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2135959
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Owo
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Owo
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Owo is a local government area in Ondo state, Nigeria. Between 1400 and 1600 CE, it was the capital of a Yoruba city-state. The local government area has a population of 222,262 based on 2006 population census.
History
In their oral tradition, Owo traces its origins back to the ancient city of Ile-Ife, the cradle of Yoruba culture. Oral tradition also claims that the founders were the sons of the Yoruba deity Odudua, who was the first ruler of Ile-Ife. The early art-historical and archaeological records reinforce these strong affiliations with Ife culture. Owo was able to maintain virtual independence from the neighboring kingdom of Benin, but was on occasion required to give tribute. The transmission of courtly culture flowed in both directions between the Benin and the Owo kingdoms. The skill of Owo's ivory carvers was also appreciated at the court of Benin. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Benin's rulers increasingly utilized insignia made from ivory, and imported Owo's art objects and recruited its artisans for their own royal workshops.
Several other notable artworks also provide evident support.
Owo came under British rule in 1893. After Nigeria declared independence in 1960, it was part of the Western Region until 1967 when it became part of the Western State. Owo and its indigenes played significant roles in the politics of the first Republic in Nigeria. In 1976, it became part of the newly created Ondo State.
In June 2022, at least 50 worshippers were killed in a massacre at St. Francis Catholic Church.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Owo
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Owo
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Culture
Owo has the largest palace (Aghofen) in Africa which was declared as a national monument by the federal government, and is also a cultural landmark in Nigeria Built by Olowo Rerengejen in the 14th century, the palace had as many as 100 courtyards (Ugha). Each courtyard had a specific function and was dedicated to a particular deity. The largest, said to have been twice the size of an American football field, was used for public assemblies and festivals. Some courtyards were paved with quartz pebbles or broken pottery. Pillars supporting the veranda roofs were carved with statues of the king mounted on a horse or shown with his senior wife. The current Olowo is Ajibade Gbadegesin Ogunoye III.
Economy
Owo is an agricultural center involved in the growing and trade of yams, cassava, maize, okra, peppers, cocoa, and cotton. There are, however, other commercial activities in the town including but not limited to timber, sawmilling and soya bean processing plants as well as blockmaking businesses.
The town is dotted with branches of banks including First Bank Plc, Wema Bank Plc, Polaris Bank Plc, Enterprise Bank Ltd. (formerly Omega Bank Plc), Access Bank Plc etc. The city is witnessing a dramatic change due to expansion of its road network, particularly dualization of the main road beginning from the Emure junction up to Iyere exit. A new modern market is now open in Owo.
Geography
Owo is situated in southwestern Nigeria, at the southern edge of the Yoruba Hills, and at the intersection of roads from Akure, Kabba, Benin City, and Siluko. Owo is situated around the halfway point between the towns of Ile Ife and Benin City.
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2135962
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snapshot%20%28computer%20storage%29
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Snapshot (computer storage)
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In computer systems, a snapshot is the state of a system at a particular point in time. The term was coined as an analogy to that in photography.
Rationale
A full backup of a large data set may take a long time to complete. On multi-tasking or multi-user systems, there may be writes to that data while it is being backed up. This prevents the backup from being atomic and introduces a version skew that may result in data corruption. For example, if a user moves a file into a directory that has already been backed up, then that file would be completely missing on the backup media, since the backup operation had already taken place before the addition of the file. Version skew may also cause corruption with files which change their size or contents underfoot while being read.
One approach to safely backing up live data is to temporarily disable write access to data during the backup, either by stopping the accessing applications or by using the locking API provided by the operating system to enforce exclusive read access. This is tolerable for low-availability systems (on desktop computers and small workgroup servers, on which regular downtime is acceptable). High-availability 24/7 systems, however, cannot bear service stoppages.
To avoid downtime, high-availability systems may instead perform the backup on a snapshot—a read-only copy of the data set frozen at a point in time—and allow applications to continue writing to their data. Most snapshot implementations are efficient and can create snapshots in O(1). In other words, the time and I/O needed to create the snapshot does not increase with the size of the data set; by contrast, the time and I/O required for a direct backup is proportional to the size of the data set. In some systems once the initial snapshot is taken of a data set, subsequent snapshots copy the changed data only, and use a system of pointers to reference the initial snapshot. This method of pointer-based snapshots consumes less disk capacity than if the data set was repeatedly cloned.
| 2.90625
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2135963
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snapshot%20%28photography%29
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Snapshot (photography)
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A snapshot is a photograph that is "shot" spontaneously and quickly, most often without artistic or journalistic intent and usually made with a relatively cheap and compact camera.
Common snapshot subjects include the events of everyday life, often portraying family members, friends, pets, children playing, birthday parties and other celebrations, sunsets, tourist attractions and the like.
Snapshots can be technically "imperfect" or amateurish: poorly framed or composed, out of focus, and/or inappropriately lighted by flash. Automated settings in consumer cameras have helped to obtain a technologically balanced quality in snapshots. Use of such settings can reveal the lack of expert choices that would entail more control of the focus point and shallower depth of field to achieve more pleasing images by making the subject stand out against a blurred background.
Snapshot photography can be considered the purest form of photography in providing images with the characteristics that distinguish photography from other visual media — its ubiquity, instantaneity, multiplicity and verisimilitude.
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2135963
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snapshot%20%28photography%29
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Snapshot (photography)
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History
When photography was introduced in 1839, exposure times took several minutes. To obtain a reasonably clear image, the camera could not be handheld and the photographer looked through the back of the camera under a black cloth before loading a sensitive plate, while his subjects had to stay totally still. Special head-rests and arm-rests could be used, and even if a subject managed to stay comfortable under these circumstances, they had to try to keep their facial expression in check if they wanted their features to properly show on the picture. This made it impossible to capture any spontaneity. During the following decades, many kinds of improvements —such as increased light-sensitivity of emulsions, quicker lenses and automatic shutters— were developed by experimental photographers who hoped to capture sharp details that would previously get smeared by motion blur. A more natural expression in portraiture was considered a priority, while others desired to be able to photograph atmospheric details in landscapes.
Instantaneous photography
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2135963
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snapshot%20%28photography%29
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Snapshot (photography)
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In the 1850s, more and more examples of "instantaneous photography" started to appear. Many of the early pioneers were not necessarily ambitious fine artists, but could also be amateurs, or commercial photographers catering to a public that mostly fancied affordable small formats, such as cabinet cards and stereo views. Subjects often reflected popular recreational activities of the time. As spending time at the beach had become a favorite pastime in pioneering countries France and England, seashore views became a very popular topic and the clarity of waves in such pictures provide an idea of the duration of the exposure. An albumen seaside view at Boulogne-sur-Mer by Edmond Bacot was a very early example, supposedly made in May 1850. The experimental albumen glass negative showed many waves as an undefined white area in a picture with a relatively high contrast. John Dillwyn Llewelyn exhibited several early instantaneous pictures of the seaside, in London in 1854 and at the Exposition Universelle in Paris in 1855. These were well-received by critics, with detailed analysis of how well the waves were pictured. Llewelyn probably was an early adopter of the use of an automatic shutter, but it's uncertain when he would have started this practice.
Exposure times for instantaneous photography were generally understood to be one second or less, but the term lacked a set definition and some would even claim their photographs exposed for up to 30 seconds could be called instantaneous.
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2135963
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snapshot%20%28photography%29
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Snapshot (photography)
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An early theorist of snapshot aesthetic was the Austrian architectural critic, Joseph August Lux, who in 1908 wrote a book called Künstlerische Kodakgeheimnisse (Artistic Secrets of the Kodak) in which he championed the use of Kodak cameras like the Brownie. Guided by a position that was influenced by the Catholic critique of modernity, he argued that the ease of use of the camera meant that people could photograph and document their surroundings and thus produce, what he hoped, was a type of stability in the ebb and flow of the modern world.
The term 'snapshot aesthetic' arose with a trend within fine art photography in the USA from around 1963 . The style typically features apparently banal everyday subject matter and off-centered framing. Subject matter is often presented without apparent link from image-to-image and relying instead on juxtaposition and disjunction between individual photographs.
The originator of the American trend was Robert Frank, with his book of photographs, The Americans, published in 1958.
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2135963
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snapshot%20%28photography%29
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Snapshot (photography)
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The snapshot tendency was promoted by John Szarkowski, who was head of the photography department at the Museum of Modern Art from 1962 to 1991, and it became especially fashionable from the late 1970s until the mid-1980s. Notable practitioners include Garry Winogrand, Nan Goldin, Wolfgang Tillmans, Martin Parr, William Eggleston, and Terry Richardson. In contrast with photographers like W. Eugene Smith and Gordon Parks, these photographers aimed "not to reform life, but to know it." Frank has said "I was tired of romanticism, [ . . . ] I wanted to present what I saw, pure and simple." Szarkowski brought to prominence the work of Diane Arbus, Lee Friedlander and Garry Winogrand in his influential exhibition “New Documents” at the Museum of Modern Art in 1967, in which he identified a new trend in photography: pictures that seemed to have a casual, snapshot-like look and had subject matter that seemed strikingly ordinary. Winogrand has said "When I'm photographing, I see life, [ . . . ] That's what I deal with. I don't have pictures in my head… I don't worry about how the picture is going to look. I let that take care of itself… It's not about making a nice picture. That anyone can do."
Later photographers such as Daidō Moriyama, Hiromix, Ryan McGinley, Miko Lim, and Arnis Balcus gained international recognition thanks to the snapshot aesthetic. From the early 1990s the style became the predominant mode in fashion photography, especially within youth fashion magazines such as The Face and photography from this era is often associated with the so-called 'heroin chic' look (a look often seen as having been influenced particularly by Nan Goldin).
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2135967
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usama%20ibn%20Zayd
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Usama ibn Zayd
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Usaamah ibn Zayd ibn Haritha al-Kalbi () was an early Muslim and companion of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.
He was the son of Zayd ibn Haritha, Muhammad's adopted son, and Umm Ayman, a servant of Muhammad.
Muhammad appointed Usama ibn Zayd as the commander of an expeditionary force which was to invade the region of Balqa in the Byzantine Empire to avenge the Muslim defeat at the Battle of Mu'tah, in which Usama's father and Muhammad's adopted son, Zayd ibn Harithah, had been killed. This campaign was known as the Expedition of Usama bin Zayd.
Usama's campaign was successful and his army was the first Muslim force to successfully invade and raid Byzantine territory, thus paving the way for the subsequent Muslim conquest of the Levant and Muslim conquest of Egypt.
Background and early life
Usama was the son of Barakah (Umm Ayman), an Abyssinian, and her second husband, Zayd ibn Haritha. His parents were married "after Islam" and Usama was born before Hijrah.
Usama's mother, Umm Ayman served as a slave in the household of Muhammad's parents, Abdullah ibn Abdul-Muttalib and Aminah bint Wahb. She became Muhammad's slave after the death of Aminah. Following Aminah's death in Al-Abwa, Barakah looked after Muhammad, and moved with him to the household of his grandfather Abdul-Muttalib ibn Hashim in Mecca, where she served him during his childhood and afterwards, in his adulthood. When Muhammad married Khadija, he arranged for Barakah's freedom and marriage to a Khazrajite companion named Ubayd ibn Zayd, who was her first husband. Through this marriage, Usama's half brother, Ayman ibn Ubayd was born, and thus she was known as "Umm Ayman" ("Mother of Ayman").
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2135967
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usama%20ibn%20Zayd
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Usama ibn Zayd
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Usama's father, Zayd ibn Haritha, was a companion and adopted son of Muhammad. He is commonly regarded as the third person to have accepted Islam, after Muhammad's wife Khadija bint Khuwaylid, and Muhammad's cousin Ali ibn Abi Talib. He was an Arab of the Udhra branch of the Kalb tribe of Najd, central Arabia Zayd's mother, Suda bint Thaalaba, was from the Maan branch of the Tayy tribe.
As such, Usama was born into a family with strong connections to Muhammad and both his parents were prominent in the early Muslim community. His family migrated to Medina with Muhammad to escape the religious persecution of the Quraysh in Mecca.
Usama had a close relationship with Muhammad and he fought with Muhammad in the Battle of Hunayn. Ibn Kathir writes that according to Ibn Ishaq, Jabir ibn Abd Allah, who witnessed the battle, reported that the Muslim army were panicked by a surprise attack from the enemy and many men fled the battlefield. However, a group of Muhajirun stood firmly and defended Muhammad the battlefield. These men were Abu Bakr, Umar, Ali, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib, Abu Sufyan ibn al-Harith, Fadl ibn Abbas, Rabi'ah ibn al-Harith, Usama ibn Zayd and Ayman ibn Ubayd. Usama's half-brother Ayman ibn Ubayd was killed that day whilst defending Muhammad.
Expedition of Usama ibn Zayd
The Expedition of Usama bin Zayd was a military expedition of the early Muslim Caliphate led by Usama ibn Zayd that took place in June 632, in which Muslim forces raided Byzantine Syria.
After the Farewell Pilgrimage, Muhammad appointed Usama ibn Zayd as the commander of an expeditionary force which was to invade the region of Balqa in the Byzantine Empire. Muhammad commanded all the sahaba, except for his family, to go with Usama to Syria to avenge the Muslims’ defeat at the Battle of Mu'tah, in which Usama's father and Muhammad's adopted son, Zayd ibn Harithah, had been killed. Usama's leadership was initially rejected by some because of his young age at the time, however Muhammad dismissed these concerns.
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2135983
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairey%20Delta%202
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Fairey Delta 2
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The Fairey Delta 2 or FD2 (internal designation Type V within Fairey) is a British supersonic research aircraft that was produced by the Fairey Aviation Company in response to a specification from the Ministry of Supply for a specialised aircraft for conducting investigations into flight and control at transonic and supersonic speeds. Features included a delta wing and a drooped nose. On 6 October 1954, the Delta 2 made its maiden flight, flown by Fairey test pilot Peter Twiss; two aircraft would be produced. The Delta 2 was the final aircraft to be produced by Fairey as an independent manufacturer.
The Fairey Delta 2 was the first jet aircraft to exceed in level flight. On 10 March 1956, it set a new world speed record of , exceeding the previous official record by . The Delta 2 held the absolute World Air Speed Record for over a year. It continued to be used for flight testing, and was allocated to the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE) in 1958.
A testbed aircraft was required to verify design calculations and wind tunnel results for the Concorde "ogee delta" wing design so one of the aircraft was extensively rebuilt as the BAC 221. On 1 May 1964, the modified aircraft performed its first flight. The FD2 was also used as the basis for Fairey's submissions to the Ministry for advanced all-weather interceptor designs, culminating in the proposed Fairey Delta 3 to meet the F.155 specification; however, the FD3 never got past the drawing-board stage.
Development
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2135983
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairey%20Delta%202
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Fairey Delta 2
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Background
During the late 1940s, Fairey Aviation, a British aircraft manufacturer, had become interested in delta wing technology and proceeded to submit multiple submissions based on the delta wing concept to the Ministry of Supply. The Ministry, being interested in these proposals, issued orders for models to test the envisioned delta wing, the first of which being built in 1947; testing was performed by the Royal Aircraft Establishment (RAE). The program was succeeded multiple times, including an investigation into potential VTOL operations, leading to further flight tests of the delta wing models to be conducted in Cardigan Bay, Wales and Woomera, Australia. In 1947, Air Ministry Specification E.10/47 was issued for a full-scale piloted delta wing aircraft, resulting in the Fairey Delta 1, which conducted its maiden flight at RAF Boscombe Down on 12 March 1951.
Meanwhile, throughout the early and mid 1950s, the Royal Air Force (RAF) had developed an intense desire to advance the performance of their aircraft; in particular, the service sought new fighter aircraft that would be capable of routinely flying at very high speeds and high altitudes as a long-term replacement for its existing inventory of roughly 700 first-generation jet fighters. At the time, there was a perception that Britain was trailing behind in supersonic aircraft design, and there was pressure to correct this. Events such as the Korean War and rapid advances in the fields of supersonic aerodynamics, structures and aero engines by the British aircraft industry had the effect of increasing demand and the potential capabilities of new fighters. In addition to developing improved versions of existing and emerging fighters such as the Hawker Hunter and Gloster Javelin, there was an appetite for even more promising entirely new aircraft.
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2135983
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairey%20Delta%202
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Fairey Delta 2
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In September 1952, technical drawings of the Fairey Delta 2 were issued and the development proper commenced. From the project's beginning, Fairey designed the parameters of the FD2 to intentionally exceed that which was necessary only to achieving Mach 1. In addition to seeking very high performance, the design adopted a general configuration and structure that would be readily adapted to future military requirements, so that it could potentially become a fighter aircraft. In total, a pair of flight-capable aircraft were produced: Serial numbers WG774 and WG777. WG777, the second to be manufactured, was very similar to WG774 except the underwing flap system was not incorporated. There were also a few differences in terms of equipment and instrumentation. In addition to the two flying aircraft, a single static test airframe was also completed.
Flight testing
On 6 October 1954, WG774, the first FD2 to be completed, conducted its maiden flight, flown by Fairey test pilot Peter Twiss. According to aviation author Derek Wood, the Delta 2 "proved to be an exceptional aeroplane from the outset". On 17 November 1954, WG774 suffered an engine flameout on its 14th flight when internal pressure build-up collapsed the fuselage collector tank, closing off the fuel supply to the engine, while heading away from the airfield at 30,000 ft (9,100 m), 30 mi (50 km) after taking off from RAF Boscombe Down. Twiss managed to glide to a dead-stick landing at high speed on the airfield. Only the nose gear had deployed, and the aircraft sustained damage that put it out of action for eight months. Twiss, who was shaken up by the experience but otherwise uninjured, received the Queen's Commendation for Valuable Service in the Air. One result of the crash was a temporary halt on the test programme, which did not resume until August 1955.
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2135983
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairey%20Delta%202
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Fairey Delta 2
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In addition to the Gyron engine of earlier proposals, the proposed fighter was to be equipped with a pair of de Havilland Spectre rocket engines that were mounted in fairings on the rear fuselage. The high-test peroxide (HTP) fuel for the rocket engines was stored in tanks held in underwing fairings and within the wing's leading edge, separate from the turbojet engine's fuel storage. It featured a two-man crew, a pilot and radar operator/navigation, seated in a side-by-side configuration. The fuselage was area ruled while large rectangular variable air intakes were adopted. As specified, the fighter was tentatively armed with wingtip-mounted de Havilland Red Top air-to-air missiles. Further design revisions saw the single Gyron engine being replaced by a pair of RB.122 engines instead and the adoption of the Red Dean missile, alongside refinements such as intake improvements and increased internal fuel capacity. Fairey stated that the aircraft was suited to interceptor duties at various altitudes, strike and aerial reconnaissance missions were also mooted.
On 1 April 1957, Fairey were informed by officials within the Ministry of Supply that their proposals were the favourite to meet Operational Requirement F.155. However, on 4 April 1957, Duncan Sandys, the Minister of Defence, announced the effective termination of nearly all fighter aircraft development for the RAF, instantly removing the F.155 requirement.
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2135983
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairey%20Delta%202
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Fairey Delta 2
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Low-speed testing of the concept was already being provided by the Handley Page HP.115. Although high-speed performance appeared to be predictable, a dedicated testbed aircraft was desired, especially for drag measurements. As early as 1958, the RAE and Fairey began discussions about converting one of the Delta 2 prototypes to support the ogee wing. Fairey proposed stretching the fuselage a further three feet to better match the long planform, with the wing extending out onto the drooping nose. However, calculations showed that this extension was not great enough to counter the forward moving centre of pressure (CoP) that resulted from the extended planform, and there were also concerns that the over-wing engine intakes would swallow the vortex above the wing.
During 1960, further development activity was disrupted by the purchase of Fairey by Westland Aircraft, who assigned further work on the conversion project to Hunting Aircraft. Accordingly, in July 1960, the programme moved to Bristol and was now a part of the larger British Aircraft Corporation (BAC). Bristol suggested two ways forward, a minimal conversion with a sub-optimal wing but no other major changes, or a "maximal" conversion with a larger six foot extension to the fuselage and a much taller landing gear more typical of the type expected on the Concorde. Both would also be equipped with a new Elliott Brothers stabilization system, and have the engine intakes moved under the wing. The minimal conversion was considered to be more of a 'compromise', being less slender and lacking the additional fuel capacity that the maximal option provided for.
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2135993
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leshan
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Leshan
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Leshan, formerly known as Jiading and Jiazhou, is a prefecture-level city located at the confluence of the Dadu and Min rivers, on the southwestern fringe of the Sichuan Basin in southern Sichuan, about from the provincial capital of Chengdu. As of the 2020 census, its population was 3,160,168, of whom 1,236,188 lived in the built-up metro area made of Shizhong (downtown), Wutongqiao, Shawan and Jinkouhe districts. A historical and cultural city, Leshan is famous for world heritage sites Emei Mountain and Leshan Buddha. It is also a regional center in the southern part of the Chengdu Economic Zone, serving as a transportation hub and port city in southwestern China.
History
Leshan has a long history, with written records tracing back to around 700 BC during the Kai Ming dynasty of the Shu Kingdom. Around the early Spring and Autumn period, the Ba people, led by Kai Ming Bie Ling, migrated from western Hubei and settled at the confluence of the three rivers in what is now Leshan, including present-day Fengzhouba and the Dadu River. They established a tribal center. From the Qin and Han dynasties through to the Wei and Jin dynasties, the central government set up Nan'an County, laying the foundation for the present-day Leshan region.
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2135993
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leshan
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Leshan
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After the Sui unification of China, Leshan was part of Meishan Prefecture (jun). In the third year of the Kaihuang reign (583 AD) of the Sui dynasty, the prefecture system was changed to a two-tier system of state (zhou) and counties. During the Tang dynasty's Zhenguan reign, Leshan became part of Jiazhou. In the Northern Song's Chongning reign, Leshan belonged to Jiading Prefecture, which administered five counties. During the reign of Emperor Ningzong of the Southern Song, Jiazhou was elevated to a prefecture and renamed Jiading Prefecture, marking the first use of the name "Jiading." During the Song and Yuan dynasties, Leshan's status rose from a prefecture to a province (lu), becoming the third-largest city in Sichuan, after Chengdu and Chongqing. In the twelfth year of Emperor Yongzheng's reign (1734 AD) of the Qing dynasty, Jiading Prefecture was established again.
In the early years of the Republic of China, from 1912 to 1917, Leshan was restructured into a county under the jurisdiction of the Sichuan Provincial Governor's Office. After Yuan Shikai's death, Sichuan broke away from central authority; by 1918, Xiong Kewu took control of Sichuan, implementing the "Defense Zone System," which decentralized military, political, financial, and tax powers to local garrisons, leading to warlordism and prolonged unrest in the region for 18 years. During this time, Leshan was successively controlled by Chen Hongfan, Liu Wenhui, and Liu Xiang, with local officials appointed by the stationed troops.
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2135999
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pauline%20Betz
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Pauline Betz
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Pauline Betz Addie (née Pauline May Betz, August 6, 1919 – May 31, 2011) was an American professional tennis player. She won five Grand Slam singles titles and was the runner-up on three other occasions. Jack Kramer called her the second best female tennis player he ever saw, behind Helen Wills Moody.
Early life
Betz attended Los Angeles High School and learned her tennis from Dick Skeen. She continued her tennis and education at Rollins College (graduating in 1943), where she was a member of Kappa Alpha Theta sorority. Betz earned an MA in economics from Columbia University.
Career
Amateur
Betz won the Eastern Clay Court Championships in 1941 and also won the Eastern Grass Court Championships that same year with a close win in the final against Sarah Palfrey Cooke. She won the Dixie International Championships three times (1940–1942).
Betz won the first of her four singles titles at the U.S. Championships in 1942, saving a match point in the semifinals against Margaret Osborne while trailing 3–5 in the final set. She defeated Louise Brough in a close final in both 1942 and 1943.
In 1943, she won the Tri-State tournament in Cincinnati, Ohio, defeating Catherine Wolf in the final without losing a point in the first set, a "golden set". In 1944 she won the final of the U.S. Championships against Margaret Osborne duPont.
She won the Wimbledon singles title in 1946, defeating Louise Brough in the final, the only time she entered the tournament, without losing a set. At the 1946 French Championships, held that year after Wimbledon, she lost the final in three sets to Margaret Osborne after failing to convert two match points. At the U.S. Championships in 1946, she defeated Patricia Canning Todd in the semifinal and Doris Hart in the final.
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2136003
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emblem%20of%20Tajikistan
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Emblem of Tajikistan
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The State Emblem of Tajikistan is a modified version of the original emblem of the Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic that was in use until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991.
History
Prior to the Russian Revolution, the territory of Turkestan, of which Tajikistan was part, used the device of a black unicorn on a golden shield, blazoned or, a unicorn passant sable. However, Tajikistan itself had no symbol.
Until 1992, Tajikistan had an emblem similar to all other Soviet Republics.
The first emblem of independent Tajikistan from 1992–1993 was the Lion and Sun symbol, which was a historic symbol of Persia, to which Tajikistan has cultural ties. It was changed to the current version by the government of Emomali Rahmon, which came to power at the end of 1992. Like other post-Soviet republics whose symbols do not predate the October Revolution, the current emblem retains some components of the Soviet one.
Description
The crown at the center of the emblem is the same as the Tajik national flag, and refers to the Persian word taj, meaning crown, from which the name of the Tajik people is said to be derived, according to one interpretation. The base of the emblem contains a representation of a book and the Pamir Mountains. The emblem is flanked by cotton on one side and wheat on the other, as well a banner of the national red-white-green colors of Tajikistan is wrapped around the cotton and wheat replacing the red color containing the motto of the Soviet Union "Workers of the world, unite!" written in the Russian and Tajik languages.
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2136008
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinkenba%2C%20Queensland
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Pinkenba, Queensland
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Pinkenba ( ) is a town and eastern coastal suburb within the City of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. In the , Pinkenba had a population of 350 people.
Geography
Pinkenba is a long narrow strip of land on the northern side of the Brisbane River, facing Moreton Bay, from the Brisbane central business district. The area is spatially isolated from other residential suburbs and is bounded by the Brisbane Airport to west, Moreton Bay to the north, and the Brisbane River to the east.
The neighbourhood of Myrtletown is at the northern end of the suburb of Pinkenba ().
The neighbourhood of Bulwer Island is in the centre of the suburb ().
The former suburb of Meeandah, now a neighbourhood, is located () at the southern end of the suburb of Pinkenba.
Pinkenba has the following headlands:
Juno Point on Moreton Bay ()
Luggage Point (also known as Uniacke Point) at the mouth of the Brisbane River ()
The land use is mostly industrial except for a small residential area at the town centre.
History
Pinkenba is situated in the Yugarabul traditional Aboriginal country. The Turrbal people are custodians within the Yugurabul traditional country. The name Pinkenba comes from the Turrbal word , which means "place of land tortoise".
The former suburb of Meeandah took its name from the now disused Meeandah railway station on the Pinkenba railway line, which in turn was named after a corruption of the Greek word meander, and referred to Serpentine Creek which flowed through the area, but has subsequently been converted into a drain due to the development of Brisbane Airport. The name is often thought to be an Aboriginal word.
Bulwer Island was named after Lord Edward Bulwer-Lytton who, as the British Secretary of State for the Colonies, separated Queensland from New South Wales in 1859. As the name suggests, it was originally an island in the Brisbane River which became permanently attached to the mainland through a land reclamation project in the 1960s.
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2136008
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinkenba%2C%20Queensland
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Pinkenba, Queensland
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On 6 March 1963, Queen Elizabeth II unveiled a roadside memorial at 315 Tingara Street (corner of Kirra Street, ). It commemorates the discovery of commercial quantities of oil in Australia at Moonie. The location was chosen because it was close to the site of the oil refinery which was to be built to process the oil. However, at the time of the queen's visit, The Canberra Times described the site as "desolate" and "a smelly, muddy, mosquito-infested swamp", but the site was planted with high palm trees and flower beds and the area sprayed with insecticide in advance of her visit (which are no longer extant). The memorial was designed sculptor Rod Shaw of Narrabeen, Sydney. The bas relief monement reflects the cooperation between the United States and Australia in the search for oil though the imagery of oil workers handling a drill bit with flags of the two countries in the background. Although significant oil deposits had been found at Moonie, the pipeline to Brisbane was not completed until the following year.
Bulwer Island Oil Refinery commenced with a major land reclamation project on Bulwer Island in the Brisbane River, which was then a tidal mangrove swamp. Over of material was dredged from the bed of Brisbane River to connect the island with the northern bank of the river and to create a site () raised to above the high tide level. During its operation, it was the largest oil refinery in Queensland. It was decommissioned in 2015 and now operates as an import terminal.
In 1975, Myrtletown (then an independent suburb) was downgraded to a neighbourhood within Pinkenba. Myrtletown was historically known as a residential and farming locality, though maritime and industrial facilities have developed in recent decades.
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2136021
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh%20McAteer
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Hugh McAteer
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Hugh McAteer (; 13 August 1916 – 24 June 1970) was a volunteer in, and leader of, the Irish Republican Army (IRA) during their Northern Campaign, and later in 1950 and 1964 unsuccessfully contested for a seat in the British Parliament.
Biography
Hugh McAteer's family came from northern Donegal, they suffered greatly during the Great Famine (Ireland). During the famine, McAteer's grandfather was the only survivor among six children. As a young boy McAteer joined Fianna Éireann, an Irish nationalist youth organization. He remembered that in 1928 his group was meeting in a field when the police surrounded the field and fired shots over the heads of the boys. At age 15 McAteer joined the Gaelic League and at age 16 the IRA . By 1935, Hugh McAteer was the Officer Commanding of the IRA's Derry Battalion. In July 1936 five members of the McAteer family were arrested in Derry on weapons and explosive charges. In order to save his family members from prosecution Hugh took full responsibility for all charges. He was tried and sentenced to 7 years imprisonment. While in jail he studied the Irish language and guerilla warfare techniques. He was released in 1941.
A bookkeeper by profession, McAteer was from Derry. He served as IRA Chief of Staff (COS) from 19 July until 12 October 1942. With his appointment as COS the leadership of the IRA shifted from being Dublin based to leaders from the north of Ireland: McAteer, Seán McCaughey, Pearse Kelly and Eoin McNamee. In late 1942 McAtee was captured by the Royal Ulster Constabulary. He was sentenced to 15 years imprisonment on the charge of treason. On 15 January 1943 (along with three senior IRA men Patrick Donnelly, Ned Maguire and Jimmy Steele), he escaped over the wall from Crumlin Road Gaol, Belfast. A reward of 3,000 pounds was announced for the capture of any or all of the four escapees (Maguire and Donnelly were never recaptured).
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2136021
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh%20McAteer
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Hugh McAteer
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On Easter Saturday, 24 April 1943, he participated in the Broadway Cinema operation on the Falls Road, Belfast when armed IRA men took over the cinema, stopped the film, and went on stage and read a statement from the IRA Army Council and the Proclamation of the 1916 Easter Rising. The statement denounced the British military presence in Northern Ireland as an "invasion of our rights" and warned that they will be targeted in "a resumption of hostilities between the Irish Republic and Great Britain".
McAteer was subsequently rearrested on 21 November 1943, returned to Crumlin Road Gaol and participated in the ongoing hunger strike there. With the loss of McAteer and increased pressure from the police, the Belfast IRA was no longer a significant fighting force. Rearrested in July 1945 for recruiting for the IRA, he was released in 1950 along with other IRA prisoners.
In 1950, McAteer ran as a Sinn Féin candidate for the Londonderry constituency in the British general election on an independent republican abstentionist ticket. He polled 21,880 votes or 37.41%. (Other Republican candidates included Jimmy Steele (for West Belfast) and Liam Burke (for Mid Ulster). The three candidates polled 23,362 votes together but were not elected. He also contested the 1964 British general election for the same constituency and on the same ticket, polling 21,123 votes (35.91%). He ran for office again in 1964 for the same constituency, this time polling 36% of the vote.
Family
McAteer was the third son of Hugh McAteer, a labourer, and Bridget Doherty. He was a brother of Eddie McAteer, leader of the Nationalist Party and Stormont MP.
Hugh McAteer's son, Aidan, was a personal assistant to Gerry Adams and onetime staff officer of the IRA's Belfast Brigade.
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2136028
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinkenba%20railway%20station
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Pinkenba railway station
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Pinkenba railway station was a railway station on the Pinkenba railway line in the suburb of Pinkenba, City of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. It was originally the terminus station of the Pinkenba Line, just from the Brisbane central business district and from Central station by rail. It opened in 1897 and was rebuilt in 1969, with a new station closer to the township of Pinkenba. The first station became a shunters' quarters. The line closed to all passenger traffic in 1993.
History
The Pinkenba line opened 1 April 1897. During World War I (1914 to 1918) and World War II (1939 to 1945), troop camps were located at Pinkenba and Meeandah because of deep berthing available to ships at Pinkenba, at the mouth of the Brisbane River. Passenger ships of the Orient Steam Navigation Company, later P&O, used the adjacent Pinkenba Wharf, and special trains ran from Brisbane to Pinkenba.
On 29 August 1906, a contract was let for refreshment rooms to be constructed at Pinkenba station, at a cost of £318. They operated until the new Pinkenba station opened in 1969.
In 1988, part of the line was electrified, but only as far as Eagle Farm station. Diesel-hauled trains operated an infrequent passenger services to Pinkenba. On 27 September 1993, all passenger services on the line were suspended by the Goss Labor government as part of a statewide rationalisation of the rail network, which involved the closing or suspension of services of under-utilised or unprofitable rail lines.
Current status
In 2005, the 1969 Pinkenba station area became a rubbish recycling site, with large amounts of dirt dumped over the terminus siding. The 1969 station building remained until 2016, although badly damaged and used as a dumping ground, and the track that connected the station to the Pinkenba Line was removed. By 2017, the building had been demolished. Queensland Rail still owns the land.
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2136033
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highgate%20School
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Highgate School
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Highgate School, formally Sir Roger Cholmeley's School at Highgate, is a co-educational, fee-charging, private day school, founded in 1565 in Highgate, London, England. It educates over 1,400 pupils in three sections – Highgate Pre-Preparatory School (ages 4–8), Highgate junior school (ages 8–11) and the senior school (11+) – which together comprise the Highgate Foundation. As part of its wider work the charity was from 2010 a founding partner of the London Academy of Excellence and it is now also the principal education sponsor of an associated Academy, the London Academy of Excellence Tottenham, which opened in September 2017. The principal business sponsor is Tottenham Hotspur FC. The charity also funds the Chrysalis Partnership, a scheme supporting 26 state schools in six London boroughs.
Administration
The foundation is governed in accordance with a Charity Commission Scheme dated 1 September 2005 (and amended in 2014). Its governing body consists of 16 members; four are nominated (one each by the universities of Oxford and London, by the Bishop of London, and by the Lord Chief Justice), and the rest are co-opted. The Visitor is Queen Elizabeth II. The head is assisted by principals of the pre-prep and junior schools, by deputy heads and a bursar, in managing the foundation. The school is a member of HMC and IAPS and is one of the twelve schools of the Eton Group.
History
Cholmeley, a former Chief Justice and local landowner, decided to found a charitable school "for the good education and instruction of boys and young men" in Highgate and the local parishes. On 27 April 1565 he was granted by Edmund Grindal, the Bishop of London, some land on the site of the old gatehouse to the Bishop's Park and Hermit's Chapel (opposite the Gatehouse Inn, which still exists). A new chapel and buildings for the school and the local curate, who was expected to be the teacher, were built. The chapel also served as a chapel of ease for Highgate residents.
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2136033
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highgate%20School
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Highgate School
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However, by the early nineteenth century a dispute arose because the charity was spending more money, and the curate more time, on the local chapel than on the pupils. A House of Commons commission visited in 1819 and found the master, Samuel Mence, was paying a sexton to teach the boys. In a long and bitter action brought in the High Court against the trustees, it was contended that this was contrary to its founding charitable deed. Lord Chancellor Eldon, in his 1827 judgment, agreed, finding "the charity is for the sustenance and maintenance of a free Grammar school". The trustees were forced to comply and a separate local church for Highgate, St Michael's, was built in South Grove after a successful local appeal. Mence struggled on at the school until 1838 when there were only 19 pupils.
An expansion of the school occurred under the next headmaster John Bradley Dyne (Fellow of Wadham College, Oxford) between 1838 and 1874. Under Dyne, by the 1870s the school had largely dropped free provision for local parish boys and alongside the day places boarding was encouraged for boys from the upper and upper middle classes; fees were introduced and academic standards improved. In the period up to this time the school was known commonly as the Free Grammar School at Highgate, the Highgate Grammar School, or the Cholmeley School. Like other public schools, Highgate followed Arnold at Rugby School in introducing the house system. Also, like other public schools, Dyne flogged the pupils with a birch rod.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highgate%20School
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Highgate School
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In the 1860s, land was acquired in Bishopswood Road, which provided extensive sports fields and on which several boarding houses and private residences were built. During this period the current chapel and main buildings were erected, designed by Reginald Blomfield (who had also designed Lady Margaret Hall, Oxford). A fragment of the older school building, a gateway with a rusted bell mechanism above between the porter's lodge and the main school building, remained intact until 2006 when the bell was refurbished and the old entrance itself rebuilt in a more modern style. The senior school continues to occupy today the island site in Highgate Village on which it was founded.
When J. A. H. Johnston was appointed as headmaster in 1908, he found a school with a strong focus on a classical education. He created fifth and sixth forms for science, in which the main subjects were chemistry, physics, biology, and astronomy. In 1928 came the opening of a new Science Building by Sir Samuel Hoare, Secretary of State for Air, and Johnston then introduced aeronautics as a school subject, acquiring a Sopwith Snipe and an Avro 504K biplane.
The poet Samuel Taylor Coleridge was originally buried in the school chapel. In 1961 there was a ceremonial disinterring of Coleridge at which the then Poet Laureate John Masefield spoke, and the remains were reburied at St Michael's parish church just a few hundred yards away.
Until recently the school had two blocks of Eton Fives courts, one structure with ten courts (of which six were built in 1899 and a further four added c.1913); a second block of eight courts constructed in the 1920s was removed in 2014.
Boarding and weekly boarding at Highgate declined in the years up to the early 1990s when the last boarders left. In 1993 one of the former houses was converted to create the coeducational pre-preparatory school.
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2136051
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alf%20Padgham
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Alf Padgham
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Alfred Harry Padgham (2 July 1906 – 4 March 1966) was one of the leading British professional golfers of the 1930s and 1940s. He won the 1936 Open Championship at Royal Liverpool Golf Club in Hoylake, Merseyside, England and played for Great Britain in the Ryder Cup in 1933, 1935 and 1937. He was captain of the Professional Golfers Association in 1936.
Early life
Padgham was born in Caterham, Surrey. His family had close ties to Royal Ashdown Forest Golf Club in Sussex, where he served his apprenticeship under head professional Jack Rowe.
Career
As a tournament player, he came into prominence in 1931 when he won the News of the World Match Play at Royal Mid-Surrey Golf Club, beating Mark Seymour in the final and receiving £300 in prize money.
On 20 May 1933, Padgham took part in an exhibition match against Percy Alliss, as the main event at the opening of the reconstructed West course at Sundridge Park Golf Club, in the south east suburbs of London, near Sevenoaks in Kent. Members of the management committee at the Sundridge Park were impressed with Padgham's skill, so he was approached and he agreed to become the club professional, on a five-year contract, working as senior partner with present club pro Jack Randall, working in tandem. Padgham's many successes in tournament golf in the years to come, beside his work at the club, were of great delight of the club.
He will be remembered most for his remarkable sequence of five victories between the autumn of 1935 and the summer of 1936. They included the News of the World Match Play for the second time, beating Percy Alliss in the final, and The Open Championship. He also captured the championships of Ireland, Germany and Holland.
| 1.9375
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2136055
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaji%20I
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Yaji I
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Ali Dan Tsamiya () known as Yaji I or Ali Yaji Dan Tsamiya () was a king and later the first Sultan of Kano, a state in what is now Northern Nigeria. Yaji I ruled from 1349 to 1385 CE. A prominent figure in the state's history, Yaji used a religious revolution to finally solidify his family's grasp on Kano and its sub-kingdoms after centuries of strife. He was also responsible for the absorption of Rano into Kano.
Since the arrival of the first king of Kano, Bagauda in 999, there had been tension between the newly established aristocracy and the indigenous pagans of Kano. All subsequent Kano Kings engaged in feuds with the pagan population but were unable to gain mastery over them. In 1350, Yaji aided by Soninke Wangara scholars from Mali, relinquished the Hausa Animist Cult of Tsumbubura, and proclaimed Kano a Sultanate.
He violently crushed a subsequent rebellion by the animist cult at the Battle of Santolo, waging in the processes the first Islamic Jihad in Sudanic Africa. He conquered the Kwararafa and the numerous Hausa kingdoms around Kano laying the seeds for Kanoan dominance in the Bilad as-Sudan. He died in 1385 having laid the seeds for an eventual Kanoan Empire.
Early life
Ali Yaji was born to the unfortunate 9th King of Kano, Tsamiya and his consort Maganarku. His bad temper as a child earned him the epithet "Yaji", which is known today as a Hausa spice mix.
King of Kano
He became the 11th king of Kano in 1343, succeeding his uncle, Usman Zamnagawa who deposed and murdered his father. Yaji immediately engaged in multiple conquests in Zamna Gaba, Rano and Bunu, reigning at Bunu for two years before proceeding to Kur where he decided to remain. The Chronicle mentions that Yaji expelled the King of Rano from Zamna Gaba, presumably signaling Kano's suzerainty of the Hausa State of Rano.
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2136142
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luther%20Head
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Luther Head
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Junior year
The junior year was marked by many changes. Head coach Bill Self left Illinois to take the vacant job at Kansas and Southern Illinois head coach Bruce Weber took over as coach of the Illini. Weber made Head a full-time starter which resulted in a significant increase in playing time. Head ranked fourth on the team (24th in the Big Ten) in scoring with 11.0 points per game. He scored at least nine points in 20 of 29 games, including double figures in 14 games. He erupted for a career-high 29 points on 9-of-14 shooting with four 3-pointers in a Big Ten Tournament quarterfinal victory over Indiana. He then scored 19 points and handed out eight assists in Big Ten-clinching win at Purdue. That game saw Head make a dramatic game-winning play when he threw a half-court pass to Roger Powell and followed Powell's blocked shot by putting in a rebound basket with nine-tenths of a second remaining. Head then recorded his first double-double with 16 points and a then career-high 10 rebounds in win at Iowa. Head showed the ability to rebound as he led the Illini in rebounding with eight in win over Northwestern. He led all scorers with 18 points in a win over Michigan hitting five-of-eight 3-pointers. Head again led all scorers with 17 points, making five 3-pointers, in win over Michigan State. In the NCAA tournament, Head averaged 7.0 assists and 5.5 rebounds in Illinois' two victories. He would finish third on the team in assists on the season (75). To prove how valuable Head was to the team, the Illini were 21–3 with him in the starting line-up.
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2136143
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvador%20Laurel
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Salvador Laurel
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Christmas 1945 was the bleakest one for the Laurel family; their Peñafrancia home was looted and emptied of its furniture, while the former president was placed in solitary confinement in Sugamo Prison in Japan. Salvador gifted his father a book entitled The World in 2030 A.D. by the Earl of Birkenhead. Lacked in writing instruments, he used that book to write his Memoirs. He also wrote the poem To My Beloved Father to lift up his father's spirits, and sent it to him as a Christmas present.
At La Salle, he joined a group of young men who planned to go by sea to the Dutch East Indies (Indonesia since 1949) and join Sukarno in the struggle for independence from the Dutch Empire, but local authorities stopped them at the pier. He completed his secondary education at La Salle in March 1946.
His father, Jose P. Laurel, and brother, Jose III, would finally return to the Philippines on July 23, 1946.
Although all his older brothers were lawyers, he enrolled at the University of the Philippines as a pre-medicine student, where he obtained his AA (pre-medicine) and was admitted to medicine proper, shifting to law two years later. He was admitted to the law school while working to complete his (AA Pre-Law). He received his LLB (Bachelor of Laws) degree in UP in March 1952. He was a member of the Student Editorial Board of the Philippine Law Journal.
He was acclaimed the University Champion Orator after he won the first prize in three consecutive inter-university oratorical contests: the 1949 Inter-University Oratorical contest sponsored by the Civil Liberties Union, the Student Councils Association of the Philippines, and the Inter-University Symposium on the Japanese Peace Treaty in 1951.
Without waiting for the bar examination results, he left for Connecticut to study at Yale University, his father's alma mater, where he earned his Master of Laws degree in 1952. He earned the title Doctor of Juridical Science at Yale University in 1960.
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2136143
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvador%20Laurel
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Salvador Laurel
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Of his studies and scholastic endeavors at Yale University, Myres S. McDougal, a Sterling Professor of Law, Emeritus of the Yale Law School, wrote:
Personal life
Laurel later married Celia Díaz (May 29, 1928 - July 12, 2021) in 1950, a society debutante. He was the grandfather of actress Denise Laurel. He had a daughter who is also an actress, Pia Pilapil, to a veteran actress Pilar Pilapil.
Legal career
In Manila, Laurel joined his brothers at the Laurel Law Offices in Intramuros, where he began his career as a barrister with a strong commitment to legal aid. Troubled by the discovery that 94% of cases filed by indigent individuals in the fiscal office were dismissed due to lack of counsel, he founded the Citizen's Legal Aid Society of the Philippines (CLASP) in 1967. Laurel actively campaigned nationwide, rallying lawyers to join his mission to provide justice for people experiencing poverty. By the end of its first year, CLASP had enlisted 750 lawyers.
For his advocacy and dedication as the "Defender of the Defenseless," Laurel was recognized as "Lawyer of the Year 1967" by the Justice and Court Reporters Association (JUCRA). In 1976, his efforts gained international acclaim when the International Bar Association awarded him the "Most Outstanding Legal Aid Lawyer of the World" in Stockholm. Reflecting on the honor, Laurel recalled his surprise and pride at being recognized for his work with CLASP, advocacy for justice-of-the-poor laws, and steadfast commitment to human rights during the martial law era.
In addition to his legal practice, Laurel was a distinguished legal scholar and professor at Lyceum University. He edited the Proceedings of the Philippine Constitutional Convention (1934–1935), meticulously reproducing records kept by his father, Dr. José P. Laurel, a delegate to the Convention. This monumental work, spanning seven volumes, was published in 1966.
Political career
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turvey%2C%20Bedfordshire
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Turvey, Bedfordshire
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Turvey is a village and civil parish on the River Great Ouse in the Borough of Bedford, Bedfordshire, England, about west of Bedford town centre. The village is on the A428 road between Bedford and Northampton, close to the border with Buckinghamshire. The 2011 Census recorded the parish's population as 1,225.
History
Turvey is recorded in Domesday Book of 1086 as a parish in the Hundred of Willey. There are eight separate entries for Turvey, including a total of 44 households. The Mordaunt family obtained the manor by marriage in 1197 and were ennobled as Barons of Turvey in the 16th century. The Mordaunt family house, Turvey Old Hall, was replaced by Turvey House in 1792, by which time the estate had passed to the Higgins family. It was extended in the 19th century and still stands. There is a second large house in the village called Turvey Abbey, which was historically a family house, but is now a Benedictine monastery.
The Church of England parish church of All Saints has Saxon origins but is almost certainly a post-Norman building. It is the largest church in the deanery of Sharnbrook and was in the Diocese of Lincoln until it was transferred to the Diocese of Ely in 1837. Since 1914 it has been in the Diocese of St Albans. It has a 13th-century door with its original ironwork, a Norman baptismal font, a wall painting of the crucifixion and some notable monuments, including monumental brasses. The Norman church was enlarged in the 14th and 15th centuries; sumptuous improvements were made by Sir Gilbert Scott.
Turvey has a strong history of lace-making: there is evidence of a 19th-century lace-making school.
In the 19th century the Bedford to Northampton Line of the Midland Railway was built through the parish and opened in 1872. There was a Turvey railway station in Station Road about east of the centre of the village. British Railways closed the line in 1962.
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2136176
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryan%20Pearce
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Bryan Pearce
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Artistic career
Pearce specialised in paintings of his home town, and the surrounding Penwith area, drawn in typically flat style, with areas of bright colour surrounded by heavy outlines, like stained glass. His learning disabilities gave his art, in the words of Peter Lanyon, an "awareness more direct" than pure observation.
Guided by Denis Mitchell, he joined the Penwith Society of Arts in 1957, and the Newlyn Society of Artists. He had his first solo exhibition at the Newlyn Gallery near Penzance in 1959, and his first solo exhibition in London at the St Martin's Gallery in 1962. Retrospectives were held at various venues from 1966 to 2004, particularly at Penwith Gallery in 1966, the Museum of Modern Art in Oxford in 1975, the Royal Cornwall Museum in Truro in 2000, and the Victoria Art Gallery in Bath in 2004. Examples of his work are held by many public galleries. His business affairs were dealt with first by his family and ultimately by trustees, enabling him to concentrate on his art. In the second half of his career a good deal of his work was produced and sold in the form of prints in relatively small signed, numbered editions. Some of these were small hand-made etchings, with which the artist had a 'hands on' creative involvement; others were full size screenprints made by printer-craftsmen 'after' works in other media. The latter certainly render just over twenty of Pearce's original images, with their pure, expansive areas of specific colours, extremely convincingly. Two of the earliest screenprints, 'St Ives All Round' and 'Newlyn All Round' (both 1976) were printed in black line only. A number of one-colour lithographs also exist.
Death
Pearce died peacefully at home in St Ives on 11 January 2007. His funeral was held at St Ives Parish Church on 22 January 2007. An exhibition was held at the Tate Gallery, St Ives from 3 February - 13 May 2007. It had been planned in retrospective to his death but became a memorial show.
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2136177
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeleton%20Canyon%20treasure
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Skeleton Canyon treasure
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The Skeleton Canyon treasure is said to be located in the Peloncillo Mountains within Skeleton Canyon. The canyon straddles the modern Arizona and New Mexico state line border and connects the Animas Valley of New Mexico, (the New Mexico Bootheel region), with the San Simon Valley of Arizona. The treasure was allegedly stolen by a Mexican gang in Monterrey, Mexico and buried in southeastern Arizona's Skeleton Canyon in the summer or fall of 1881.
According to extant stories, a Mexican gang led by Jose Estrada had sacked several banks and cathedrals in Monterrey, taking a large amount of gold and silver bullion, gold statuary, and diamonds. Some stories indicate the items taken include 39 gold bars and a cigarbox full of diamonds. This gang then made their way northwest, towards Arizona, where they were ambushed by American outlaws in the Peloncillo Mountains as they made their way through Skeleton Canyon towards the Animas Valley of New Mexico. Having killed off the Mexican outlaws, the American outlaws supposedly buried the treasure there, and made their way out of the canyon, only to die off one by one in a series of later double-crosses. The treasure remains unrecovered.
In treasure hunting there are always true stories, false ones, and those built up from minor events. Skeleton Canyon is of the latter. Between the late 1870s and early 1880s the Clanton Gang operated in that part of Arizona. Their modus operandi was to rustle cattle and sell the stock to the mining towns which sprang up during that time. Their victims included Mexicans, some of whom were involved in legitimate cattle drives, as well as those engaged in the illegal smuggling of various goods. The canyons along the western side of the Pelloncillos were favored as ambush sites, and it is documented that at least four such ambush/robberies took place. On 13 August 1881, in retaliation for one such ambush, Neuman Haynes Clanton was gunned down in the Guadalupe Canyon Massacre.
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2136192
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social%20Action
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Social Action
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Social Action (, AS), previously known as Freedom of Action (Libertà di Azione, LdA), was a national-conservative political party in Italy, founded and led by politician Alessandra Mussolini, who is the granddaughter of Benito Mussolini. The party became a faction within Silvio Berlusconi's People of Freedom party.
History
Mussolini, who had been a member of the National Alliance (AN) since its foundation, suddenly left that party on 28 November 2003, following the visit of party leader and the Deputy Prime Minister Gianfranco Fini to Israel, where he described fascism as "the absolute evil" as he apologised for Italy's role as an Axis Power during the Second World War. Mussolini however defended the right of Israel to exist and declared that the world "should beg forgiveness of Israel".
Mussolini then formed her party and organized a far-right coalition named Social Alternative. That was a surprising move, as Mussolini, during her political career, had always taken social progressive stances on many issues, including abortion, artificial insemination, gay rights and civil unions. She has been an outspoken "feminist". and has been described by conservative commentators as a "socialist" and a "left-winger"
The Social Alternative coalition was disbanded after the 2006 general election and by 2007 the party was almost disbanded as most of its original members returned to the National Alliance. Mussolini herself re-approached with Fini and was preparing her re-entry in AN when Silvio Berlusconi launched The People of Freedom (PdL). Mussolini decided to merge what remained of Social Action into the new party and was elected in the 2008 general election as part of the PdL. In October 2012, the balance of accounts of the People of Freedom showed that Social Action had received €100,000 of financial support from the PdL.
Within the PdL Mussolini soon became the leader of the "pro-immigrant" wing of the party, often opposing some of the policies of the Berlusconi government or taking an independent line from it.
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2136267
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack%20Hildyard
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Jack Hildyard
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Denis John “Jack” Hildyard (17 March 1908, London – 5 September 1990, London) was a British cinematographer who worked on more than 80 films during his career.
Career
He made several films with David Lean including The Sound Barrier (1952) and Hobson's Choice (1954), as well as The Bridge on the River Kwai (1957), for which he won an Academy Award for Best Cinematography and the British Society of Cinematographers Award.
His first film was Freedom of the Seas in 1934, as a focus puller, before working as camera operator on films for Leslie Howard and others, including Pygmalion, The Divorce of Lady X and Pimpernel Smith. His first film as cinematographer was Laurence Olivier's 1944 film Henry V, which gave him invaluable experience of colour cinematography and his subsequent films made him one of the most sought after cameramen in England.
His other films included Caesar and Cleopatra (1945), Anastasia (1956), The Sundowners (1960), 55 Days at Peking (1963), Battle of the Bulge (1965), Casino Royale (1967), The Beast Must Die (1974), Emily (1976), and The Wild Geese (1978). He photographed both of producer-director Moustapha Akkad's films on Islamic history, The Message (1976) and Lion of the Desert (1981) and in 1983, director Mohamed Shukri Jameel's film, produced by Saddam Hussein, Al-Mas' Ala Al-Kubra, which was nominated for the Golden Prize at the 1983 Moscow International Film Festival.
Awards
He was also nominated for BAFTA Awards for his work on The V.I.P.s (1963), The Yellow Rolls-Royce (1964) and Modesty Blaise (1966).
He was awarded the British Society of Cinematographers Lifetime Achievement Award in 1990.
Personal life
Jack Hildyard was the brother of sound engineer and two times Oscar winner David Hildyard.
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Lingyin Temple
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Lingyin Temple () is a prominent Chan Buddhist temple near Hangzhou that is renowned for its many pagodas and grottos. Its name is commonly and literally translated into English as Temple of the Soul's Retreat.
The monastery is the largest of several temples in the Wulin Mountains (), which feature renowned grottos and religious rock carvings.
History
According to tradition, the monastery was founded in 328 AD during the Eastern Jin dynasty (266–420) by an Indian monk, named Huili in Chinese. From its inception, Lingyin was a famous monastery in the Jiangnan region. At its peak under the Wuyue Kingdom (907–978), the temple boasted 18 pavilions, 72 halls, more than 1300 dormitory rooms, inhabited by more than 3000 monks. Many of the rich Buddhist carvings in the Feilai Feng grottos and surrounding mountains also date from this era.
During the Southern Song (1127–1279), the monastery was regarded as one of the ten most important temples of the Chan sect in the Jiangnan region. However, its prominence has not saved the temple from marauders. It has been rebuilt no less than sixteen times since then. While certain existing buildings date from previous Chinese dynasties, much of the current buildings are modern restorations from the late Qing (1644–1911) period.
During the Cultural Revolution, the temple and grounds suffered damage at the hands of red guards, but the students of Zhejiang University tried to protect the temple. The temple managed to avoid large scale destruction partly because of the instructions of Premier Zhou Enlai.
Today the temple is thriving as a destination for both pilgrims and tourists. It is regarded as one of the wealthiest monasteries in China, and regular pilgrims have included former paramount leader Deng Xiaoping.
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Lingyin Temple
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The stone carvings on Feilai Feng are located in an area measuring 600 meters long and 200 meters wide. In total, there are 153 shrines and more than 470 pieces of carvings, among which 338 are relatively well-preserved, 96 carvings from the Yuan Dynasty as well as several from the Ming Dynasty.
Around 11 carvings date to the late Tang Dynasty and Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. These carvings dot the top of the peak and the mouth of Qinglin Grotto and they all prominently feature the “Three Saints of the West”, which refers to the triad of Amitābha Buddha and the Bodhisattvas Guanyin and Mahasthamaprapta from Pure Land Buddhism.
A total of 222 carvings were produced in the Northern Song Dynasty period, which feature a diverse range of Buddhist figures including the Six Patriarchs of Chan (or Zen) Buddhism, various arhats, Bodhisattvas and Buddhas such as Vairocana. One of the more prominent carvings from this period is a shrine to Budai, a monk who is traditionally regarded as an incarnation of Maitreya, surrounded by the Eighteen Arhats. This shrine stands at 3.6 meters high and 9.9 meters long, making it the largest shrine on Feilai Feng.
Most of the nearly 100 carvings produced during the Yuan Dynasty are located on the southern bank of Lengquan Stream and on the cliff near Qinglin Grotto and Yuru Grotto. The carvings from this period resembles the art styles of the Tang and Song dynasties, while also reflecting influences from Tibetan and Mongolian art.
Architecture
The main axis of Lingyin follows a traditional Song dynasty five-hall Chan sect structure. The main axis stretches up the Lingyin Hill. However, the five-hall axis is a recent recreation. Only the front three halls are a part of the Qing dynasty axis.
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The main statue enshrined within this hall is one of Sakyamuni, the historical Buddha, with his right hand forming the vitarka mudrā. The present statue was carved in 1956 from camphor wood in Tang dynasty style and coated with 60 taels of gold. At 24.6 meters high (including the throne on which the statue sits), it is the largest wooden Buddhist statue in China. Arranged along each side of the hall are statues of the Twenty-Four protective deities of Chinese Buddhism, their hands carrying various Buddhist instruments of salvation as well as weapons. Statues of the Eighteen arhats and other prominent Buddhist figures, such as the Bodhisattva Cundi, line the walls of the hall as well.
Behind the hall are twelve statues of various different bodhisattvas lining each wall, with six of each side. The statues include those of Manjusri, Samantabhadra, Maitreya and Vajragarbha.
At the rear wall of the hall is a panorama depicting the penultimate chapter of the Avatamsaka Sutra, centering on Sudhana (). In the chapter, Sudhana, in pursuit of enlightenment, goes on a pilgrimage to 53 different spiritual teachers (ranging from non-Buddhists to Bhikkhunīs to kings to devas to Bodhisattvas). The central statue of the panorama is one of the Bodhisattva Guanyin (one of the 53 teachers). Statues of Sudhana and Longnü stand at both sides of this statue. The rest of the panorama behind the three main statues consists of more than 150 clay sculptures depicting the other spiritual teachers of Sudhana as well as other Buddhist figures such the main characters of Journey to the West, the Four Heavenly Kings and Ji Gong. Figures of the Bodhisattva Ksitigarbha and Sakyamuni Buddha (depicting his cultivation prior to becoming the Buddha) are also incorporated into the top and middle portions of the panorama respectively.
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Hall of Bhaisajyaguru
Further uphill and behind the main hall is the Hall of Bhaisajyaguru (), housing a statue of the Bhaisajyaguru Buddha, commonly called the Medicine Buddha. Statues of the Bodhisattvas Sūryaprabha and Candraprabha, who are traditionally regarded as the attendants of Bhaisajyaguru, stand on the left and right side of Bhaisajyaguru's statue respectively.
Twelve statues of the Twelve Heavenly Generals, who are protective yaksha attendants of Bhaisajyaguru, stand on both sides of the Hall of Bhaisajyaguru, with 6 situated on each side. The names of each General along with their associated iconography are: Kumbhira (armed with a yellow vajra), Vajra (armed with a white sword), Mihira (armed with a yellow vajra), Andira (armed with a green mallet), Anila (armed with a red trident), Sandila (armed with a black sword), Indra (armed with a red staff or halberd), Pajra (armed with a red mallet), Makura (armed with a white ax), Kinnara (armed with a yellow rope), Catura (armed with a green mallet), and Vikarala (armed with a red three-pointed vajra).
Hall of Ji Gong
This hall is situated to the east of the Hall of Bhaisajyaguru and enshrines a statue of the Song dynasty monk Ji Gong (also known as "Daoji"). The statue is made of bronze, with a height of 2.3 meters and a weight of 2.5 tons. The right hand of the statue holds a broken fan, the left hand carries Buddhist prayer beads, and the right foot is shown dipping into a wine jar. Eighteen huge murals depicting a narration of Ji Gong’s life are painted on the walls at both sides of the hall. Each mural is 3 meters high and 3 meters long, with the entire display being 50 meter long.
Dharma Hall
The Dharma Hall is located behind the Hall of Bhaisajyaguru and is the main place where the Buddhist sutras are expounded by the resident monastics. The present Dharma Hall building was constructed by a monk from the temple named Xuanli in 1446.
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A 3 meter high bronze statue of the Japanese Buddhist monk Kūkai, who traveled to China during the Tang Dynasty to study Chinese Esoteric Buddhism and who visited Lingyin Temple during his travels, stands in a bamboo grove between the Dharma Hall and the Huayan Hall. The statue portrays Kūkai in monastic robes, holding Buddhist prayer beads in his left hand, and a walking stick in his right hand. The statue was erected in 2002 as a symbol of the friendship between Buddhist circles in both China and Japan.
Hall of the Five Hundred Arhats
The Hall of Five Hundred Arhats (), also a modern addition, faces onto the western side of the courtyard in front of the main hall. The building has a complex floor plan, shaped like a Buddhist swastika. Bronze statues of the five hundred arhats are arranged along the arms of the swastika, with each statue seated on a unique ornate seat. Each statue measures 1.7 meters in height, 1.3 meters in width, and weighs around 1 ton.
At the center of the hall, where the arms of the swastika join, stands a bronze canopy housing statues of the four main bodhisattvas in Chinese Buddhism: Guanyin, Ksitigarbha, Manjusri and Samantabhadra, who represent the four cardinal directions. This canopy is 12.62 meters in height, 7.77 meters wide and occupies 5 square meters. It is currently the tallest solid bronze structure in the world.
Two Sutra Pillars
The two sutra pillars are located in the eastern and western sides of the Hall of the Four Heavenly Kings. The eastern pillar stands at 7.17 meters high and the western pillar stands at 11 meters high. Both pillars are engraved with the Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra, as well as reliefs of various Buddhist figures and tales. Both pillars were built in the year 969 in the state of Wuyue during the end of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period and the beginning of the Song Dynasty and were moved to their present location in the temple in the year 1053.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helfer
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Helfer
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() was a paramilitary rank of the Nazi Party between the years of 1938 and 1945. The Nazi rank of Helfer was a junior position of the Political Leadership Corps, ranking only above Anwärter. A Helfer in the Nazi Party typically served as a junior assistant to a higher official. The rank was created at first to replace the older Nazi rank of Blockleiter; however, a massive expansion of Nazi Party ranks in 1938 assigned the old duties of a Blockleiter to a rank known as Arbeitsleiter. The rank of Helfer then became an assistant position to such higher ranks.
The insignia for a Helfer consisted of a brown collar patch with an eagle and swastika, and one or two stripes on the lower portion of the collar tab. A single stripe denoted the rank of Helfer while two stripes denoted the higher position of Oberhelfer. The rank of Helfer was also common in Nazi student groups, typically held by the leader of a local student cell who answered to a local Nazi Party leader. In the film “Die Weiße Rose”, a character known as “Studentenführer”, holds the rank of Helfer. The Nazi rank of Helfer ceased to exist in 1945.
Insignia
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Berbice
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Berbice () is a region along the Berbice River in Guyana, which was between 1627 and 1792 a colony of the Dutch West India Company and between 1792 and 1815 a colony of the Dutch state. After having been ceded to the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in the latter year, it was merged with Demerara-Essequibo to form the colony of British Guiana in 1831. It became a county of British Guiana in 1838 till 1958. In 1966, British Guiana gained independence as Guyana and in 1970 it became a republic as the Co-operative Republic of Guyana.
After being a hereditary fief in the possession of the Van Peere family, the colony was governed by the Society of Berbice in the second half of the colonial period, akin to the neighbouring colony of Suriname, which was governed by the Society of Suriname. The capital of Berbice was at Fort Nassau until 1790. In that year, the town of New Amsterdam, which grew around Fort Sint Andries, was made the new capital of the colony.
History
Berbice was settled in 1627 by the businessman Abraham van Peere from Vlissingen, under the suzerainty of the Dutch West India Company. Until 1714, the colony remained the personal possession of Van Peere and his descendants. Little is known about the early years of the colony, other than that it succeeded in repelling an English attack in 1665 in the Second Anglo-Dutch War. The colony was a family affair who owned all the plantations on the Berbice River, though they did allow a couple of sugar planters to settle on the Canje River.
A dispute arose between the Second Dutch West India Company, which was founded to succeed the First Dutch West India Company that went bankrupt in 1674, and the Van Peere family, because the family wanted the colony as an immortal loan as agreed with the first Company. This was resolved when on 14 September 1678 a charter was signed which established Berbice as a hereditary fief of the Dutch West India Company, in the possession of the Van Peere family.
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The colony had peace and trade treaties with the local Amerindians. This colony did not intervene in wars between the tribes, and no Amerindian was allowed to be taken into slavery unless they were sold by the Kalina or the Arawak and captured from the interior of the country.
Berbice was supposed to be guarded by 60 soldiers in Fort Nassau, and another 20 to 30 soldiers in other locations. Even when not under attack, wars often caused supply problems. In 1670s, the colony had not been supplied for 17 months, and neutrality as during the Seven Years' War could not prevent supply shortages.
Slave Uprising
The relatively sound economic situation of the colony was dealt a severe blow when a slave uprising broke out under the leadership of Coffy in February 1763. The enslaved people captured the south of the colony while the whites, who were severely outnumbered, tried to hang on the north. The uprising went on until well into 1764, with Coffy naming himself governor of Berbice. Only with the use of brute force and military aid by neighbouring colonies and the Netherlands was governor Wolfert Simon van Hoogenheim able to finally suppress the uprising, and restore the colony to Dutch rule.
The uprising led to a steep population decline, abandonment and destruction of many plantations, and serious financial problems for the Society. Fort Nassau had been set on fire to prevent it falling into enemy hands. In 1785 the village was abandoned in favour of Fort Sint Andries, situated more downstream, at the confluence of the Canje River. The new village was again named New Amsterdam, and is still known by that name in contemporary Guyana.
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Capture by Britain and subsequent merging into British Guiana
On 27 February 1781, British forces occupied Berbice and neighbouring Demerara and Essequibo as part of the Fourth Anglo-Dutch War, because 34 out of 93 plantations in Berbice were under British ownership. In January 1782, the colonies were recaptured by the French, who were allied with the Dutch, and who subsequently restored the colonies to Dutch rule with the Treaty of Paris of 1783.
The colony was on 22 April 1796 again captured by Britain, however this time without a fight. A deal was struck with the colony: all laws and customs could remain, and the citizens were equal to British citizens. Any government official who swore loyalty to the British crown could remain in function. Abraham van Batenburg decided to remain governor. Many plantation owners from Barbados settled in the colony, doubling the slave population. The British now remained in possession of the colony until 27 March 1802, when Berbice was restored to the Batavian Republic under the terms of the Treaty of Amiens. In 1803, there was a mutiny of soldiers who complained about the rations. They occupied Fort Sint Andries, and raised the Union Jack with a piece of meat on top. The remaining soldiers aided by Suriname and the Amerindians put down the revolt, and executed five soldiers.
In September 1803 the British occupied the territory again, this time for good, and once again without a fight. Abraham van Batenburg, who had been exiled to Europe in 1803, returned for his second term as governor. In the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1814, the colony was formally ceded to the United Kingdom, and with the ratification of this treaty by the Netherlands on 20 November 1815, all Dutch legal claims to the colony were rescinded. The plantations and the enslaved people of the Society of Berbice remained under their ownership, but they had already made a decision to sell their possessions in 1795, and they closed their offices in 1821.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market%20participant
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Market participant
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The term market participant is another term for economic agent, an actor and more specifically a decision maker in a model of some aspect of the economy. For example, buyers and sellers are two common types of agents in partial equilibrium models of a single market. The term market participant is also used in United States constitutional law to describe a U.S. State which is acting as a producer or supplier of a marketable good or service.
US constitutional law
When a state is acting in such a role, it may permissibly discriminate against non-residents. This principle was established by the United States Supreme Court in Reeves, Inc. v. Stake, 447 U.S. 429 (1980), in which the Court upheld South Dakota's right to give South Dakota residents preferential treatment in the purchase of cement produced at a cement plant owned and operated by the state.
"Nothing in the purposes animating the Commerce Clause prohibits a State, in the absence of congressional action, from participating in the market and exercising the right to favor its own citizens over others." Hughes v. Alexandria Scrap Corp., 426 U.S. 794 (1976).
In Reeves, 447 U.S. 429 (1980), the Court relied upon "the long recognized right of trader or manufacturer, engaged in an entirely private business, freely to exercise his own independent discretion as to parties with whom he will deal."
"There are some limits on a state or local government's ability to impose restrictions that reach beyond the immediate parties with which the government transacts business." White v. Massachusetts Council of Construction Employers, Inc., 460 U.S. 204 (1983).
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Restraining Acts 1775
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The Restraining Acts of early 1775 were two Acts passed by the Parliament of Great Britain, which limited colonial trade in response to both increasing and spreading civil disobedience in Massachusetts and New England, and similar trade restrictions instituted by elected colonial representatives. With time the foment would spread to most of its American Colonies. The first restraining act, (15 Geo. 3. c. 10) known variously as the New England Trade And Fisheries Act, the New England Restraining Act, or the Trade Act 1775, limited the export and import of any goods to and from only Great Britain, Ireland, and the British West Indies; it also prohibited the New England colonies from fishing in the waters off Newfoundland and most of America's Atlantic coast, without special permissions and documentation, and imposed stiff penalties on both perpetrators and administrators if violations occurred. Previously legal or finessed trade between the colonies themselves or with other nations was prohibited, and enforced by naval blockade, effective July 1, 1775. The second restraining act, (15 Geo. 3. c. 18) known also as the Trade Act 1775, similarly limited the export or import of any goods by way of only Great Britain, Ireland, and the British West Indies for most colonies south of New England; it was passed shortly after the first, upon receiving news in April that the colony's trade boycott had spread widely among other colonies. New York, Delaware, North Carolina and Georgia would escape these restraints on trade, but only for a few months.
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Restraining Acts 1775
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The Restraining Acts were passed one year after the first of the Intolerable Acts had been imposed to show the potential of tighter British sovereignty over Boston, Massachusetts, and threatened the same treatment in other colonies generally. Instead of quieting the populace, these coercive laws had been met with increasing resistance and rising resentment among the colonials. Over this same period the colonies established independent communications, and the First Continental Congress established the colonial's boycott to restrain the import of British goods then the export of colonial products, which caused disruption in British trade and revenues and shortages in the colonies themselves. Additionally, the colonies had established alternative legislatures in defiance of established ones under direct imperial control. The growing defiance caused a mutual scramble for munitions and treasonous acts to obtain them, indicating that more violence was on the horizon. News arriving about the first restraining act, and related actions of the Massachusetts military governor would lead directly to the first military confrontation in the American Revolutionary War.
With fighting started, any possible reconciliation became moot, and the King would issue his Royal Proclamation of Rebellion in August. In December 1775 Parliament passed the Prohibitory Act prohibiting any trade with all the colonies, and enforcing it with a tighter blockade and more severe penalties; it was a declaration of economic war, with inbound or outbound ships, mariners and cargoes treated as if they "were the ships and effects of open enemies ... [to be] so adjudged, deemed, and taken, in all courts." With this drastic change in British tactics, effective January 1, 1776, the two Restraining Acts as well as the Boston Port Act were repealed, "whereas the prohibitions and restraints imposed by the said acts will be rendered unnecessary by the provisions of this act."
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Bathford
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Bathford (pronounced with the emphasis on the second syllable) is a village and civil parish east of Bath, England. The parish, which includes Warleigh, has a population of 1,759 and extends over .
History
The ancient charter Codex Diplomaticus Aevi Saxonici describes a manor parish consisting of three tithings or quasi manors: Bathford in the centre, Shockerwick to the north, and Warleigh to the south. This corresponds closely to the current boundaries. This manor was known as Forde up until the seventeenth century; the name was derived from the ford that crosses the By Brook, connecting Bathford to neighbouring Batheaston.
Near the river crossing is the site of a Roman villa, the hypocaust of which was found about the middle of the seventeenth century. This villa is described in John Aubrey's Monumenta Britannica:
The ford from which the village derived its name was connected with the Fosse Way. This is mentioned in a Saxon charter of the tenth century relating to the manor. The Fosse Way stills forms the boundary of the parish.
Bathford was part of the hundred of Bath Forum.
The old Bathford railway bridge was built by Isambard Kingdom Brunel as part of the Great Western Railway. A station called Bathford Halt closed in 1965.
Near Bathford, on the opposite side of the river, is a large meadow known as Horselands where, according to tradition, the Roman cavalry were exercised. More recently, the area bounded by Ostlings Lane and the Bradford Road (A363) was used to keep the spare horses used to haul the mail coaches up Bathford Hill. They then returned to the field to await the next coach. Some older long-standing residents of Bathford still refer to Ostlings Lane as Horses Lane. Whether the two areas are related is somewhat uncertain.
Bathford has been formally twinned with Artannes-sur-Indre in France since 2005.
Governance
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The parish council has responsibility for local issues, including setting an annual precept (local rate) to cover the council's operating costs and producing annual accounts for public scrutiny. The parish council evaluates local planning applications and works with the local police, district council officers, and neighbourhood watch groups on matters of crime, security, and traffic. The parish council's role also includes initiating projects for the maintenance and repair of parish facilities, such as the village hall or community centre, playing fields and playgrounds, as well as consulting with the district council on the maintenance, repair, and improvement of highways, drainage, footpaths, public transport, and street cleaning. Conservation matters (including trees and listed buildings) and environmental issues are also of interest to the council.
The parish falls within the unitary authority of Bath and North East Somerset which was created in 1996, as established by the Local Government Act 1992. It provides a single tier of local government with responsibility for almost all local government functions within its area including local planning and building control, local roads, council housing, environmental health, markets and fairs, refuse collection, recycling, cemeteries, crematoria, leisure services, parks, and tourism. It is also responsible for education, social services, libraries, main roads, public transport, trading standards, waste disposal and strategic planning, although fire, police and ambulance services are provided jointly with other authorities through the Avon Fire and Rescue Service, Avon and Somerset Constabulary and the Great Western Ambulance Service.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benkestok%20%28noble%20family%29
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Benkestok (noble family)
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The Benkestok family (Benkestokk, Benchestoch et cetera) is one of the original noble families of Norway and one of the few to survive the Middle Ages. At the height of its power, the family ruled large estates in Båhuslen (today a part of Sweden), in Western Norway, in Northern Norway, in the Faroe Islands, and in Shetland.
History
The family's progenitor is Tord Benkestok, who lived in Strand in Forshälla, Bohuslän, then a part of Norway. He was in the end of the 14th century mentioned in the Church Property Register by Øystein Aslaksson, Bishop of Oslo.
The family was married with members of other old families, among others Smør, Galte and Kane. The legendary ancestral father was Gaut at Ænes in Hardanger, born circa 1100. He was a lendmann (baron), and his son Jon Gautsson was a lendmann in the service of Magnus Erlingsson. The Benkestok family was allegedly the eighth generation descending patrilineally from Gaut.
Jon Tordsson Benkestok was the first known family member to move to Norway's largest and most important city at the time, Bergen. In a document of 1435, he was called Jon Þordasson Benkiastok when serving as a Judge of Peace.
Trond Tordsson Benkestok of Talgøy was in 1444 mentioned as he attended the Council of the Kingdom. On 4 December, he took part in a council meeting in Copenhagen, where a ruling by King Christopher on the right of Hanseatic merchants in Norway was confirmed. At the meeting, only twelve council members were present; five Lords of the Church and seven Lords of the Realm, of which Trond Benkestok was number six and with the title of knight. Trond, then in his late 20s, probably represented the Lord of Bohuslän, who was not present at the meeting. In 1472, he was still a knight and mentioned as a Judge of Peace at a court session in Trondheim concerning an inheritance.
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Benkestok (noble family)
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Later members of the family lived in Ryfylke, where Talgøy in Sjørnarøyane and Haraldseid at Skjold were their seat farms, as well as at Jordanger in Sogn. A family member moved north to Meløya Farm in Meløya, Nordland, which marked the beginning of the expansion of the family in Northern Norway.
In July 1532, King Christian II was arrested and imprisoned in Copenhagen. Trond Torleivsson Benkestok actively supported Johan Kruckow, who wanted Frederik I on the Danish and the Norwegian throne. Trond was later a knight. Claus Bille describes him as the ‘most respected and wise nobleman north of the mountains’. Trond was probably a supporter of the Roman Catholicism until the last Catholic archbishop, Olav Engelbrektsson, in 1537 fled the country.
Trond's oldest son, Jon Trondson Benkestok of Meløy (1530–ca. 1593), was a signatory when the Norwegian nobility in 1591 paid homage to King Christian IV at Akershus Castle. He signed the document using a signet ring with the family's arms.
Due to Jon Benkestok's marriage to a so-called unfree woman, Birgitte Nilsdotter, their children lost their noble status. Known children were Torolf († 1622; without children), Anders († after 1630; married, no known children), Trond († 1626; had a daughter), Johan (had a daughter), Tord, Christopher († after 1618; had two sons), Niels († after 1599), Anna († after 1599), and Margrethe Benkestok (several descendants). Trond Benkestok had the daughter Ermegaard Benkestok († 1696), who had descendants. Johan Benkestok had the daughter Anna Benkestok, who was married. Christopher Benkestok had presumptively two sons: Jens Christophersen Benkestok († after 1665) and Anders Benkestok († 1672). The two brothers were the last known male members of the family.
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Khadi
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Khadi (, ), derived from khaddar, is a hand-spun and woven natural fibre cloth promoted by Mahatma Gandhi as swadeshi (self-sufficiency) for the freedom struggle of the Indian subcontinent, and the term is used throughout India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. The first piece of the hand-woven cloth was manufactured in the Sabarmati Ashram during 1917–18. The coarseness of the cloth led Gandhi to call it khadi. The cloth is made from cotton, but it may also include silk or wool, which are all spun into yarn on a charkha. It is a versatile fabric that remains cool in summer and warm in winter. To improve its appearance, khadi is sometimes starched to give it a stiffer feel. It is widely accepted in various fashion circles.
Origin
Greco-Roman merchants imported finer cotton in large quantities to the Roman Empire. In medieval times, cotton textiles were imported to Rome through the maritime Silk Road. Arabian-Surat merchants traded cotton textiles to Basra and Baghdad from three areas of Gujarat, the Coromandel Coast and the East Coast of India. To the east, trade reached China via Java. 14th-century Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta mentioned Delhi sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq sending five varieties of cloth to the Yuan emperor in China. Some of the textiles are stored in repositories of the Victoria and Albert Museum, London.
After the First Indian War of Independence in 1857, domestic textile production by mill or traditional methods declined to its lowest levels before khadi emerged as a "silent economic revolution" as an outcome of a long and laborious evolutionary process.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khadi
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Khadi
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In 1922, Mahatma Gandhi requested the Indian National Congress (INC) to start a khadi department. In 1924, due to a large amount of work, a semi-independent body All India Khadi Board (AIKB) was formed which liaisoned with the INC's khadi department at the provincial and district levels. In 1925, the All India Spinner Association (AISA) was formed comprising the khadi department and AIKB. Mahatma Gandhi was the founder of AISA. He made it obligatory for all members of the INC to spin cotton themselves and pay their dues in yarn. Gandhi collected large sums of money to create grassroots-level khadi institutions to encourage spinning and weaving which were certified by AISA. Handspun yarn was expensive and of poor quality, and weavers preferred yarn produced by mills because it was more robust and consistent in quality. Gandhi argued that the mill owners would deny handloom weavers an opportunity to buy yarn because they would prefer to create a monopoly for their own cloth. When some people complained about the costliness of khadi to Gandhi, he only wore dhoti, though he used wool shawls when it got cold. Some were able to make a reasonable living by using high-quality mill yarn and catering to the luxury market. Gandhi tried to put an end to this practice by threatening to give up khadi altogether, but since the weavers would have starved if they listened to him, they ignored the threat. In 1919, Gandhi started spinning at Mani Bhawan Mumbai and encouraging others to do so. He invented Patti Charkha, using a double-wheel design to increase speed and control while reducing size. In 1946, when huge funds were being spent on development for more productive charkhas, he recommended takli over charkha.
The khadi movement began in 1918 and was marked with its own changing dynamics. Initially, a clear emphasis could be seen on using khadi as an economic solution due to stagnation, from 1934 onwards the fabric became something that villagers could use for themselves.
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2136385
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lethiscus
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Lethiscus
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Lethiscus is the earliest known representative of the Aistopoda, a group of very specialised snake-like tetrapodomorphs known from the early Carboniferous (Mississippian).
Lethiscus is known from only a single specimen from the Holkerian Stage (Middle Viséan) of the Early Carboniferous (Middle Mississippian) of Scotland, and is one of the oldest known post Devonian tetrapods. Despite its very early date, it was already a highly advanced animal.
The skull is specialised and light, very like that of Ophiderpeton, with the orbits, far forward, and the cheek region unossified (lacking bone). There are approximately 30 closely spaced teeth on the maxilla and dentary, and a sutural pattern of the skull closely resembles that of the Late Carboniferous aïstopod Oestocephalus.
There is no trace of limbs. However, unlike later members of the aïstopod lineage, the vertebrae still possess intercentra, and the pleurocentra are large.
Lethiscus is the only representative of the family Lethiscidae. Owing to its early date, it has since its discovery been considered ancestral to later aïstopods, and more recent cladistic research (Anderson et al. 2003) confirms its position as the most basal (primitive) aistopod. A 2017 cladistic analysis incorporated new data on Lethiscus found all aïstopods, including Lethiscus, to be stem-tetrapods, rendering Lepospondyli polyphyletic.
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2136397
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skellow
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Skellow
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Skellow is a village in the Doncaster district, in the county of South Yorkshire, England. Historically part of the West Riding of Yorkshire, the village is roughly north-west of Doncaster. The village falls in the Askern Spa Ward of Doncaster MBC. To the north and south is mixed farmland, the A1 runs immediately along the western edge of the village, and to the east Skellow merges with the adjacent village of Carcroft along the B1220 road.
Geography
The village derives its name from the River Skell which flows from the nearby village of Skelbrooke, through the locally named 'Five Lanes End' area of Skellow where it joins the Ea Beck, a tributary of the River Don, of which it joins near the former Thorpe Marsh Power Station at Barnby Dun. The village lies on the north side of the east-west Ea Beck valley. To the north-east with access from the village is Burghwallis.
Skellow is well served for open public spaces, with a range of small and medium-sized parks scattered through both the modern housing estates to the west and the older former council estates which border Carcroft. Today most of the western half of Skellow is occupied by a patchwork of late 20th century housing estates.
History
Skellow is mentioned in the Domesday Book as belonging to Ilbert of Lacy, and having villagers, ploughlands, meadows and woodland. The name derives from the nearby River Skell, and various derivations could be behind the name, which Smith suggests is [the] Nook of land or hollow near the Skell (brook). Historically, Skellow was in the Parish of Owston, in the wapentake of Osgoldcross. During the English Civil War, Cromwell placed a cannon battery at the village to protect the Great North Road. The mounds for the cannon still remain and the surrounding area of cottages remain to this day.
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2136398
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khadi%20and%20Village%20Industries%20Commission
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Khadi and Village Industries Commission
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At present the developmental programmes of the commission are executed through, 5,600 registered institutions, 30,138 Cooperative societies and about ~95 lakh people.
Schemes and Programs of the Commission
Prime Ministers Employment Generation Program (PMEGP)
Launched on 14 August 2008
The Prime Minister's Employment Generation Programme (PMEGP) the result of the merger of two schemes - Prime Minister's Rojgar Yojana (PMRY) and The Rural Employment Generation Programme (REGP).
Rural beneficiaries receive up to a 25% margin compensation in rural areas and 15% in urban areas for the general category and 35% in rural areas and 25% in urban areas for SCs, STs, OBCs, minorities and women among other special categories.
Interest Subsidy Eligibility Certification Scheme (ISEC)
The Interest Subsidy Eligibility Certificate (ISEC) Scheme is the major source of funding for the Khadi programme. It was introduced in May 1977 to mobilise funds from banking institutions to fill the gap in the actual fund requirement and its availability from budgetary sources.
Under this scheme, loans are provided by the banks to the members to meet their working/fixed capital requirements. These loans are provided at a concessional interest rate of 4% p.a. The difference between the actual interest rate and the concessional rate is borne by the commission under the 'grants' head of its budget. However, only members producing Khadi or Polyvastra (a type of Khadi) are eligible for this scheme.
Rebate Scheme
The rebate on sales of Khadi and Khadi products is made available by the Government so as to make the price of Khadi and Khadi products competitive with other textiles. Normal rebate (10 per cent) all through the year and an additional special rebate (10 per cent) for 108 days in a year, is given to the customers.
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2136417
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghadar%20Movement
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Ghadar Movement
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The Ghadar Movement or Ghadar Party was an early 20th-century, international political movement founded by expatriate Indians to overthrow British rule in India. Many of the Ghadar Party founders and leaders, including Sohan Singh Bhakna, would go on and join the Babbar Akali Movement and would help it in logistics as a party and publishing its own newspaper in the post-World War I era. The early movement was created by revolutionaries who lived and worked on the West Coast of the United States and Canada, but the movement later spread to India and Indian diasporic communities around the world. The official founding has been dated to a meeting on 15 July 1913 in Astoria, Oregon, and the group would splinter into two factions the first time in 1914, with the Sikh-majority faction known as the “Azad Punjab Ghadar” and the Hindu-majority faction known as the “Hindustan Ghadar.” The Azad Punjab Ghadar Party’s headquarters and anti-colonial newspaper publications headquarters would remain in the Stockton Gurdwara located in Stockton, California, whereas the Hindustan Ghadar Party’s headquarters and Hindustan Ghadar newspaper would relocate to be based in nearby Oakland, a suburb of San Francisco, California.
Following the outbreak of World War I in 1914, some Ghadar party members returned to Punjab to incite armed revolution for Indian Independence. Ghadarites smuggled arms into India and incited Indian troops to mutiny against the British. This uprising, known as the Ghadar Mutiny, was unsuccessful, and 42 mutineers were executed following the Lahore Conspiracy Case trial. From 1914 to 1917 Ghadarites continued underground anti-colonial actions with the support of Germany and Ottoman Turkey, known as the Hindu–German Conspiracy, which led to a sensational trial in San Francisco in 1917.
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2136417
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghadar%20Movement
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Ghadar Movement
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Following the war's conclusion, the party in the United States fractured into a Communist and an Indian Socialist faction. The party was formally dissolved in 1948. Key participants in the Ghadar Movement included K. B. Menon, Sohan Singh Bhakna, Mewa Singh Lopoke, Kesar Singh(Vice-President), Baba Jawala Singh(Vice-chair), Balwant Singh, Santokh Singh, Bhai Parmanand, Ishar Singh Gill, Vishnu Ganesh Pingle, Bhagwan Singh Gyanee, Har Dayal, Tarak Nath Das, Bhagat Singh Thind, Kartar Singh Sarabha, Udham Singh, Abdul Hafiz Mohamed Barakatullah, Rai Nawab Khan, Rashbehari Bose, and Gulab Kaur. Although its attempts at overthrowing the British Raj were unsuccessful, the insurrectionary ideals of the Ghadar Party influenced members of the Indian Independence Movement opposed to Gandhian nonviolence. To carry out other revolutionary activities, "Swadesh Sevak Home" at Vancouver and United India House at Seattle was set-up.
Etymology
Ghadar is a Punjabi and Urdu word derived from Arabic which means "revolt" or "rebellion." It is often also spelled Ghadr or Gadar in English. The movement's name was closely associated with its newspaper, the Hindustan Ghadar.
Background
Between 1903 and 1913 approximately 10,000 South Asians emigres entered North America, mostly from the rural regions of central Punjab. About half the Punjabis had served in the British military. The Canadian government decided to curtail this influx with a series of laws, which were aimed at limiting the entry of South Asians into the country and restricting the political rights of those already in the country. Many migrants came to work in the fields, factories, and logging camps of Northern California and the Pacific Northwest, where they were exposed to labor unions and the ideas of the radical Industrial Workers of the World or IWW. The migrants of the Pacific Northwest banded together in Sikh gurdwaras and formed political Hindustani Associations for mutual aid.
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2136418
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hammad%20ibn%20Buluggin
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Hammad ibn Buluggin
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Hammad ibn Buluggin () (died 1028) was the first ruler of the Hammadid dynasty in what is now Algeria (1014–1028).
Life
After the death of his father Buluggin ibn Ziri, al-Mansur ibn Buluggin (984–995), Hammad's brother, became the head of the Zirid dynasty in Ifriqiya, and installed Hammad as governor of the central Maghreb (grossly corresponding to the modern northern Algeria). He took on the Zanata tribes and eventually drove them into what is now modern-day Morocco. In 1007 Hammad founded the residence of al-Qala ("the Fortress") in the Hodna mountains west of Setif and embarked on an extensive building programme, which included a palace and mosque that became famous amongst contemporaries.
Following this Hammad gained ever more influence in the western Zirid realm. In 1014 he adopted Sunni Islam, declared his independence from the Zirids and recognised the Sunni Abbasids in Baghdad as being the rightful Caliphs (not the Shia Fatimids in Egypt, on whose behalf the Zirids ruled). Although there was initially conflict with the Zirids, in 1016 they were forced to conclude a ceasefire, and in 1018 they recognised the independence of the Hammadids.
The successor of Hammad was Qaid ibn Hammad (1028–1054), under whom relations with the Fatimids were re-established.
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2136433
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Fernando%2C%20Pampanga
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San Fernando, Pampanga
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San Fernando, officially the City of San Fernando (; ), is a component city and capital of the province of Pampanga, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 354,666 people.
The city is named after King Ferdinand VI of Spain and placed under the patronage of Saint Ferdinand III of Castile and León, whose feast is celebrated every May 30. Popularly known as the "Christmas Capital of the Philippines", the city holds the annual Giant Lantern Festival every December where large parol are displayed in competition. CNN has hailed the city as 'Asia's Christmas capital.'
It is one of the two provincial capital cities named San Fernando, the other being San Fernando, La Union in Ilocos Region.
History
The town of San Fernando was founded in 1754 from the towns of Bacolor and Mexico. The first church was built in 1755 with wooden walls and nipa roofing. The municipal tribunal was erected later in the year in front of the town plaza using durable materials and thatched nipa roofing. Don Vidal de Arrozal served as its first gobernadorcillo that year.
In 1796, after serving as gobernadorcillo the previous year, Don Ángel Pantaleon de Miranda retired to Barrio Saguin, from where he started setting up his hacienda in Barrio Culiat. The barrio was separated from San Fernando on the December 8, 1829 as the new town of Angeles, with the Los Santos Ángeles Custodios as titular patrons.
An expediente requesting the transfer of the provincial capital of Pampanga to San Fernando was signed on the August 6, 1852. Real Cedula 745, approving the transfer of the provincial capital of Pampanga from Bacolor to San Fernando, was signed on September 11, 1881. This transfer did not, in the event, materialize.
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2136433
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Fernando%2C%20Pampanga
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San Fernando, Pampanga
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In 1878, actions were made to create the town of Calulut. This new town would be composed of Calulut and the neighboring barrios of Bulaun, Malpitic, Sindalan, La Paz, Lara, Saguin, Telabastagan, Balete, Malinao, Pulung Bulu, Panipuan, Macabacle and the caserio of Pau in San Fernando, and Panipuan, Acle, Suclaban and the sitio of Gandus in Mexico. This plan did not materialize, owing to strong opposition from the parish priest of San Fernando.
Governor-General Eulogio Despujol and Manila Archbishop Bernardino Nozaleda inaugurated the San Fernando railroad station, together with the Bagbag-Mabalacat stretch of the Manila-Dagupan Railroad, on February 2, 1892. The station was second only to Manila in revenues that year, and was thus the most important provincial station of the Manila-Dagupan Railroad. On June 27 of the same year, José P. Rizal made a stopover in the town as part of his mission to recruit members to the La Liga Filipina.
On September 1, 1896, the town was declared to be in a state of war despite its peaceful situation. Brigadier General Diego de los Rios arrived on December 2 to calm the revolution that started in Manila on August 30. General Ruiz Serralde took over Rios's post on June 26, 1897, to maintain the peace in San Fernando. The revolution was not yet at its height with occasional exchanges of fire in some places in Pampanga.
On June 26, 1898, representatives from all Pampanga towns, except Macabebe, gathered in San Fernando to swear allegiance to Gen. Maximino Hizon, who was the provincial military governor and representative of the revolutionary president, Emilio Aguinaldo. On October 9, Aguinaldo and his cabinet visited the town, and were welcomed with so much applause and enthusiastic cheering from the public. He proceeded to the convento which was served as the military headquarters at that time.
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2136433
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Fernando%2C%20Pampanga
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San Fernando, Pampanga
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On May 4, 1899, Philippine revolutionary troops led by General Antonio Luna burned the casa municipal, the town church and several houses to render them useless to the approaching American forces. On June 16, due to the strategic location of the town, Aguinaldo himself led Filipino forces in the Battle for San Fernando. The plan to retake the town proved unsuccessful. Calulut fell to the Americans on August 9.
On August 15, 1904, the Pampanga provincial government was finally transferred to San Fernando from Bacolor, by virtue of Act No. 1204 signed on July 22, 1904. This was during the term of Governor Macario Arnedo and Municipal President Juan Sengson. The town of Minalin became part of San Fernando that same year. It would regain its political independence in 1909.
On January 2, 1905, the town of Santo Tomas was consolidated with San Fernando by virtue of Act 1208.
On August 12, 1904, U.S. Secretary of War William H. Taft visited the town to get first-hand information and gather ideas for the governance of Pampanga. Owing to the short notice, a bamboo pavilion was hastily constructed for his visit, where he was welcomed with a banquet for 200 people. Taft would later be elected President of the United States.
In 1921, the Pampanga Sugar Development Company (PASUDECO) sugar central began its operations. The company was formed in 1918 by large-scale planters such as José de León, Augusto Gonzales, Francisco Tongio Liongson, Tomás Lazatin, Tomás Consunji, Francisco Hizon, José Henson, and Manuel Urquico in the San Fernando residence of Governor Honorio Ventura as part of a plan to construct a locally financed central.
In 1932, the Socialist Party of the Philippines was founded by Pedro Abad Santos. Two years later, he created and headed the Aguman ding Maldang Talapagobra (AMT). The Abad Santos compound in Barangay San Jose became the focal point of the peasant movement.
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2136433
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Fernando%2C%20Pampanga
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San Fernando, Pampanga
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On February 14, 1939, Philippine president Manuel L. Quezon proclaimed his social justice program before a gathering of farmers in front of the Municipal Government building.
In 1941, forces of the Imperial Japanese Army occupied the town and placed the municipal government under its supervision. The following year, thousands of Filipino and American prisoners of war walked from Bataan to the San Fernando Train Station in what will be known as the Bataan Death March.
In 1952, the town of Santo Tomas was separated from San Fernando.
On December 16, 1980, Jose B. Lingad, a lawyer and politician, was shot dead at the gasoline station while sitting alone in the driver's seat of his car in the morning by a lone gunman during the Martial law under the President and dictator Ferdinand Marcos.
In 1986, Paterno Guevarra was sworn in as officer-in-charge of the town after the successful People Power Revolution that toppled the Marcos dictatorship that same year. He was later elected municipal mayor. On December 31, 1987, former mayor Armando Biliwang was campaigning in Barangay San Jose to be elected mayor again when communist insurgents from the New People's Army fired gunshots in his direction, narrowly avoiding getting killed while his nephew was fatally wounded.
In 1990, Philippine president Corazon Aquino inaugurated the Paskuhan Village, the first Christmas village in Asia and the third of its kind in the world. The following year, Mount Pinatubo erupted after over 600 years of dormancy hurling a layer of ash and volcanic debris on the town.
On October 1, 1995, Typhoon Sibyl (Mameng) struck the town. It unleashed floodwaters and mudflows from Mount Pinatubo into the town. The Barangays of Santo Nino, San Juan, San Pedro Cutud and Magliman were severely damaged by lahar. The citizens of San Fernando rallied to save the town by raising funds to build the St. Ferdinand People's Dike. The Pampanga Megadike was constructed the following year, thus preventing further damage to the town.
Cityhood
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2136433
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Fernando%2C%20Pampanga
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San Fernando, Pampanga
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San Fernando serves as one of the agricultural processing centers of Central Luzon. It is a major rice-producing region and an important sugar-producing area. The Pampanga Sugar Development Company (PASUDECO) was once the largest private employer in Pampanga. It is a major sugar-processing plant in the region. Other manufacturing companies with offices in the city include Universal Robina, Zuellig Pharma, Nestlé Philippines, Petrophil, Mondragon Industries, JBTEC Flavors and Blends Inc. Asia Brewery, and Del Monte Corporation. Major food and beverage companies such as San Miguel Corporation, Coca-Cola, Pepsi Cola, and Pampanga's Best, have factories in the city.
Every year during Christmas season, the city becomes the center of production of hand-made parols, which is different from the usual ones for its intricate designs and the illusion of dancing lights, emphasizing the lanterns' vibrant colors. Also, every year around Christmas time is the Giant Parol Festival, where barangays of San Fernando come together for a friendly competition to see which lanterns are the best. The festival itself is held in the middle of December, and is originally held in the town of Bacolor until it was transferred to the city in August 1904, in an event called the Ligligan Parol in the Kapampangan language, which many believe to have never happened in that year. Following the formal transfer of the festival to the city in 1908, the Giant Parol Festival went on to be a tradition that has evolved with lanterns becoming larger and larger and the designs more intricate. Since then, it became a symbol of the city's unity and the resident's labor.
Tourism
Festivals and local events
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2136519
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans%20Karl%20von%20Winterfeldt
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Hans Karl von Winterfeldt
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Hans Karl von Winterfeldt (4 April 1707 – 8 September 1757), a Prussian general, served in the War of the Polish Succession, the War of Austrian Succession, Frederick the Great's Silesian wars and the Seven Years' War. One of Frederick's trusted confidantes and advisors, he attracted enmity from other courtiers. Frederick entrusted him with considerable autonomy on the general staff, and Winterfeldt developed the first "modern" program of military intelligence gathering. He negotiated the Convention of Westminster and, for his efforts on Frederick's behalf, received the Order of the Black Eagle and the Order Pour le Mérite. He died from wounds received at Battle of Moys. His name is included on the Equestrian statue of Frederick the Great.
Early life
Hans Karl von Winterfeldt was born at Vanselow Castle (now in Siedenbrünzow, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern) in Swedish Pomerania. His education was imperfect, and in later life he always regretted his lack of familiarity with the French language.
Military career
Winterfeldt entered the cuirassier regiment of his uncle, Major General von Winterfeld, where he served until 1720; he was promoted cornet after two years service. He was fortunate enough, by his stature and soldierly bearing, to attract the notice of Frederick William I, who transferred him to the so-called giant regiment of grenadiers as a lieutenant. Before long he became a personal aide-de-camp to the king, and in 1732 he was sent with a party of selected non-commissioned officers to assist in the organization of the Russian army.
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2136519
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans%20Karl%20von%20Winterfeldt
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Hans Karl von Winterfeldt
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Winterfeldt was the King's confidente in reforming the army, recreating the general staff, and developing military intelligence. In the short peace, he was in constant attendance upon the king, who employed him again, when the war was resumed, in the same capacity as before, and, after he had been instrumental in winning a series of successful minor engagements. was promoted to major general in 1745, with effect from January 1743.
For his great services at Hohenfriedberg, Frederick gave him the captaincy of Tatiau, which carried with it a salary of 500 thalers a year. Later on he became Governor of Kolberg in Pomerania. At the Battle of Hennersdorf, Zieten repulsed the sudden and unexpected assault of the united Austro-Saxon force; Winterfeldt arrived on the field in time to take a decisive part in the victory. Once again the rivals had to share the laurels, and Zieten wrote to the king in disparagement of Winterfeldt, receiving in reply a full and generous recognition of his own worth and services, coupled with the curt remark that the king intended to employ General von Winterfeldt in any way that he thought fit. During the ten years peace that preceded the next great war, Winterfeldt was in constant attendance upon the king, except when employed on confidential missions in the provinces or abroad. For example, he was sent to London for negotiating the Convention of Westminster. In 1756 he was made a lieutenant general and received the Order of the Black Eagle and the Order Pour le Mérite.
Seven Years' War
The 1745 Treaty of Dresden, which concluded Prussia's war with Austria, gave Prussia control of Silesia. Frederick understood that Maria Theresa would seek to regain the territory she had lost when she had a chance. Winterfeldt was active in collecting information about the coalition that was secretly preparing to strike Prussia. In preparing for the upcoming war, Winterfeldt took a leading part in the discussions which eventuated in Frederick's decision to strike the first blow.
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2136520
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna%20of%20Lorraine
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Anna of Lorraine
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Anna of Lorraine (25 July 1522 – 15 May 1568) was a princess of the House of Lorraine. She was Princess of Orange by her first marriage to René of Châlon, and Duchess of Aarschot by her second marriage to Philippe II of Croÿ.
Life
Anna was the daughter of Antoine the Good, Duke of Lorraine and Renée of Bourbon-Montpensier. Her maternal grandparents were Gilbert of Bourbon, Count of Montpensier, and Clara Gonzaga. Her brothers were Francis I, Duke of Lorraine and Nicolas, Duke of Mercœur.
Her father – Antoine, Duke of Lorraine – was originally promised Mary Tudor, the younger sister of King Henry VIII of England, as a bride by King Francis I of France after the death of Francis' predecessor, King Louis XII of France, on 1 January 1515. However, Mary Tudor married Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk instead. After the death of Henry VIII's third wife, Jane Seymour, on 24 October 1537, potential new brides were suggested to him: Christina of Denmark, Louise of Guise, Anne of Cleves, Amalia of Cleves, and Anna of Lorraine.
Hans Holbein the Younger was dispatched to Lorraine to paint a portrait of Anna for the King. Henry VIII chose Anne of Cleves as his new bride, and married her on 6 January 1540, only to have the marriage annulled on 12 July 1540. Henry VIII swiftly remarried Catherine Howard on 28 July 1540, ruling out Anna of Lorraine as a potential bride.
Anna of Lorraine married René of Châlon, Prince of Orange on 22 August 1540 at Bar-le-Duc. They had a single daughter, Maria, born in 1544, who only lived three weeks and was buried in the Grote Kerk at Breda.
René died in 1544, and all of his lands were inherited by William the Silent, his cousin. Anna remarried to Philip II, Duke of Aarschot, on 9 July 1548. They had one son, Charles Philippe de Croÿ, born on 1 September 1549 in Brussels. He was the Prince of Croÿ and in 1580 married Diane de Dommartin (1550 – after 1635), Countess of Fontenoy-le-Château. He died on 25 November 1613 in Burgundy.
She died in Diest.
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2136526
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T.%20G.%20Jones
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T. G. Jones
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Thomas George Jones (12 October 1917 – 3 January 2004) was a Welsh footballer most notable for his career with Everton and Wales.
Biography
Born in Queensferry and raised in Connah's Quay, Tommy (T.G.) Jones started his professional career with Wrexham. He signed for Everton for £3,000 in 1936. He won a Football League First Division champions medal in only his second full season at Everton in 1938–39, before his career was interrupted by the Second World War. Jones served as a sergeant PT Instructor in the RAF during the war, but he resumed his career for Everton in 1946. A.S. Roma successfully bid £15,000 for him, a large sum in those days, but foreign exchange regulations stopped the transfer. After the war Everton transferred Tommy Lawton to Chelsea and Joe Mercer to Arsenal. These deals were not only blows to the Everton team, but to him personally, he had been best man at Joe Mercer's wedding.
A club director falsely accused Jones of feigning injury in a wartime match and his senior appearances thereafter were sporadic. Jones's injury was actually severe enough to put him in hospital for four months. Once the relations with the manager Cliff Britton became so bad that he was even not picked for the reserve team, and played secretly for Hawarden Grammar Old Boys. Jones became club captain in 1949 but after falling out of favour, in January 1950, he accepted an offer to leave Everton for Pwllheli. In all he made 178 peacetime appearances for Everton, scoring five goals.
Jones won 17 caps for Wales and eleven caps in wartime internationals.
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2136532
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis%20Leroy
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Louis Leroy
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Louis Leroy (1812 - 1885) was a French 19th-century printmaker, painter, and playwright.
Biography
He is remembered as the journalist and art critic for the French satirical newspaper Le Charivari, who coined the term "impressionists" to satirise the artists now known by the word.
Leroy's review was printed in Le Charivari on 25 April 1874 with the title The Exhibition of the Impressionists. The term was taken from Claude Monet's painting Impression: soleil levant. Leroy's article took the form of a dialogue between two skeptical viewers of the work:
"Impression I was certain of it. I was just telling myself that, since I was impressed, there had to be some impression in it — and what freedom, what ease of workmanship! A preliminary drawing for a wallpaper pattern is more finished than this seascape."
The show (Exposition des Impressionnistes) was held in the salon of the photographer Nadar and organized by the Société anonyme des peintres, sculpteurs et graveurs (Anonymous society of painters, sculptors and engravers), composed of Camille Pissarro, Claude Monet, Alfred Sisley, Edgar Degas, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Paul Cézanne, Armand Guillaumin, and Berthe Morisot.
The term was subsequently adopted by the artists themselves and has now become the name of one of the most influential art movements in history.
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2136546
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhymney%20River
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Rhymney River
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The Rhymney River () is a river in the Rhymney Valley, South Wales, flowing through Cardiff into the Severn Estuary. The river formed the boundary between the historic counties of Glamorgan and Monmouthshire until in 1887, the parishes east of the river, Rumney and St Mellons, were transferred from the jurisdiction of Newport, to Cardiff in Glamorgan.
The river flows south from its source near Rhymney through New Tredegar, Bargoed, Ystrad Mynach, Llanbradach to Caerphilly at the southern end of the Rhymney Valley. Then past Bedwas, Trethomas, Machen, Draethen, Llanrumney and Rumney and its estuary into the River Severn.
The Rhymney Valley was created as a glacial valley. Sourced within the valley, on the southern edge of the Brecon Beacons, the Rhymney River descends steeply through the town of New Tredegar towards Ystrad Mynach, and then onwards south across a flat plain before entering the Severn Estuary to the east of Cardiff. The villages of Groesfaen, Deri, Pentwyn and Fochriw are located in the Darran Valley and not the Rhymney Valley, which joins the Rhymney Valley at Bargoed.
Covering a distance of , the catchment is divided into two distinct parts:
The upper reaches: steep-sided, wet, mountainous upper valley
The lower reaches: flatter wider valley below Machen, where the river assumes a lowland meandering character
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2136586
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivor%20Emmanuel
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Ivor Emmanuel
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Ivor Lewis Emmanuel (7 November 1927 – 20 July 2007) was a Welsh musical theatre and television singer and actor. He is probably best remembered, however, for his appearance as "Private Owen" in the 1964 film Zulu, in which his character rallies outnumbered British soldiers by leading them in the stirring Welsh battle hymn "Men of Harlech" to counter the Zulu war chants.
After losing his parents at an early age, Emmanuel began working as a coal miner. He developed a keen interest in music and singing, however, and was drawn to the stage. At the age of 20, he had his first professional theatre job in the musical Oklahoma!. He served as a chorister for the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company in 1950–1951 but soon went on to play small roles in the West End productions of South Pacific, The King and I and Plain and Fancy. His first leading role was Joe Hardy in Damn Yankees (1957), followed by a tour as Woody Mahoney in Finian's Rainbow. In 1966, he appeared on Broadway in A Time for Singing and then in the West End in 110 in the Shade. He continued to play in summer seasons of theatre and in cabaret and variety into the 1980s.
During the late 1950s, he participated in the Welsh language singing television programme Dewch i Mewn, and from 1958 to 1964 was lead singer on the TWW show, Gwlad y Gan (Land of Song), among other TV shows. In 1960, he performed in the first televised edition of the Royal Variety Performance. He continued to perform on TV through the 1970s. He also performed in concerts and is heard on cast recordings of Show Boat, Kiss Me, Kate, The King and I and A Time for Singing. He is also featured on the box set, The Greatest Musicals of the 20th Century, on the 1966 RCA Victrola recording of The Pirates of Penzance, and in a solo album, The Best of Ivor Emmanuel.
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2136586
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivor%20Emmanuel
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Ivor Emmanuel
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Life and career
Emmanuel was born in Margam, near Port Talbot, Wales, and moved to the nearby village of Pontrhydyfen as a young child. He was 14 years old when his father, mother, sister and grandfather were killed by a stray bomb that hit their village during World War II. A 2001 documentary programme about the incident was made by S4C (Sianel Pedwar Cymru). His aunt Flossie took him in (his younger brother John lived with an uncle), and he began working in the coal mine like his father and grandfather before him.
Emmanuel developed a keen interest in music and singing and was a member of Pontrhydyfen Operatic Society. He used to carry a wind-up gramophone up nearby mountains to listen to recordings of Enrico Caruso.
Stage career
At the age of 20, Emmanuel unsuccessfully auditioned for The D'Oyly Carte Opera Company. He took solace by drinking with an old friend, Richard Burton, who was performing in The Lady's Not for Burning at the time in London, and telling him how desperate he was to break into show business. Two weeks later a telegram arrived from Burton telling him to be at the Theatre Royal, Drury Lane the following day for an audition. He was cast in the musical Oklahoma!.
Emmanuel was eventually hired by the D'Oyly Carte Opera Company as a chorister in March 1950, staying until August 1951 when he married fellow D'Oyly Carte chorister Jane Beazleigh. He was assigned the small role of Associate in Trial by Jury and shared the larger one of Luiz in The Gondoliers. He and Beazleigh had two children, a girl and a boy.
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2136614
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pensacola%20Christian%20Academy
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Pensacola Christian Academy
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Pensacola Christian Academy (PCA) is a private Christian school serving elementary through high school grades. It is located in Pensacola, Florida, United States.
History
The school was founded as Pensacola Christian School in 1954 by Arlin and Beka Horton, who later established Pensacola Christian College.
PCS began in a three-classroom building, offering kindergarten through second grade. One grade was added each year until the school reached 9th grade. In the early days PCS was one of the only schools with air-conditioned classrooms. Grades 10 through 12 were added after the school was moved to a larger facility in the mid-1960s.
The Hortons and PCS have claimed, falsely, that the school was desegregated in 1969, before the IRS' decision to remove tax-exempt status from segregated schools. The first black students appeared in the 1972 yearbook. In addition to denying black children enrollment, the school refused to hire black staff until sometime after 1963. The earliest record of black employees is in the 1969 yearbook.
In 1994, PCS completed a new facility on Brent Lane in Pensacola. After moving there, the school changed its name to Pensacola Christian Academy.
Program
PCA is an Independent Baptist Christian school using Abeka curriculum. The school is accredited through the Florida Association of Christian Colleges and Schools, an accrediting body for Christian schools. The school is dedicated to "traditional methods" such as phonics for teaching reading and the art of cursive for penmanship. Although criticized by some, PCA begins teaching cursive as early as kindergarten.
Dress regulations
Girls are only allowed to wear skirts or dresses that do not rise above their knees (7–12th only) and shirts that do not show their stomach. Boys can wear pants. Boys cannot wear shorts (7th–12th only). For girls most jewelry is permitted. Cartilage/facial/tongue/lip/eyebrow/belly button piercings are not permitted. No words are allowed on the clothing, unless they are able to be covered by one or two fingers.
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2136617
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orefield%2C%20Pennsylvania
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Orefield, Pennsylvania
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Orefield is a small unincorporated community in Lehigh County, Pennsylvania. The community is split between North Whitehall and South Whitehall townships. Orefield is part of the Lehigh Valley, which has a population of 861,899 and is the 68th-most populous metropolitan area in the U.S. as of the 2020 census.
Located along Pennsylvania Route 309, Orefield has the ZIP Code of 18069. Its name is derived from the extensive deposits of limonite (iron ore) once mined here. It was once the terminus of the Siegersville Branch of the Ironton Railroad, which was extended here to haul the ore. Orefield is the former home to Parkland High School. It is located outside of Allentown. Orefield is surrounded by many suburban housing developments, many of which were former farms operated by the Pennsylvania Dutch whose influence in the community is waning. Several covered bridges nearby cross the Jordan Creek.
Located near Orefield is a large factory for Alpo a dog food company, which has been owned by the Ralston Purina Company since the 1990s. Also located nearby are the Jaindl turkey farms; Orefield's turkey farms provide the already-slaughtered turkeys that are presented to the president of the United States each Thanksgiving; the live turkeys that are pardoned at the same presentation come from rotating locations). Located in Orefield is Shankweiler's Drive-In Theatre, the second drive-in ever built (1934) and America's oldest operating drive-in theater.
Education
Orefield is served by the Parkland School District, which has Orefield Middle School in the village. The district's high school was located in Orefield until 1999, when it moved to Cedar Crest Boulevard to the east. Kernsville Elementary School is located just west of the village. Students in grades nine through 12 attend Parkland High School, the state's fourth-largest public high school, in South Whitehall Township.
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2136620
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst%20von%20Wildenbruch
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Ernst von Wildenbruch
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Ernst von Wildenbruch (3 February 184515 January 1909) was a German poet and dramatist.
Biography
Wildenbruch was born at Beirut in Lebanon, the son of the Prussian consul-general, Ludwig von Wildenbruch, who was himself an illegitimate son of Prince Louis Ferdinand of Prussia. Having passed his early years at Athens and Constantinople, where his father was attached to the Prussian legation, he came in 1857 to the Kingdom of Prussia, received his early schooling at the Padagogium at Halle and the Französische Gymnasium in Berlin, and, after passing through the cadet school, became, in 1863, an officer in the Prussian Army.
Two years later Wildenbruch abandoned his military career, but was recalled to the colors in 1866 for the Austro-Prussian War. He next studied law at the University of Berlin, and again served in the army during the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71).
In 1876 Wildenbruch was attached to the foreign office, which he finally quit in 1900 with the title of counsellor of legation. He achieved his first literary successes with the epics Vionville (1874) and Sedan (1875). After publishing a volume of poems, Lieder und Balladen (1877), he produced, in 1882, the tragedy Die Karolinger.
Wildenbruch married Maria Karoline von Weber, daughter of the engineer Max Maria von Weber and niece to Carl Maria von Weber, in 1885. The couple had no children.
Wildenbruch's dramas include the tragedy Harold (1882); Die Quitzows (1888); Der Generalfeldoberst (1889); Die Haubenlerche (1891); Heinrich und Heinrichs Geschlecht (1895); Die Tochter des Erasmus (1900); and König Laurin (1902). He also wrote several volumes of short stories (Novellen, 1883; Neue Novellen, 1885; Tiefe Wasser, 1897, and others). He was twice (in 1884 and 1896) awarded the , and was, in 1892, made a doctor of philosophy honoris causa by the University of Jena.
He died at Berlin in 1909.
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2136625
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery%20Cove
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Discovery Cove
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Discovery Cove is a theme park owned and operated by United Parks & Resorts, and located in Orlando, Florida. It is the sister park of SeaWorld Orlando and Aquatica Orlando. Visitors to the park can interact with a range of marine animals including bottlenose dolphins.
Attractions
The main experience at Discovery Cove is swimming with a dolphin, where visitors can "talk, touch, play and swim" with bottlenose dolphins.
The park contains a free-flight aviary, which contains over 250 tropical birds including parrots, toucans, and over 30 other species of exotic birds. The heated Tropical River runs through the aviary and circles the park, allowing guests to float past an assortment of the Discovery Cove's beaches, waterfalls, and rainforest landscape. The Tropical River runs into the park's freshwater resort pool.
In June 2011, the park expanded with the opening of The Grand Reef. This reef was needed due to the original reef having a persistent salt water leak, which affected the ground water, and replaced the original reef with Freshwater Oasis. The Grand Reef features a white-sand beach, palm-lined island and underwater grottos filled with moray eels, reef sharks and scores of other tropical fish. Activities range from snorkeling with eagle rays to crossing a rope bridge over a shark-filled lagoon.
In summer 2012, the park introduced the Freshwater Oasis. The area features water filled trails covered by a rainforest canopy that contains a viewing glass window featuring an exhibit for Asian small-clawed otters and an island in the center of the pool known as Primate Island containing White-headed marmosets.
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2136625
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discovery%20Cove
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Discovery Cove
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Admission
Three different admission options are offered by the park, including the dolphin-swim, non-dolphin-swim and "Trainer for a Day" packages. The park also sells multi-park tickets that include admission to SeaWorld Orlando, Aquatica Orlando, and Busch Gardens Tampa. Reservations for Discovery Cove are required and a maximum of 1600 guests can be present in the park at any one time. Discounts are often available for Florida Residents.
Incidents
In 2008, a bottlenose dolphin named Sharky (a.k.a. Natasha) at Discovery Cove died after colliding with another dolphin during aerial movement signaled by park staff. The cause of death was listed as traumatic cervical vertebral fracture. A park representative said it was an "unfortunate, random incident," and that the other dolphin survived and was being watched by veterinarians. In response, animal rights group PETA released a statement saying it is not uncommon for captive dolphins to die decades short of natural life expectancy as Sharky did, and that tragedies are "inevitable when these animals are required to perform tricks that are as unnatural to them as they are inhumane."
In 2009, a 59-year-old tourist suffered fatal injuries at Discovery Cove when he cut his toe on some coral as he was swimming with fish. The victim was a hemophiliac who was diagnosed with organ failure and septic shock after the initial injury. Doctors amputated both of the man's legs in an attempt to prevent blood-borne infections. Despite these efforts, the man perished from group B streptococcal septicaemia, which caused multi-organ failure.
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2136640
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank%20Wheaton
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Frank Wheaton
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Frank Wheaton (May 8, 1833 – June 18, 1903) was a career military officer in the United States Army during the American Civil War and Indian Wars. He also was military commander over south Texas during the Garza Revolution.
Early life and career
Wheaton was born in Providence, Rhode Island, to Dr. Francis Levison and Amelia S. Wheaton née Burrill. Dr. Francis Levison Wheaton graduated from Brown University in 1828 and served as a surgeon in the Mexican–American War and the American Civil War and as surgeon general of Rhode Island.
Frank Wheaton attended Brown University, studying civil engineering, but withdrew in 1850 at the age of seventeen to take a position with Mexican-American Boundary Commission, where he worked for the next five years. On March 3, 1855, he was commissioned as a first lieutenant in the 1st U.S. Cavalry and assigned to duty on the Indian frontier on the Missouri and Kansas Border. He participated in the campaign against the Cheyenne Indians and also in the Utah War and was promoted to captain on March 1, 1861.
On February 5, 1857, he married Sarah Maria Cooper (August 4, 1836 – December 15, 1858). They had one child, Sarah Maria Cooper Wheaton, in 1858. His wife died shortly thereafter. Wheaton remarried on November 2, 1861, to Emma Twiggs Mason (October 17, 1836 – February 16, 1864), born at Fort Des Moines, Wisconsin Territory, who, like his first wife, was a descendant of George Mason. She died in Harper's Ferry, West Virginia.
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2136640
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank%20Wheaton
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Frank Wheaton
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Wheaton remained in command of the brigade during Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant's Overland Campaign in 1864, as well as during the subsequent Siege of Petersburg. His men were hurried by train to Washington, D.C., in time to help repel Jubal Early's raid on the capital. During the ensuing operations in the Shenandoah Valley, under Maj. Gen. Philip Sheridan, Wheaton was promoted to command of the first division after Brig. Gen. David Allen Russell was killed at the Third Battle of Winchester. His division fought well in subsequent battles. In the Battle of Sailors Creek Virginia, on April 6, 1865, his division captured Confederate Major General George Washington Custis Lee, son of Robert E. Lee. After the return of VI Corps to the Petersburg front, Wheaton earned the brevet rank of major general in the volunteer army and was brevetted colonel in the regular services.
After the war, Wheaton joined the Military Order of the Loyal Legion of the United States - a military society of officers who had served the Union.
Postbellum career and life
For his service in the Civil War, in 1865 he was awarded an honorary A.M. Degree from Brown University and Rhode Island presented him with a sword of honor in July 1866.
Shortly after the end of the Civil war, Wheaton was placed to command the district of Nebraska in Omaha. On April 30, 1866, he was mustered out of the volunteers and was subsequently promoted as lieutenant colonel of the 39th Infantry on July 28. He was breveted to the rank of major general in the Regular Army, to date from March 13, 1865, for meritorious service during the Civil War.
He, along with others, recommended that Confederate General George H. Steuart of Maryland be pardoned for his crimes during the American Civil War. This led to Steuart's pardon in November 1866.
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2136640
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank%20Wheaton
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Frank Wheaton
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After the retirement of Major General Thomas H. Ruger, Wheaton was promoted to major general in the Regular Army on April 3, 1897, and was mandatorily retired one month later on his 64th birthday on May 8.
Post-military life
After his retirement, Wheaton left to spend two years in Europe. He gave a speech at a Thanksgiving dinner in Berlin, Germany in 1898 which he used as a platform to encourage the U.S. Congress to support a stronger military which reflected the greatness of the United States.
Wheaton died in Washington, D.C., of a brain hemorrhage, and was buried in Section 1, Grave 131-A of Arlington National Cemetery. His third wife, Maria B. Wheaton, was buried next to him in 1924 after she died in Denver, Colorado.
Legacy
The parking lot to the south of the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Arlington National Cemetery is named for Wheaton. The Wheaton, Maryland, section of the Wheaton/Glenmont division of the unincorporated township of Silver Spring, Maryland, just northwest of Washington, D.C., is named for him, as is the Wheaton High School, a school in the Down County Consortium of the Montgomery County Public School system of Montgomery County, Maryland.
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2136659
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Chaffey
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John Chaffey
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John Chaffey is an English osteopathic doctor and former child film actor.
Film career
Chaffey was featured in many television adverts as a child. He is best remembered for a role in the 1973 Peter Sellers movie The Optimists of Nine Elms.
Medical career
Chaffey studied at University of East London, receiving in 1991 a research-based degree comparing osteopathic and physiotherapeutic interventions in the mechanical discomforts of pregnancy. He qualified at the British School of Osteopathy (1988). He headed an osteopathic group practice beginning in 1991, working with a team of 11 osteopathic specialists. He attained leadership positions in the UK Osteopathy profession, being appointed as a Member of Council of UK Regulator, the General Osteopathic Council, in 2012. He is a member of the Education and Registration Standards Committee.
Chaffey has worked in osteopathic education since 1991 as a lecturer and clinic tutor. He is currently a Clinical Tutor
at the European School of Osteopathy, lecturing on communication and compliance issues. He was Module Leader for Osteopathy for 2 years at Oxford Brookes University, and currently serves as an external examiner for that institution. He became an external examiner for Final Clinical Competence in 2001.
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2136694
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eliyahu%20de%20Vidas
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Eliyahu de Vidas
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Eliyahu de Vidas (1518–1587, Hebron) was a 16th-century rabbi in Ottoman Palestine. He was primarily a disciple of Rabbis Moses ben Jacob Cordovero (known as the Ramak) and also Isaac Luria. De Vidas is known for his expertise in the Kabbalah. He wrote Reshit Chochmah, or "The Beginning of Wisdom," a pietistic work that is still widely studied by Orthodox Jews today. Just as his teacher Rabbi Moses Cordovero created an ethical work according to kabbalistic principles in his Tomer Devorah, Rabbi de Vidas created an even more expansive work on the spiritual life with his Reishit Chochmah. This magnum opus is largely based on the Zohar, but also reflects a wide range of traditional sources. The author lived in Safed and Hebron, and was one of a group of prominent kabbalists living in Hebron during the late 16th and early 17th-century.
Aaron ben Menahem Mendel of Kamenitz, the first hotelier in the Land of Israel, references his visit to the grave of Eliyahu de Vidas in his 1839 book Sefer Korot Ha-Itim. He states, "here I write of the graves of the righteous to which I paid my respects." After describing the Cave of Machpela and the tombs of such Biblical figures as Ruth and Jesse, Othniel Ben Knaz and Abner Ben Ner, he reports, "I also went to a grave said to be that of the Righteous Rav, author of "Reshit Hokhma." Today the grave site has been refurbished and can be visited in the Old Jewish Cemetery in Hebron.
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2136729
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu%20Shifu
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Liu Shifu
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In 1902, he traveled to Japan to pursue western studies. In Japan, he investigated radical politics and joined Sun Yat-Sen's Revolutionary Alliance. As a teenager, he changed his name to Liu Sifu (Sifu literally means "thinking of restoration of the Han people") for the first time.
Later activities
Liu returned to China in 1906. After returning China, Liu organized several revolutionary movements during late 1906 and early 1907. On the morning of 1 May 1907, Liu attempted to assassinate , the Guangdong naval commandant of Qing dynasty, but Liu failed and lost one hand in an accidental explosion. Liu was later arrested and jailed for about three years due to the failed assassination. In early 1910, after the releasement, Liu co-founded the China Assassination Corps with Xie Yingbo, Zhu Shutang and others. The China Assassination Corps was an anti-colonial movement which was strongly influenced by the tactics of the Russian nihilist movement and advocated revolutionary terrorism and the assassination of criminal elites (propaganda of the deed). Upon conversion to anarchism he denounced these tactics as counter-productive and switched his focus to grass-roots organizing among peasants and workers in order to build a revolutionary mass movement. He was one of the first Chinese Revolutionaries to seriously advocate Peasant organizing as a key element of his revolutionary strategy.
In 1912 Liu founded the Society of Cocks Crowing in the Dark (a.k.a. Cock-Crow Society, ), whose journal, People's Voice, was the leading organ of Chinese anarchism in the 1910s. Liu was a skilled expositor of anarchist doctrine and his polemical exchanges with the socialist leader Jiang Kanghu helped to popularize anarchism as a "pure socialism" and to distinguish it from other currents in socialist thought.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liu%20Shifu
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Liu Shifu
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The Cock-Crow Society, also known as the "Guangzhou Group", is usually described as being "led" by Liu, and this is generally accurate insofar as we understand it as leadership by example since he was never granted any formal position or coercive authority by the group. Their most significant contributions at this stage were the foundation of "an alliance between intellectuals and workers" and their propaganda work which set out to differentiate anarchism from all the other socialisms that were gaining in popularity; and in so doing crystallized for the first time exactly what anarchism was. The Guangzhou group used positive assertions of rights and workers, women, peasants, and other oppressed groups to outline their vision of an anarchist society. Noticeably absent was any mention of Ethnic minorities, since a basic part of their platform was the elimination of ethnic, racial, and national identities in favor of an internationalist identity that placed primary importance on loyalty to humanity as a whole, instead of to ones ethnic or racial group.
It is important to recognize that this position was formulated in response to the primacy placed on ethnicity by the Anti-Manchu movement, which sought to assert the illegitimacy of the Qing dynasty based in part on the fact that its members were part of an ethnic minority out of touch with the Han majority, a position which Anarchists of all four major groups decried as racist and unbefitting a movement that claimed to be working for liberation. Their position, therefore, was that ethnicity-based organizing promoted racism, and had no place in a revolution that sought liberation for all of humanity.
He was very active in the movement for the international language Esperanto, in which he used the pseudonym Sifo.
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2136733
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann%20Ruchrat%20von%20Wesel
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Johann Ruchrat von Wesel
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Johann Ruchrat von Wesel (died 1481) was a German Scholastic theologian. He objected to the system of indulgences, and has been called a "reformer before the Reformation".
He was born at Oberwesel early in the 15th century. He appears to have been one of the leaders of the humanist movement in Germany, and to have had some intercourse and sympathy with the leaders of the Hussites in Bohemia.
Erfurt was in his day the headquarters of a humanism which was both devout and opposed to the realist metaphysics and the Thomist theology which prevailed in the universities of Cologne and Heidelberg. Wesel was one of the professors at Erfurt between 1445 and 1456, and was vice-rector in 1458. In 1460 he was appointed preacher at Mainz, in 1462 at Worms, and in 1479, when an old and worn-out man, he was brought before the Dominican inquisitor Gerhard Elten of Cologne. The charges brought against him took a theological turn, though they were probably prompted by dislike of his philosophical views. They were chiefly based on a treatise, De indulgentiis, which he had composed while at Erfurt twenty-five years before. He had also written De potestate ecclesiastica. He died under sentence of imprisonment for life in the Augustinian convent in Mainz in 1481.
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2136740
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fasiq
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Fasiq
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Fasiq ( fāsiq) is an Arabic term referring to someone who violates Islamic law. As a fasiq is considered unreliable, his testimony is not accepted in Islamic courts. The terms fasiq and fisq are sometime rendered as "impious", "venial sinner", or "depraved".
Constant committing of minor sins or the major sins that do not require greater punishment, which are described as wickedness in fiqh terminology, are punished by the judge's discretion, without a certain limit and measure.
In tazir punishments, there is no obligation to prove the crime by witnessing or similar mechanisms.
Origin
Fasiq is derived from the term fisq (), "breaking the agreement" or "to leave or go out of."
In its original Quranic usage, the term did not have the specific meaning of a violator of laws, and was more broadly associated with kufr (disbelief). Some theologians have associated fasiq-related behaviour to ahl al-hawa (people of caprice).
Theological debate
The jurist Wasil ibn Ata (700–748 CE) submitted that a fasiq remained a member of Muslim society, so retained rights to life and property though he could not hold a religious position. This opinion set him at odds with Murji'ah jurists who considered a fasiq to be a munafiq (hypocrite), and the Kharijites who considered the fasiq a kafir.
To the Kharijites "faith without works" was worthless, so one who professed Islam yet sinned was fasiq, and thus a kafir.
Applications
In the period leading up to the 1979 Iranian Revolution, Ayatollah Khomeini described the Shah of Iran as fasiq.
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2136743
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Whethamstede
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John Whethamstede
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John Whethamstede (died 20 January 1465) was an English abbot and one of the leading literary figures in fifteenth-century England.
Life
He was a son of Hugh and Margaret Bostock, and was born at Wheathampstead in Hertfordshire, owing his name, the Latin form of which is Frumentarius, to this circumstance.
After early schooling at the Abbey School (now St Albans School) he entered St Albans Abbey when only sixteen. He was chosen abbot of this Benedictine monastery in 1420. In 1423, Whethamstede attended the Council of Siena. In the Kingdom of England, his time was mainly occupied with lawsuits, several of which he carried on to defend the property and enforce the rights of the abbey.
In 1440, he resigned his post but, in 1451, on the death of his successor John Stoke, he became abbot for the second time. He died on 20 January 1465, and his tomb was recently discovered during archaeological excavations prior to the construction of the new Welcome Centre at St Albans Abbey.
Whethamstede was an energetic and successful abbot. He greatly improved the buildings at St Albans. He was an eyewitness of the First Battle of St Albans in 1455, the first open conflict of the Wars of the Roses. It is also likely that he was in attendance when Richard, Duke of York made his claim for the throne in October 1460, which resulted in the Act of Accord. He also did some building at Gloucester College, Oxford.
He was also closely, if clumsily, associated with the humanistic activities of Henry V's youngest brother, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, who died in 1447 and was buried in St Albans Abbey, where he was honoured as a benefactor.
Writings
Whethamstede's Chronicle, or the , is a register compiled soon after the abbot's death, telling the events of his second abbacy. It was edited by H. T. Riley, and is in volume i. of the (London, 1872). The events of his first abbacy are narrated in the , also edited by Riley (London, 1870–1871). Whethamstede's works also includied ; , and .
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2136757
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alarm%20signal
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Alarm signal
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In animal communication, an alarm signal is an antipredator adaptation in the form of signals emitted by social animals in response to danger. Many primates and birds have elaborate alarm calls for warning conspecifics of approaching predators. For example, the alarm call of the blackbird is a familiar sound in many gardens. Other animals, like fish and insects, may use non-auditory signals, such as chemical messages. Visual signs such as the white tail flashes of many deer have been suggested as alarm signals; they are less likely to be received by conspecifics, so have tended to be treated as a signal to the predator instead.
Different calls may be used for predators on the ground or from the air. Often, the animals can tell which member of the group is making the call, so that they can disregard those of little reliability.
Evidently, alarm signals promote survival by allowing the receivers of the alarm to escape from the source of peril; this can evolve by kin selection, assuming the receivers are related to the signaller. However, alarm calls can increase individual fitness, for example by informing the predator it has been detected.
Alarm calls are often high-frequency sounds because these sounds are harder to localize.
Selective advantage
This cost/benefit tradeoff of alarm calling behaviour has sparked many interest debates among evolutionary biologists seeking to explain the occurrence of such apparently "self-sacrificing" behaviour. The central question is this: "If the ultimate purpose of any animal behaviour is to maximize the chances that an organism's own genes are passed on, with maximum fruitfulness, to future generations, why would an individual deliberately risk destroying itself (their entire genome) for the sake of saving others (other genomes)?".
Altruism
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Some scientists have used the evidence of alarm-calling behaviour to challenge the theory that "evolution works only/primarily at the level of the gene and of the gene's 'interest' in passing itself along to future generations." If alarm-calling is truly an example of altruism, then human understanding of natural selection becomes more complicated than simply "survival of the fittest gene".
Other researchers, generally those who support the selfish gene theory, question the authenticity of this "altruistic" behaviour. For instance, it has been observed that vervets sometimes emit calls in the presence of a predator, and sometimes do not. Studies show that these vervets may call more often when they are surrounded by their own offspring and by other relatives who share many of their genes. Other researchers have shown that some forms of alarm calling, for example, "aerial predator whistles" produced by Belding's ground squirrels, do not increase the chances that a caller will get eaten by a predator; the alarm call is advantageous to both caller and recipient by frightening and warding off the predator.
Predator-directed signaling
Another theory suggests that alarm signals function to attract further predators, which fight over the prey organism, giving it a better chance of escape. Others still suggest they are a deterrent to predators, communicating the prey's alertness to the predator. One such case is the western swamphen (Porphyrio porphyrio), which gives conspicuous visual tail flicks (see also aposematism, handicap principle and stotting).
Further research
Considerable research effort continues to be directed toward the purpose and ramifications of alarm-calling behaviour, because, to the extent that this research has the ability to comment on the occurrence or non-occurrence of altruistic behaviour, these findings can be applied to the understanding of altruism in human behaviour.
Monkeys with alarm calls
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In an experiment conducted by Dr. Tabitha Price, they used custom software to gather the acoustic sounds of male and female Vervet monkeys from East Africa and male Vervet monkey from South Africa. The point of the experiment was to gather the acoustic sounds of these monkeys when stimulated by the presence of snakes (mainly Python), raptors, terrestrial animals (mostly Leopards), and aggression. Then to determine if the calls could be distinguished with a known context.
The experiment determined that while the Vervet monkeys were able to categorize different predators and members of different social groups, however their ability to communicate specific threats is not proven. The chirps and barks that Vervet monkeys make as an eagle swoops in are the same chirps and barks that are made in moments of high arousal. Similarly, the barks made for leopards are the same that are made during aggressive interactions. The environment that they exist in is too complex for their ability to communicate about everything in their environment specifically.
In an experiment conducted by Dr. Julia Fischer, a drone was flown over Vervet monkeys and recorded the sounds produced. The Vervet monkeys made alarm calls that were almost identical to the eagle calls of East African Vervets. When a sound recording of the drone was played back a few days later to a monkey that was alone and away from the main group it looked up and scanned the sky. Dr. Fischer concluded that Vervet monkeys can be exposed to a new threat once and understand what it means.
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It is still debated whether or not Vervet monkeys are actually aware of what the alarm calls mean. One side of the argument is that the monkeys give alarm calls because they are simply excited. The other side of the argument is that the alarm calls create mental representation of predators in the listeners minds. The common middle ground argument is that they give alarm calls because they want others to elicit a certain response, not necessarily because they want the group to think that there is a specific threat near.
Ultimately there is not enough evidence to support whether or not the calls are simply identifying a threat or calling for specific action due to the threat.
Campbell's mona monkeys
Campbell's mona monkeys also generate alarm calls, but in a different way than vervet monkeys. Instead of having discrete calls for each predator, Campbell monkeys have two distinct types of calls which contain different calls which consist in an acoustic continuum of affixes which change meaning. It has been suggested that this is a homology to human morphology. Similarly, the cotton-top tamarin is able to use a limited vocal range of alarm calls to distinguish between aerial and land predators. Both the Campbell monkey and the cotton-top tamarin have demonstrated abilities similar to vervet monkeys' ability to distinguish likely direction of predation and appropriate responses.
That these three species use vocalizations to warn others of danger has been called by some proof of proto-language in primates. However, there is some evidence that this behavior does not refer to the predators themselves but to threat, distinguishing calls from words.
Barbary macaque
Another species that exhibits alarm calls is the Barbary macaque. Barbary macaque mothers are able to recognize their own offspring's calls and behave accordingly.
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Diana monkeys
Diana monkeys also produce alarm signals. Adult males respond to each other's calls, showing that calling can be contagious. Their calls differ based on signaller sex, threat type, habitat, and caller ontogenetic or lifetime predator experience.
Diana monkeys emit different alarm calls as a result of their sex. Male alarm calls are primarily used for resource defence, male–male competition, and communication between groups of conspecifics. Female alarm calls are mainly used for communication within groups of conspecifics to avoid predation.
Alarm calls are also predator-specific. In Taï National Park, Côte d'Ivoire, Diana monkeys are preyed on by leopards, eagles, and chimpanzees, but only emit alarm calls for leopards and eagles. When threatened by chimpanzees, they use silent, cryptic behaviour and when threatened by leopards or eagles, they emit predator-specific alarm signals. When researchers play recordings of alarm calls produced by chimpanzees in response to predation by leopards, about fifty per cent of nearby Diana monkeys switch from a chimpanzee antipredator response to a leopard antipredator response. The tendency to switch responses is especially prominent among Diana monkey populations that live within the main range of the chimpanzee community. This shift in antipredator response suggests that the monkeys interpret chimpanzee-produced, leopard-induced alarm calls as evidence for the presence of a leopard. When the same monkeys are then played recordings of leopard growls, their reactions confirm that they had anticipated the presence of a leopard. There are three possible cognitive mechanisms explaining how Diana monkeys recognize chimpanzee-produced, leopard-induced alarm calls as evidence for a nearby leopard: associative learning, causal reasoning, or a specialized learning programme driven by adaptive antipredator behaviour necessary for survival.
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The differences in alarm call responses are due to differences in habitat. In Taï National Park, there is a low predation risk from eagles, high primate abundance, strong intergroup competition, and a tendency for group encounters to result in high levels of aggression. Therefore, even familiar males are a threat to whom males respond with aggression and an atypical eagle alarm call. Only unfamiliar males, who are likely to be solitary and non-threatening, do not receive an aggressive response and receive only a typical alarm call. On Tiwai Island, there is a high predation risk from eagles, low primate abundance, a tendency for group encounters to result in peaceful retreats, low resource competition, and frequent sharing of foraging areas. Therefore, there is a lack of aggression towards familiar conspecifics to whom receivers respond with a 'standard' eagle call. There is only aggression towards unfamiliar conspecifics, to whom receivers respond with an atypical call. Simply put, a response with a typical eagle alarm call prioritizes the risk of predation, while a response with an atypical alarm call prioritizes social aggression.
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Diana monkeys also display a predisposition for flexibility in acoustic variation of alarm call assembly related to caller ontogenetic or lifetime predator experience. In Taï National Park and on Tiwai Island, monkeys have a predisposition to threat-specific alarm signals. In Taï National Park, males produce three threat-specific calls in response to three threats: eagles, leopards, and general disturbances. On Tiwai Island, males produce two threat-specific calls in response to two groups of threats: eagles, and leopards or general disturbances. The latter are likely grouped together because leopards have not been present on the island for at least 30 years. Other primates, such as Guereza monkeys and putty-nosed monkeys, also have two main predator-specific assemblies of alarm calls. Predator-specific alarm signals differ based on call sequence assembly. General disturbances in Taï National Park and both general disturbances and leopards on Tiwai Island result in alarm calls assembled into long sequences. Conversely, leopards in Taï National Park result in alarm calls that typically begin with voiced inhalations followed by a small number of calls. These differences in alarm call arrangement between habitats are due to ontogenetic experience; specifically, a lack of experience with leopards on Tiwai Island causes them to be classified in the same predator category as general disturbances, and accordingly, leopards receive the same type of alarm call arrangement.
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Controversy over the semantic properties of alarm calls
Not all scholars of animal communication accept the interpretation of alarm signals in monkeys as having semantic properties or transmitting "information". Prominent spokespersons for this opposing view are Michael Owren and Drew Rendall, whose work on this topic has been widely cited and debated. The alternative to the semantic interpretation of monkey alarm signals as suggested in the cited works is that animal communication is primarily a matter of influence rather than information, and that vocal alarm signals are essentially emotional expressions influencing the animals that hear them. In this view monkeys do not designate predators by naming them, but may react with different degrees of vocal alarm depending on the nature of the predator and its nearness on detection, as well as by producing different types of vocalization under the influence of the monkey's state and movement during the different types of escape required by different predators. Other monkeys may learn to use these emotional cues along with the escape behaviour of the alarm signaller to help make a good decision about the best escape route for themselves, without there having been any naming of predators.
Chimpanzees with alarm calls
Chimpanzees emit alarm calls in response to predators, such as leopards and snakes. They produce three types of alarm calls: acoustically-variable 'hoos', 'barks', and 'SOS screams'. Alarm signalling is impacted by receiver knowledge and caller age, can be coupled with receiver monitoring, and is important to the understanding of the evolution of hominoid communication.
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Receiver knowledge
Alarm signalling varies depending on the receiver's knowledge of a certain threat. Chimpanzees are significantly more likely to produce an alarm call when conspecifics are unaware of a potential threat or were not nearby when a previous alarm call was emitted. When judging if conspecifics are unaware of potential dangers, chimpanzees do not solely look for behavioural cues, but also assess receiver mental states and use this information to target signalling and monitoring. In a recent experiment, caller chimpanzees were shown a fake snake as a predator and were played pre-recorded calls from receivers. Some receivers emitted calls that were snake-related, and therefore represented receivers with knowledge of the predator, while other receivers emitted calls that were not snake-related, and therefore represented receivers without knowledge of the predator. In response to the non-snake-related calls from receivers, the signallers increased their vocal and nonvocal signalling and coupled it with increased receiver monitoring.
Caller age
Chimpanzee age impacts the frequency of alarm signalling. Chimpanzees over 80 months of age are more likely to produce an alarm call than those less than 80 months of age. There are several hypotheses for this lack of alarm calling in infants zero to four years of age. The first hypothesis is a lack of motivation to produce alarm calls because of mothers in close proximity that minimize the infant's perception of a threat or that respond to a threat before the infant can. Infants may also be more likely to use distress calls to catch their mother's attention in order for her to produce an alarm call. Infants might also lack the physical ability to produce alarm calls or lack the necessary experience to classify unfamiliar objects as dangerous and worthy of an alarm signal. Therefore, alarm calling may require advanced levels of development, perception, categorization, and social cognition.
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Other factors
Other factors, such as signaller arousal, receiver identity, or increased risk of predation from calling, do not have a significant effect on the frequency of alarm call production.
Receiver monitoring
However, while alarm signals can be coupled with receiver monitoring, there is a lack of consensus on the definition, starting age, and purpose of monitoring. It is either defined as the use of three subsequent gaze alternations, from a threat to a nearby conspecific and back to the threat, or as the use of two gaze alternations. Moreover, while some studies only report gaze alternation as starting in late juveniles, other studies report gaze alternation in infants as early as five months of age. In infants and juveniles, it is potentially a means of social referencing or social learning through which younger chimpanzees check the reactions of more experienced conspecifics in order to learn about new situations, such as potential threats. It has also been proposed to be a communicative behaviour or simply the result of shifts in attention between different environmental elements.
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Alarm pheromones
Alarm signals need not be communicated only by auditory means. For example, many animals may use chemosensory alarm signals, communicated by chemicals known as pheromones. Minnows and catfish release alarm pheromones (Schreckstoff) when injured, which cause nearby fish to hide in dense schools near the bottom. At least two species of freshwater fish produce chemicals known as disturbance cues, which initiates a coordinated antipredator defence by increasing group cohesion in response to fish predators. Chemical communication about threats is also known among plants, though it is debated to what extent this function has been reinforced by actual selection. Lima beans release volatile chemical signals that are received by nearby plants of the same species when infested with spider mites. This 'message' allows the recipients to prepare themselves by activating defense genes, making them less vulnerable to attack, and also attracting another mite species that is a predator of spider mites (indirect defence). Although it is conceivable that other plants are only intercepting a message primarily functioning to attract "bodyguards", some plants spread this signal on to others themselves, suggesting an indirect benefit from increased inclusive fitness.
Deceptive chemical alarm signals are also employed. For example, the wild potato, Solanum berthaultii, emits the aphid alarm-pheromone, (E)-β-farnesene, from its leaves, which functions as a repellent against the green peach aphid, Myzus persicae.
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