January 2, 1905, it was ceded to San Fernando, Pampanga until 1905. On October 12, 1951, Executive Order No. 476 (issued by Elpidio Quirino) created Santo Tomas and its five barrios of San Matias, San Vicente, San Bartolome, Santo Rosario and Santo Tomas with the seat of government at barrio San Vicente. On January 11, 1952, the municipality of Santo Tomas was re-inaugurated. The first municipal hall was temporarily at the house of late Mayor Patricio Gomez, the first municipal mayor. In 1955, under Republic Act 1250, the San Matias seat was transferred to Santo Tomas. President Ferdinand E. Marcos issued Presidential Decree No. 1441 on June 11, 1978, transferring the seat of municipal government from Barangay SantoTomas to Barangay San Vicente. The town was the site of the bloody encounter between Filipino and American forces during Philippine Revolution known as the Battle of Santo Tomas.	2.390625
2137175	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Nature%20of%20Alexander	The Nature of Alexander	The Nature of Alexander (1975) is a nonfiction work by novelist Mary Renault (1905–1983). Summary The book is a biography of King Alexander the Great, (356-323 BCE), ruler of Macedon, Egypt and Persia. Renault wrote several historical novels in which Alexander appears: The Mask of Apollo (1966), Fire from Heaven (1969), The Persian Boy (1972) and Funeral Games (1981). She felt these were not enough to tell the whole story of Alexander, and so she completed her nonfiction biography. The book makes no attempt to be impartial or neutral, but rather unabashedly advocates Alexander as a truly great man. For example, Renault rejects the usual terminology of the "murder" of Kleitos, pointing out that legally, "murder" refers only to a killing with premeditation, which absolutely was not the case when the King killed Kleitos in a drunken brawl, after much drink and much provocation. She also points out that the beauty of the mummy of Alexander was still much admired even many generations after his death. She refutes many slurs against Alexander, both ancient and modern. Renault also defends Alexander's friend Hephaistion, pointing out that he corresponded with Aristotle and was successful in every mission and independent command he undertook. The hardcover edition is illustrated, as is the 1983 Penguin Books softcover edition. Editions 1975. Pantheon Books (New York City). 1st American edition. ; .	2.46875
2137183	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devil%20Dog	Devil Dog	Devil Dog is a nickname for a United States Marine coined during World War I. History Multiple publications of the United States Marine Corps claim that the nickname "Teufel Hunden"—"Devil Dogs" in English—was bestowed upon the Marines by German soldiers at the Battle of Belleau Wood in June 1918. However, on April 14, 1918, six weeks before that battle began, hundreds of U.S. newspapers ran a fanciful, unsigned wire service report that stated: The American press immediately seized upon the new term, and it was used on a Marine Corps recruiting poster by Charles Buckles Falls in July 1918, showing an American bulldog chasing a German dachshund wearing a pickelhaube. The veracity of the German origin of the term, however, was questioned as early as 1921 when journalist H. L. Mencken wrote that the term was the invention of an American war correspondent. In modern scholarship, Robert V. Aquilina of the United States Marine Corps History Division stated that the term was likely first used by the Marines themselves and that there is no evidence of German use or origin of the term. Similarly, Patrick Mooney of the National Museum of the Marine Corps wrote that "We have no proof that it came from German troops...There is no written document in German that says that the Marines are Devil Dogs or any correct spelling or language component of 'Devil Dog' in German." Further, when asked about the term by Stars and Stripes, Lt. Col. Heiner Bröckermann of the German Military History Research Institute said that he had "never heard anyone using the word 'Teufelshund' or 'Teufelshunde' in Germany." Nevertheless, "Devil Dog" has become firmly entrenched in the lore of the United States Marine Corps.	2.4375
2137185	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captain%20Cook%20Highway	Captain Cook Highway	The Captain Cook Highway is a short, regional highway in Queensland that originates in Cairns and terminates in Mossman, where it joins Mossman-Daintree Road, continuing to Daintree. It is a state-controlled regional road (number 20A). The highway is used to connect the CBD of Cairns to the Northern Beaches, a collection of suburbs that comprise the northern section of Cairns. It is also used by many tourists travelling to the town of Port Douglas, north of Cairns. Apart from being a link between two tourist locations, the Captain Cook Highway is a scenic highway that winds alongside the coast of the tropical seaside rainforest heading towards Port Douglas and Daintree National Park. Route description The Captain Cook Highway commences at the northern end of the Bruce Highway (Mulgrave Road), in the Cairns CBD. It runs through the CBD and the suburbs of Cairns North and Aeroglen as Sheridan Street, with a speed limit of 60km/h. In this section, it intersects with Airport Drive, providing a connection to Cairns Airport. After the intersection with Aeroglen Drive, the northerly and southerly directions of the highway become separated by a median and the speed limit increases to 80km/h. It runs as National Route 1 north past the suburbs of Machans Beach, Holloways Beach, and Yorkeys Knob, until it reaches the intersection of the Cairns Western Arterial Road towards the Redlynch Valley. As of 25 November 2021, the highway branches off from this intersection onto the Smithfield Bypass (now renamed Kudakai Crossland Connection); a two-lane highway which follows a path to the east of the Smithfield business centre. This was constructed at a cost of $164 million.	2.0625
2137185	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captain%20Cook%20Highway	Captain Cook Highway	The original route continues north to the intersection of the Kennedy Highway in Smithfield, next to the Smithfield Shopping Centre. From this intersection, the highway continues north to the intersection of McGregor road, next to James Cook University, where it joins with the Smithfield Bypass. The two routes recombine and continue north as State Route 44 past the suburbs of Trinity Park, Trinity Beach, Kewarra Beach, Clifton Beach, Palm Cove, and Ellis Beach. It then continues along the coast through Wangetti, Craiglie and Killaloe, then west between Bonnie Doon in the north and Cassowary and Shannonvale in the south, where it passes the exit to Mossman-Mount Molloy Road (State Route 44) to the south, before turning north-west to its terminus in Mossman. History A coastal highway connecting Cairns to Port Douglas was first proposed in 1918. Construction of the original route began in 1931, and the highway was officially opened on 17 December 1933. It originally opened as a toll road. Its original route north of Cairns passed through Stratford and crossed the Barron River over the Kamerunga Lower Bridge, as the planned bridge at Stratford was beset by delays. The wooden highway bridge at Stratford was opened to traffic while still incomplete via temporary spans after an unnamed cyclone caused flooding that swept away parts of the unfinished bridge in 1934. The highway was originally unsealed, and sealing works took place through 1938-1940, with the last section sealed in 1945. The highway's toll was abolished in 1946. In 1977, construction of a new bridge crossing over the Barron River at Stratford took place. The bridge officially opened on 16 December 1977. The bridge was named the William Walter Mason Bridge on 12 August 1978. The bridge and highway were duplicated at Stratford in 1988. The highway was closed in December 2023 after heavy rain linked to Cyclone Jasper caused landslips, debris and significant damage north of Palm Cove to Port Douglas. Reopening occurred on the 20 January 2024. Upgrades	1.984375
2137226	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E0%20%28cipher%29	E0 (cipher)	Cryptanalysis Several attacks and attempts at cryptanalysis of E0 and the Bluetooth protocol have been made, and a number of vulnerabilities have been found. In 1999, Miia Hermelin and Kaisa Nyberg showed that E0 could be broken in 264 operations (instead of 2128), if 264 bits of output are known. This type of attack was subsequently improved by Kishan Chand Gupta and Palash Sarkar. Scott Fluhrer, a Cisco Systems employee, found a theoretical attack with a 280 operations precalculation and a key search complexity of about 265 operations. He deduced that the maximal security of E0 is equivalent to that provided by 65-bit keys, and that longer keys do not improve security. Fluhrer's attack is an improvement upon earlier work by Golic, Bagini and Morgari, who devised a 270 operations attack on E0. In 2000, the Finn Juha Vainio showed problems related to misuse of E0 and more generally, possible vulnerabilities in Bluetooth. In 2004, Yi Lu and Serge Vaudenay published a statistical attack requiring the 24 first bits of 235 Bluetooth frames (a frame is 2745 bits long). The final complexity to retrieve the key is about 240 operations. The attack was improved to 237 operations for precomputation and 239 for the actual key search. In 2005, Lu, Meier and Vaudenay published a cryptanalysis of E0 based on a conditional correlation attack. Their best result required the first 24 bits of 223.8 frames and 238 computations to recover the key. The authors assert that "this is clearly the fastest and only practical known-plaintext attack on Bluetooth encryption compare with all existing attacks".	2.09375
2137232	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marlos%20Nobre	Marlos Nobre	Nobre was a visiting professor at Yale, the Universities of Indiana, Arizona and Oklahoma and the Juilliard School. He was Music Director of the Radio MEC and the National Symphony Orchestra from 1971 to 1976, the First Director of the National Institute of Music at FUNARTE from 1976 to 1979, and the President of the Brazilian Academy of Music. He was also President of the International Music Council of UNESCO. He was Guest Composer at the University of Georgia and Texas Christian University. In 2000, he received the highest academic awards from the Texas Christian University the "Cecil and Ida Green Honors Professor" and from the Indiana University the "Thomas Hart Benton Medallion". Compositions The Desafio No. 3 for violin and strings is among 16 compositions by Nobre for various combinations of instruments that draw on the concept of the "desafio". In Brazilian culture, a "desafio" is a musical duel between two singers known as repentistas sertanejos (lit. country singers) who playfully and competitively alternate improvised poetic lyrics while accompanying themselves on guitar. The "desafio" tradition is particularly common in the Brazilian northeast and typically takes place at a public square or local market. Desafio No. 3 is a dialogue between the violin soloist and string orchestra, ant the piece reflects the modal, lyrical, and conversational nature of the music of the Brazilian repentistas. Later life and death Nobre was active as a pianist and conductor, having performed and conducted with several orchestras: Suisse Romande Orchestra, Geneve; Collegium Academicum, Switzerland; Buenos Aires Philharmonic Orchestra at Teatro Colón; SODRE Orchestra of Montevideo, Uruguay; the National Orchestras of Portugal, Spain, Mexico, Venezuela, Peru (National Symphony Orchestra of Peru), Guatemala and all Brazilian Orchestra; the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, London; Philharmonic of Nice, France.	2.171875
2137236	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice%20multiplication	Lattice multiplication	Lattice multiplication, also known as the Italian method, Chinese method, Chinese lattice, gelosia multiplication, sieve multiplication, shabakh, diagonally or Venetian squares, is a method of multiplication that uses a lattice to multiply two multi-digit numbers. It is mathematically identical to the more commonly used long multiplication algorithm, but it breaks the process into smaller steps, which some practitioners find easier to use. The method had already arisen by medieval times, and has been used for centuries in many different cultures. It is still being taught in certain curricula today. Method A grid is drawn up, and each cell is split diagonally. The two multiplicands of the product to be calculated are written along the top and right side of the lattice, respectively, with one digit per column across the top for the first multiplicand (the number written left to right), and one digit per row down the right side for the second multiplicand (the number written top-down). Then each cell of the lattice is filled in with the product of its column and row digit. As an example, consider the multiplication of 58 with 213. After writing the multiplicands on the sides, consider each cell, beginning with the top left cell. In this case, the column digit is 5 and the row digit is 2. Write their product, 10, in the cell, with the digit 1 above the diagonal and the digit 0 below the diagonal (see picture for Step 1). If the simple product lacks a digit in the tens place, simply fill in the tens place with a 0. After all the cells are filled in this manner, the digits in each diagonal are summed, working from the bottom right diagonal to the top left. Each diagonal sum is written where the diagonal ends. If the sum contains more than one digit, the value of the tens place is carried into the next diagonal (see Step 2).	2.84375
2137236	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice%20multiplication	Lattice multiplication	Numbers are filled to the left and to the bottom of the grid, and the answer is the numbers read off down (on the left) and across (on the bottom). In the example shown, the result of the multiplication of 58 with 213 is 12354. Multiplication of decimal fractions The lattice technique can also be used to multiply decimal fractions. For example, to multiply 5.8 by 2.13, the process is the same as to multiply 58 by 213 as described in the preceding section. To find the position of the decimal point in the final answer, one can draw a vertical line from the decimal point in 5.8, and a horizontal line from the decimal point in 2.13. (See picture for Step 4.) The grid diagonal through the intersection of these two lines then determines the position of the decimal point in the result. In the example shown, the result of the multiplication of 5.8 and 2.13 is 12.354. History Though lattice multiplication has been used historically in many cultures, a method called 'Kapat-sandhi' very similar to the lattice method is mentioned in the commentary on 12th century 'Lilavati' a book of Indian mathematics by Bhaskaracharya. It is being researched where it arose first, whether it developed independently within more than one region of the world. The earliest recorded use of lattice multiplication: in Arab mathematics was by Ibn al-Banna' al-Marrakushi in his Talkhīṣ a‘māl al-ḥisāb, in the Maghreb in the late 13th century in European mathematics was by the unknown author of a Latin treatise in England, Tractatus de minutis philosophicis et vulgaribus, c. 1300 in Chinese mathematics was by Wu Jing in his Jiuzhang suanfa bilei daquan, completed in 1450. The mathematician and educator David Eugene Smith asserted that lattice multiplication was brought to Italy from the Middle East. This is reinforced by noting that the Arabic term for the method, shabakh, has the same meaning as the Italian term for the method, gelosia, namely, the metal grille or grating (lattice) for a window.	2.984375
2137251	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean%20van%20Heijenoort	Jean van Heijenoort	From Frege to Gödel: A Source Book in Mathematical Logic contributed to advancing the view that modern logic begins with, and builds on, the Begriffsschrift. Grattan-Guinness (2000) argues that this perspective on the history of logic is mistaken, because Frege employed an idiosyncratic notation and was significantly less read than Peano. Ironically, van Heijenoort (1967) is often cited by those who prefer the alternative model theoretic stance on logic and mathematics. Much of the history of that stance, whose leading lights include George Boole, Charles Sanders Peirce, Ernst Schröder, Leopold Löwenheim, Thoralf Skolem, Alfred Tarski, and Jaakko Hintikka, is covered in Brady (2000). From Frege to Gödel: A Source Book in Mathematical Logic underrated the algebraic logic of De Morgan, Boole, Peirce, and Schröder, but devoted more pages to Skolem than to anyone other than Frege, and included Löwenheim (1915), the founding paper on model theory. Personal life Van Heijenoort had children with two of his four wives. While living with Trotsky in Coyoacán, van Heijenoort's first wife left him after an argument with Trotsky's spouse. In 1986, he visited his estranged fourth wife, Anne-Marie Zamora, in Mexico City where she murdered him before taking her own life. Van Heijenoort was also one of Frida Kahlo's lovers; in the film Frida, he is played by Felipe Fulop. Selected works Books which Van Heijenoort edited alone or with others:	2.3125
2137273	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian%20Foundation%20for%20Children%2C%20Youth%20and%20the%20Law%20v%20Canada%20%28AG%29	Canadian Foundation for Children, Youth and the Law v Canada (AG)	Section 12 prevents "cruel and unusual punishment". Citing the standard of showing cruel and unusual punishment from R. v. Smith [1987] 1 S.C.R. 1045 as "so excessive as to outrage standards of decency", McLachlin rejected the claim as the section only permits "corrective force that is reasonable" and thus cannot be excessive by definition. Section 15(1) Section 15(1) is the equality guarantee that protects individuals from discrimination. McLachlin examined the claim using the analytical framework from Law v. Canada. When identifying from whose perspective the analysis must be, McLachlin noted that rather than take the perspective of a young child, which would prove too difficult, it must be viewed from the perspective of a "reasonable person acting on behalf of a child" and apprised of the law. McLachlin said that the claim hinges on demonstrating the lack of "correspondence between the distinction and the claimant's characteristics or circumstances" (the second contextual factor from the Law v. Canada test). On this point she acknowledged that children need to be protected, and in furtherance of this goal parents and teachers require protection as well. Section 43 decriminalizes "only minimal force of transient or trivial impact" and to remove such protection would be dangerous as it would criminalize acts such as "placing an unwilling child in a chair for a five-minute 'time-out'" which would risk destroying the family.	1.953125
2137286	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Larned	William Larned	William Augustus Larned (December 30, 1872 – December 16, 1926) was an American tennis player who was active at the beginning of the 20th century. He won seven singles titles at the U.S. National Championships. Biography Larned was born and raised in Summit, New Jersey, on the estate of his father, William Zebedee Larned, a wealthy lawyer and a major landowner in Summit. Stoneover, the manor house in which he grew up, today houses the administrative and faculty offices of the Oak Knoll School. Larned Road in Summit honors both father and son; Brayton School in Summit was named in honor of his younger brother Brayton, who died at age 15. He came from a family that could trace its American roots to shortly after the arrival of the Mayflower. In 1890 he came to Cornell University to study mechanical engineering. He first gained fame in his junior year, when he became the first (and to this day, the only) Cornellian to win the intercollegiate tennis championship. An all-around athlete, Larned captained the St. Nicholas Hockey Club in 1896–97 and was also a horseman, golfer, and rifle shot. He invented the steel-framed racquet in 1922 and founded a company to manufacture it. Larned won the title seven times, as did Richard Sears before him and Bill Tilden after. Larned was a member of the U.S. Davis Cup Team in 1902–03, 1905, 1908–09 and 1911–12. Larned achieved a career-high U.S. ranking of No. 1. He twice participated in the Wimbledon Championships, in 1896 and 1905, but could not match his success at home, losing on both occasions in the quarterfinals. Larned also won other tournaments multiple times including the Longwood Challenge Bowl eleven times (1894–1897, 1901, 1903–1909), the Middle States Championships six times (1894–95, 1897, 1899, 1906–1907), and the Southampton Invitation three times (1902, 1904, 1906). He was inducted in the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 1956.	2.40625
2137291	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Araucaria%20angustifolia	Araucaria angustifolia	Araucaria angustifolia, the Paraná pine, Brazilian pine or candelabra tree (, or ), is a critically endangered species in the conifer genus Araucaria. Although the common names in various languages refer to the species as a "pine", it does not belong in the genus Pinus. Description It is an evergreen tree usually growing to tall and diameter at breast height. The largest individual, near Nova Petrópolis, Rio Grande do Sul state, Brazil is in height with a diameter at breast height of girth. The tree is fast growing; as much as a year ( in 14 years) at Puerto Piray, Misiones Province, Argentina. The leaves are thick, tough and scale like, triangular, long, broad at the base, and with razor-sharp edges and tip. They persist 10 to 15 years, so cover most of the tree except for the trunk and older branches. The bark is uncommonly thick, up to 15 cm (6 in) deep. The inner bark and resin from the trunk of the tree is reddish. It is usually dioecious, with the male and female cones on separate trees. The male (pollen) cones are oblong, long at first, expanding to long by broad at pollen release. Like all conifers it is wind pollinated. The female cones (seed), which mature in autumn about 18 months after pollination, are globose, large, in diameter, and hold about 100–150 seeds. The cones disintegrate at maturity to release the approximately long nut-like seeds, which are then dispersed by animals, notably the azure jay, Cyanocorax caeruleus. Similar species It can be distinguished from its close relative A. araucana (found further southwest in South America), which has narrower leaves, brown inner bark and white resin. Taxonomy The genus Araucaria was part of terrestrial flora since the Triassic and found its apogee in Gondwana. Today, it is restricted to the Southern Hemisphere and has 19 species. Distribution and habitat	2.828125
2137291	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Araucaria%20angustifolia	Araucaria angustifolia	The prehistoric distribution of A. angustifolia in earlier geologic periods was very different to the present day; fossils have been found in northeastern Brazil. The species moved into its present-day range in southern Brazil during the later Pleistocene and early Holocene. This chorological shift may possibly be due to climatic change and the migration of mountain flora by way of river courses. Covering an original area of , it has now lost an estimated 97% of its habitat to logging, agriculture, and silviculture. Besides southern Brazil, it is also found in high-altitude areas of southern Minas Gerais, in central Rio de Janeiro and in the east and south of São Paulo, but more typically in the states of Paraná, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul. According to a study made by Brazilian researcher Reinhard Maack, the original area of occurrence represented 36.67% of the Paraná state (), 60.13% of the Santa Catarina state (), 21.6% of the São Paulo state () and 17.38% of the Rio Grande do Sul state (). It is also found in the northeast of Argentina (Misiones and Corrientes), locally in Paraguay (Alto Paraná), growing in low mountains at altitudes of and in northern regions of Uruguay where it was thought to be extinct until recent discoveries. It prefers well drained, slightly acidic soil but will tolerate almost any soil type provided drainage is good. It requires a subtropical/temperate climate with abundant rainfall, tolerating occasional frosts down to about . Ecology The seeds are very important for the native animals. Several mammals and birds eat the , and it has an important ecological role in Araucaria moist forests (a sub-type of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest).	3.015625
2137291	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Araucaria%20angustifolia	Araucaria angustifolia	The seeds of A. angustifolia, similar to large pine nuts, are edible, and are extensively harvested in southern Brazil (Paraná, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul states), an occupation particularly important for the region's small population of natives (the Kaingáng and other Southern Jê). The seeds, called are popular as a winter snack. The city of Lages, in Santa Catarina, holds a popular fair, in which mulled wine and boiled Araucaria seeds are consumed. of seeds are collected annually in Brazil. It is also used as a softwood timber in stair treads and joinery. The species is widely used in folk medicine. While A. angustifolia is a main species and dominant in South Brazil, it's also grown as an ornamental plant in parks of towns and cities of Chile, from Santiago to Valdivia. It grows better in low altitudes than the local Araucaria araucana, hence its use as a substitute in the Central Valley and coastal regions of Chile. In some places like the town of Melipeuco A. angustifolia can be seen growing side by side with A. araucana. The hybrid Araucaria angustifolia × araucana is thought to have first arisen "in a plantation forestry environment in Argentina sometime in the late 19th or early 20th century". It is thus not a natural hybrid as there are more than 1000 km between the natural stands of the two species.	2.6875
2137292	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drag%20%28physics%29	Drag (physics)	In fluid dynamics, drag, sometimes referred to as fluid resistance, is a force acting opposite to the relative motion of any object moving with respect to a surrounding fluid. This can exist between two fluid layers, two solid surfaces, or between a fluid and a solid surface. Drag forces tend to decrease fluid velocity relative to the solid object in the fluid's path. Unlike other resistive forces, drag force depends on velocity. Drag force is proportional to the relative velocity for low-speed flow and is proportional to the velocity squared for high-speed flow. This distinction between low and high-speed flow is measured by the Reynolds number. Examples Examples of drag include: Net aerodynamic or hydrodynamic force: Drag acting opposite to the direction of movement of a solid object such as cars, aircraft, and boat hulls. Viscous drag of fluid in a pipe: Drag force on the immobile pipe decreases fluid velocity relative to the pipe. In the physics of sports, drag force is necessary to explain the motion of balls, javelins, arrows, and frisbees and the performance of runners and swimmers. For a top sprinter, overcoming drag can require 5% of their energy output. Types Types of drag are generally divided into the following categories: form drag due to the size and shape of a body skin friction drag or viscous drag due to the friction between the fluid and a surface which may be the outside of an object, or inside such as the bore of a pipe The effect of streamlining on the relative proportions of skin friction and form drag is shown for two different body sections: An airfoil, which is a streamlined body, and a cylinder, which is a bluff body. Also shown is a flat plate illustrating the effect that orientation has on the relative proportions of skin friction, and pressure difference between front and back.	3.40625
2137292	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drag%20%28physics%29	Drag (physics)	In aviation, induced drag tends to be greater at lower speeds because a high angle of attack is required to maintain lift, creating more drag. However, as speed increases the angle of attack can be reduced and the induced drag decreases. Parasitic drag, however, increases because the fluid is flowing more quickly around protruding objects increasing friction or drag. At even higher speeds (transonic), wave drag enters the picture. Each of these forms of drag changes in proportion to the others based on speed. The combined overall drag curve therefore shows a minimum at some airspeed - an aircraft flying at this speed will be at or close to its optimal efficiency. Pilots will use this speed to maximize endurance (minimum fuel consumption), or maximize gliding range in the event of an engine failure. The drag equation Drag depends on the properties of the fluid and on the size, shape, and speed of the object. One way to express this is by means of the drag equation: where is the drag force, is the density of the fluid, is the speed of the object relative to the fluid, is the cross sectional area, and is the drag coefficient – a dimensionless number. The drag coefficient depends on the shape of the object and on the Reynolds number where is some characteristic diameter or linear dimension. Actually, is the equivalent diameter of the object. For a sphere, is the D of the sphere itself. For a rectangular shape cross-section in the motion direction, , where a and b are the rectangle edges. is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid (equal to the dynamic viscosity divided by the density ). At low , is asymptotically proportional to , which means that the drag is linearly proportional to the speed, i.e. the drag force on a small sphere moving through a viscous fluid is given by the Stokes Law:	2.9375
2137292	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drag%20%28physics%29	Drag (physics)	The velocity asymptotically approaches the terminal velocity . For a given , denser objects fall more quickly. For the special case of small spherical objects moving slowly through a viscous fluid (and thus at small Reynolds number), George Gabriel Stokes derived an expression for the drag constant: where is the Stokes radius of the particle, and is the fluid viscosity. The resulting expression for the drag is known as Stokes' drag: For example, consider a small sphere with radius = 0.5 micrometre (diameter = 1.0 μm) moving through water at a velocity of 10 μm/s. Using 10−3 Pa·s as the dynamic viscosity of water in SI units, we find a drag force of 0.09 pN. This is about the drag force that a bacterium experiences as it swims through water. The drag coefficient of a sphere can be determined for the general case of a laminar flow with Reynolds numbers less than using the following formula: For Reynolds numbers less than 1, Stokes' law applies and the drag coefficient approaches ! Aerodynamics In aerodynamics, aerodynamic drag, also known as air resistance, is the fluid drag force that acts on any moving solid body in the direction of the air's freestream flow. From the body's perspective (near-field approach), the drag results from forces due to pressure distributions over the body surface, symbolized . Forces due to skin friction, which is a result of viscosity, denoted . Alternatively, calculated from the flow field perspective (far-field approach), the drag force results from three natural phenomena: shock waves, vortex sheet, and viscosity.	2.671875
2137292	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drag%20%28physics%29	Drag (physics)	Overview of aerodynamics When the airplane produces lift, another drag component results. Induced drag, symbolized , is due to a modification of the pressure distribution due to the trailing vortex system that accompanies the lift production. An alternative perspective on lift and drag is gained from considering the change of momentum of the airflow. The wing intercepts the airflow and forces the flow to move downward. This results in an equal and opposite force acting upward on the wing which is the lift force. The change of momentum of the airflow downward results in a reduction of the rearward momentum of the flow which is the result of a force acting forward on the airflow and applied by the wing to the air flow; an equal but opposite force acts on the wing rearward which is the induced drag. Another drag component, namely wave drag, , results from shock waves in transonic and supersonic flight speeds. The shock waves induce changes in the boundary layer and pressure distribution over the body surface. Therefore, there are three ways of categorizing drag. Pressure drag and friction drag Profile drag and induced drag Vortex drag, wave drag and wake drag The pressure distribution acting on a body's surface exerts normal forces on the body. Those forces can be added together and the component of that force that acts downstream represents the drag force, . The nature of these normal forces combines shock wave effects, vortex system generation effects, and wake viscous mechanisms.	2.921875
2137292	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drag%20%28physics%29	Drag (physics)	Viscosity of the fluid has a major effect on drag. In the absence of viscosity, the pressure forces acting to hinder the vehicle are canceled by a pressure force further aft that acts to push the vehicle forward; this is called pressure recovery and the result is that the drag is zero. That is to say, the work the body does on the airflow is reversible and is recovered as there are no frictional effects to convert the flow energy into heat. Pressure recovery acts even in the case of viscous flow. Viscosity, however results in pressure drag and it is the dominant component of drag in the case of vehicles with regions of separated flow, in which the pressure recovery is infective. The friction drag force, which is a tangential force on the aircraft surface, depends substantially on boundary layer configuration and viscosity. The net friction drag, , is calculated as the downstream projection of the viscous forces evaluated over the body's surface. The sum of friction drag and pressure (form) drag is called viscous drag. This drag component is due to viscosity.	2.421875
2137292	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drag%20%28physics%29	Drag (physics)	History The idea that a moving body passing through air or another fluid encounters resistance had been known since the time of Aristotle. According to Mervyn O'Gorman, this was named "drag" by Archibald Reith Low. Louis Charles Breguet's paper of 1922 began efforts to reduce drag by streamlining. Breguet went on to put his ideas into practice by designing several record-breaking aircraft in the 1920s and 1930s. Ludwig Prandtl's boundary layer theory in the 1920s provided the impetus to minimise skin friction. A further major call for streamlining was made by Sir Melvill Jones who provided the theoretical concepts to demonstrate emphatically the importance of streamlining in aircraft design. In 1929 his paper 'The Streamline Airplane' presented to the Royal Aeronautical Society was seminal. He proposed an ideal aircraft that would have minimal drag which led to the concepts of a 'clean' monoplane and retractable undercarriage. The aspect of Jones's paper that most shocked the designers of the time was his plot of the horse power required versus velocity, for an actual and an ideal plane. By looking at a data point for a given aircraft and extrapolating it horizontally to the ideal curve, the velocity gain for the same power can be seen. When Jones finished his presentation, a member of the audience described the results as being of the same level of importance as the Carnot cycle in thermodynamics. Power curve in aviation	2.640625
2137292	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drag%20%28physics%29	Drag (physics)	The interaction of parasitic and induced drag vs. airspeed can be plotted as a characteristic curve, illustrated here. In aviation, this is often referred to as the power curve, and is important to pilots because it shows that, below a certain airspeed, maintaining airspeed counterintuitively requires more thrust as speed decreases, rather than less. The consequences of being "behind the curve" in flight are important and are taught as part of pilot training. At the subsonic airspeeds where the "U" shape of this curve is significant, wave drag has not yet become a factor, and so it is not shown in the curve. Wave drag in transonic and supersonic flow Wave drag, sometimes referred to as compressibility drag, is drag that is created when a body moves in a compressible fluid and at the speed that is close to the speed of sound in that fluid. In aerodynamics, wave drag consists of multiple components depending on the speed regime of the flight. In transonic flight, wave drag is the result of the formation of shockwaves in the fluid, formed when local areas of supersonic (Mach number greater than 1.0) flow are created. In practice, supersonic flow occurs on bodies traveling well below the speed of sound, as the local speed of air increases as it accelerates over the body to speeds above Mach 1.0. However, full supersonic flow over the vehicle will not develop until well past Mach 1.0. Aircraft flying at transonic speed often incur wave drag through the normal course of operation. In transonic flight, wave drag is commonly referred to as transonic compressibility drag. Transonic compressibility drag increases significantly as the speed of flight increases towards Mach 1.0, dominating other forms of drag at those speeds.	2.703125
2137294	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buluggin%20ibn%20Ziri	Buluggin ibn Ziri	The Fatimids transferred their court from Mahdia to Cairo. Buluggin was then appointed viceroy of Ifriqiya with Kairouan as its capital. The Fatimids had taken the treasury and fleet with them to Egypt, so the first priority of the Zirid government was to consolidate its rule. However, the loss of the fleet meant loss of control over the Kalbids in Sicily. Buluggin took Fez, Sijilmasa and most of Morocco to the Atlantic coast. During a campaign in Morocco, he fought against the Bargawata. The Caliphate of Córdoba was, however, able to retain the fortresses of Ceuta and Tangiers. Nevertheless, Buluggin remained a vassal of the Fatimids, to whom he had to pay tribute, and he remained surrounded by advisors who were there to support him as much as to watch over him. The Fatimids took with them wealth and military equipment. The absolute priority of the Zirids was therefore to strengthen their power, but the displacement of the Fatimid fleet towards Egypt made the conservation of the Kalbide territories in Sicily impossible. Bologhine Ziri received from the Caliph the titles of Abu al-Futuh, "Father of Victories" and Sayf ad-Dawla "Sword of Empire". In 977, Abu Mansur Nizar al-Aziz Billah, the successor of Al-Muizz li-Dîn Allah, attributed to Bologhine the cities of Tripoli, Ajdabiya and Sirte in addition to his previous attributions. He conquers Fez, Sijilmassa and but stopped before Ceuta. When he saw the square, which he considered impregnable, and the reinforcements of the Zenatas coming from Andalusia by sea, he turned back. He punished the sovereign of the Barghawata, who was declared prophet, in an expedition in 979 in which he brought back a large number of Moroccan slaves; while his lieutenant paraded them in the streets the people of Ifriqiya were shocked as they had never seen such a large number of slaves before.	2.265625
2137297	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French%20ship%20Formidable%20%281795%29	French ship Formidable (1795)	On 22 June 1805, the returning Franco-Spanish fleet was intercepted by a British fleet under Sir Robert Calder, resulting in the Battle of Cape Finisterre. After a violent artillery exchange and the capture of two of the Spanish ships, the fleets were separated in the fog. Exhausted after six months at sea, the fleet anchored in Cádiz to rest and refit. With his command under question and planning to meet the British fleet to gain a decisive victory, Villeneuve left Cádiz and met the British fleet near Cape Trafalgar. Formidable was the flagship of Rear-Admiral Pierre Dumanoir le Pelley, who commanded the six-ship vanguard of the French fleet, along with Formidable, , Duguay-Trouin, , and . The vanguard was kept as a reserve, and joined the battle around 16:00. They only sailed close to the battle and fired a few shots. On 4 November 1805 at the Battle of Cape Ortegal, Admiral Sir Richard Strachan, with , , , and four frigates, defeated and captured what remained of the squadron. Formidable was taken and commissioned in the Royal Navy as HMS Brave. Fate "Brave" was used as a prison hulk at Plymouth for the remainder of the war. Brave was broken up in 1816.	2.6875

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